title: Jackson Pollock

text: Pollock's staining into raw canvas was adapted by the Color Field painters Helen Frankenthaler and Morris Louis. Frank Stella made "all-over composition" a hallmark of his works of the 1960s. The Happenings artist Allan Kaprow, sculptors Richard Serra and Eva Hesse, and many contemporary artists have retained Pollock's emphasis on the process of creation; they were influenced by his approach to the process, rather than the look of his work.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 2004, "One: Number 31, 1950" was ranked the eighth-most influential piece of modern art in a poll of 500 artists, curators, critics, and dealers.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 1960, Ornette Coleman's album "" featured a Pollock painting, "White Light", as its cover artwork.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In the early 1990s, three groups of movie makers were developing Pollock biographical projects, each based on a different source. The project that at first seemed most advanced was a joint venture between Barbra Streisand's Barwood Films and Robert De Niro's TriBeCa Productions (De Niro's parents were friends of Krasner and Pollock). The script, by Christopher Cleveland, was to be based on Jeffrey Potter's 1985 oral biography, "To a Violent Grave", a collection of reminiscences by Pollock's friends. Streisand was to play the role of Lee Krasner, and De Niro was to portray Pollock. A second was to be based on "Love Affair" (1974), a memoir by Ruth Kligman, who was Pollock's lover in the six months before his death. This was to be directed by Harold Becker, with Al Pacino playing Pollock.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 2000, the biographical film "Pollock", based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning biography, "", directed by and starring Ed Harris, was released. Marcia Gay Harden won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Lee Krasner. The movie was the project of Harris, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. Harris himself painted the works seen in the film. The Pollock-Krasner Foundation did not authorize or collaborate with any production.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In September 2009, the art historian Henry Adams claimed in "Smithsonian" magazine that Pollock had written his name in his famous painting "Mural" (1943). The painting is now insured for US$140 million. In 2011, the Republican Iowa State Representative Scott Raecker introduced a bill to force the sale of the artwork, held by the University of Iowa, to fund scholarships, but his bill created such controversy that it was quickly withdrawn.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 1973, "Number 11, 1952" (also known as "Blue Poles") was purchased by the Australian Whitlam government for the National Gallery of Australia for US$2 million (A$1.3 million at the time of payment). At the time, this was the highest price ever paid for a modern painting. The painting is now one of the most popular exhibits in the gallery. It was a centerpiece of the Museum of Modern Art's 1998 retrospective in New York, the first time the painting had been shown in America since its purchase.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In November 2006, Pollock's "No. 5, 1948" became the world's most expensive painting, when it was sold privately to an undisclosed buyer for the sum of US$140 million. Another artist record was established in 2004, when "No. 12" (1949), a medium-sized drip painting that had been shown in the United States Pavilion at the 1950 Venice Biennale, fetched US$11.7 million at Christie's, New York. In 2012, "Number 28, 1951", one of the artist's combinations of drip and brushwork in shades of silvery gray with red, yellow, and shots of blue and white, also sold at Christie's, New York, for US$20.5 million—US$23 million with fees—within its estimated range of US$20 million to US$30 million.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 2013, Pollock's "Number 19" (1948) was sold by Christie's for a reported US$58,363,750 during an auction that ultimately reached US$495 million total sales in one night, which Christie's reports as a record to date as the most expensive auction of contemporary art.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In February 2016, Bloomberg News reported that Kenneth C. Griffin had purchased Jackson Pollock's 1948 painting "Number 17A" for US$200 million, from David Geffen.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: The Pollock-Krasner Authentication Board was created by the Pollock-Krasner Foundation in 1990 to evaluate newly found works for an upcoming supplement to the 1978 catalogue. In the past, however, the Pollock-Krasner Foundation has declined to be involved in authentication cases.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 2006, a documentary, "Who the *$&% Is Jackson Pollock?", was made concerning Teri Horton, a truck driver who bought an abstract painting for five dollars at a thrift store in California in 1992. This work may be a lost Pollock painting, but its authenticity is debated.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: "Untitled 1950", which the New York-based Knoedler Gallery had sold in 2007 for $17 million to Pierre Lagrange, a London hedge-fund multimillionaire, was subject to an authenticity suit before the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Done in the painter's classic drip-and-splash style and signed "J. Pollock", the modest-sized painting (15 by 28 1/2 in) was found to contain yellow paint pigments not commercially available until about 1970. The suit was settled in a confidential agreement in 2012.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 1999, physicist and artist Richard Taylor used computer analysis to show similarities between Pollock's painted patterns and fractals (patterns that recur on multiple size scales) found in natural scenery, reflecting Pollock's own words: "I am nature". His research team labelled Pollock's style fractal expressionism.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 2003, 24 Pollockesque paintings and drawings were found in a locker in Wainscott, New York. In 2005, The Pollock-Krasner Foundation requested a fractal analysis to be used for the first time in an authenticity dispute. Researchers at the University of Oregon used the technique to identify differences between the patterns in the six disputed paintings analyzed and those in 14 established Pollocks. Pigment analysis of the paintings by researchers at Harvard University showed the presence in one painting of a synthetic pigment that was not patented until the 1980s, and materials in two others that were not available in Pollock's lifetime.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: In 2007, a traveling museum exhibition of the paintings was mounted and was accompanied by a comprehensive book, "Pollock Matters", written by Ellen G. Landau, one of the four sitting scholars from the former Pollock Krasner Foundation authentication panel from the 1990s, and Claude Cernuschi, a scholar in Abstract Expressionism. In the book, Landau demonstrates the many connections between the family who owns the paintings and Jackson Pollock during his lifetime to place the paintings in what she believes to be their proper historic context. Landau also presents the forensic findings of Harvard University and presents possible explanations for the forensic inconsistencies that were found in three of the 24 paintings. However, the scientist who invented one of the modern pigments dismissed the possibility that Pollock used this paint as being "unlikely to the point of fantasy".


title: Jackson Pollock

text: Subsequently, over 10 scientific groups have performed fractal analysis on over 50 of Pollock's works. A 2015 study that used fractal analysis as one of its techniques achieved a 93% success rate distinguishing real from fake Pollocks. Current research of Fractal Expressionism focuses on human response to viewing fractals. Cognitive neuroscientists have shown that Pollock's fractals induce the same stress-reduction in observers as computer-generated fractals and naturally-occurring fractals.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: Lee Krasner donated Pollock's papers to the Archives of American Art in 1983. They were later archived with her own papers. The Archives of American Art also houses the Charles Pollock papers, which include correspondence, photographs, and other files relating to his brother Jackson.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: A separate organization, the Pollock-Krasner Foundation, was established in 1985. The foundation functions as the official estate for both Pollock and his widow, but also under the terms of Krasner's will, serves "to assist individual working artists of merit with financial need". The U.S. copyright representative for the Pollock-Krasner Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.


title: Jackson Pollock

text: The Pollock-Krasner House and Studio is owned and administered by the Stony Brook Foundation, a nonprofit affiliate of Stony Brook University. Regular tours of the house and studio occur from May through October.


title: Happy Days

text: Happy Days is an American television sitcom that aired first-run on the ABC network from January 15, 1974, to July 19, 1984, with a total of 255 half-hour episodes spanning 11 seasons. Created by Garry Marshall, it was one of the most successful series of the 1970s. The series presented an idealized vision of life in the 1950s and early 1960s Midwestern United States, and it starred Ron Howard as Richie Cunningham, Henry Winkler as his friend Fonzie, and Tom Bosley and Marion Ross as Richie's parents, Howard and Marion Cunningham. Although it opened to mixed reviews from critics, "Happy Days" became successful and popular over time.


title: Happy Days

text: The series began as an unsold pilot starring Howard, Ross and Anson Williams, which aired in 1972 as a segment titled "Love and the Television Set" (later retitled "Love and the Happy Days" for syndication) on ABC's anthology show "Love, American Style". Based on the pilot, director George Lucas cast Howard as the lead in his 1973 film "American Graffiti", causing ABC to take a renewed interest in the pilot. The first two seasons of "Happy Days" focused on the experiences and dilemmas of "innocent teenager" Richie Cunningham, his family, and his high school friends, attempting to "honestly depict a wistful look back at adolescence".


title: Happy Days

text: Initially a moderate success, the series' ratings began to fall during its second season, causing Marshall to retool it. The new format emphasized broad comedy and spotlighted the previously minor character of Fonzie, a "cool" biker and high school dropout. Following these changes, "Happy Days" became the number-one program in television in 1976–1977, Fonzie became one of the most merchandised characters of the 1970s, and Henry Winkler became a major star. The series also spawned a number of spin-offs, including "Laverne & Shirley" and "Mork & Mindy".


title: Happy Days

text: Set in Milwaukee, Wisconsin during the 1950s, the series revolves around teenager Richie Cunningham and his family: his father, Howard, who owns a hardware store; traditional homemaker and mother, Marion; younger sister Joanie Cunningham; Richie's older brother Chuck (briefly in seasons 1 and 2 only, disappearing from storylines afterward); and high school dropout, leather jacket clad greaser, mechanic and suave ladies' man Fonzie, who would eventually become Richie's best friend and the Cunninghams' over-the-garage tenant. The earliest episodes revolve around Richie and his friends, Potsie Weber and Ralph Malph, with Fonzie as a secondary character. However, as the series progressed, Fonzie proved to be a favorite with viewers, and soon more story lines were written to reflect his growing popularity; Winkler was top billed in the opening credits alongside Howard, by season 3. Fonzie befriended Richie and the Cunningham family and, when Richie left the series for military service, Fonzie became the central figure of the show, with Winkler receiving sole top billing. In later seasons, other characters were introduced including Fonzie's young cousin, Chachi Arcola, who became a love interest for Joanie Cunningham.


title: Happy Days

text: The series' pilot was originally shown as "Love and the Television Set", later retitled "Love and the Happy Days" for syndication, a one-episode teleplay on the anthology series "Love, American Style", aired on February 25, 1972. "Happy Days" spawned successful television shows "Laverne & Shirley" and "Mork & Mindy" as well as three failures, "Joanie Loves Chachi", "Blansky's Beauties" featuring Nancy Walker as Howard's cousin, and "Out of the Blue". The show is the basis for the "Happy Days" musical touring the United States since 2008. The leather jacket worn by Winkler during the series was acquired by the Smithsonian Institution for the permanent collection at the National Museum of American History. The original, light grey McGregor windbreaker Winkler wore during the first season was eventually thrown into the garbage, after ABC relented and allowed the Fonzie character to wear a leather jacket.


title: Happy Days

text: Chachi has a crush on Joanie Cunningham from the moment he meets her in season 5, but she initially thinks of him as a little kid, calling him pejorative terms like "shrimp" or "drip". But as they enter high school, she too begins to find him attractive and begin dating. In season 11, they break-up, but as the season progresses, they reunite. The series finale features Chachi and Joanie's wedding.


title: Happy Days

text: "Happy Days" originated during a time of 1950s nostalgic interest as evident in 1970s film, television, and music. In late winter of 1971, Michael Eisner was snowed in at Newark airport where he bumped into Tom Miller, head of development at Paramount. Eisner has stated that he told Miller, "Tom, this is ridiculous. We're wasting our time here. Let's write a show." The script treatment that came out of that did not sell. But in spite of the market research department telling them that the 1950s theme would not work, they decided to redo it, and this was accepted as a pilot. This unsold pilot was filmed in late 1971 and titled "New Family in Town," with Harold Gould in the role of Howard Cunningham, Marion Ross as Marion, Ron Howard as Richie, Anson Williams as Potsie, Ric Carrott as Charles "Chuck" Cunningham, and Susan Neher as Joanie. Paramount passed on making it into a weekly series, and the pilot was recycled with the title "Love and the Television Set" (later retitled "Love and the Happy Days" for syndication), for presentation on the television anthology series "Love, American Style." Also in 1971, the musical Grease had a successful opening in Chicago, and by the following year became successful on Broadway. Also in 1972, George Lucas asked to view the pilot to determine if Ron Howard would be suitable to play a teenager in "American Graffiti," then in pre-production. Lucas immediately cast Howard in the film, which became one of the top-grossing films of 1973. With the movie's success generating a renewed interest in the 1950s era (although, the film was set in 1962), TV show creator Garry Marshall and ABC recast the unsold pilot to turn "Happy Days" into a series. According to Marshall in an interview, executive producer Tom Miller said while developing the sitcom, "If we do a TV series that takes place in another era, and when it goes into reruns, then it won't look old." This made sense to Marshall while on the set of the show.


title: Happy Days

text: Gould had originally been tapped to reprise the role of Howard Cunningham on the show. However, during a delay before the start of production he found work doing a play abroad and when he was notified the show was ready to begin production, he declined to return because he wanted to honor his commitment. Bosley was then offered the role.


title: Happy Days

text: The first two seasons of "Happy Days" (1974–75) were filmed using a single-camera setup and laugh track. One episode of season two ("Fonzie Gets Married") was filmed in front of a studio audience with three cameras as a test run. From the third season on (1975–84), the show was a three-camera production in front of a live audience (with a cast member, usually Tom Bosley, announcing in voice-over, ""Happy Days" is filmed before a live audience" at the start of most episodes), giving these later seasons a markedly different style. A laugh track was still used during post-production to smooth over live reactions.


title: Happy Days

text: Garry Marshall's earlier television series "The Odd Couple" had undergone an identical change in production style after its first season in 1970–71.


title: Happy Days

text: In seasons one and two, the Cunningham house was arranged with the front door on the left and the kitchen on the right of screen, in a triangular arrangement. From season three on, the house was rearranged to accommodate multiple cameras and a studio audience.


title: Happy Days

text: The Cunninghams' official address is 565 North Clinton Drive, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The house that served as the exterior of the Cunningham residence is actually located at 565 North Cahuenga Boulevard (south of Melrose Avenue) in Los Angeles, several blocks from the Paramount lot on Melrose Avenue.


title: Happy Days

text: The Milky Way Drive-In, located on Port Washington Road in the North Shore suburb of Glendale, Wisconsin (now Kopp's Frozen Custard Stand), was the inspiration for the original Arnold's Drive-In; it has since been demolished. The exterior of Arnold's was a standing set on the Paramount Studios lot that has since been demolished. This exterior was close to Stage 19, where the rest of the show's sets were located.


title: Happy Days

text: The set of the diner in the first season was a room with the same vague details of the later set, such as the paneling, and the college pennants. When the show changed to a studio production in 1975, the set was widened and the entrance was hidden, but allowed an upstage, central entrance for cast members. The barely-seen kitchen was also upstaged and seen only through a pass-through window. The diner had orange booths, downstage center for closeup conversation, as well as camera left. There were two restroom doors camera right, labeled "Guys" and "Dolls". A 1953 Seeburg Model G jukebox (with replaced metal pilasters from Wico Corp.) was positioned camera right, and an anachronistic "Nip-It" pinball machine (actually produced in 1972) was positioned far camera right.


title: Happy Days

text: College pennants adorned the walls, including Purdue and University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, along with a blue and white sign reading "Jefferson High School". Milwaukee's Washington High School provided the inspiration for the exteriors of the fictional Jefferson.


title: Happy Days

text: In a two-part episode from the seventh season, the original Arnold's Drive-In was written out of the series as being destroyed by fire (see List of "Happy Days" episodes, episodes 159 and 160). In the last seasons that covered the 1960s timeline, a new Arnold's Drive-In set (to portray the new Arnold's that replaced the original Arnold's destroyed by the fire) emerged in a 1960s decor with wood paneling and stained glass. Also, in seasons 8 and 9, the new drive-in was named "Fonzie & Big Al" because Fonzie and Al co-owned the new establishment in a partnership.


title: Happy Days

text: In 2004, two decades after the first set was destroyed, the "Happy Days 30th Anniversary Reunion" requested that the reunion take place in Arnold's. The set was rebuilt by production designer James Yarnell based on the original floor plan. The reunion special was taped at CBS Television City's Bob Barker Studio in September 2004.


title: Happy Days

text: Season one used a newly recorded version of "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley & His Comets (recorded in the fall of 1973) as the opening theme song. This recording was not commercially released at the time, although the original 1954 recording returned to the American Billboard charts in 1974 as a result of the song's use on the show. The "Happy Days" recording had its first commercial release in 2005 by the German label Hydra Records. (When "Happy Days" entered syndication in 1979, the series was retitled "Happy Days Again" and used an edited version of the 1954 recording instead of the 1973 version.) In some prints intended for reruns and overseas broadcasts, as well as on the Season 2 DVD set release and later re-releases of the Season 1 DVD set, the original "Rock Around the Clock" opening theme is replaced by the more standard "Happy Days" theme, because of music rights issues.


title: Happy Days

text: The show's closing theme song in seasons one and two was a fragment from "Happy Days" (although in a different recording with a different lyric from that which would become the standard version), whose music was composed by Charles Fox and whose lyric was written by Norman Gimbel. According to SAG, this version was performed by Jim Haas on lead vocals, The Ron Hicklin Singers, Stan Farber, Jerry Whitman, and Gary Garrett on backing vocals, and studio musicians.


title: Happy Days

text: From seasons three to ten inclusive, a longer version of "Happy Days" replaced "Rock Around the Clock" at the beginning of the show. Released as a single in 1976 by Pratt & McClain, "Happy Days" cracked the Top 5. The show itself finished the 1976–77 television season at No. 1, ending the five-year Nielsen reign of "All in the Family".


title: Happy Days

text: For the show's 11th and final season (1983–84), the theme was rerecorded in a more modern style. It featured Bobby Arvon on lead vocals, with several back-up vocalists. To accompany this new version, new opening credits were filmed, and the flashing "Happy Days" logo was reanimated to create an overall "new" feel which incorporated 1980s sensibilities with 1950s nostalgia (although by this time the show was set in 1965).


title: Happy Days

text: On April 19, 2011, "Happy Days" co-stars Erin Moran, Don Most, Marion Ross and Anson Williams, as well as the estate of Tom Bosley (who died in 2010), filed a $10 million breach-of-contract lawsuit against CBS, which owns the show, claiming they had not been paid for merchandising revenues owed under their contracts. The cast members claimed they had not received revenues from show-related items, including comic books, T-shirts, scrapbooks, trading cards, games, lunch boxes, dolls, toy cars, magnets, greeting cards and DVDs where their images appear on the box covers. Under their contracts, they were supposed to be paid 5% of the net proceeds of merchandising if their sole image were used, and half that amount if they were in a group. CBS said it owed the actors $8,500 and $9,000 each, most of it from slot machine revenues, but the group said they were owed millions. The lawsuit was initiated after Ross was informed by a friend playing slots at a casino of a "Happy Days" machine on which players win the jackpot when five Marion Rosses are rolled.


title: Happy Days

text: In October 2011, a judge rejected the group's fraud claim, which meant they could not receive millions of dollars in potential damages. On June 5, 2012, a judge denied a motion filed by CBS to have the case thrown out, which meant it would go to trial on July 17 if the matter was not settled by then. In July 2012, the actors settled their lawsuit with CBS. Each received a payment of $65,000 and a promise by CBS to continue honoring the terms of their contracts.


title: Happy Days

text: In 1978, actor Robin Williams made his screen debut during the fifth season of "Happy Days," as the character "Mork" in the episode "My Favorite Orkan." Sought after as a last-minute cast replacement for a departing actor, Williams impressed the producer with his quirky sense of humor when he sat on his head when asked to take a seat for the audition. While portraying Mork on "Happy Days", Williams improvised much of his dialogue and physical comedy, speaking in a high, nasal voice, and he made the most of the script. The cast and crew, as well as TV network executives were deeply impressed with his performance. As such, the executives moved quickly to get the performer on contract just four days later before competitors could make their own offers.


title: Happy Days

text: In 1980, the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution asked Henry Winkler to donate one of Fonzie's leather jackets.


title: Happy Days

text: In 1985, Jon Hein developed the phrase jumping the shark in response to an episode of "Happy Days," (Season 5, Episode 91) called "Hollywood: Part 3, written by Fred Fox, Jr. which aired on September 20, 1977. In this episode, Fonzie jumps over a shark while on water-skis. The phrase is used to suggest that a creative outlet appears to be making a misguided attempt at generating new attention or publicity for something that is perceived to be once, but no longer, widely popular. In a 2019 interview with NPR, Terry Gross asked Henry Winkler (Fonzie) what it was "about that scene or that episode that came to signify when something's time is up - when it's over?" Winkler responded: "You know what? I don't know. To them, the Fonz water skiing was just like the last straw. The only thing is it wasn't to the audience because we were No. 1 for years after that. So it didn't much matter to anybody." In addition, he told TheWrap in 2018 that he is "not embarrassed" by the phrase. He stated that "newspapers would mention jumping the shark...and they would show a picture of me in my leather jacket and swim shorts water-skiing. And at that time I had great legs. So I thought, ‘I don't care.’ And we were No. 1 for the next four or five years." As his character Barry Zuckerkorn (in the sitcom "Arrested Development") hopped over a shark in Episode 13 of the second season, Winkler also noted that there "was a book, there was a board game and it is an expression that is still used today ... [and] I'm very proud that I am the only actor, maybe in the world, that has jumped the shark twice — once on "Happy Days", and once on "Arrested Development".”


title: Happy Days

text: In a 2001 poll conducted by Channel 4 in the UK, the Fonz was ranked 13th on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters.


title: Happy Days

text: In 2008, American artist Gerald P. Sawyer, unveiled the Bronze Fonz (a public artwork) on the Milwaukee Riverwalk in downtown Milwaukee, Wisconsin.


title: Happy Days

text: Paramount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD have released the first six seasons of "Happy Days" on DVD in Region 1, as of December 2, 2014. For the second season, CBS features music replacements due to copyright issues, including the theme song "Rock Around the Clock". ('The Complete First Season' retains the original opening, as it was released before CBS was involved.) Only season 3 and 4 of the DVD release contain the original music. The sixth season was released on December 2, 2014. It is unknown if the remaining 5 seasons will be released.


title: Happy Days

text: The season 7 premiere "Shotgun Wedding: Part 1" was also released on the "Laverne & Shirley" season 5 DVD. To date, this is the last episode released on home media.


title: Happy Days

text: There have been two reunion specials which aired on ABC: the first was "The Happy Days Reunion Special" originally aired in March 1992, followed by "Happy Days: 30th Anniversary Reunion" in February 2005 to commemorate the program's 30th anniversary. Both were set up in interview/clip format.


title: Happy Days

text: "Happy Days" resulted in seven different spin-off series, including two that were animated: "Laverne & Shirley," "Blansky's Beauties," "Mork & Mindy," "Out of the Blue," "Joanie Loves Chachi," "The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang" (animated) and "Laverne & Shirley with The Fonz" (animated).


title: Happy Days

text: Spin-off pilots that did not succeed include "The Ralph and Potsie Show" as well as "The Pinky Tuscadero Show".


title: Happy Days

text: A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the 1970s.


title: Happy Days

text: Western Publishing published a "Happy Days" comic book series in 1979 under their Gold Key Comics brand and Whitman Comics brand.


title: Happy Days

text: There are two animated series, both produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions in association with Paramount Television (now known as CBS Television Distribution). "The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang" ran from 1980 to 1982. There are also animated spin-offs of "Laverne & Shirley" ("Laverne & Shirley in the Army") and "Mork & Mindy" (centering on a young Mork and Mindy in high school). The following season, they were connected together as "Mork & Mindy/Laverne & Shirley/Fonz Hour" (1982).


title: Happy Days

text: In the late 1990s, a touring arena show called "Happy Days: The Arena Spectacular" toured Australia's major cities. The story featured a property developer, and former girlfriend of Fonzie's, called Miss Frost (Rebecca Gibney), wanting to buy the diner and redevelop it. It starred Craig McLachlan as Fonzie, Max Gillies and Wendy Hughes as Mr. and Mrs. Cunningham, Doug Parkinson as Al, and Jo Beth Taylor as Richie's love interest Laura. Tom Bosley presented an introduction before each performance live on stage, and pop group Human Nature played a 1950s-style rock group.


title: Happy Days

text: The music video for the song Buddy Holly (which takes place at Arnold's Drive-in) by Weezer features footage from the series, including clips of Richie, Potsie, Ralph Malph, Joanie, and Fonzie. Al Molinaro also reprises his role as Al Delvecchio in the video, joking about how bad his fish is at the beginning and end of the video.


The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special is an American television special written and directed by James Gunn for the streaming service Disney+, based on Marvel Comics featuring the superhero team Guardians of the Galaxy. It is the second Marvel Studios Special Presentation in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and television series of the franchise. The special is produced by Marvel Studios, and follows the Guardians of the Galaxy as they celebrate Christmas and search for a present for their leader Peter Quill.


title: The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special

text: Chris Pratt, Dave Bautista, Karen Gillan, Pom Klementieff, Vin Diesel, Bradley Cooper, Sean Gunn, and Michael Rooker reprise their roles as the Guardians from previous MCU media, with the special also featuring the band Old 97's and Kevin Bacon as a fictionalized version of himself. Gunn had worked on the concept for the special during the production of "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" (2017) before it was announced in December 2020. Filming occurred from February to late April 2022 in Atlanta, Georgia and Los Angeles, during the production of "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3" (2023).


text: "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" was released on Disney+ on November 25, 2022, serving as the conclusion of of the MCU. The special received positive reviews from critics for its humor, Gunn's direction, and the cast's performances.


text: The Guardians of the Galaxy have purchased Knowhere from the Collector and taken in Cosmo the Spacedog as a new member. As Christmas approaches, Kraglin tells the Guardians a childhood story of how Yondu ruined Christmas for Peter Quill. Mantis discusses with Drax about finding a perfect Christmas present for Quill, as the latter is still depressed following the loss of Gamora. After brainstorming for ideas, they decide to go to Earth and retrieve Quill's childhood hero, actor Kevin Bacon.


text: Mantis and Drax arrive in Hollywood, Los Angeles, where they search for Bacon. After spending time at Grauman's Chinese Theater, the Hollywood Walk of Fame and a bar, they acquire a map of celebrities' residences and locate Bacon's home in Beverly Hills. Bacon, who is waiting for his family to come home, is terrified by the appearance of Mantis and Drax and tries to escape. Police arrive to help, but Mantis places them and Bacon in a trance before taking Bacon with them. As they return to Knowhere, Mantis and Drax are disappointed to learn that Bacon is an actor and not a real-life hero. Later, the Guardians surprise Quill with a Christmas celebration, but Quill is horrified to learn that Bacon had been kidnapped, demanding that he be returned home. On the Guardians' new spaceship, the "Bowie", Bacon learns from Kraglin how he inspired Quill's heroism, and decides to celebrate Christmas with the Guardians before returning home.


text: After the celebration, Quill reveals to Mantis that Yondu eventually changed his mind about Christmas and gifted him a pair of blasters which now serve as his primary weapons. Mantis confides in him that she is Quill's half-sister, after years of refusing to tell him the truth out of fear of reminding him of his father Ego's misdeeds, to Quill's surprise and elation.


text: Maria Bakalova provides the voice and additional motion capture for Cosmo the Spacedog, a member of the Guardians who is a sapient dog that developed psionic abilities after being sent into space by the Soviet Union; Cosmo is physically portrayed by dog actor Slate, replacing Fred from the first two "Guardians" films. Bacon's wife Kyra Sedgwick has a voice-only role as a fictionalized version of herself. Flula Borg appears as a bartender at the bar that Mantis and Drax visit in Hollywood.


text: In December 2020, Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige announced "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special", a television special featuring the Guardians of the Galaxy to be written and directed by James Gunn, the writer and director of the "Guardians of the Galaxy" films. The "Holiday Special" was the first piece of content Marvel Studios planned to create for Disney+, and was originally conceived by Gunn during the production of "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" (2017); at that time, it was being developed for ABC following "Vol. 2" release. Gunn stated that the special would be live-action and canon to the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), and noted that he had been a fan of the "Star Wars Holiday Special" (1978) and animated Christmas specials such as "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" (1964) and "How the Grinch Stole Christmas!" (1966) as a child.


text: "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" is 44 minutes long, and is the second Marvel Studios Special Presentation in the MCU. Marvel Studios' Feige, Louis D'Esposito, Victoria Alonso, and Brad Winderbaum, Sara Smith, and Simon Hatt serve as executive producers, alongside Gunn.


text: Gunn called the "Holiday Special" "one of my favorite stories ever", with a story "as crazy and fun as can be" that he had "bugged [Feige] endlessly about over the years". Gunn finished the script in April 2021, after initially writing the treatment "years ago". It took Gunn a few hours to write the script, and he noted featuring Kevin Bacon was a quick inclusion once he had figured out the story for the special.


text: The main cast members of the "Guardians" films are featured, focusing on Drax the Destroyer and Mantis. Gunn decided to focus on the Drax and Mantis relationship in the special because he felt those characters had been "sidelined" in their appearances outside of the "Guardians of the Galaxy" films between "Vol. 2" and "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3" (2023). He described the two of them as "kind of like Abbott and Costello, but both are Costellos", adding, "They do not have any of the values that human beings normally have, so they don't have the same boundaries that we have. They're like following an unattended fire hose around." Mantis actress Pom Klementieff called the "Holiday Special" "very goofy and very funny and cute" while "also very rooted in something much, much deeper and more beautiful and heartfelt".


text: "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" is set between "" (2022) and "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3". Gunn noted there were parts of the special that would help set up material in "Vol. 3", calling the "Holiday Special" a "Trojan Horse" that allowed him to introduce important elements to "Vol. 3" that he then would not need to explain at the beginning of that film. Some of this material includes filling in the Guardians recent history, such as how they now operate out of Knowhere, have a new ship called the "Bowie", Cosmo the Spacedog is now a member of the Guardians, and "a couple of bigger pieces of spoiler-y lore". The special has been described by Gunn as the epilogue of of the MCU.


text: "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" sees Chris Pratt, Dave Bautista, Vin Diesel, Bradley Cooper, Karen Gillan, Pom Klementieff, and Sean Gunn all reprising their MCU roles as Guardians of the Galaxy members Peter Quill / Star-Lord, Drax the Destroyer, Groot, Rocket, Nebula, Mantis, and Kraglin Obfonteri, respectively, along with Michael Rooker as Yondu Udonta. Kevin Bacon was revealed to be starring in the special as a fictionalized version of himself in October 2022, along with Maria Bakalova voicing Cosmo the Spacedog ahead of her role in "Vol. 3". Bakalova also provides additional motion capture for Cosmo, who is physically portrayed by dog actor Slate, replacing dog actor Fred from "Guardians of the Galaxy" (2014) and "Vol. 2". The band the Old 97's also appear in the special as the alien band Bzermikitokolok and the Knowheremen, while Bacon's wife Kyra Sedgwick has a voice cameo.


text: Filming for the special had begun by February 2022, at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, under the working title "Pop Tart". It occurred during the later portion of production of "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3", which lasted from November 2021 until May 2022, and used the same sets as that film. Henry Braham served as cinematographer, after doing so for "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" and "Vol. 3". Gunn enjoyed being able to switch to filming the special after doing scenes for "Vol. 3", given the tonal difference between the two with "Vol. 3" being more "emotional", and called the "Holiday Special" shoot easier than "Vol. 3".


text: The special was originally supposed to be shot during "Vol. 3" initial production time in 2019, before several production delays. A day of filming in Los Angeles for the special had been expected by early January 2022, but did not occur due to the COVID-19 Omicron variant. The Old 97's filmed their roles in March 2022. Filming occurred around the Atlanta Country Club in late March, with various Christmas-themed decorations being used, and at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Hollywood on April 28, with Bautista and Klementieff. The set featured various Christmas-themed decorations and posters of Kumail Nanjiani's character Kingo from the MCU film "Eternals" (2021). Rooker and Luke Klein filmed the material for the flashback sequences, which was animated by Stoopid Buddy Stoodios through rotoscoping in the style of Ralph Bakshi to emulate the Christmas specials from Rankin/Bass Animated Entertainment. Stoopid Buddy added Yondu's fin and adjusted Klein's features to more resemble young Quill during animation. Filming of the special wrapped by the end of April.


text: Greg D'Auria serves as the editor for the special, while Stephane Ceretti serves as the visual effects supervisor.  Visual effects for the special were created by Framestore, Rodeo FX, Crafty Apes, Sony Pictures Imageworks, Industrial Light & Magic, Wētā FX, Gradient / Secret Lab, and Perception.


text: John Murphy, the composer of "Vol. 3", was confirmed to score the "Holiday Special" in January 2022. The special's soundtrack, consisting of Murphy's score and two original songs, was released digitally by Hollywood Records and Marvel Music on November 23, 2022.


text: Gunn chose the music for the "Holiday Special" "very early". He wrote the lyrics to the opening song, "I Don't Know What Christmas Is (But Christmastime Is Here)", and approached Rhett Miller from the group the Old 97's to help him compose it. "Here It Is Christmastime", an existing song of the Old 97's, was also used and rerecorded with Bacon for the end of the special. In addition to "I Don't Know What Christmas Is (But Christmastime Is Here)" and "Here It Is Christmastime", other songs featured in the special include: "Fairytale of New York" by the Pogues featuring Kirsty MacColl, "Dead by X-Mas" by Hanoi Rocks, "Christmas Treat" by Julian Casablancas, "Is This Christmas?" by the Wombats, "Just Like Christmas" by Low, "I Want an Alien for Christmas" by Fountains of Wayne, "Christmastime" by the Smashing Pumpkins, "Christmas Wrapping" by the Waitresses, and "Mrs. Claus" by Little Jackie.


text: In August 2022, a Lego advent calendar set for "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" was revealed, which was released on September 1. The official trailer for the special was released on October 25, 2022. Amanda Lamadrid at "Screen Rant" felt the trailer offered "a wild and heartwarming romp" and "more insight as to the wild storyline". Lamadrid noted how it depicted "one of the series' classic jokes in charming fashion", particularly Peter Quill referring to Kevin Bacon as "the greatest hero on Earth" in "Guardians of the Galaxy" (2014). By November 2022, smart home company Vivint released a commercial promoting the special and their products. Two episodes of the series "" were released on November 23, 2022 on Disney+, exploring Mantis and Drax using footage from their previous MCU appearances; the episodes were removed shortly after as they revealed plot details relevant to the special.


text: "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" was released on Disney+ on November 25, 2022. A special screening occurred on November 18, 2022, at NeueHouse in Hollywood. It is the conclusion of Phase Four of the MCU.


text: According to Whip Media's TV Time, "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" was the most streamed film in the United States for the week ending November 27, 2022.


text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 93% approval rating, with an average score of 7.8/10, based on 54 reviews. The site's critic's consensus states: "More of a stocking stuffer than a fully-rounded parcel, this yuletide excursion is a delightful showcase for Drax, Mantis, and a very game Kevin Bacon." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the special a score of 82 out of 100 based on eight critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


text: Jordan Moreau of "Variety" felt the special was "stuffed with funny, feel-good Christmas joy, and it's one of the best pieces of content Marvel Studios has released in years." Moreau praised James Gunn's delivery of his "signature, laugh-out-loud, zany" style in the special with a short runtime, how it "pays homage to the nostalgic tropes of Christmas specials", the depiction of Drax and Mantis, and its soundtracks and songs. Angie Han of "The Hollywood Reporter" felt that the special was "funny enough to provoke out-loud laughter and poignant enough to elicit that telltale sting behind the eyes, if not quite enough to draw full-on tears. Maybe it lacks the heft of a true "Guardians" feature or series, but it's exactly the holiday confection you'd want from this motley crew: shiny, fluffy and just odd enough to feel personal" and lauded the "delightfully eclectic" soundtrack. Han also felt that the special became the first Marvel Cinematic Universe entry to have a Christmas-themed story instead of setting it in December to coincide with the holiday, such as "Iron Man 3" (2013) and "Hawkeye" (2021). However, Han noted the special being "as slick a bit of marketing as they come... to remind audiences how much we love these characters, who haven't headlined a big-screen adventure in five years [since "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" (2017)]", and how it had a script "sprinkled with crumbs of awkward exposition" and was "underwritten by the kind of studio clout and money that can get a Kevin Bacon to show up and hang out with aliens for a few days."


text: Chris Hewitt gave the special 3 out of 5 stars for "Empire Online", feeling that it was "so frothy, and fun, and so clearly not intended to be taken seriously." Hewitt described the special as "Guardians 2.5" "with a little Christmas riffing on the soundtrack", a "variety show with the Guardians at its centre", and a "ballsy nod" to "Star Wars Holiday Special" (1978). Hewitt praised Bautista and Klementieff's performances but criticized the scenes involving Bacon "disappointingly toothless". Chris Evangelista of "/Film" felt the special was "mighty silly and mighty light. In fact, it's so light that it's a wonder it even exists", adding that "writer-director James Gunn didn't really have enough to fill out an entire special, which means we're treated to multiple musical numbers and multiple montages to pad the runtime. At the same time, Gunn and his cast manage to slip in one final emotional beat that genuinely works." Evangelista noted that majority of the Guardians only did quick cameos, particularly Peter Quill, Rocket, and Groot, but saw Klementieff and Bautista's characters "an unlikely but very amusing pair". Evangelista also felt that Bacon was "fine, and clearly game to have fun here. But the concept of bringing [him] back for Quill is never as funny as the special seems to think it is" while criticizing the special's "predictable humor and not one but two different lengthy musical numbers that play more like time-fillers than anything else."


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: A Tale of Two Cities is a historical novel published in 1859 by Charles Dickens, set in London and Paris before and during the French Revolution. The novel tells the story of the French Doctor Manette, his 18-year-long imprisonment in the Bastille in Paris, and his release to live in London with his daughter Lucie whom he had never met. The story is set against the conditions that led up to the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. In the Introduction to the "Encyclopedia of Adventure Fiction", critic Don D'Ammassa argues that it is an adventure novel because the protagonists are in constant danger of being imprisoned or killed.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: As Dickens's best-known work of historical fiction, "A Tale of Two Cities" is said to be one of the best-selling novels of all time. In 2003, the novel was ranked 63rd on the BBC's The Big Read poll. The novel has been adapted for film, television, radio, and the stage, and has continued to influence popular culture.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Dickens opens the novel with a sentence that has become famous:It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In 1775, a man flags down the nightly mail-coach en route from London to Dover. The man is Jerry Cruncher, an employee of Tellson's Bank in London; he carries a message for Jarvis Lorry, one of the bank's managers. Lorry sends Jerry back with the cryptic response "Recalled to Life", referring to Alexandre Manette, a French physician who has been released from the Bastille after an 18-year imprisonment. On arrival in Dover, Lorry meets Dr Manette's daughter Lucie and her governess, Miss Pross. Believing her father to be dead, Lucie faints at the news that he is alive. Lorry takes her to France for a reunion.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In the Paris neighbourhood of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, Dr Manette has been given lodgings by his former servant Ernest Defarge and his wife Therese, the owners of a wine shop. Lorry and Lucie find him in a small garret where he spends much of his time distractedly and obsessively making shoes – a skill he learned in prison. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In 1780, French émigré Charles Darnay is on trial in London for treason against the British Crown. The key witnesses against him are two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly. Barsad claims that he would recognise Darnay anywhere, but Darnay's lawyer points out that his colleague in court, Sydney Carton, bears a strong resemblance to the prisoner. With Barsad's testimony thus undermined, Darnay is acquitted.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In Paris, the hated and abusive Marquis St. Evrémonde orders his carriage driven recklessly fast through the crowded streets, hitting and killing a child. The Marquis throws a coin to the child's father, Gaspard, to compensate him for his loss; as the Marquis drives on, a coin is flung back into the carriage.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Arriving at his country château, the Marquis meets his nephew and heir, Darnay. Out of disgust with his aristocratic family, the nephew has shed his real surname (St. Evrémonde) and anglicised his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais, to Darnay. He despises the Marquis' views that "Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery ... will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof [looking up to it] shuts out the sky." That night, Gaspard creeps into the château and stabs and kills the Marquis in his sleep. He avoids capture for nearly a year, but is eventually hanged in the nearby village.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In London, Carton confesses his love to Lucie, but quickly recognises that she cannot love him in return. Carton nevertheless promises to "embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you". Darnay asks for Dr Manette's permission to wed Lucie, and he agrees. On the morning of the marriage, Darnay reveals his real name and lineage to Dr Manette, facts that Manette had asked him to withhold until that day. The unexpected revelation causes Dr Manette to revert to his obsessive shoemaking. He returns to sanity before their return from honeymoon, and the whole incident is kept secret from Lucie.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: As the years pass, Lucie and Charles raise a family in England: a son (who dies in childhood) and a daughter, little Lucie. Lorry finds a second home with them. Carton, though he seldom visits, is accepted as a close friend and becomes a special favourite of little Lucie.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In Paris in July 1789, the Defarges help to lead the storming of the Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny. Defarge enters Dr Manette's former cell, One Hundred and Five, North Tower, and searches it thoroughly. Throughout the countryside, local officials and other representatives of the aristocracy are slaughtered, and the St. Evrémonde château is burned to the ground.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In 1792, Lorry travels to France to save important documents stored at Tellson's Paris branch from the chaos of the French Revolution. Darnay receives a letter from Gabelle, one of his uncle's former servants who has been imprisoned by the revolutionaries, pleading for the Marquis to help secure his release. Without telling his family or revealing his position as the new Marquis, Darnay also sets out for Paris.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Shortly after Darnay's arrival in Paris, he is denounced as an illegal emigrated aristocrat and jailed in La Force Prison. Hoping to be able to save him, Dr Manette, Lucie and her daughter, Jerry, and Miss Pross all move to Paris and take up lodgings near those of Lorry.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Fifteen months later Darnay is finally tried, and Dr Manette – viewed as a popular hero after his long imprisonment in the Bastille – testifies on his behalf. Darnay is acquitted and released, but is re-arrested later that day.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: While running errands with Jerry, Miss Pross is amazed to run into her long-lost brother Solomon. Now posing as a Frenchman, he is an employee of the revolutionary authorities and one of Darnay's gaolers. Carton also recognises him – as Barsad, one of the spies who tried to frame Darnay at his trial in 1780. Solomon is desperate to keep his true identity hidden, and by threatening to denounce him as an English spy Carton blackmails Solomon into helping with a plan.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Darnay's retrial the following day is based on new denunciations by the Defarges, and on a manuscript that Defarge had found when searching Dr Manette's prison cell. Defarge reads the manuscript to the tribunal. In it, Dr Manette had recorded that his imprisonment was at the hands of the Evrémonde brothers (Darnay's father and uncle) after he had tried to report their crimes. Darnay's uncle had kidnapped and raped a peasant girl. Her brother, first hiding his remaining younger sister, had gone to confront the uncle, who ran him through with his sword. In spite of the best efforts of Dr Manette, both the elder sister and the brother died. Dr Manette's manuscript concludes by denouncing the Evrémondes, "them and their descendants, to the last of their race." The jury takes that as irrefutable proof of Darnay's guilt, and he is condemned to die by the guillotine the next afternoon.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In the Defarges' wine shop, Carton discovers that Madame Defarge was the surviving sister of the peasant family, and he overhears her planning to denounce both Lucie and her daughter. He visits Lorry and warns him that Lucie and her family must be ready to flee the next day. He extracts a promise that Lorry and the family will be waiting for him in the carriage at 2 pm, ready to leave the very instant he returns.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Shortly before the executions are due to begin, Carton puts his plan into effect and, with Barsad's reluctant assistance, obtains access to Darnay's prison cell. Carton intends to be executed in Darnay's place. He drugs Darnay and trades clothes with him, then has Barsad carry Darnay out to the carriage where Lorry and the family are expecting Carton. They flee to England with Darnay, who gradually regains consciousness during the journey.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Meanwhile, Madame Defarge goes to Lucie's lodgings, hoping to apprehend her and her daughter. There she finds Miss Pross, who is waiting for Jerry so they can follow the family out of Paris. The two women struggle and Madame Defarge's pistol discharges, killing her outright and permanently deafening Miss Pross.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: As Carton waits to board the tumbril that will take him to his execution, he is approached by another prisoner, a seamstress. Carton comforts her, telling her that their ends will be quick and that the worries of their lives will not follow them into "the better land where ... [they] will be mercifully sheltered." A final prophetic thought runs through his mind in which he visualises a better future for the family and their descendants.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: While performing in "The Frozen Deep", Dickens was given a play to read called "The Dead Heart" by Watts Phillips which had the historical setting, the basic storyline, and the climax that Dickens used in "A Tale of Two Cities". The play was produced while "A Tale of Two Cities" was being serialised in "All the Year Round" and led to talk of plagiarism.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Other sources are "" by Thomas Carlyle (especially important for the novel's rhetoric and symbolism); "Zanoni" by Edward Bulwer-Lytton; "The Castle Spector" by Matthew Lewis; "Travels in France" by Arthur Young; and "Tableau de Paris" by Louis-Sébastien Mercier. Dickens also used material from an account of imprisonment during the Terror by Beaumarchais, and records of the trial of a French spy published in "The Annual Register".


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Research published in "The Dickensian" in 1963 suggests that the house at 1 Greek Street, now The House of St Barnabas, forms the basis for Dr Manette and Lucie's London house.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: In a building at the back, attainable by a courtyard where a plane tree rustled its green leaves, church organs claimed to be made, and likewise gold to be beaten by some mysterious giant who had a golden arm starting out of the wall ... as if he had beaten himself precious.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: The "golden arm" (an arm-and-hammer symbol, an ancient sign of the gold-beater's craft) is now housed at the Charles Dickens Museum, but a modern replica could be seen sticking out of the wall near the Pillars of Hercules pub at the western end of Manette Street (formerly Rose Street), until this building was demolished in 2017.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: The 45-chapter novel was published in 31 weekly instalments in Dickens's new literary periodical titled "All the Year Round". From April to November of 1859, Dickens also republished the chapters as eight monthly sections in green covers. All but three of Dickens's previous novels had appeared as monthly instalments prior to publication as books. The first weekly instalment of "A Tale of Two Cities" ran in the first issue of "All the Year Round" on 30 April 1859. The last ran 30 weeks later, on 26 November.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: "The Telegraph" and "The Guardian" claim that it is one of the best-selling novels of all time. WorldCat listed 1,529 editions of the work, including 1,305 print editions.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: "A Tale of Two Cities" is one of only two works of historical fiction by Charles Dickens (the other being "Barnaby Rudge").


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Dickens uses literal translations of French idioms for characters who cannot speak English, such as "What the devil do you do in that galley there?!!" and "Where is my wife? … Here you see me." The Penguin Classics edition of the novel notes that "Not all readers have regarded the experiment as a success."


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: J. L. Borges quipped: "Dickens lived in London. In his book "A Tale of Two Cities", based on the French Revolution, we see that he really could not write a tale of two cities. He was a resident of just one city: London."


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Some have argued that in "A Tale of Two Cities" Dickens reflects on his recently begun affair with eighteen-year-old actress Ellen Ternan, which was possibly platonic but certainly romantic. Lucie Manette has been noted as resembling Ternan physically.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: After starring in a play by Wilkie Collins titled "The Frozen Deep", Dickens was first inspired to write "Two Cities". In the play, Dickens played the part of a man who sacrifices his own life so that his rival may have the woman they both love; the love triangle in the play became the basis for the relationships among Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Sydney Carton in "Two Cities".


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay may bear importantly on Dickens's personal life. The plot hinges on the near-perfect resemblance between Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay; the two look so alike that Carton twice saves Darnay through the inability of others to tell them apart. Carton is Darnay made bad. Carton suggests as much:


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: 'Do you particularly like the man [Darnay]?' he muttered, at his own image [which he is regarding in a mirror]; 'why should you particularly like a man who resembles you? There is nothing in you to like; you know that. Ah, confound you! What a change you have made in yourself! A good reason for talking to a man, that he shows you what you have fallen away from and what you might have been! Change places with him, and would you have been looked at by those blue eyes [belonging to Lucie Manette] as he was, and commiserated by that agitated face as he was? Come on, and have it out in plain words! You hate the fellow.'


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Many have felt that Carton and Darnay are doppelgängers, which Eric Rabkin defines as a pair "of characters that together, represent one psychological persona in the narrative". If so, they would prefigure such works as Robert Louis Stevenson's "Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde". Darnay is worthy and respectable but dull (at least to most modern readers), Carton disreputable but magnetic.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: One can only suspect whose psychological persona it is that Carton and Darnay together embody (if they do), but it is often thought to be the psyche of Dickens. He might have been quite aware that between them, Carton and Darnay shared his own initials, a frequent property of his characters. However, he denied it when asked.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: Dickens dedicated the book to the Whig and Liberal prime minister Lord John Russell: "In remembrance of many public services and private kindnesses."


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: The reports published in the press were divergent. Thomas Carlyle was enthusiastic, which made the author "heartily delighted". On the other hand, Mrs. Oliphant found "little of Dickens" in the novel. The critic James Fitzjames Stephen called it a "dish of puppy pie and stewed cat which is not disguised by the cooking" and "a disjointed framework for the display of the tawdry wares, which are Mr Dickens's stock-in-trade.


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: At the 1984 Democratic National Convention in the US, the keynote speaker, Mario Cuomo of New York, delivered a scathing criticism of then-President Ronald Reagan's comparison of the United States to a "shining city on a hill" with an allusion to Dickens's novel, saying: "Mr President, you ought to know that this nation is more a "Tale of Two Cities" than it is just a 'Shining City on a Hill'."


title: A Tale of Two Cities

text: "A Tale of Two Cities" served as an inspiration to the 2012 Batman film "The Dark Knight Rises" by Christopher Nolan. The character of Bane is in part inspired by Dickens's Madame Defarge: He organises kangaroo court trials against the ruling elite of the city of Gotham and is seen knitting in one of the trial scenes like Madame Defarge. There are other hints to Dickens's novel, such as Talia al Ghul being obsessed with revenge and having a close relationship to the hero, and Bane's catchphrase "the fire rises" as an ode to one of the book's chapters. Bane's associate Barsard is named after a supporting character in the novel. In the film's final scene, Jim Gordon (Gary Oldman) reads aloud the closing lines of Sydney Carton’s inner monologue—"It's a far far better thing I do than I have ever done, it's a far far better rest I go to than I have ever known"—directly from the novel.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Waiting for Godot ( ) is a play by Samuel Beckett in which two characters, Vladimir (Didi) and Estragon (Gogo), engage in a variety of discussions and encounters while awaiting the titular Godot, who never arrives. "Waiting for Godot" is Beckett's translation of his own original French-language play, , and is subtitled (in English only) "a tragicomedy in two acts". The original French text was composed between 9 October 1948 and 29 January 1949. The premiere, directed by Roger Blin, was on 5 January 1953 at the , Paris. The English-language version premiered in London in 1955. In a poll conducted by the British Royal National Theatre in 1998/99, it was voted the "most significant English-language play of the 20th century".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: The play opens with two bedraggled acquaintances, Vladimir and Estragon, meeting by a leafless tree. Estragon notifies Vladimir of his most recent troubles: he spent the previous night lying in a ditch and received a beating from a number of anonymous assailants. The duo discuss a variety of issues at length, none of any apparent significance, and it is finally revealed that they are awaiting a man named Godot. They are not certain if they have ever met Godot, nor if he will even arrive.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Subsequently, an imperious traveler named Pozzo, along with his silent slave Lucky, arrives and pauses to converse with Vladimir and Estragon. Lucky is bound by a rope held by Pozzo, who forces Lucky to carry his heavy bags and physically punishes him if he deems Lucky's movements too lethargic. Pozzo states that he is on the way to the market, at which he intends to sell Lucky for profit. Following Pozzo's command "Think!", the otherwise mute Lucky performs a sudden dance and monologue: a torrent of academic-sounding phrases mixed with pure nonsense. Pozzo and Lucky soon depart, leaving the bewildered Estragon and Vladimir to continue their wait for the absent Godot.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Eventually, a boy shows up and explains to Vladimir and Estragon that he is a messenger from Godot, and that Godot will not be arriving tonight, but surely tomorrow. Vladimir asks for descriptions of Godot, receiving only extremely brief or vague answers from the boy, who soon exits. Vladimir and Estragon then announce that they will also leave, but they remain onstage without moving.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Vladimir and Estragon are again waiting near the tree, which has grown a number of leaves since it was last seen in Act 1. Both men are still awaiting Godot. Lucky and Pozzo eventually reappear, but not as they were previously. Pozzo has become blind and Lucky is now fully mute. Pozzo cannot recall ever having met Vladimir and Estragon, who themselves cannot agree on when they last saw the travelers. Lucky and Pozzo exit shortly after their spirited encounter, leaving Vladimir and Estragon to go on waiting.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Soon after, the boy reappears to report that Godot will not be coming. The boy states that he has not met Vladimir and Estragon before and he is not the same boy who talked to Vladimir yesterday, which causes Vladimir to burst into a rage at the child, demanding that the boy remember him the next day so as to avoid repeating this encounter once more. After the boy exits, Vladimir and Estragon consider suicide, but they do not have a rope with which to hang themselves. They decide to leave and return the day after with a rope, but again they merely remain motionless as the scene fades to black.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Beckett refrained from elaborating on the characters beyond what he had written in the play. He once recalled that when Sir Ralph Richardson "wanted the low-down on Pozzo, his home address and curriculum vitae, and seemed to make the forthcoming of this and similar information the condition of his condescending to illustrate the part of Vladimir ... I told him that all I knew about Pozzo was in the text, that if I had known more I would have put it in the text, and that was true also of the other characters."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: When Beckett started writing he did not have a visual image of Vladimir and Estragon. They are never referred to as tramps in the text, though are often performed in tramps’ costumes on stage. Roger Blin advises: "Beckett heard their voices, but he couldn't describe his characters to me. [He said]: 'The only thing I'm sure of is that they're wearing bowlers.' " "The bowler hat was of course "de rigueur" for men in many social contexts when Beckett was growing up in Foxrock, and [his father] commonly wore one." That said, the play does indicate that the clothes worn at least by Estragon are shabby. When told by Vladimir that he should have been a poet, Estragon says he was, gestures to his rags, and asks if it were not obvious.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: There are no physical descriptions of either of the two characters; however, the text indicates that Vladimir is the heavier of the pair: the contemplation-of-suicide scene tells us exactly that. The bowlers and other broadly comic aspects of their personae have reminded modern audiences of Laurel and Hardy, who occasionally played tramps in their films. "The hat-passing game in "Waiting for Godot" and Lucky's inability to think without his hat on are two obvious Beckett derivations from Laurel and Hardy – a substitution of form for essence, covering for reality", wrote Gerald Mast in "The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies". Their "blather", which includes Hiberno-English idioms, indicated that they are both Irish.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Vladimir stands through most of the play whereas Estragon sits down numerous times and even dozes off. "Estragon is inert and Vladimir restless." Vladimir looks at the sky and muses on religious or philosophical matters. Estragon "belongs to the stone", preoccupied with mundane things such as what he can get to eat and how to ease his physical aches and pains; he is direct, intuitive. The monotonous, ritualistic means by which Estragon continuously sits upon the stone may be likened to the constant nail filing carried out by Winnie in "Happy Days", another of Beckett's plays, both actions representing the slow, deliberate erosion of the characters' lives. He finds it hard to remember but can recall certain things when prompted, "e.g.", when Vladimir asks: "Do you remember the Gospels?" Estragon tells Vladimir about the coloured maps of the Holy Land and that he planned to honeymoon by the Dead Sea; it is his short-term memory that is poorest and points to the fact that he may, in fact, be suffering from Alzheimer's disease. Al Alvarez writes: "But perhaps Estragon's forgetfulness is the cement binding their relationship together. He continually forgets, Vladimir continually reminds him; between them they pass the time." Estragon's forgetfulness affords the author a certain narrative utility also, allowing for the mundane, empty conversations held between him and Vladimir to continue seamlessly. They have been together for fifty years but when asked by Pozzo they do not reveal their actual ages. Vladimir's life is not without its discomforts too but he is the more resilient of the pair. "Vladimir's pain is primarily mental anguish, which would thus account for his voluntary exchange of his hat for Lucky's, thus signifying Vladimir's symbolic desire for another person's thoughts." These characterizations, for some, represented the act of thinking or mental state (Vladimir) and physical things or the body (Estragon). This is visually depicted by Vladimir's continuous attention to his hat and Estragon to his boots. While the two characters are temperamentally opposite, with their differing responses to a situation, they are both essential as demonstrated in the way Vladimir's metaphysical musings were balanced by Estragon's physical demands.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: The above characterizations, particularly that which concerns their existential situation, are also demonstrated in one of the play's recurring themes, which is sleep. There are two instances when Estragon falls asleep in the play and has nightmares, about which he wanted to tell Vladimir when he woke. The latter refuses to hear it since he could not tolerate the sense of entrapment experienced by the dreamer during each episode. This idea of entrapment supports the view that the setting of the play may be understood more clearly as dream-like landscape, or, a form of Purgatory, from which neither man can escape. One interpretation noted the link between the two characters' experiences and the way they represent them: the impotence in Estragon's nightmare and Vladimir's predicament of waiting as his companion sleeps. It is also said that sleep and impatience allow the spectators to distinguish between the two main characters, that sleep expresses Estragon's focus on his sensations while Vladimir's restlessness shows his focus on his thoughts. This particular aspect involving sleep is indicative of what some called a pattern of duality in the play. In the case of the protagonists, the duality involves the body and the mind, making the characters complementary.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Throughout the play the couple refer to each other by the pet names "Didi" and "Gogo", although the boy addresses Vladimir as "Mister Albert". Beckett originally intended to call Estragon "Lévy" but when Pozzo questions him he gives his name as "Magrégor, André" and also responds to ""Catulle"" in French or "Catullus" in the first Faber edition. This became "Adam" in the American edition. Beckett's only explanation was that he was "fed up with Catullus".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Vivian Mercier described "Waiting for Godot" as a play which "has achieved a theoretical impossibility—a play in which nothing happens, that yet keeps audiences glued to their seats. What's more, since the second act is a subtly different reprise of the first, he has written a play in which nothing happens, twice." Mercier once questioned Beckett on the language used by the pair: "It seemed to me...he made Didi and Gogo sound as if they had earned PhDs. 'How do you know they hadn't?' was his reply." They clearly have known better times, such as a visit to the Eiffel Tower and grape-harvesting by the Rhône; this is about all either has to say about their pasts, save for Estragon's claim to have been a poet, an explanation Estragon provides to Vladimir for his destitution. In the first stage production, which Beckett oversaw, both are "more shabby-genteel than ragged...Vladimir at least is capable of being scandalised...on a matter of etiquette when Estragon begs for chicken bones or money."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Pozzo and Lucky have been together for sixty years. Pozzo controls Lucky by means of an extremely long rope, which he jerks and tugs if Lucky is the least bit slow.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: It has been contended that "Pozzo and Lucky are simply Didi and Gogo writ large", unbalanced as their relationship is. However, Pozzo's dominance is superficial; "upon closer inspection, it becomes evident that Lucky always possessed more influence in the relationship, for he danced, and more importantly, thought – not as a service, but in order to fill a vacant need of Pozzo: he committed all of these acts Pozzo. As such, since the first appearance of the duo, the true slave had always been Pozzo." Pozzo credits Lucky with having given him all the culture, refinement, and ability to reason that he possesses. His rhetoric has been learned by rote. Pozzo's "party piece" on the sky is a clear example: as his memory crumbles, he finds himself unable to continue under his own steam.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Little is learned about Pozzo besides the fact that he is on his way to the fair to sell his slave, Lucky. He presents himself very much as the Ascendancy landlord, bullying and conceited. His pipe is made by Kapp and Peterson, Dublin's best-known tobacconists (their slogan was "The thinking man's pipe") which he refers to as a "briar" but which Estragon calls a ""dudeen"", emphasizing the differences in their social standing. He confesses to a poor memory but it is more a result of an abiding self-absorption. "Pozzo is a character who has to overcompensate. That's why he overdoes things ... and his overcompensation has to do with a deep insecurity in him. These were things Beckett said, psychological terms he used." Beckett's advice to the American director Alan Schneider was: "[Pozzo] is a hypomaniac and the only way to play him is to play him mad."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "In his [English] translation ... Beckett struggled to retain the French atmosphere as much as possible, so that he delegated all the English names and places to Lucky, whose own name, he thought, suggested such a correlation".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Lucky appears to be the subservient member of their relationship, at least initially, carrying out every task that Pozzo bids him to do without question, portraying a form of "dog-like devotion" to his "master." He struggles with a heavy suitcase, falling on a number of occasions, only to be helped and held up by Estragon and Vladimir.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Lucky speaks only once in the play and it is in response to Pozzo's order to "think" for Estragon and Vladimir. The ostensibly abstract philosophical meanderings supplied to the audience by Lucky during his speech have been described as "a flood of completely meaningless gibberish" by Martin Esslin in his essay, "The Theatre of the Absurd". Esslin suggests that this seemingly involuntary, philosophical spouting is an example of the actor's working "against the dialogue rather than with it", providing grounds for Esslin's claims that the "fervor of delivery" in the play must "stand in a dialectical contrast to the pointlessness of the meaning of the lines".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Jean Martin, who originated the role of Lucky in Paris in 1953, spoke to a doctor named Marthe Gautier, who was working at the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital. Martin asked if she knew of a physiological reason that would explain Lucky's voice as it was written in the text. Gautier suggested Parkinson's disease, which, she said, "begins with a trembling, which gets more and more noticeable, until later the patient can no longer speak without the voice shaking". Martin began incorporating this idea into his rehearsals. Beckett and the director may not have been completely convinced, but they expressed no objections. When Martin mentioned to the playwright that he was "playing Lucky as if he were suffering from Parkinson's", Beckett responded by saying "Yes, of course", and mentioning that his own mother had Parkinson's.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: When Beckett was asked why Lucky was so named, he replied, "I suppose he is lucky to have no more expectations..."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: The boy in Act I, a local lad, assures Vladimir that this is the first time he has seen him. He says he was not there the previous day. He confirms he works for Mr. Godot as a goatherd. His brother, whom Godot beats, is a shepherd. Godot feeds both of them and allows them to sleep in his hayloft.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: The boy in Act II also assures Vladimir that it was not he who called upon them the day before. He insists that this too is his first visit. When Vladimir asks what Godot does the boy tells him, "He does nothing, sir." We also learn he has a white beard—possibly, the boy is not certain. This boy also has a brother who it seems is sick but there is no clear evidence to suggest that his brother is the boy who came in Act I or the one who came the day before that.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Whether the boy from Act I is the same boy from Act II or not, both boys are polite yet timid. In the first act, the boy, despite arriving while Pozzo and Lucky are still about, does not announce himself until after Pozzo and Lucky leave, saying to Vladimir and Estragon that he waited for the other two to leave out of fear of the two men and of Pozzo's whip; the boy does not arrive early enough in Act II to see either Lucky or Pozzo. In both acts, the boy seems hesitant to speak very much, saying mostly "Yes Sir" or "No Sir", and winds up exiting by running away.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: The identity of Godot has been the subject of much debate. "When Colin Duckworth asked Beckett point-blank whether Pozzo was Godot, the author replied: 'No. It is just implied in the text, but it's not true.' "


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Deirdre Bair says that though "Beckett will never discuss the implications of the title", she suggests two stories that both may have at least partially inspired it. The first is that because feet are a recurring theme in the play, Beckett has said the title was suggested to him by the slang French term for boot: ""godillot", "godasse"". The second story, according to Bair, is that Beckett once encountered a group of spectators at the French "Tour de France" bicycle race, who told him "Nous attendons Godot" – they were waiting for a competitor whose name was Godot.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "Beckett said to Peter Woodthorpe that he regretted calling the absent character 'Godot', because of all the theories involving God to which this had given rise." "I also told [Ralph] Richardson that if by Godot I had meant God I would [have] said God, and not Godot. This seemed to disappoint him greatly." That said, Beckett did once concede, "It would be fatuous of me to pretend that I am not aware of the meanings attached to the word 'Godot', and the opinion of many that it means 'God'. But you must remember – I wrote the play in French, and if I did have that meaning in my mind, it was somewhere in my unconscious and I was not overtly aware of it." (Note: the French word for 'God' is 'Dieu'.) However, "Beckett has often stressed the strong unconscious impulses that partly control his writing; he has even spoken of being 'in a trance' when he writes." While Beckett stated he originally had no knowledge of Balzac's play "Mercadet ou le faiseur", whose character Godeau has an identical-sounding name and is involved in a similar situation, it has been suggested he may have been instead influenced by "The Lovable Cheat", a minor adaptation of "Mercadet" starring Buster Keaton, whose works Beckett had admired, and whom he later sought out for "Film".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Unlike elsewhere in Beckett's work, no bicycle appears in this play, but Hugh Kenner in his essay "The Cartesian Centaur" reports that Beckett once, when asked about the meaning of Godot, mentioned "a veteran racing cyclist, bald, a 'stayer', recurrent placeman in town-to-town and national championships, Christian name elusive, surname Godeau, pronounced, of course, no differently from Godot." "Waiting for Godot" is clearly not about track cycling, but it is said that Beckett himself did wait for French cyclist (1920–2000; a professional cyclist from 1943 to 1961), outside the velodrome in Roubaix.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Of the two boys who work for Godot only one appears safe from beatings, "Beckett said, only half-jokingly, that one of Estragon's feet was saved".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: The name "Godot" is pronounced in Britain and Ireland with the emphasis on the first syllable, ; in North America it is usually pronounced with an emphasis on the second syllable, . Beckett himself said the emphasis should be on the first syllable, and that the North American pronunciation is a mistake. Georges Borchardt, Beckett's literary agent, and who represents Beckett's literary estate, has always pronounced "Godot" in the French manner, with equal emphasis on both syllables. Borchardt checked with Beckett's nephew, Edward, who told him his uncle pronounced it that way as well. The 1956 Broadway production split the difference by having Vladimir pronounce "Godot" with equal stress on both syllables (goh-doh) and Estragon pronounce it with the accent on the second syllable (g'doh).


title: Waiting for Godot

text: There is only one scene throughout both acts. Two men are waiting on a country road by a tree. The men are of unspecified origin, though it is clear that they are not English by nationality since they refer to currency as francs, and tell derisive jokes about the English–and in English-language productions the pair are traditionally played with Irish accents. The script calls for Estragon to sit on a low mound but in practice — as in Beckett's own 1975 German production — this is usually a stone.  In the first act the tree is bare. In the second, a few leaves have appeared despite the script specifying that it is the next day. The minimal description calls to mind "the idea of the "lieu vague", a location which should not be particularised".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Other clues about the location can be found in the dialogue. In Act I, Vladimir turns toward the auditorium and describes it as a bog. In Act II, Vladimir again motions to the auditorium and notes that there is "Not a soul in sight." When Estragon rushes toward the back of the stage in Act II, Vladimir scolds him, saying that "There's no way out there." Also in Act II, Vladimir comments that their surroundings look nothing like the Macon country, and Estragon states that he's lived his whole life "Here! In the Cackon country!"


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Alan Schneider once suggested putting the play on in the round—Pozzo has been described as a ringmaster—but Beckett dissuaded him: "I don't in my ignorance agree with the round and feel "Godot" needs a very closed box." He even contemplated at one point having a "faint shadow of bars on stage floor" but, in the end, decided against this level of what he called "explicitation". In Becket's 1975 Schiller Theater production in Berlin, there are times when Didi and Gogo appear to bounce off something "like birds trapped in the strands of [an invisible] net", in James Knowlson's description.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "Because the play is so stripped down, so elemental, it invites all kinds of social and political and religious interpretation", wrote Normand Berlin in a tribute to the play in Autumn 1999, "with Beckett himself placed in different schools of thought, different movements and 'isms'. The attempts to pin him down have not been successful, but the desire to do so is natural when we encounter a writer whose minimalist art reaches for bedrock reality. 'Less' forces us to look for 'more', and the need to talk about "Godot" and about Beckett has resulted in a steady outpouring of books and articles."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Throughout "Waiting for Godot", the audience may encounter religious, philosophical, classical, psychoanalytical and biographical – especially wartime – references. There are ritualistic aspects and elements taken directly from vaudeville, and there is a danger in making more of these than what they are: that is, merely structural conveniences, avatars into which the writer places his fictional characters. The play "exploits several archetypal forms and situations, all of which lend themselves to both comedy and pathos." Beckett makes this point emphatically clear in the opening notes to "Film": "No truth value attaches to the above, regarded as of merely structural and dramatic convenience." He made another important remark to Lawrence Harvey, saying that his "work does not depend on experience – [it is] not a record of experience. Of course you use it."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Beckett tired quickly of "the endless misunderstanding". As far back as 1955, he remarked, "Why people have to complicate a thing so simple I can't make out." He was not forthcoming with anything more than cryptic clues, however: "Peter Woodthorpe [who played Estragon] remembered asking him one day in a taxi what the play was really about: 'It's all symbiosis, Peter; it's symbiosis,' answered Beckett."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Beckett directed the play for the Schiller-Theater in Berlin in 1975. Although he had overseen many productions, this was the first time that he had taken complete control. Walter Asmus was his conscientious young assistant director. The production was not naturalistic. Beckett explained,


title: Waiting for Godot

text: It is a game, everything is a game. When all four of them are lying on the ground, that cannot be handled naturalistically. That has got to be done artificially, balletically. Otherwise everything becomes an imitation, an imitation of reality [...]. It should become clear and transparent, not dry. It is a game in order to survive.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Over the years, Beckett clearly realised that the greater part of "Godot"'s success came down to the fact that it was open to a variety of readings and that this was not necessarily a bad thing. Beckett himself sanctioned "one of the most famous mixed-race productions of "Godot", performed at the Baxter Theatre in the University of Cape Town, directed by Donald Howarth, with [...] two black actors, John Kani and Winston Ntshona, playing Didi and Gogo; Pozzo, dressed in checked shirt and gumboots reminiscent of an Afrikaner landlord, and Lucky ('a shanty town piece of white trash') were played by two white actors, Bill Flynn and Peter Piccolo [...]. The Baxter production has often been portrayed as if it were an explicitly political production, when in fact it received very little emphasis. What such a reaction showed, however, was that, although the play can in no way be taken as a political allegory, there are elements that are relevant to any local situation in which one man is being exploited or oppressed by another."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "It was seen as an allegory of the Cold War" or of French Resistance to the Germans. Graham Hassell writes, "[T]he intrusion of Pozzo and Lucky [...] seems like nothing more than a metaphor for Ireland's view of mainland Britain, where society has ever been blighted by a greedy ruling élite keeping the working classes passive and ignorant by whatever means."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: The play was written shortly after World War II, during which Beckett and his partner were forced to flee occupied Paris to avoid arrest, owing to their affiliation with the French Resistance. After the war, Beckett volunteered for the Red Cross in the French city Saint-Lô, which had been almost completely destroyed during the D-Day fighting. These experiences would have likely had a severe impact on both Beckett's personal politics, as well as his views on the prevailing policies that informed the period in which he found himself.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Vladimir and Estragon are often played with Irish accents, as in the Beckett on Film project. This, some feel, is an inevitable consequence of Beckett's rhythms and phraseology, but it is not stipulated in the text. At any rate, they are not of English stock: at one point early in the play, Estragon mocks the English pronunciation of "calm" and has fun with "the story of the Englishman in the brothel".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "Bernard Dukore develops a triadic theory in "Didi, Gogo and the absent Godot", based on Sigmund Freud's trinitarian description of the psyche in "The Ego and the Id" (1923) and the usage of onomastic techniques. Dukore defines the characters by what they lack: the rational Go-go embodies the incomplete ego, the missing pleasure principle: (e)go-(e)go. Di-di (id-id) – who is more instinctual and irrational – is seen as the backward id or subversion of the rational principle. Godot fulfills the function of the superego or moral standards. Pozzo and Lucky are just re-iterations of the main protagonists. Dukore finally sees Beckett's play as a metaphor for the futility of man's existence when salvation is expected from an external entity, and the self is denied introspection."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "The four archetypal personalities or the four aspects of the soul are grouped in two pairs: the ego and the shadow, the persona and the soul's image (animus or anima). The shadow is the container of all our despised emotions repressed by the ego. Lucky, the shadow, serves as the polar opposite of the egocentric Pozzo, prototype of prosperous mediocrity, who incessantly controls and persecutes his subordinate, thus symbolising the oppression of the unconscious shadow by the despotic ego. Lucky's monologue in Act I appears as a manifestation of a stream of repressed unconsciousness, as he is allowed to "think" for his master. Estragon's name has another connotation, besides that of the aromatic herb, tarragon: "estragon" is a cognate of estrogen, the female hormone (Carter, 130). This prompts us to identify him with the anima, the feminine image of Vladimir's soul. It explains Estragon's propensity for poetry, his sensitivity and dreams, his irrational moods. Vladimir appears as the complementary masculine principle, or perhaps the rational persona of the contemplative type."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Broadly speaking, existentialists hold that there are certain fundamental questions that all human beings must come to terms with if they are to take their subjective existences seriously and with intrinsic value. Questions such as life, death, the meaning of human existence and the place of God in that existence are among them. By and large, the theories of existentialism assert that conscious reality is very complex and without an "objective" or universally known value: the individual must create value by affirming it and living it, not by simply talking about it or philosophising it in the mind. The play may be seen to touch on all of these issues.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Martin Esslin, in his "The Theatre of the Absurd" (1960), argued that "Waiting for Godot" was part of a broader literary movement that he called the Theatre of the Absurd, a form of theatre that stemmed from the absurdist philosophy of Albert Camus. Absurdism itself is a branch of the traditional assertions of existentialism, pioneered by Søren Kierkegaard, and posits that, while inherent meaning might very well exist in the universe, human beings are incapable of finding it due to some form of mental or philosophical limitation. Thus, humanity is doomed to be faced with "the Absurd", or the absolute absurdity of the existence in lack of intrinsic purpose.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Just after Didi and Gogo have been particularly selfish and callous, the boy comes to say that Godot is not coming. The boy (or pair of boys) may be seen to represent meekness and hope before compassion is consciously excluded by an evolving personality and character, and in which case may be the youthful Pozzo and Lucky. Thus Godot is compassion and fails to arrive every day, as he says he will. No-one is concerned that a boy is beaten. In this interpretation, there is the irony that only by changing their hearts to be compassionate can the characters fixed to the tree move on and cease to have to wait for Godot.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Much of the play is steeped in scriptural allusion. The boy from Act I mentions that he and his brother mind Godot's sheep and goats. Much can be read into Beckett's inclusion of the story of the two thieves from Luke 23:39–43 and the ensuing discussion of repentance. It is easy to see the solitary tree as representative of the Christian cross or the tree of life. Some see God and Godot as one and the same. Vladimir's "Christ have mercy upon us!" could be taken as evidence that that is at least what he believes.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Another, perhaps less conspicuous, "potentially" religious, element in the play, is Pozzo's bout with blindness, during which he comes to resemble the biblical figure of Bartimaeus or 'The Blind Beggar'.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: This reading is given further weight early in the first act when Estragon asks Vladimir what it is that he has requested from Godot:


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Other explicit Christian elements that are mentioned in the play include, but are not limited to, repentance, the Gospels, a Saviour, human beings made in God's image, the cross, and Cain and Abel.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: According to biographer Anthony Cronin, "[Beckett] always possessed a Bible, at the end more than one edition, and Bible concordances were always among the reference books on his shelves." Beckett himself was quite open on the issue: "Christianity is a mythology with which I am perfectly familiar so I naturally use it." As Cronin argues, these biblical references "may be ironic or even sarcastic".


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "In answer to a defence counsel question in 1937 (during the libel action brought by his uncle against Oliver St. John Gogarty) as to whether he was a Christian, Jew or atheist, Beckett replied, 'None of the three' ". Looking at Beckett's entire œuvre, Mary Bryden observed that "the hypothesised God who emerges from Beckett's texts is one who is both cursed for his perverse absence and cursed for his surveillant presence. He is by turns dismissed, satirised, or ignored, but he, and his tortured son, are never definitively discarded."


title: Waiting for Godot

text: "Waiting for Godot" has been described as a "metaphor for the long walk into Roussillon, when Beckett and Suzanne slept in haystacks ... during the day and walked by night ... [or] of the relationship of Beckett to Joyce". Beckett told Ruby Cohn that Caspar David Friedrich's painting "Two Men Contemplating the Moon", which he saw on his journey to Germany in 1936, was a source for the play.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Though the sexuality of Vladimir and Estragon is not always considered by critics, some see the two vagabonds as an ageing homosexual couple, who are worn out, with broken spirits, impotent and not engaging sexually any longer. The two appear to be written as a parody of a married couple. Peter Boxall points out that the play features two characters who seem to have shared life together for years; they quarrel, embrace, and are mutually dependent. Beckett was interviewed at the time the play was premiering in New York, and, speaking of his writings and characters in general, Beckett said "I'm working with impotence, ignorance. I don't think impotence has been exploited in the past." Vladimir and Estragon's consideration of hanging themselves can be seen as a desperate way to achieve at least one final erection.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Pozzo and his slave, Lucky, arrive on the scene. Pozzo is a stout man, who wields a whip and holds a rope around Lucky's neck. Some critics have considered that the relationship of these two characters is homosexual and sado-masochistic in nature. Lucky's long speech is a torrent of broken ideas and speculations regarding man, sex, God, and time. It has been said that the play contains little or no sexual hope; which is the play's lament, and the source of the play's humour and comedic tenderness. Norman Mailer wonders if Beckett might be restating the sexual and moral basis of Christianity, that life and strength is found in an adoration of those in the lower depths where God is concealed.


title: Waiting for Godot

text: Beckett was not open to most interpretative approaches to his work. He famously objected when, in the 1980s, several women's acting companies began to stage the play. "Women don't have prostates", said Beckett, a reference to the fact that Vladimir frequently has to leave the stage to urinate.