title: Janet Yellen

text: After receiving her Ph.D., Yellen obtained the position of assistant professor of economics at Harvard University, where she taught from 1971 to 1976. At that time, she was one of only two women faculty in Harvard's economics department, the other woman was Rachel McCulloch; the two struck up a close friendship and went on to write several academic papers together. In 1977, Yellen took a job within the Federal Reserve's Board of Governors after failing to win tenure at Harvard; she was recruited as a staff economist for the Board of Governors by Edwin M. Truman, who had known her from Yale. Truman was a junior professor when he heard Yellen's oral exam, and was then about to take over the Fed's Division of International Finance. She was assigned to research international monetary reform.


title: Janet Yellen

text: While at the Fed, she met her husband, economist George Akerlof, in the bank's cafeteria; they wed in 1978, less than a year later. By the time of their marriage, Akerlof had already accepted a teaching position at the London School of Economics (LSE). Yellen left her post at the Fed to accompany him and was given a tenure-track lectureship by LSE. They remained in the United Kingdom for two years, then returned to the United States.


title: Janet Yellen

text: In 1980, Yellen joined the faculty of the University of California, Berkeley, where she taught at the Haas School of Business to conduct macroeconomics research and teach undergraduate and MBA students for more than two decades. She earned the Haas School's outstanding teaching award twice, in 1985 and 1988. Prof. Yellen became just the second woman at Berkeley-Haas to earn tenure in 1982, as well as the title of full professor in 1985. She was named the Bernard T. Rocca, Jr. Professor of International Business and Trade in 1992.


title: Janet Yellen

text: From 1994 to 1999, Yellen took a leave of absence from Berkeley to go into public service. After returning to academia, she resumed her teaching assignment at Haas and received a joint appointment with Berkeley's Department of Economics. She was appointed as the Eugene E. and Catherine M. Trefethen Professor of Business and Professor of Economics in 1999, and remained an active faculty member until she was appointed as president & chief executive officer of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco in 2004. Yellen was awarded the title of Professor Emeritus at UC Berkeley in 2006.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Throughout her career, Yellen served as an adviser to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), the Brookings Panel on Economic Activity, and the National Science Foundation’s Panel in Economics. She was also a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research from 1999 to 2010.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen's academic career largely focused on the analysis of the mechanisms of unemployment and labor markets, monetary and fiscal policies, and international trade. She has written a few widely cited papers, often collaborating on research with her husband, Professor George Akerlof.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Since the 1980s, Yellen and Akerlof have addressed what's known in the economics literature as "efficiency wage theory"the idea that paying people more than the market wage does increase their productivity. Their 1990 paper, entitled "The Fair-Wage Effort Hypothesis and Unemployment," christened "the fair wage-effort hypothesis" and was considered by economists to be a significant contribution to the topic: "a precursor to the efficiency wage literature," "it had an influence, although the work on efficiency wage theory has had a bigger influence." Akerlof and Yellen introduced the gift-exchange game, which argues that workers who are paid less than what they consider to be a fair wage will purposefully work less hard to exact revenge on their employer.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Another important work, "An Analysis of Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing in the United States," co-written with Akerlof and Michael Katz and published in 1996, aims to explain why out-of-wedlock births had grown considerably in previous decades in the United States. A research study led to a theory called "reproductive technology shock," arguing that the increased availability of both abortion and contraception in the late 1960s and early 1970s, amidst the sexual revolution, eroded the social norms surrounding sex, pregnancy, and marriage, leading to a sharp decline in the stigma of unwed motherhood. At the same time, this transformation encouraged biological fathers to reject not only the notion of an obligation to marry the mother but also the idea of a paternal obligation.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On April 22, 1994, President Bill Clinton announced his intention to nominate Yellen as a member of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, alongside Alan Blinder, who has been designated as vice chairman, the first Democratic appointee to the Board since 1980; in a statement, the president praised her as "one of the most prominent economists of her generation on the intersection of macroeconomics and labor markets." However, President Clinton did not play a direct role in the selection process, delegating most of the responsibility to NEC Director Robert Rubin, Treasury Secretary Lloyd Bentsen, and CEA Chair Laura Tyson, who was a colleague of Yellen's at Berkeley. The group settled on her candidacy after an exhaustive search that at one point included nearly 50 names. On July 22, 1994, at her confirmation hearing before the Senate Banking Committee, Yellen said that Fed policies should keep the economy growing as much as possible without accelerating inflation but avoid taking a clear position on the prospect of further increases in interest rates. The Senate panel approved her nomination without much Republican opposition, by a vote of 18 to 1; and the only dissenting vote came from Senator Lauch Faircloth (R-NC), who said that her concerns should be limited to "inflation, inflation, and inflation." The nomination was confirmed in the United States Senate by a vote of 94–6. On August 12, 1994, Yellen was appointed to a full 14-year term and assumed the seat vacated by Republican Wayne Angell. Her appointment as the fourth female governor, alongside previously installed Susan M. Phillips, marks the first time two women have served simultaneously on the Federal Reserve Board.


title: Janet Yellen

text: In July 1996, the Federal Reserve resisted pressure to raise interest rates as unemployment dropped. Yellen marshaled academic research to dissuade Chairman Alan Greenspan from committing the Fed to a zero inflation policy and demonstrate that the central bank should seek to moderate inflation rather than eliminate it. According to the study, a low inflation rate of around 2 percent provided a better foundation for reducing unemployment and increasing economic growth than the goal of zero.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On February 17, 1997, Yellen left the Federal Reserve to become chair of the Council of Economic Advisers.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On December 20, 1996, Yellen joined the Clinton administration as chair of President Clinton's Council of Economic Advisers (CEA), replacing Joseph Stiglitz in office. On February 13, 1997, she was unanimously confirmed by the Senate, becoming the second woman to serve as CEA chair, following Laura Tyson. While at the CEA, she also chaired the Economic Policy Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development from 1997 to 1999.


title: Janet Yellen

text: During her time with the Council of Economic Advisers, Yellen oversaw a landmark report, "Explaining Trends in the Gender Wage Gap," focused on the gender pay divide in June 1998. Within this study, the Council analyzed data from 1969 to 1996 to determine the reasons why women earn substantially less than men. By observing trends attributable to issues such as occupation and industry, as well as familial status, it was determined that while the Equal Pay Act of 1963 was a step forward, there was no explanation for a 25 percent difference between average pay for women and men – an improvement from the 40 percent gap two decades earlier. It was concluded that this gap had no correlation with differences in productivity and, as such, was the result of discrimination within the workforce.


title: Janet Yellen

text: In June 1999, Yellen announced that she was stepping down from the CEA for personal reasons and would return to teaching at UC Berkeley. It was reported that President Clinton asked her to take over from Alice Rivlin, the central bank's vice chairwoman – an offer she turned down.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On June 14, 2004, Yellen was appointed president of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, following Robert T. Parry; she was the first woman to hold this position. She was a voting member of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) on a rotating basis once every three years. During her time at the San Francisco Fed, the largest of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks in terms of population and economic output, she spoke publicly and in meetings of the Fed's monetary policy committee regarding her concerns about the potential consequences of the boom in housing prices. She also sounded alarms with Washington colleagues about banks' heavy concentration in risky construction and home-development loans. Yellen, on the other hand, did not lead the San Francisco Fed to "move to check [the] increasingly indiscriminate lending" of Countrywide Financial, the country's largest lender. On June 5, 2009, Yellen said that the Federal Reserve should consider raising interest rates earlier to prevent another housing bubble. She argued that higher short-term interest rates probably went against the expansion of a bubble in certain circumstances, like restraining the demand for housing and high-risk mortgages.


title: Janet Yellen

text: In July 2009, Yellen was mentioned as a potential successor to Chairman Ben Bernanke when his term was set to expire before he was re-nominated for a second four-year term. On October 4, 2010, she left San Francisco Fed to take an appointment as vice chair of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On April 28, 2010, President Barack Obama nominated Yellen to succeed Donald Kohn as vice chair of the Federal Reserve. In July, the Senate Banking Committee voted 17–6 to confirm her, though the top Republican on the panel, Sen. Richard Shelby of Alabama, voted no, saying he believed Yellen had an "inflationary bias." At the same time, on the heels of related testimony by Fed Chairman Bernanke, FOMC voting member James B. Bullard of the St. Louis Fed stated that the U.S. economy was "at risk of becoming 'enmeshed in a Japanese-style deflationary outcome within the next several years.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Bullard's statement was interpreted as a possible shift within the FOMC balance between inflation hawks and doves. Yellen's pending confirmation, along with those of Peter Diamond and Sarah Bloom Raskin to fill vacancies, was seen as possibly furthering such a shift in the FOMC. All three nominations were seen as "on track to be confirmed by the Senate."


title: Janet Yellen

text: On September 29, 2010, Yellen, alongside Raskin, was confirmed by the Senate on a voice vote, to be both a member of the board of governors, and vice chairman of the Federal Reserve System. On October 4, the pair were sworn in as fed governors, while Yellen also took the oath of office as vice chair of the board for a four-year term. Simultaneously, she began a 14-year term as a member of the Federal Reserve Board, filling a vacant seat last held by Mark W. Olson. Yellen was the second woman to hold the No.2 post at the Fed, after Alice Rivlin, who had that role from 1996 to 1999.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen, as vice chair, by contrast with her predecessors, has acted more as an independent force within the institution. She has been trying to persuade Bernanke and the rest of the committee to adopt her preferred course for monetary policy, advocating more aggressive steps to pump money into the economy to bring down unemployment. In January 2012, the Fed announced its inflation target of two percent a year, after a long campaign by Bernanke and Yellen, who was an early supporter of inflation targeting in the face of opposition from Chairman Greenspan since the 1990s.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen was considered the front-runner to succeed Bernanke as chair of the Federal Reserve when his second term ceased. The other leading candidate for the post was Lawrence Summers, a former Treasury Secretary under President Clinton and former director of President Obama's National Economic Council. During the race, Summers has come under fire for his support for deregulating parts of the banking sector while he served in the Clinton administration; he also sparked controversy for the comments he made on women's aptitude in math and science at the time of his Harvard presidency in 2005. In July 2013, Senate Democrats were circulating a letter that had been signed by roughly a third of the 54 Democratic and allied senators, who largely represent the liberal wing of the Senate Democratic Caucus, urging President Obama to appoint Yellen as chairwoman of the central bank. In addition, more than 500 professional economists from more than 200 colleges and universities across the United States signed an open letter in support of her candidacy for Fed chair and sent it to the White House. On September 15, 2013, after weeks of opposition to his potential nomination, Summers withdrew his name from consideration for the position.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On October 9, 2013, Yellen was officially nominated to replace Bernanke as chair of the Federal Reserve, the first vice chair to be elevated to that post; via announcement, President Obama called her "one of the nation’s foremost economists and policymakers" who was "exceptionally well-qualified for this role." During the nomination hearings held on November 14, 2013, Yellen defended the more than $3trillion in stimulus funds that the central bank had been injecting into the U.S. economy. She also said that it is important for the Fed to try to detect asset bubbles and that if she saw one, she would work to address it.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On December 20, 2013, the U.S. Senate voted 59–34 for cloture on Yellen's nomination. On January 6, 2014, she was confirmed as chair of the Federal Reserve by a vote of 56–26, the narrowest margin ever for the position. Aside from being a trailblazer as the first woman to lead the U.S. central bank, or any major central bank, Yellen was also the first Democrat to hold the job since Paul Volcker became chairman in 1979 (via President Jimmy Carter). She's notable also for being arguably the most liberal Fed leader since Marriner S. Eccles, who was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression. Until her appointment, there has been only one female head of the central bank in the history of the G8 countriesRussia's Elvira Nabiullina. After being unanimously elected by the Federal Open Market Committee as its chair on January 30, 2014, she took office on February 3, 2014. In her 2014 semiannual testimony on monetary policy, Yellen said that while real estate, equities, and corporate bond prices "have risen appreciably and valuation metrics have increased," they were "generally in line with historical norms"; Yellen noted some concerns about valuations of "lower-rated corporate debt" (i.e., junk bonds), and noted that she and the Fed were monitoring trends, but did not believe that a so-called "everything bubble" was forming.


title: Janet Yellen

text: With Yellen as chair, the Federal Reserve increased its key interest rate on December 16, 2015. This was the first time the key interest rate was increased since 2006. That move was largely expected, because extraordinarily low-interest rates for an extremely long time may contribute to financial instability and pose a threat to the economy. It was considered a departure from the previous controversial Fed policy, known as the Greenspan put. During her tenure, the Fed has gradually raised rates four additional times, leaving its key rate in a still-low range of 1.25 percent to 1.5 percentwell below historical standards. However, if the economy slows, Fed policymakers can lower interest rates to stimulate growth.


title: Janet Yellen

text: After the 2016 presidential election, Yellen gave a strong defense of the Dodd–Frank Act at her Joint Economic Committee testimony, standing in opposition to the incoming President Donald Trump's plans to review the landmark legislation. She argued that it would be inappropriate to weaken or repeal the law designed to prevent a repeat of the 2008 financial crisis.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Trump considered re-nominating Yellen for another term, but instead picked Fed Governor Jerome Powell, a Republican, to run the Federal Reserve once her term ended on February 3, 2018. The last Fed chairman eligible for reappointment but not to be re-nominated by a successor presidential administration was Arthur Burns in 1978. After Trump's decision, Yellen announced her resignation at the end of her term as chair. She was the first Fed chair in nearly 40 years not to receive a second term.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On February 2, 2018, her last day in office, Chair Yellen enforced unprecedented sanctions on Wells Fargo, the third-largest U.S. bank, with a consent order that restricted the firm from future growth until the organization fixed its internal problems. The move came in response to a string of "widespread consumer abuses and compliance breakdowns" at the company, including a fake account scandal. It marked the first time the Federal Reserve has imposed a cap on the entire assets of a financial institution.


title: Janet Yellen

text: In terms of labor markets, Yellen has been dubbed one of the Federal Reserve System's most successful chairpersons. During her term, the unemployment rate dropped from 6.7 percent to 4.1 percent, the lowest in 17 years. It marked the first time the economy had added jobs throughout every month of any Fed chair's tenure. Yellen completed her time at the Fed with the lowest final unemployment rate of any Fed chair since William McChesney Martin in 1970. Under her leadership, the U.S. unemployment rate fell more than during any other chair's term in the post-World War II era, declining 2.6 percentage points.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Inflation remained below the Fed's annual two percent target, suggesting that the Federal Reserve could have done more to bolster the economy without the risk of price increases.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen holds a unique place in Federal Reserve history. In addition to being the first woman to lead the institution, she was also the first person ever to have served in the nation's central bank system with stints as a Fed Reserve chair (from 2014 to 2018), vice chair (from 2010 to 2014), president of the regional Federal Reserve Bank (at the San Francisco Fed, from 2004 to 2010), Fed governor (from 1994 to 1997), and Fed staff economist (from 1977 to 1978).


title: Janet Yellen

text: On February 2, 2018, the Brookings Institution announced that Yellen would be joining the think tank as a distinguished fellow in residence with the Economic Studies program, effective February 5, 2018. She's been affiliated with the Hutchins Center on Fiscal and Monetary Policy at Brookings. Within the institution, she has been providing expertise and commentary on a range of economic issues, offering her perspective and analysis at Brookings panels, congressional testimony, lectures across the United States and abroad, and regularly serving as a commentator in the media. In November 2020, Yellen left her position after being selected as a nominee to serve as Treasury secretary.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On June 27, 2017, Yellen stated that she did not expect another financial crisis "in our lifetime," explaining that this assumption can be made due to her belief that banks are "very much stronger" as a result of Federal Reserve oversight. However, on December 10, 2018, in conversation with Paul Krugman at the City University of New York, she warned of the possibility of another financial crisis by citing "gigantic holes in the system" after she departs from the Federal Reserve.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On February 25, 2019, Yellen criticized President Trump's economic policies. When asked if she believed Trump has "a grasp of macroeconomic policy," Yellen replied, "No, I do not." In an interview with "Marketplace", Yellen explained that she doubts that Trump could articulate the Federal Reserve's explicit goals of "maximum employment and price stability." Yellen emphasized Trump's assertions that the Federal Reserve's goals include trade, which she explains are objectively false. She also expressed concerns about the president's respect for Fed independence and voiced support for her successor, Jerome Powell. This interview was a change in tone for Yellen, who traditionally handled her differences with Trump in a neutral manner.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On July 17, 2020, at the hearing of the United States House Select Oversight Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis that was set up by the House Committee on Oversight and Reform, former Fed Chairs Bernanke and Yellen testified to the United States Congress about the economic policy response to the negative impact of the coronavirus pandemic. They urged lawmakers to act aggressively with fiscal stimulus in three areas: extending the supplementary unemployment payments; providing additional financial assistance to hard-hit states and local governments; and investing in the medical response to the pandemic. She also expressed this commitment to stimulus in an op-ed for "The New York Times" with Jared Bernstein, a senior fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On August 13, 2020, it was reported that Yellen was among a handful of economists who briefed former Vice President Joe Biden, the presumptive Democratic nominee for president, and his chosen running mate, Sen. Kamala Harris, on economic issues, but she did not officially join the presidential campaign. The meeting made headlines for being one of the first times the Biden campaign announced who it was turning to for economic expertise. However, few at the time predicted Yellen for any of the president's Cabinet posts.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Between 2018 and 2020, Yellen received over $7million in speaking fees from financial companies such as Barclays, Citigroup, Goldman Sachs, and the hedge fund Citadel after leaving the Federal Reserve. With her return to government, she pledged to get official permission from the Office of Government Ethics to participate in substantive issues involving such firms to avoid any conflict of interest.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Following the 2020 presidential election, Yellen was routinely mentioned as a possible secretary of the treasury in the incoming Biden administration. She edged out other top contenders to obtain the position, including Fed Board Gov. Lael Brainard and Roger W. Ferguson Jr., a former vice chairman at the central bank.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On November 30, 2020, then-President-elect Biden announced he would nominate Yellen as Treasury Secretary in his Cabinet and lauded her as "one of the most important economic thinkers of our time" who "spent her career focused on employment and the dignity of work." Despite being a highly respected figure across the political spectrum and expected to win confirmation easily, she was considered an unusual pick for the position because of her lack of experience in political maneuvering. Unlike her predecessors, she is viewed as more of an academic economist than a traditional politician used to horse-trading and dealmaking, qualities that could be critical to achieving the goals of Biden's economic agenda in a deeply partisan Congress. All living former U.S. treasury secretaries, from George Shultz to Jack Lew, endorsed Yellen for the position in a bipartisan letter calling on the Senate to swiftly confirm her.


title: Janet Yellen

text: The Senate Finance Committee unanimously approved Yellen's candidacy by a 26–0 vote on January 22, 2021. The full U.S. Senate confirmed her nomination with a vote of 84–15 (with one abstention, Marco Rubio, R-FL) on January 25, 2021. With her oath of office administered by Vice President Harris the next day, Yellen became the first female Secretary of the Treasury and the first person in American history to lead the three most powerful economic bodies in the federal government of the United States: the Treasury Department, the Federal Reserve, and the White House Council of Economic Advisers.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Only two other women within the G7 nationsFrance's Christine Lagarde and Canada's Chrystia Freelandhave held positions analogous to Yellen's as Treasury Secretary.


title: Janet Yellen

text: In April 2021, Yellen proposed a global minimum corporate tax rate to prevent profit shifting used by multinational companies for purposes of tax avoidance. On June 5, 2021, finance ministers from the Group of Seven (G7) reached a historic agreement to reform the global tax system, agreeing to reinstate a minimum global corporate tax rate of at least 15%; French finance minister Bruno Le Maire called it "a starting point" that could be increased in the future. On June 10, 2021, Treasury Secretary Yellen joined with four foreign counterparts in penning an op-ed for "The Washington Post" that described the new accord as "a historic opportunity to end the race to the bottom in corporate taxation, restoring government resources at a time when they are most needed." On July 1, 2021, U.S.-backed negotiations within the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to create wider global tax parity won support from a group of 130 nations, representing more than 90 percent of global GDP, establishing a new framework for international tax reform. On July 10, 2021, financial leaders from the G20 countries came to an agreement on plans to put an end to global tax havens, force multinational corporations to pay an appropriate share of tax wherever they operate, and create a "more stable and fair international tax architecture."


title: Janet Yellen

text: On October 8, 2021, more than 130 countries, including several low-tax jurisdictions that had resisted the pact, enforced through the OECD a landmark agreement to set a global minimum tax rate of 15% starting in 2023 for companies around the world. It said the deal could bring in an extra $150billion in tax revenues per year. However, implementation of the treaty will need to be ratified by a two-thirds majority in the evenly divided U.S. Senate, as well as passing domestic legislation in each of the signed countries.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On July 23, 2021, Yellen sent a letter to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and other congressional leaders, in which she urged lawmakers to increase or suspend the nation's debt limit as soon as possible before it hit its statutory limit on August 1, and the government would be unable to pay its bills. She warned Congress that failing to meet those obligations would cause "irreparable harm" to the U.S. economy and that the Treasury Department would take “extraordinary measures” to prevent the United States from a government shutdown or even a debt default.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On September 19, 2021, Yellen, in an op-ed for "The Wall Street Journal", again called for an increase in the debt ceiling; otherwise, sometime in October, Treasury would exhaust its cash reserves, which would trigger a financial crisis. After Congress adopted a short-term debt-ceiling bill to raise the country's borrowing into early December, Yellen said that lawmakers needed to act with responsibility and provide longer-term certainty for government solvency. On November 1, 2021, Yellen expressed her willingness to consider solutions to the debt crisis without GOP support if necessary, using a budget reconciliation procedure as a viable alternative.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On December 16, 2021, President Biden signed a debt ceiling increase into law, preventing a U.S. default, a day after the Treasury's previously estimated deadline to address the issue. Congressional legislation expected to allow the government to cover its financial obligations beyond the 2022 midterm elections was passed in a nearly party-line vote.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On April 7, 2022, at American University's Kogod School of Business Center for Innovation, Yellen addressed for the first time the growing impact of digital assets on the American economy. Yellen outlined policy objectives and lessons that apply to the navigation of emerging technologies, which include "first, the U.S. financial system benefits from responsible innovation; second, it's often society's vulnerable who suffer most in an economic crisis when regulation is not moving at the same pace as innovation; third, regulation should focus on activities and risk, not technology; fourth, sovereign money is the core of a functioning financial system; and fifth, it'll take thoughtful public and private dialogue between various groups to move forward."


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen also announced possible plans for a government version of a stablecoin; the administration is studying the possibility of issuing a central bank digital currency (CBDC) or digital dollar while taking into consideration the impact of a CBDC on monetary policy, national security, and international trade, as well as its utility for consumers. Solving such problems is an "engineering challenge that would require years of development, not months," she said.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On May 10, 2022, during a Senate Banking Committee hearing, Yellen made comments on the economic consequences of "Roe v. Wade" overturning after a leaked draft majority opinion in "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization" showed the Supreme Court was poised to overrule its previous decisions that legalized abortion in the United States. Sen. Bob Menendez (D-NJ) asked what reversing the landmark ruling would mean economically for the country; Yellen responded, "I believe that eliminating the right of women to make decisions about when and whether to have children would have very damaging effects on the economy and would set women back decades." She added that keeping women from accessing abortions "increases their odds of living in poverty or need for public assistance." Sen. Tim Scott (R-SC) criticized Yellen’s stance as "harsh," suggesting that it was inappropriate to frame the debate over abortion in economic terms. She replied, "This is not harsh, this is the truth."


title: Janet Yellen

text: Following their heated exchange, Senator Scott penned an op-ed for "The Washington Post", in which he called Yellen's claim "simply false" and compared her arguments to those of Margaret Sanger in support of eugenics.


title: Janet Yellen

text: After the passage of the Inflation Reduction Act, Yellen directed the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to use $80 billion in additional IRS funding to clear backlogs, improve taxpayer services, update technology, and hire thousands of new employees.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen is widely considered to be a "dove" on monetary policy (i.e., more concerned with unemployment than with inflation) and, as such, generally favors lower rather than higher Federal Reserve interest rates. On fiscal policy, however, publications frequently refer to her as "sort of" a deficit hawk. She expressed concern about the United States fiscal path prior to the COVID-19 recession, particularly about the national debt; in 2018, Yellen said, "If I had a magic wand, I would raise taxes and cut retirement spending." The following year, she again suggested that she favored both raising revenue and making changes to the Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security programs to control spending. In September 2021, at a House Financial Services Committee hearing, Yellen lends support to efforts for the complete removal of the debt ceiling, arguing that the borrowing cap is "very destructive" and poses an unnecessary threat to the American economy.


title: Janet Yellen

text: She has supported tighter financial regulation to reduce systemic risks arising from vulnerabilities in the financial system. As chair of the Group of Thirty Working Group on Climate Change and Finance, she addressed climate risks, supporting a phase-in of carbon pricing to accelerate a shift to net zero carbon emissions.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen is a Keynesian economist and has been described as a "Keynesian to her fingertips." During the Great Recession, she "warned against an over-hasty removal of stimulus," "insisted that the Fed pay as much attention to unemployment as to inflation," and "believes the state has a duty to tackle poverty and inequality." In April 1999, Yellen presented a speech at a reunion of the Yale graduate economics department that was titled "Yale Economics in Washington" and described her views on Keynesian economics in policymaking. She claimed that while most economists "appreciate the role of markets and incentives," Yalies more often than others can see when they aren't working properly and have greater concern for policies to remedy them, advising policymakers to have the knowledge and ability to improve macroeconomic outcomes. When her appointment as treasury secretary was announced in December 2020, Yellen was viewed by Wall Street as "a Treasury secretary who will push hard for expansionary policies aimed at boosting growth, profits and share prices," although the ability of Yellen to push through her preferred fiscal policies was seen as likely to be constrained by congressional gridlock.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen has received numerous honors in recognition of her career in academia and politics. These include:


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen is married to George Akerlof, an economist who is a university professor at the McCourt School of Public Policy at Georgetown University and Koshland Professor of Economics Emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley, as well as 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate. Yellen and Akerlof first crossed paths at the Fed in the fall of 1977 and wedded in June 1978, less than a year after the meeting. Their son Robert Akerlof, was born in 1981 and is also an economist. He graduated with a bachelor of arts "summa cum laude" with special distinction in economics and mathematics from Yale University in 2003, and received a Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University in 2009, where he was a presidential scholar. Robert is an associate professor of economics at the University of Warwick.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen and Akerlof have often collaborated on research, including topics such as poverty, unemployment and a paper on the costs of out-of-wedlock childbearing. One of their most talked-about papers at Berkeley, on why lower wages do not always lead to higher employment, came from the personal experience of hiring a nanny for the first time. Yellen says Akerlof has been her biggest intellectual influence. Both frequently state that their lone disagreement is that she is a bit more supportive of free trade than he is.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen has an estimated net worth of $20million, accrued from stock holdings, speaking engagements, and various government and academic positions. In February 2021, she divested holdings in corporations including Pfizer, ConocoPhillips and AT&T, among others, when she assumed public office as U.S. Treasury Secretary.


title: Janet Yellen

text: Yellen inherited from her mother a valuable collection of postage stamps worth between $15,000 and $50,000. Despite this, she doesn’t collect them on her own.


title: Janet Yellen

text: "Who's Yellen Now?" is a song by musician Dessa, commissioned by "Marketplace", following the joking suggestion by then-President-elect Biden that Lin-Manuel Miranda should write a Hamiltonesque musical about Yellen, reflecting the historic nature of her nomination as nation's first female secretary of the Treasury, on December 1, 2020.


title: Janet Yellen

text: On NBC's sketch comedy show "Saturday Night Live", Yellen has been parodied by actress Kate McKinnon since 2021.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealism is a cultural movement that developed in Europe in the aftermath of World War I in which artists depicted unnerving, illogical scenes and developed techniques to allow the unconscious mind to express itself. Its aim was, according to leader André Breton, to "resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality into an absolute reality, a super-reality", or "surreality." It produced works of painting, writing, theatre, filmmaking, photography, and other media.


title: Surrealism

text: Works of Surrealism feature the element of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions and "non sequitur". However, many Surrealist artists and writers regard their work as an expression of the philosophical movement first and foremost (for instance, of the "pure psychic automatism" Breton speaks of in the first Surrealist Manifesto), with the works themselves being secondary, i.e. artifacts of surrealist experimentation. Leader Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. At the time, the movement was associated with political causes such as communism and anarchism. It was influenced by the Dada movement of the 1910s.


title: Surrealism

text: The term "Surrealism" originated with Guillaume Apollinaire in 1917. However, the Surrealist movement was not officially established until after October 1924, when the Surrealist Manifesto published by French poet and critic André Breton succeeded in claiming the term for his group over a rival faction led by Yvan Goll, who had published his own surrealist manifesto two weeks prior. The most important center of the movement was Paris, France. From the 1920s onward, the movement spread around the globe, impacting the visual arts, literature, film, and music of many countries and languages, as well as political thought and practice, philosophy, and social theory.


title: Surrealism

text: The word 'surrealism' was first coined in March 1917 by Guillaume Apollinaire. He wrote in a letter to Paul Dermée: "All things considered, I think in fact it is better to adopt surrealism than supernaturalism, which I first used" ["Tout bien examiné, je crois en effet qu'il vaut mieux adopter surréalisme que surnaturalisme que j'avais d'abord employé"].


title: Surrealism

text: Apollinaire used the term in his program notes for Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, "Parade", which premiered 18 May 1917. "Parade" had a one-act scenario by Jean Cocteau and was performed with music by Erik Satie. Cocteau described the ballet as "realistic". Apollinaire went further, describing "Parade" as "surrealistic":


title: Surrealism

text: This new alliance—I say new, because until now scenery and costumes were linked only by factitious bonds—has given rise, in "Parade", to a kind of surrealism, which I consider to be the point of departure for a whole series of manifestations of the New Spirit that is making itself felt today and that will certainly appeal to our best minds. We may expect it to bring about profound changes in our arts and manners through universal joyfulness, for it is only natural, after all, that they keep pace with scientific and industrial progress. (Apollinaire, 1917)


title: Surrealism

text: The term was taken up again by Apollinaire, both as subtitle and in the preface to his play "Les Mamelles de Tirésias: Drame surréaliste", which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917.


title: Surrealism

text: World War I scattered the writers and artists who had been based in Paris, and in the interim many became involved with Dada, believing that excessive rational thought and bourgeois values had brought the conflict of the war upon the world. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works. After the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued.


title: Surrealism

text: During the war, André Breton, who had trained in medicine and psychiatry, served in a neurological hospital where he used Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic methods with soldiers suffering from shell-shock. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the spiritual son of writer and pataphysics founder Alfred Jarry. He admired the young writer's anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition. Later Breton wrote, "In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most."


title: Surrealism

text: Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal "Littérature" along with Louis Aragon and Philippe Soupault. They began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault continued writing evolving their techniques of automatism and published "The Magnetic Fields" (1920).


title: Surrealism

text: By October 1924 two rival Surrealist groups had formed to publish a Surrealist Manifesto. Each claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Appolinaire. One group, led by Yvan Goll consisted of Pierre Albert-Birot, Paul Dermée, Céline Arnauld, Francis Picabia, Tristan Tzara, Giuseppe Ungaretti, Pierre Reverdy, Marcel Arland, Joseph Delteil, Jean Painlevé and Robert Delaunay, among others. The group led by André Breton claimed that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than those of Dada, as led by Tzara, who was now among their rivals. Breton's group grew to include writers and artists from various media such as Paul Éluard, Benjamin Péret, René Crevel, Robert Desnos, Jacques Baron, Max Morise, Pierre Naville, Roger Vitrac, Gala Éluard, Max Ernst, Salvador Dalí, Luis Buñuel, Man Ray, Hans Arp, Georges Malkine, Michel Leiris, Georges Limbour, Antonin Artaud, Raymond Queneau, André Masson, Joan Miró, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Prévert, and Yves Tanguy.


title: Surrealism

text: As they developed their philosophy, they believed that Surrealism would advocate the idea that ordinary and depictive expressions are vital and important, but that the sense of their arrangement must be open to the full range of imagination according to the Hegelian Dialectic. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin and Herbert Marcuse.


title: Surrealism

text: Freud's work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness. As Dalí later proclaimed, "There is only one difference between a madman and me. I am not mad."


title: Surrealism

text: Beside the use of dream analysis, they emphasized that "one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical and startling effects." Breton included the idea of the startling juxtapositions in his 1924 manifesto, taking it in turn from a 1918 essay by poet Pierre Reverdy, which said: "a juxtaposition of two more or less distant realities. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power and poetic reality."


title: Surrealism

text: The group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to free people from false rationality, and restrictive customs and structures. Breton proclaimed that the true aim of Surrealism was "long live the social revolution, and it alone!" To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism.


title: Surrealism

text: In 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, and began publishing the journal "La Révolution surréaliste".


title: Surrealism

text: Leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Apollinaire. One group, led by Yvan Goll, consisted of Pierre Albert-Birot, Paul Dermée, Céline Arnauld, Francis Picabia, Tristan Tzara, Giuseppe Ungaretti, Pierre Reverdy, Marcel Arland, Joseph Delteil, Jean Painlevé and Robert Delaunay, among others.


title: Surrealism

text: The other group, led by Breton, included Aragon, Desnos, Éluard, Baron, Crevel, Malkine, Jacques-André Boiffard and Jean Carrive, among others.


title: Surrealism

text: Yvan Goll published the "Manifeste du surréalisme", 1 October 1924, in his first and only issue of "Surréalisme" two weeks prior to the release of Breton's "Manifeste du surréalisme", published by Éditions du Sagittaire, 15 October 1924.


title: Surrealism

text: Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, over the rights to the term Surrealism. In the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority. Though the quarrel over the anteriority of Surrealism concluded with the victory of Breton, the history of surrealism from that moment would remain marked by fractures, resignations, and resounding excommunications, with each surrealist having their own view of the issue and goals, and accepting more or less the definitions laid out by André Breton.


title: Surrealism

text: Breton's 1924 "Surrealist Manifesto" defines the purposes of Surrealism. He included citations of the influences on Surrealism, examples of Surrealist works, and discussion of Surrealist automatism. He provided the following definitions:


title: Surrealism

text: The movement in the mid-1920s was characterized by meetings in cafes where the Surrealists played collaborative drawing games, discussed the theories of Surrealism, and developed a variety of techniques such as automatic drawing. Breton initially doubted that visual arts could even be useful in the Surrealist movement since they appeared to be less malleable and open to chance and automatism. This caution was overcome by the discovery of such techniques as frottage, grattage and decalcomania.


title: Surrealism

text: Soon more visual artists became involved, including Giorgio de Chirico, Max Ernst, Joan Miró, Francis Picabia, Yves Tanguy, Salvador Dalí, Luis Buñuel, Alberto Giacometti, Valentine Hugo, Méret Oppenheim, Toyen, Kansuke Yamamoto and later after the second war: Enrico Donati. Though Breton admired Pablo Picasso and Marcel Duchamp and courted them to join the movement, they remained peripheral. More writers also joined, including former Dadaist Tristan Tzara, René Char, and Georges Sadoul.


title: Surrealism

text: In 1925 an autonomous Surrealist group formed in Brussels. The group included the musician, poet, and artist E. L. T. Mesens, painter and writer René Magritte, Paul Nougé, Marcel Lecomte, and André Souris. In 1927 they were joined by the writer Louis Scutenaire. They corresponded regularly with the Paris group, and in 1927 both Goemans and Magritte moved to Paris and frequented Breton's circle. The artists, with their roots in Dada and Cubism, the abstraction of Wassily Kandinsky, Expressionism, and Post-Impressionism, also reached to older "bloodlines" or proto-surrealists such as Hieronymus Bosch, and the so-called primitive and naive arts.


title: Surrealism

text: André Masson's automatic drawings of 1923 are often used as the point of the acceptance of visual arts and the break from Dada, since they reflect the influence of the idea of the unconscious mind. Another example is Giacometti's 1925 "Torso", which marked his movement to simplified forms and inspiration from preclassical sculpture.


title: Surrealism

text: Giorgio de Chirico, and his previous development of metaphysical art, was one of the important joining figures between the philosophical and visual aspects of Surrealism. Between 1911 and 1917, he adopted an unornamented depictional style whose surface would be adopted by others later. "The Red Tower (La tour rouge)" from 1913 shows the stark colour contrasts and illustrative style later adopted by Surrealist painters. His 1914 "The Nostalgia of the Poet (La Nostalgie du poète)" has the figure turned away from the viewer, and the juxtaposition of a bust with glasses and a fish as a relief defies conventional explanation. He was also a writer whose novel "Hebdomeros" presents a series of dreamscapes with an unusual use of punctuation, syntax, and grammar designed to create an atmosphere and frame its images. His images, including set designs for the Ballets Russes, would create a decorative form of Surrealism, and he would be an influence on the two artists who would be even more closely associated with Surrealism in the public mind: Dalí and Magritte. He would, however, leave the Surrealist group in 1928.


title: Surrealism

text: In 1924, Miró and Masson applied Surrealism to painting. The first Surrealist exhibition, "La Peinture Surrealiste", was held at Galerie Pierre in Paris in 1925. It displayed works by Masson, Man Ray, Paul Klee, Miró, and others. The show confirmed that Surrealism had a component in the visual arts (though it had been initially debated whether this was possible), and techniques from Dada, such as photomontage, were used. The following year, on March 26, 1926 Galerie Surréaliste opened with an exhibition by Man Ray. Breton published "Surrealism and Painting" in 1928 which summarized the movement to that point, though he continued to update the work until the 1960s.


title: Surrealism

text: The first Surrealist work, according to leader Brêton, was Les Chants de Maldoror; and the first work written and published by his group of "Surréalistes" was "Les Champs Magnétiques" (May–June 1919). "Littérature" contained automatist works and accounts of dreams. The magazine and the portfolio both showed their disdain for literal meanings given to objects and focused rather on the undertones, the poetic undercurrents present. Not only did they give emphasis to the poetic undercurrents, but also to the connotations and the overtones which "exist in ambiguous relationships to the visual images"


title: Surrealism

text: Because Surrealist writers seldom, if ever, appear to organize their thoughts and the images they present, some people find much of their work difficult to parse. This notion however is a superficial comprehension, prompted no doubt by Breton's initial emphasis on automatic writing as the main route toward a higher reality. But—as in Breton's case—much of what is presented as purely automatic is actually edited and very "thought out". Breton himself later admitted that automatic writing's centrality had been overstated, and other elements were introduced, especially as the growing involvement of visual artists in the movement forced the issue, since automatic painting required a rather more strenuous set of approaches. Thus such elements as collage were introduced, arising partly from an ideal of startling juxtapositions as revealed in Pierre Reverdy's poetry. And—as in Magritte's case (where there is no obvious recourse to either automatic techniques or collage)—the very notion of convulsive joining became a tool for revelation in and of itself. Surrealism was meant to be always in flux—to be more modern than modern—and so it was natural there should be a rapid shuffling of the philosophy as new challenges arose. Artists such as Max Ernst and his surrealist collages demonstrate this shift to a more modern art form that also comments on society.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealists revived interest in Isidore Ducasse, known by his pseudonym Comte de Lautréamont, and for the line "beautiful as the chance meeting on a dissecting table of a sewing machine and an umbrella", and Arthur Rimbaud, two late 19th-century writers believed to be the precursors of Surrealism.


title: Surrealism

text: Examples of Surrealist literature are Artaud's "Le Pèse-Nerfs" (1926), Aragon's "Irene's Cunt" (1927), Péret's "Death to the Pigs" (1929), Crevel's "Mr. Knife Miss Fork" (1931), Sadegh Hedayat's "the Blind Owl" (1937), and Breton's "Sur la route de San Romano" (1948).


title: Surrealism

text: "La Révolution surréaliste" continued publication into 1929 with most pages densely packed with columns of text, but which also included reproductions of art, among them works by de Chirico, Ernst, Masson, and Man Ray. Other works included books, poems, pamphlets, automatic texts and theoretical tracts.


title: Surrealism

text: Famous Surrealist photographers are the American Man Ray, the French/Hungarian Brassaï, French Claude Cahun and the Dutch Emiel van Moerkerken.


title: Surrealism

text: The word "surrealist" was first used by Apollinaire to describe his 1917 play "Les Mamelles de Tirésias" ("The Breasts of Tiresias"), which was later adapted into an opera by Francis Poulenc.


title: Surrealism

text: Roger Vitrac's "The Mysteries of Love" (1927) and "Victor, or The Children Take Over" (1928) are often considered the best examples of Surrealist theatre, despite his expulsion from the movement in 1926. The plays were staged at the Theatre Alfred Jarry, the theatre Vitrac co-founded with Antonin Artaud, another early Surrealist who was expelled from the movement.


title: Surrealism

text: Following his collaboration with Vitrac, Artaud would extend Surrealist thought through his theory of the Theatre of Cruelty. Artaud rejected the majority of Western theatre as a perversion of its original intent, which he felt should be a mystical, metaphysical experience. Instead, he envisioned a theatre that would be immediate and direct, linking the unconscious minds of performers and spectators in a sort of ritual event, Artaud created in which emotions, feelings, and the metaphysical were expressed not through language but physically, creating a mythological, archetypal, allegorical vision, closely related to the world of dreams.


title: Surrealism

text: The Spanish playwright and director Federico García Lorca, also experimented with surrealism, particularly in his plays "The Public" (1930), "When Five Years Pass" (1931), and "Play Without a Title" (1935). Other surrealist plays include Aragon's "Backs to the Wall" (1925). Gertrude Stein's opera "Doctor Faustus Lights the Lights" (1938) has also been described as "American Surrealism", though it is also related to a theatrical form of cubism.


title: Surrealism

text: In the 1920s several composers were influenced by Surrealism, or by individuals in the Surrealist movement. Among them were Bohuslav Martinů, André Souris, Erik Satie, Francis Poulenc, and Edgard Varèse, who stated that his work "Arcana" was drawn from a dream sequence. Souris in particular was associated with the movement: he had a long relationship with Magritte, and worked on Paul Nougé's publication "Adieu Marie". Music by composers from across the twentieth century have been associated with surrealist principles, including Thomas Adès, Pierre Boulez, György Ligeti, Mauricio Kagel, and Olivier Messiaen.


title: Surrealism

text: Germaine Tailleferre of the French group Les Six wrote several works which could be considered to be inspired by Surrealism, including the 1948 ballet "Paris-Magie" (scenario by Lise Deharme), the operas "La Petite Sirène" (book by Philippe Soupault) and "Le Maître" (book by Eugène Ionesco). Tailleferre also wrote popular songs to texts by Claude Marci, the wife of Henri Jeanson, whose portrait had been painted by Magritte in the 1930s.


title: Surrealism

text: Even though Breton by 1946 responded rather negatively to the subject of music with his essay "Silence is Golden", later Surrealists, such as Paul Garon, have been interested in—and found parallels to—Surrealism in the improvisation of jazz and the blues. Jazz and blues musicians have occasionally reciprocated this interest. For example, the 1976 World Surrealist Exhibition included performances by David "Honeyboy" Edwards.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealism as a political force developed unevenly around the world: in some places more emphasis was on artistic practices, in other places on political practices, and in other places still, Surrealist praxis looked to supersede both the arts and politics. During the 1930s, the Surrealist idea spread from Europe to North America, South America (founding of the "Mandrágora" group in Chile in 1938), Central America, the Caribbean, and throughout Asia, as both an artistic idea and as an ideology of political change.


title: Surrealism

text: Politically, Surrealism was Trotskyist, communist, or anarchist. The split from Dada has been characterised as a split between anarchists and communists, with the Surrealists as communist. Breton and his comrades supported Leon Trotsky and his International Left Opposition for a while, though there was an openness to anarchism that manifested more fully after World War II. Some Surrealists, such as Benjamin Péret, Mary Low, and Juan Breá, aligned with forms of left communism. When the Dutch surrealist photographer Emiel van Moerkerken came to Breton, he did not want to sign the manifesto because he was not a Trotskyist. For Breton being a communist was not enough. Breton denied Van Moerkerken's pictures for a publication afterwards. This caused a split in surrealism. Others fought for complete liberty from political ideologies, like Wolfgang Paalen, who, after Trotsky's assassination in Mexico, prepared a schism between art and politics through his counter-surrealist art-magazine "DYN" and so prepared the ground for the abstract expressionists. Dalí supported capitalism and the fascist dictatorship of Francisco Franco but cannot be said to represent a trend in Surrealism in this respect; in fact he was considered, by Breton and his associates, to have betrayed and left Surrealism. Benjamin Péret, Mary Low, Juan Breá, and Spanish-native Eugenio Fernández Granell joined the POUM during the Spanish Civil War.


title: Surrealism

text: Breton's followers, along with the Communist Party, were working for the "liberation of man". However, Breton's group refused to prioritize the proletarian struggle over radical creation such that their struggles with the Party made the late 1920s a turbulent time for both. Many individuals closely associated with Breton, notably Aragon, left his group to work more closely with the Communists.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealists have often sought to link their efforts with political ideals and activities. In the "Declaration of January 27, 1925", for example, members of the Paris-based Bureau of Surrealist Research (including Breton, Aragon and Artaud, as well as some two dozen others) declared their affinity for revolutionary politics. While this was initially a somewhat vague formulation, by the 1930s many Surrealists had strongly identified themselves with communism. The foremost document of this tendency within Surrealism is the "Manifesto for a Free Revolutionary Art", published under the names of Breton and Diego Rivera, but actually co-authored by Breton and Leon Trotsky.


title: Surrealism

text: However, in 1933 the Surrealists’ assertion that a "proletarian literature" within a capitalist society was impossible led to their break with the Association des Ecrivains et Artistes Révolutionnaires, and the expulsion of Breton, Éluard and Crevel from the Communist Party.


title: Surrealism

text: In 1925, the Paris Surrealist group and the extreme left of the French Communist Party came together to support Abd-el-Krim, leader of the Rif uprising against French colonialism in Morocco. In an open letter to writer and French ambassador to Japan, Paul Claudel, the Paris group announced:


title: Surrealism

text: The anticolonial revolutionary and proletarian politics of "Murderous Humanitarianism" (1932) which was drafted mainly by Crevel, signed by Breton, Éluard, Péret, Tanguy, and the Martiniquan Surrealists Pierre Yoyotte and J.M. Monnerot perhaps makes it the original document of what is later called "black Surrealism", although it is the contact between Aimé Césaire and Breton in the 1940s in Martinique that really lead to the communication of what is known as "black Surrealism".


title: Surrealism

text: Anticolonial revolutionary writers in the Négritude movement of Martinique, a French colony at the time, took up Surrealism as a revolutionary method – a critique of European culture and a radical subjective. This linked with other Surrealists and was very important for the subsequent development of Surrealism as a revolutionary praxis. The journal "Tropiques", featuring the work of Césaire along with Suzanne Césaire, René Ménil, Lucie Thésée, Aristide Maugée and others, was first published in 1941.


title: Surrealism

text: In 1938 André Breton traveled with his wife, the painter Jacqueline Lamba, to Mexico to meet Trotsky (staying as the guest of Diego Rivera's former wife Guadalupe Marin), and there he met Frida Kahlo and saw her paintings for the first time. Breton declared Kahlo to be an "innate" Surrealist painter.


title: Surrealism

text: In 1929 the satellite group associated with the journal "Le Grand Jeu", including Roger Gilbert-Lecomte, Maurice Henry and the Czech painter Josef Sima, was ostracized. Also in February, Breton asked Surrealists to assess their "degree of moral competence", and theoretical refinements included in the second "manifeste du surréalisme" excluded anyone reluctant to commit to collective action, a list which included Leiris, Limbour, Morise, Baron, Queneau, Prévert, Desnos, Masson and Boiffard. Excluded members launched a counterattack, sharply criticizing Breton in the pamphlet "Un Cadavre", which featured a picture of Breton wearing a crown of thorns. The pamphlet drew upon an earlier act of subversion by likening Breton to Anatole France, whose unquestioned value Breton had challenged in 1924.


title: Surrealism

text: The disunion of 1929–30 and the effects of "Un Cadavre" had very little negative impact upon Surrealism as Breton saw it, since core figures such as Aragon, Crevel, Dalí and Buñuel remained true to the idea of group action, at least for the time being. The success (or the controversy) of Dalí and Buñuel's film L'Age d'Or in December 1930 had a regenerative effect, drawing a number of new recruits, and encouraging countless new artistic works the following year and throughout the 1930s.


title: Surrealism

text: Disgruntled surrealists moved to the periodical "Documents", edited by Georges Bataille, whose anti-idealist materialism formed a hybrid Surrealism intending to expose the base instincts of humans. To the dismay of many, "Documents" fizzled out in 1931, just as Surrealism seemed to be gathering more steam.


title: Surrealism

text: There were a number of reconciliations after this period of disunion, such as between Breton and Bataille, while Aragon left the group after committing himself to the French Communist Party in 1932. More members were ousted over the years for a variety of infractions, both political and personal, while others left in pursuit of their own style.


title: Surrealism

text: By the end of World War II the surrealist group led by André Breton decided to explicitly embrace anarchism. In 1952 Breton wrote "It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself." Breton was consistent in his support for the francophone Anarchist Federation and he continued to offer his solidarity after the Platformists supporting Fontenis transformed the FA into the Fédération Communiste Libertaire. He was one of the few intellectuals who continued to offer his support to the FCL during the Algerian war when the FCL suffered severe repression and was forced underground. He sheltered Fontenis whilst he was in hiding. He refused to take sides on the splits in the French anarchist movement and both he and Peret expressed solidarity as well with the new Fédération anarchiste set up by the synthesist anarchists and worked in the Antifascist Committees of the 60s alongside the FA.


title: Surrealism

text: Throughout the 1930s, Surrealism continued to become more visible to the public at large. A Surrealist group developed in London and, according to Breton, their 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition was a high-water mark of the period and became the model for international exhibitions. Another English Surrealist group developed in Birmingham, meanwhile, and was distinguished by its opposition to the London surrealists and preferences for surrealism's French heartland. The two groups would reconcile later in the decade.


title: Surrealism

text: Dalí and Magritte created the most widely recognized images of the movement. Dalí joined the group in 1929, and participated in the rapid establishment of the visual style between 1930 and 1935.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealism as a visual movement had found a method: to expose psychological truth; stripping ordinary objects of their normal significance, to create a compelling image that was beyond ordinary formal organization, in order to evoke empathy from the viewer.


title: Surrealism

text: 1931 was a year when several Surrealist painters produced works which marked turning points in their stylistic evolution: Magritte's "Voice of Space (La Voix des airs)" is an example of this process, where three large spheres representing bells hang above a landscape. Another Surrealist landscape from this same year is Yves Tanguy's "", with its molten forms and liquid shapes. Liquid shapes became the trademark of Dalí, particularly in his "The Persistence of Memory", which features the image of watches that sag as if they were melting.


title: Surrealism

text: The characteristics of this style—a combination of the depictive, the abstract, and the psychological—came to stand for the alienation which many people felt in the modern period, combined with the sense of reaching more deeply into the psyche, to be "made whole with one's individuality".


title: Surrealism

text: Between 1930 and 1933, the Surrealist Group in Paris issued the periodical "Le Surréalisme au service de la révolution" as the successor of "La Révolution surréaliste".


title: Surrealism

text: From 1936 through 1938 Wolfgang Paalen, Gordon Onslow Ford, and Roberto Matta joined the group. Paalen contributed Fumage and Onslow Ford Coulage as new pictorial automatic techniques.


title: Surrealism

text: Long after personal, political and professional tensions fragmented the Surrealist group, Magritte and Dalí continued to define a visual program in the arts. This program reached beyond painting, to encompass photography as well, as can be seen from a Man Ray self-portrait, whose use of assemblage influenced Robert Rauschenberg's collage boxes.


title: Surrealism

text: During the 1930s Peggy Guggenheim, an important American art collector, married Max Ernst and began promoting work by other Surrealists such as Yves Tanguy and the British artist John Tunnard.


title: Surrealism

text: World War II created havoc not only for the general population of Europe but especially for the European artists and writers that opposed Fascism and Nazism. Many important artists fled to North America and relative safety in the United States. The art community in New York City in particular was already grappling with Surrealist ideas and several artists like Arshile Gorky, Jackson Pollock, and Robert Motherwell converged closely with the surrealist artists themselves, albeit with some suspicion and reservations. Ideas concerning the unconscious and dream imagery were quickly embraced. By the Second World War, the taste of the American avant-garde in New York swung decisively towards Abstract Expressionism with the support of key taste makers, including Peggy Guggenheim, Leo Steinberg and Clement Greenberg. However, it should not be easily forgotten that Abstract Expressionism itself grew directly out of the meeting of American (particularly New York) artists with European Surrealists self-exiled during World War II. In particular, Gorky and Paalen influenced the development of this American art form, which, as Surrealism did, celebrated the instantaneous human act as the well-spring of creativity. The early work of many Abstract Expressionists reveals a tight bond between the more superficial aspects of both movements, and the emergence (at a later date) of aspects of Dadaistic humor in such artists as Rauschenberg sheds an even starker light upon the connection. Up until the emergence of Pop Art, Surrealism can be seen to have been the single most important influence on the sudden growth in American arts, and even in Pop, some of the humor manifested in Surrealism can be found, often turned to a cultural criticism.


title: Surrealism

text: The Second World War overshadowed, for a time, almost all intellectual and artistic production. In 1939 Wolfgang Paalen was the first to leave Paris for the New World as exile. After a long trip through the forests of British Columbia, he settled in Mexico and founded his influential art-magazine Dyn. In 1940 Yves Tanguy married American Surrealist painter Kay Sage. In 1941, Breton went to the United States, where he co-founded the short-lived magazine "VVV" with Max Ernst, Marcel Duchamp, and the American artist David Hare. However, it was the American poet, Charles Henri Ford, and his magazine "View" which offered Breton a channel for promoting Surrealism in the United States. The "View" special issue on Duchamp was crucial for the public understanding of Surrealism in America. It stressed his connections to Surrealist methods, offered interpretations of his work by Breton, as well as Breton's view that Duchamp represented the bridge between early modern movements, such as Futurism and Cubism, to Surrealism. Wolfgang Paalen left the group in 1942 due to political/philosophical differences with Breton.


title: Surrealism

text: Though the war proved disruptive for Surrealism, the works continued. Many Surrealist artists continued to explore their vocabularies, including Magritte. Many members of the Surrealist movement continued to correspond and meet. While Dalí may have been excommunicated by Breton, he neither abandoned his themes from the 1930s, including references to the "persistence of time" in a later painting, nor did he become a depictive pompier. His classic period did not represent so sharp a break with the past as some descriptions of his work might portray, and some, such as André Thirion, argued that there were works of his after this period that continued to have some relevance for the movement.


title: Surrealism

text: During the 1940s Surrealism's influence was also felt in England, America and the Netherlands where Gertrude Pape and her husband Theo van Baaren helped to popularize it in their publication The Clean Handkerchief. Mark Rothko took an interest in biomorphic figures, and in England Henry Moore, Lucian Freud, Francis Bacon and Paul Nash used or experimented with Surrealist techniques. However, Conroy Maddox, one of the first British Surrealists whose work in this genre dated from 1935, remained within the movement, and organized an exhibition of current Surrealist work in 1978 in response to an earlier show which infuriated him because it did not properly represent Surrealism. Maddox's exhibition, titled "Surrealism Unlimited", was held in Paris and attracted international attention. He held his last one-man show in 2002, and died three years later.


title: Surrealism

text: Magritte's work became more realistic in its depiction of actual objects, while maintaining the element of juxtaposition, such as in 1951's "Personal Values (Les Valeurs Personnelles)" and 1954's "Empire of Light (L’Empire des lumières)". Magritte continued to produce works which have entered artistic vocabulary, such as "Castle in the Pyrenees (Le Château des Pyrénées)", which refers back to "Voix" from 1931, in its suspension over a landscape.


title: Surrealism

text: Other figures from the Surrealist movement were expelled. Several of these artists, like Roberto Matta (by his own description) "remained close to Surrealism".


title: Surrealism

text: After the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Endre Rozsda returned to Paris to continue creating his own word that had been transcended the surrealism. The preface to his first exhibition in the Furstenberg Gallery (1957) was written by Breton yet.


title: Surrealism

text: Many new artists explicitly took up the Surrealist banner. Dorothea Tanning and Louise Bourgeois continued to work, for example, with Tanning's "Rainy Day Canape" from 1970. Duchamp continued to produce sculpture in secret including an installation with the realistic depiction of a woman viewable only through a peephole.


title: Surrealism

text: Breton continued to write and espouse the importance of liberating the human mind, as with the publication "The Tower of Light" in 1952. Breton's return to France after the War, began a new phase of Surrealist activity in Paris, and his critiques of rationalism and dualism found a new audience. Breton insisted that Surrealism was an ongoing revolt against the reduction of humanity to market relationships, religious gestures and misery and to espouse the importance of liberating the human mind.


title: Surrealism

text: In the 1960s, the artists and writers associated with the Situationist International were closely associated with Surrealism. While Guy Debord was critical of and distanced himself from Surrealism, others, such as Asger Jorn, were explicitly using Surrealist techniques and methods. The events of May 1968 in France included a number of Surrealist ideas, and among the slogans the students spray-painted on the walls of the Sorbonne were familiar Surrealist ones. Joan Miró would commemorate this in a painting titled "May 1968." There were also groups who associated with both currents and were more attached to Surrealism, such as the Revolutionary Surrealist Group.


title: Surrealism

text: During the 1980s, behind the Iron Curtain, Surrealism again entered into politics with an underground artistic opposition movement known as the Orange Alternative. The Orange Alternative was created in 1981 by Waldemar Fydrych (alias 'Major'), a graduate of history and art history at the University of Wrocław. They used Surrealist symbolism and terminology in their large scale happenings organized in the major Polish cities during the Jaruzelski regime, and painted Surrealist graffiti on spots covering up anti-regime slogans. Major himself was the author of a "Manifesto of Socialist Surrealism". In this manifesto, he stated that the socialist (communist) system had become so Surrealistic that it could be seen as an expression of art itself.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealistic art also remains popular with museum patrons. The Guggenheim Museum in New York City held an exhibit, "Two Private Eyes", in 1999, and in 2001 Tate Modern held an exhibition of Surrealist art that attracted over 170,000 visitors. In 2002 the Met in New York City held a show, "Desire Unbound", and the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris a show called "La Révolution surréaliste".


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealists groups and literary publications have continued to be active up to the present day, with groups such as the Chicago Surrealist Group, the Leeds Surrealist Group, and the Surrealist Group of Stockholm. Jan Švankmajer of the Czech-Slovak Surrealists continues to make films and experiment with objects.


title: Surrealism

text: While Surrealism is typically associated with the arts, it has impacted many other fields. In this sense, Surrealism does not specifically refer only to self-identified "Surrealists", or those sanctioned by Breton, rather, it refers to a range of creative acts of revolt and efforts to liberate imagination. In addition to Surrealist theory being grounded in the ideas of Hegel, Marx and Freud, to its advocates its inherent dynamic is dialectical thought. Surrealist artists have also cited the alchemists, Dante, Hieronymus Bosch, the Marquis de Sade, Charles Fourier, Comte de Lautréamont and Arthur Rimbaud as influences.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealists believe that non-Western cultures also provide a continued source of inspiration for Surrealist activity because some may induce a better balance between instrumental reason and imagination in flight than Western culture. Surrealism has had an identifiable impact on radical and revolutionary politics, both directly — as in some Surrealists joining or allying themselves with radical political groups, movements and parties — and indirectly — through the way in which Surrealists emphasize the intimate link between freeing imagination and the mind, and liberation from repressive and archaic social structures. This was especially visible in the New Left of the 1960s and 1970s and the French revolt of May 1968, whose slogan "All power to the imagination" quoted by The Situationists and Enragés from the originally Marxist “"Rêvé"-lutionary“ theory and praxis of Breton's French Surrealist group.


title: Surrealism

text: Many significant literary movements in the later half of the 20th century were directly or indirectly influenced by Surrealism. This period is known as the Postmodern era; though there is no widely agreed upon central definition of Postmodernism, many themes and techniques commonly identified as Postmodern are nearly identical to Surrealism.


title: Surrealism

text: First Papers of Surrealism presented the fathers of surrealism in an exhibition that represented the leading monumental step of the avant-gardes towards installation art. Many writers from and associated with the Beat Generation were influenced greatly by Surrealists. Philip Lamantia and Ted Joans are often categorized as both Beat and Surrealist writers. Many other Beat writers show significant evidence of Surrealist influence. A few examples include Bob Kaufman, Gregory Corso, Allen Ginsberg, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti. Artaud in particular was very influential to many of the Beats, but especially Ginsberg and Carl Solomon. Ginsberg cites Artaud's "Van Gogh – The Man Suicided by Society" as a direct influence on "Howl", along with Apollinaire's "Zone", García Lorca's "Ode to Walt Whitman", and Schwitters' "Priimiititiii". The structure of Breton's "Free Union" had a significant influence on Ginsberg's "Kaddish". In Paris, Ginsberg and Corso met their heroes Tristan Tzara, Marcel Duchamp, Man Ray, and Benjamin Péret, and to show their admiration Ginsberg kissed Duchamp's feet and Corso cut off Duchamp's tie.


title: Surrealism

text: William S. Burroughs, a core member of the Beat Generation and a postmodern novelist, developed the cut-up technique with former surrealist Brion Gysin—in which chance is used to dictate the composition of a text from words cut out of other sources—referring to it as the "Surrealist Lark" and recognizing its debt to the techniques of Tristan Tzara.


title: Surrealism

text: Postmodern novelist Thomas Pynchon, who was also influenced by Beat fiction, experimented since the 1960s with the surrealist idea of startling juxtapositions; commenting on the "necessity of managing this procedure with some degree of care and skill", he added that "any old combination of details will not do. Spike Jones Jr., whose father's orchestral recordings had a deep and indelible effect on me as a child, said once in an interview, 'One of the things that people don't realize about Dad's kind of music is, when you replace a C-sharp with a gunshot, it has to be a C-sharp gunshot or it sounds awful.'"


title: Surrealism

text: Many other postmodern fiction writers have been directly influenced by Surrealism. Paul Auster, for example, has translated Surrealist poetry and said the Surrealists were "a real discovery" for him. Salman Rushdie, when called a Magical Realist, said he saw his work instead "allied to surrealism". David Lynch regarded as a surrealist filmmaker being quoted, "David Lynch has once again risen to the spotlight as a champion of surrealism," in regard to his show "Twin Peaks". For the work of other postmodernists, such as Donald Barthelme and Robert Coover, a broad comparison to Surrealism is common.


title: Surrealism

text: Magic realism, a popular technique among novelists of the latter half of the 20th century especially among Latin American writers, has some obvious similarities to Surrealism with its juxtaposition of the normal and the dream-like, as in the work of Gabriel García Márquez. Carlos Fuentes was inspired by the revolutionary voice in Surrealist poetry and points to inspiration Breton and Artaud found in Fuentes' homeland, Mexico. Though Surrealism was a direct influence on Magic Realism in its early stages, many Magic Realist writers and critics, such as Amaryll Chanady and S. P. Ganguly, while acknowledging the similarities, cite the many differences obscured by the direct comparison of Magic Realism and Surrealism such as an interest in psychology and the artefacts of European culture they claim is not present in Magic Realism. A prominent example of a Magic Realist writer who points to Surrealism as an early influence is Alejo Carpentier who also later criticized Surrealism's delineation between real and unreal as not representing the true South American experience.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealist individuals and groups have carried on with Surrealism after the death of André Breton in 1966. The original Paris Surrealist Group was disbanded by member Jean Schuster in 1969, but another Parisian surrealist group was later formed. The current Surrealist Group of Paris has recently published the first issue of their new journal, "Alcheringa". The Group of Czech-Slovak Surrealists never disbanded, and continue to publish their journal "Analogon", which now spans 80 volumes.


title: Surrealism

text: Surrealist theatre and Artaud's "Theatre of Cruelty" were inspirational to many within the group of playwrights that the critic Martin Esslin called the "Theatre of the Absurd" (in his 1963 book of the same name). Though not an organized movement, Esslin grouped these playwrights together based on some similarities of theme and technique; Esslin argues that these similarities may be traced to an influence from the Surrealists. Eugène Ionesco in particular was fond of Surrealism, claiming at one point that Breton was one of the most important thinkers in history. Samuel Beckett was also fond of Surrealists, even translating much of the poetry into English. Other notable playwrights whom Esslin groups under the term, for example Arthur Adamov and Fernando Arrabal, were at some point members of the Surrealist group.


title: Surrealism

text: Alice Farley is an American-born artist who became active during the 1970s in San Francisco after training in dance at the California Institute of the Arts. Farley uses vivid and elaborate costuming that she describes as "the vehicles of transformation capable of making a character's thoughts visible". Often collaborating with musicians such as Henry Threadgill, Farley explores the role of improvisation in dance, bringing in an automatic aspect to the productions. Farley has performed in a number of surrealist collaborations including the World Surrealist Exhibition in Chicago in 1976.


title: Surrealism

text: Various much older artists are sometimes claimed as precursors of Surrealism. Foremost among these are Hieronymus Bosch, and Giuseppe Arcimboldo, who Dalí called the "father of Surrealism." Apart from their followers, other artists who may be mentioned in this context include Joos de Momper, for some anthropomorphic landscapes. Many critics feel these works belong to fantastic art rather than having a significant connection with Surrealism.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: Kalpana Chawla (17 March 1962 – 1 February 2003) was an Indian-born American astronaut and mechanical engineer who was the first woman of Indian origin to go to space. She first flew on Space Shuttle "Columbia" in 1997 as a mission specialist and primary robotic arm operator.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: Her second flight was on STS-107, the final flight of Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003. Chawla was one of the seven crew members who died in the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster when the spacecraft disintegrated during its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere on 1 February 2003. Chawla was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, and several streets, universities, and institutions have been named in her honor. She is regarded as a national hero in India.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: Kalpana Chawla was born on 17 March 1962 in Karnal, Haryana. She completed her schooling from Tagore Baal Niketan Senior Secondary School, Karnal. She went to local flying clubs and watched planes with her father. Her date of birth was falsified by her family to 1 July 1961, to allow her to become eligible for the matriculation exam. After getting a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Punjab Engineering College, India, she moved to the United States in 1982 and obtained a Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington in 1984. Chawla went on to earn a second Masters in 1986 and a PhD in aerospace engineering in 1988 from the University of Colorado Boulder.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: In 1988, Chawla began working at NASA Ames Research Center, where she did computational fluid dynamics (CFD) research on vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) concepts. Much of Chawla's research is included in technical journals and conference papers. In 1993, she joined Overset Methods, Inc. as vice president and Research Scientist specializing in simulation of moving multiple body problems. Chawla held a Certificated Flight Instructor rating for airplanes, gliders and Commercial Pilot licenses for single and multi-engine airplanes, seaplanes and gliders. After becoming a naturalized U.S. citizen in April 1991, Chawla applied for the NASA Astronaut Corps. She joined the corps in March 1995 and was selected for her first flight in 1997.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: Her first space mission began on 19 November 1997, as part of the six-astronaut crew that flew the Space Shuttle "Columbia" flight STS-87. Chawla was the first Indian woman to go in space. She spoke the following words while traveling in the weightlessness of space, "You are just your intelligence." She had traveled 10.67 million km, as many as 252 times around the Earth. On her first mission, Chawla traveled 10.4/6.5 million miles in 252 orbits of the earth, logging more than 376 hours (15 days and 16 hours) in space. During STS-87, she was responsible for deploying the Spartan Satellite which malfunctioned, necessitating a spacewalk by Winston Scott and Takao Doi to capture the satellite. A five-month NASA investigation exonerated Chawla by identifying errors in software interfaces and the defined procedures of the flight crew and ground control. After the completion of STS-87 post-flight activities, Chawla was assigned to technical positions in the astronaut office to work on the space station.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: In 2000, Chawla was selected for her second flight as part of the crew of STS-107. This mission was repeatedly delayed due to scheduling conflicts and technical problems such as the July 2002 discovery of cracks in the shuttle engine flow liners. On 16 January 2003, Chawla finally returned to space aboard Space Shuttle "Columbia" on the ill-fated STS-107 mission. The crew performed nearly 80 experiments studying Earth and space science, advanced technology development, and astronaut health and safety.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: During the launch of STS-107, "Columbia"s 28th mission, a piece of foam insulation broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the port wing of the orbiter. Previous shuttle launches had seen minor damage from foam shedding, but some engineers suspected that the damage to "Columbia" was more serious. NASA managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: When "Columbia" re-entered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the spacecraft to become unstable and break apart. After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the "Challenger" disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was put on hold; the station relied entirely on the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation for resupply for 29 months until Shuttle flights resumed with STS-114 and 41 months for crew rotation.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: Chawla died on 1 February 2003, in the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster, along with the other six crew members, when "Columbia" disintegrated over Texas during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: Her remains were identified along with those of the rest of the crew members and were cremated and scattered at Zion National Park in Utah in accordance with her wishes.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: On 2 December 1983, Kalpana Chawla was married to Jean-Pierre Harrison, at age of 21. After the "Columbia" disaster, Harrison was approached by filmmakers to make a movie on Kalpana's life, but he refused, as he prefers to keep their life private.


title: Kalpana Chawla

text: "Mega Icons" (2018–2020), an Indian documentary television series on National Geographic about prominent Indian personalities, dedicated an episode to Chawla's achievements.


title: S

text: S, or s, is the nineteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is "ess" (pronounced ), plural "esses".


title: S

text: Northwest Semitic šîn represented a voiceless postalveolar fricative (as in 'ip'). It originated most likely as a pictogram of a tooth () and represented the phoneme via the acrophonic principle.


title: S

text: Ancient Greek did not have a phoneme, so the derived Greek letter sigma () came to represent the voiceless alveolar sibilant .


title: S

text: While the letter shape Σ continues Phoenician "šîn", its name "sigma" is taken from the letter "samekh", while the shape and position of "samekh" but name of "šîn" is continued in the "xi".


title: S

text: Within Greek, the name of "sigma" was influenced by its association with the Greek word (earlier ) "to hiss". The original name of the letter "sigma" may have been "san", but due to the complicated early history of the Greek epichoric alphabets, "san" came to be identified as a separate letter, Ϻ. Herodotus reports that "San" was the name given by the Dorians to the same letter called "Sigma" by the Ionians.


title: S

text: The Western Greek alphabet used in Cumae was adopted by the Etruscans and Latins in the 7th century BC, over the following centuries developing into a range of Old Italic alphabets including the Etruscan alphabet and the early Latin alphabet.


title: S

text: The (angular) S-shape composed of three strokes existed as a variant of the four-stroke letter Σ already in the epigraphy in Western Greek alphabets, and the three and four strokes variants existed alongside one another in the classical Etruscan alphabet. In other Italic alphabets (Venetic, Lepontic), the letter could be represented as a zig-zagging line of any number between three and six strokes.


title: S

text: The Italic letter was also adopted into Elder Futhark, as "Sowilō" (), and appears with four to eight strokes in the earliest runic inscriptions, but is occasionally reduced to three strokes () from the later 5th century, and appears regularly with three strokes in Younger Futhark.


title: S

text: The minuscule form ſ, called the long "s", developed in the early medieval period, within the Visigothic and Carolingian hands, with predecessors in the half-uncial and cursive scripts of Late Antiquity. It remained standard in western writing throughout the medieval period and was adopted in early printing with movable types.


title: S

text: It existed alongside minuscule "round" or "short" "s", which was at the time only used at the end of words.


title: S

text: In most Western orthographies, the ſ gradually fell out of use during the second half of the 18th century, although it remained in occasional use into the 19th century.


title: S

text: In Spain, the change was mainly accomplished between 1760 and 1766. In France, the change occurred between 1782 and 1793. Printers in the United States stopped using the long "s" between 1795 and 1810. In English orthography, the London printer John Bell (1745–1831) pioneered the change. His edition of Shakespeare, in 1785, was advertised with the claim that he "ventured to depart from the common mode by rejecting the long 'ſ' in favor of the round one, as being less liable to error..." "The Times" of London made the switch from the long to the short "s" with its issue of 10 September 1803.


title: S

text: "Encyclopædia Britannica"'s 5th edition, completed in 1817, was the last edition to use the long "s".


title: S

text: In German orthography, long "s" was retained in Fraktur (Schwabacher) type as well as in standard cursive (Sütterlin) well into the 20th century, and was officially abolished in 1941.


title: S

text: The ligature of "ſs" (or "ſz") was retained, however, giving rise to the "Eszett" , in contemporary German orthography.


title: S

text: The letter is the seventh most common letter in English and the third-most common consonant after and . It is the most common letter for the first letter of a word in the English language.


title: S

text: In English and several other languages, primarily Western Romance ones like Spanish and French, final is the usual mark of plural nouns. It is the regular ending of English third person present tense verbs.


title: S

text: The digraph for English arises in Middle English (alongside ), replacing the Old English digraph. Similarly, Old High German was replaced by in Early Modern High German orthography.


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Farhan Akhtar (born 9 January 1974) is an Indian actor, director, screenwriter, playback singer, producer, and television host who works in Hindi films. Born in Mumbai to screenwriters Javed Akhtar and Honey Irani, he grew up under the influence of the Indian film industry.


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Akhtar, after establishing a production company named Excel Entertainment along with Ritesh Sidhwani in 1999, made his directorial debut with "Dil Chahta Hai" (2001) and received widespread critical acclaim for portraying modern Indian youth in the film, which won the National Award for Best Hindi Film and the Filmfare Award for Best Film (Critics). Following this, he directed the cult war film "Lakshya" (2004) and made his Hollywood debut through the soundtrack of "Bride and Prejudice" (2004), for which he and sister Zoya Akhtar served as lyricists. Next came the commercially successful "Don" (2006), his third directorial venture, post which he directed a short film titled "Positive" (2007) to spread awareness on HIV-AIDS.


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Although he initiated his acting career with a delayed release in the drama "The Fakir of Venice", Akhtar's official screen debut came with the musical drama "Rock On!!" (2008) for which he won a second National Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi as producer, he wrote the dialogues and produced for the critical and commercial success "Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara" (2011) which won him the Best Supporting Actor; the same year, he directed a sequel to "Don" titled "Don 2" (2011), which remains his highest-grossing film till date.


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Akhtar then played Milkha Singh in the biopic "Bhaag Milkha Bhaag", earning him the Filmfare Award for Best Actor. Later, he received praise for starring in the ensemble family comedy-drama "Dil Dhadakne Do" (2015) and the crime thriller "Wazir" (2016). He has since headlined the dramas "Lucknow Central" (2017), "The Sky Is Pink" (2019) and "Toofaan" (2021).


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Farhan Akhtar was born in Mumbai, the second child of screenwriters Javed Akhtar and Honey Irani. He has one elder sister, the writer–director Zoya Akhtar. He was very young when his parents divorced; his father married actress Shabana Azmi in 1984. His mother retained the family home in Bandra bandstand and raised her children there. Akhtar studied at Maneckji Cooper school in Mumbai and then pursued a law degree at HR College, also in Mumbai. Akhtar's father, a Muslim by birth, is a socialist and an atheist by belief; Akhtar's mother, born into an Irani Zoroastrian family, is indifferent to religion, and was content to let her children grow up with no religion. Akhtar has stated that he is an atheist.


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Akhtar's family hails from Khairabad in the Avadh region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, and he comes from a long lineage of Urdu poets. He is the grandson of Urdu poet Jan Nisar Akhtar and great-grandson of urdu poet Muztar Khairabadi. On his mother's side, Akhtar is the nephew of the child actress Daisy Irani and the first cousin of choreographer Farah Khan and Sajid Khan.


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Akhtar married Adhuna Bhabani in 2000, after being in a relationship with her for 3 years. They first met during the filming of his directorial debut "Dil Chahta Hai", which also marked Bhabani's debut as a Bollywood hairstylist. The couple have two daughters named Shakya and Akira. On 21 January 2016, they announced their separation after 16 years of marriage. Their divorce was finalized on 24 April 2017, with Bhabani having custody of their children. Akhtar started dating VJ Shibani Dandekar in 2018. On 19 February 2022, they got married in a non-religious ceremony at his Khandala farmhouse.


title: Farhan Akhtar

text: Akhtar worked as an apprentice in film distribution and direction for Yash Chopra's "Lamhe" (1991) when he was 17 years old and later moved to an advertisement production house named "Script Shop" to spend an approximate 3 years there. He also assisted Pankaj Parashar as a director in "Himalay Putra" (1997) before launching himself into direction and writing.