title: Frog

text: Frogs can hear both in the air and below water. They do not have external ears; the eardrums (tympanic membranes) are directly exposed or may be covered by a layer of skin and are visible as a circular area just behind the eye. The size and distance apart of the eardrums is related to the frequency and wavelength at which the frog calls. In some species such as the bullfrog, the size of the tympanum indicates the sex of the frog; males have tympani that are larger than their eyes while in females, the eyes and tympani are much the same size. A noise causes the tympanum to vibrate and the sound is transmitted to the middle and inner ear. The middle ear contains semicircular canals which help control balance and orientation. In the inner ear, the auditory hair cells are arranged in two areas of the cochlea, the basilar papilla and the amphibian papilla. The former detects high frequencies and the latter low frequencies. Because the cochlea is short, frogs use electrical tuning to extend their range of audible frequencies and help discriminate different sounds. This arrangement enables detection of the territorial and breeding calls of their conspecifics. In some species that inhabit arid regions, the sound of thunder or heavy rain may arouse them from a dormant state. A frog may be startled by an unexpected noise but it will not usually take any action until it has located the source of the sound by sight.


title: Frog

text: The call or croak of a frog is unique to its species. Frogs create this sound by passing air through the larynx in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth, that distend during the amplification of the call. Some frog calls are so loud that they can be heard up to a mile (1.6km) away. Additionally, some species have been found to use man-made structures such as drain pipes for artificial amplification of their call. The coastal tailed frog ("Ascaphus truei") lives in mountain streams in North America and does not vocalize.


title: Frog

text: The main function of calling is for male frogs to attract mates. Males may call individually or there may be a chorus of sound where numerous males have converged on breeding sites. In many frog species, such as the common tree frog ("Polypedates leucomystax"), females reply to males' calls, which acts to reinforce reproductive activity in a breeding colony. Female frogs prefer males that produce sounds of greater intensity and lower frequency, attributes that stand out in a crowd. The rationale for this is thought to be that by demonstrating his prowess, the male shows his fitness to produce superior offspring.


title: Frog

text: A different call is emitted by a male frog or unreceptive female when mounted by another male. This is a distinct chirruping sound and is accompanied by a vibration of the body. Tree frogs and some non-aquatic species have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a shower. Many species also have a territorial call that is used to drive away other males. All of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed. A distress call, emitted by some frogs when they are in danger, is produced with the mouth open resulting in a higher-pitched call. It is typically used when the frog has been grabbed by a predator and may serve to distract or disorient the attacker so that it releases the frog.


title: Frog

text: Many species of frog have deep calls. The croak of the American bullfrog ("Rana catesbiana") is sometimes written as "jug o' rum". The Pacific tree frog ("Pseudacris regilla") produces the onomatopoeic "ribbit" often heard in films. Other renderings of frog calls into speech include "brekekekex koax koax", the call of the marsh frog ("Pelophylax ridibundus") in "The Frogs", an Ancient Greek comic drama by Aristophanes. The calls of the Concave-eared torrent frog ("Amolops tormotus") are unusual in many aspects. The males are notable for their varieties of calls where upward and downward frequency modulations take place. When they communicate, they produce calls that fall in the ultrasound frequency range. The last aspect that makes this species of frog's calls unusual is that nonlinear acoustic phenomena are important components in their acoustic signals.


title: Frog

text: During extreme conditions, some frogs enter a state of torpor and remain inactive for months. In colder regions, many species of frog hibernate in winter. Those that live on land such as the American toad ("Bufo americanus") dig a burrow and make a hibernaculum in which to lie dormant. Others, less proficient at digging, find a crevice or bury themselves in dead leaves. Aquatic species such as the American bullfrog ("Rana catesbeiana") normally sink to the bottom of the pond where they lie, semi-immersed in mud but still able to access the oxygen dissolved in the water. Their metabolism slows down and they live on their energy reserves. Some frogs such as the wood frog, moor frog, or spring peeper can even survive being frozen. Ice crystals form under the skin and in the body cavity but the essential organs are protected from freezing by a high concentration of glucose. An apparently lifeless, frozen frog can resume respiration and its heartbeat can restart when conditions warm up.


title: Frog

text: At the other extreme, the striped burrowing frog ("Cyclorana alboguttata") regularly aestivates during the hot, dry season in Australia, surviving in a dormant state without access to food and water for nine or ten months of the year. It burrows underground and curls up inside a protective cocoon formed by its shed skin. Researchers at the University of Queensland have found that during aestivation, the metabolism of the frog is altered and the operational efficiency of the mitochondria is increased. This means that the limited amount of energy available to the comatose frog is used in a more efficient manner. This survival mechanism is only useful to animals that remain completely unconscious for an extended period of time and whose energy requirements are low because they are cold-blooded and have no need to generate heat. Other research showed that, to provide these energy requirements, muscles atrophy, but hind limb muscles are preferentially unaffected. Frogs have been found to have upper critical temperatures of around 41 degrees Celsius.


title: Frog

text: Different species of frog use a number of methods of moving around including jumping, running, walking, swimming, burrowing, climbing and gliding.


title: Frog

text: Frogs are generally recognized as exceptional jumpers and, relative to their size, the best jumpers of all vertebrates. The striped rocket frog, "Litoria nasuta", can leap over , a distance that is more than fifty times its body length of . There are tremendous differences between species in jumping capability. Within a species, jump distance increases with increasing size, but relative jumping distance (body-lengths jumped) decreases. The Indian skipper frog ("Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis") has the ability to leap out of the water from a position floating on the surface. The tiny northern cricket frog ("Acris crepitans") can "skitter" across the surface of a pond with a series of short rapid jumps.


title: Frog

text: Slow-motion photography shows that the muscles have passive flexibility. They are first stretched while the frog is still in the crouched position, then they are contracted before being stretched again to launch the frog into the air. The fore legs are folded against the chest and the hind legs remain in the extended, streamlined position for the duration of the jump. In some extremely capable jumpers, such as the Cuban tree frog ("Osteopilus septentrionalis") and the northern leopard frog ("Rana pipiens"), the peak power exerted during a jump can exceed that which the muscle is theoretically capable of producing. When the muscles contract, the energy is first transferred into the stretched tendon which is wrapped around the ankle bone. Then the muscles stretch again at the same time as the tendon releases its energy like a catapult to produce a powerful acceleration beyond the limits of muscle-powered acceleration. A similar mechanism has been documented in locusts and grasshoppers.


title: Frog

text: Early hatching of froglets can have negative effects on frog jumping performance and overall locomotion. The hindlimbs are unable to completely form, which results in them being shorter and much weaker relative to a normal hatching froglet. Early hatching froglets may tend to depend on other forms of locomotion more often, such as swimming and walking.


title: Frog

text: Frogs in the families Bufonidae, Rhinophrynidae, and Microhylidae have short back legs and tend to walk rather than jump. When they try to move rapidly, they speed up the rate of movement of their limbs or resort to an ungainly hopping gait. The Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad ("Gastrophryne olivacea") has been described as having a gait that is "a combination of running and short hops that are usually only an inch or two in length". In an experiment, Fowler's toad ("Bufo fowleri") was placed on a treadmill which was turned at varying speeds. By measuring the toad's uptake of oxygen it was found that hopping was an inefficient use of resources during sustained locomotion but was a useful strategy during short bursts of high-intensity activity.


title: Frog

text: The red-legged running frog ("Kassina maculata") has short, slim hind limbs unsuited to jumping. It can move fast by using a running gait in which the two hind legs are used alternately. Slow-motion photography shows, unlike a horse that can trot or gallop, the frog's gait remained similar at slow, medium, and fast speeds. This species can also climb trees and shrubs, and does so at night to catch insects. The Indian skipper frog ("Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis") has broad feet and can run across the surface of the water for several metres (yards).


title: Frog

text: Frogs that live in or visit water have adaptations that improve their swimming abilities. The hind limbs are heavily muscled and strong. The webbing between the toes of the hind feet increases the area of the foot and helps propel the frog powerfully through the water. Members of the family Pipidae are wholly aquatic and show the most marked specialization. They have inflexible vertebral columns, flattened, streamlined bodies, lateral line systems, and powerful hind limbs with large webbed feet. Tadpoles mostly have large tail fins which provide thrust when the tail is moved from side to side.


title: Frog

text: Some frogs have become adapted for burrowing and a life underground. They tend to have rounded bodies, short limbs, small heads with bulging eyes, and hind feet adapted for excavation. An extreme example of this is the purple frog ("Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis") from southern India which feeds on termites and spends almost its whole life underground. It emerges briefly during the monsoon to mate and breed in temporary pools. It has a tiny head with a pointed snout and a plump, rounded body. Because of this fossorial existence, it was first described in 2003, being new to the scientific community at that time, although previously known to local people.


title: Frog

text: The spadefoot toads of North America are also adapted to underground life. The Plains spadefoot toad ("Spea bombifrons") is typical and has a flap of keratinised bone attached to one of the metatarsals of the hind feet which it uses to dig itself backwards into the ground. As it digs, the toad wriggles its hips from side to side to sink into the loose soil. It has a shallow burrow in the summer from which it emerges at night to forage. In winter, it digs much deeper and has been recorded at a depth of . The tunnel is filled with soil and the toad hibernates in a small chamber at the end. During this time, urea accumulates in its tissues and water is drawn in from the surrounding damp soil by osmosis to supply the toad's needs. Spadefoot toads are "explosive breeders", all emerging from their burrows at the same time and converging on temporary pools, attracted to one of these by the calling of the first male to find a suitable breeding location.


title: Frog

text: The burrowing frogs of Australia have a rather different lifestyle. The western spotted frog ("Heleioporus albopunctatus") digs a burrow beside a river or in the bed of an ephemeral stream and regularly emerges to forage. Mating takes place and eggs are laid in a foam nest inside the burrow. The eggs partially develop there, but do not hatch until they are submerged following heavy rainfall. The tadpoles then swim out into the open water and rapidly complete their development. Madagascan burrowing frogs are less fossorial and mostly bury themselves in leaf litter. One of these, the green burrowing frog ("Scaphiophryne marmorata"), has a flattened head with a short snout and well-developed metatarsal tubercles on its hind feet to help with excavation. It also has greatly enlarged terminal discs on its fore feet that help it to clamber around in bushes. It breeds in temporary pools that form after rains.


title: Frog

text: Tree frogs live high in the canopy, where they scramble around on the branches, twigs, and leaves, sometimes never coming down to earth. The "true" tree frogs belong to the family Hylidae, but members of other frog families have independently adopted an arboreal habit, a case of convergent evolution. These include the glass frogs (Centrolenidae), the bush frogs (Hyperoliidae), some of the narrow-mouthed frogs (Microhylidae), and the shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae). Most tree frogs are under in length, with long legs and long toes with adhesive pads on the tips. The surface of the toe pads is formed from a closely packed layer of flat-topped, hexagonal epidermal cells separated by grooves into which glands secrete mucus. These toe pads, moistened by the mucus, provide the grip on any wet or dry surface, including glass. The forces involved include boundary friction of the toe pad epidermis on the surface and also surface tension and viscosity. Tree frogs are very acrobatic and can catch insects while hanging by one toe from a twig or clutching onto the blade of a windswept reed. Some members of the subfamily Phyllomedusinae have opposable toes on their feet. The reticulated leaf frog ("Phyllomedusa ayeaye") has a single opposed digit on each fore foot and two opposed digits on its hind feet. This allows it to grasp the stems of bushes as it clambers around in its riverside habitat.


title: Frog

text: During the evolutionary history of frogs, several different groups have independently taken to the air. Some frogs in the tropical rainforest are specially adapted for gliding from tree to tree or parachuting to the forest floor. Typical of them is Wallace's flying frog ("Rhacophorus nigropalmatus") from Malaysia and Borneo. It has large feet with the fingertips expanded into flat adhesive discs and the digits fully webbed. Flaps of skin occur on the lateral margins of the limbs and across the tail region. With the digits splayed, the limbs outstretched, and these flaps spread, it can glide considerable distances, but is unable to undertake powered flight. It can alter its direction of travel and navigate distances of up to between trees.


title: Frog

text: Two main types of reproduction occur in frogs, prolonged breeding and explosive breeding. In the former, adopted by the majority of species, adult frogs at certain times of year assemble at a pond, lake or stream to breed. Many frogs return to the bodies of water in which they developed as larvae. This often results in annual migrations involving thousands of individuals. In explosive breeders, mature adult frogs arrive at breeding sites in response to certain trigger factors such as rainfall occurring in an arid area. In these frogs, mating and spawning take place promptly and the speed of larval growth is rapid in order to make use of the ephemeral pools before they dry up.


title: Frog

text: Among prolonged breeders, males usually arrive at the breeding site first and remain there for some time whereas females tend to arrive later and depart soon after they have spawned. This means that males outnumber females at the water's edge and defend territories from which they expel other males. They advertise their presence by calling, often alternating their croaks with neighbouring frogs. Larger, stronger males tend to have deeper calls and maintain higher quality territories. Females select their mates at least partly on the basis of the depth of their voice. In some species there are satellite males who have no territory and do not call. They may intercept females that are approaching a calling male or take over a vacated territory. Calling is an energy-sapping activity. Sometimes the two roles are reversed and a calling male gives up its territory and becomes a satellite.


title: Frog

text: In explosive breeders, the first male that finds a suitable breeding location, such as a temporary pool, calls loudly and other frogs of both sexes converge on the pool. Explosive breeders tend to call in unison creating a chorus that can be heard from far away. The spadefoot toads ("Scaphiopus spp.") of North America fall into this category. Mate selection and courtship is not as important as speed in reproduction. In some years, suitable conditions may not occur and the frogs may go for two or more years without breeding. Some female New Mexico spadefoot toads ("Spea multiplicata") only spawn half of the available eggs at a time, perhaps retaining some in case a better reproductive opportunity arises later.


title: Frog

text: At the breeding site, the male mounts the female and grips her tightly round the body. Typically, amplexus takes place in the water, the female releases her eggs and the male covers them with sperm; fertilization is external. In many species such as the Great Plains toad ("Bufo cognatus"), the male restrains the eggs with his back feet, holding them in place for about three minutes. Members of the West African genus "Nimbaphrynoides" are unique among frogs in that they are viviparous; "Limnonectes larvaepartus", "Eleutherodactylus jasperi" and members of the Tanzanian genus "Nectophrynoides" are the only frogs known to be ovoviviparous. In these species, fertilization is internal and females give birth to fully developed juvenile frogs, except "L. larvaepartus", which give birth to tadpoles.


title: Frog

text: Frogs may lay their in eggs as clumps, surface films, strings, or individually. Around half of species deposit eggs in water, others lay eggs in vegetation, on the ground or in excavations. The tiny yellow-striped pygmy eleuth ("Eleutherodactylus limbatus") lays eggs singly, burying them in moist soil. The smoky jungle frog ("Leptodactylus pentadactylus") makes a nest of foam in a hollow. The eggs hatch when the nest is flooded, or the tadpoles may complete their development in the foam if flooding does not occur. The red-eyed treefrog ("Agalychnis callidryas") deposits its eggs on a leaf above a pool and when they hatch, the larvae fall into the water below.


title: Frog

text: In certain species, such as the wood frog ("Rana sylvatica"), symbiotic unicellular green algae are present in the gelatinous material. It is thought that these may benefit the developing larvae by providing them with extra oxygen through photosynthesis. The interior of globular egg clusters of the wood frog has been also been found to be up to 6 °C (11 °F) warmer than the surrounding water and this speeds up the development of the larvae. The larvae developing in the eggs can detect vibrations caused by nearby predatory wasps or snakes, and will hatch early to avoid being eaten. In general, the length of the egg stage depends on the species and the environmental conditions. Aquatic eggs normally hatch within one week when the capsule splits as a result of enzymes released by the developing larvae.


title: Frog

text: Direct development, where eggs hatch into juveniles like small adults, is also known in many frogs, for example, "Ischnocnema henselii," "Eleutherodactylus coqui", and "Raorchestes ochlandrae" and "Raorchestes chalazodes."


title: Frog

text: The larvae that emerge from the eggs, known as tadpoles (or occasionally polliwogs). Tadpoles lack eyelids and limbs, and have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), and tails they use for swimming. As a general rule, free-living larvae are fully aquatic, but at least one species ("Nannophrys ceylonensis") has semiterrestrial tadpoles which live among wet rocks.


title: Frog

text: From early in its development, a gill pouch covers the tadpole's gills and front legs. The lungs soon start to develop and are used as an accessory breathing organ. Some species go through metamorphosis while still inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. Tadpoles lack true teeth, but the jaws in most species have two elongated, parallel rows of small, keratinized structures called keradonts in their upper jaws. Their lower jaws usually have three rows of keradonts surrounded by a horny beak, but the number of rows can vary and the exact arrangements of mouth parts provide a means for species identification. In the Pipidae, with the exception of "Hymenochirus", the tadpoles have paired anterior barbels, which make them resemble small catfish. Their tails are stiffened by a notochord, but does not contain any bony or cartilaginous elements except for a few vertebrae at the base which forms the urostyle during metamorphosis. This has been suggested as an adaptation to their lifestyles; because the transformation into frogs happens very fast, the tail is made of soft tissue only, as bone and cartilage take a much longer time to be broken down and absorbed. The tail fin and tip is fragile and will easily tear, which is seen as an adaptation to escape from predators which tries to grasp them by the tail.


title: Frog

text: Tadpoles are typically herbivorous, feeding mostly on algae, including diatoms filtered from the water through the gills. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles, and fish. The Cuban tree frog ("Osteopilus septentrionalis") is one of a number of species in which the tadpoles can be cannibalistic. Tadpoles that develop legs early may be eaten by the others, so late developers may have better long-term survival prospects.


title: Frog

text: Tadpoles are highly vulnerable to being eaten by fish, newts, predatory diving beetles, and birds, particularly water bird, such as storks and herons and domestic ducks. Some tadpoles, including those of the cane toad ("Bufo marinus"), are poisonous. The tadpole stage may be as short as a week in explosive breeders or it may last through one or more winters followed by metamorphosis in the spring.


title: Frog

text: At the end of the tadpole stage, a frog undergoes metamorphosis in which its body makes a sudden transition into the adult form. This metamorphosis typically lasts only 24 hours, and is initiated by production of the hormone thyroxine. This causes different tissues to develop in different ways. The principal changes that take place include the development of the lungs and the disappearance of the gills and gill pouch, making the front legs visible. The lower jaw transforms into the big mandible of the carnivorous adult, and the long, spiral gut of the herbivorous tadpole is replaced by the typical short gut of a predator. The nervous system becomes adapted for hearing and stereoscopic vision, and for new methods of locomotion and feeding. The eyes are repositioned higher up on the head and the eyelids and associated glands are formed. The eardrum, middle ear, and inner ear are developed. The skin becomes thicker and tougher, the lateral line system is lost, and skin glands are developed. The final stage is the disappearance of the tail, but this takes place rather later, the tissue being used to produce a spurt of growth in the limbs. Frogs are at their most vulnerable to predators when they are undergoing metamorphosis. At this time, the tail is being lost and locomotion by means of limbs is only just becoming established.


title: Frog

text: Adult frogs may live in or near water, but few are fully aquatic. Almost all frog species are carnivorous as adults, preying on invertebrates, including insects, crabs, spiders, mites, worms, snails, and slugs. A few of the larger ones may eat other frogs, small mammals and reptiles, and fish. A few species also eat plant matter; the tree frog "Xenohyla truncata" is partly herbivorous, its diet including a large proportion of fruit, "Leptodactylus mystaceus" has been found to eat plants, and folivory occurs in "Euphlyctis hexadactylus", with plants constituting 79.5% of its diet by volume. Many frogs use their sticky tongues to catch prey, while others simply grab them with their mouths. Adult frogs are themselves attacked by many predators. The northern leopard frog ("Rana pipiens") is eaten by herons, hawks, fish, large salamanders, snakes, raccoons, skunks, mink, bullfrogs, and other animals.


title: Frog

text: Frogs are primary predators and an important part of the food web. Being cold-blooded, they make efficient use of the food they eat with little energy being used for metabolic processes, while the rest is transformed into biomass. They are themselves eaten by secondary predators and are the primary terrestrial consumers of invertebrates, most of which feed on plants. By reducing herbivory, they play a part in increasing the growth of plants and are thus part of a delicately balanced ecosystem.


title: Frog

text: Little is known about the longevity of frogs and toads in the wild, but some can live for many years. Skeletochronology is a method of examining bones to determine age. Using this method, the ages of mountain yellow-legged frogs ("Rana muscosa") were studied, the phalanges of the toes showing seasonal lines where growth slows in winter. The oldest frogs had ten bands, so their age was believed to be 14 years, including the four-year tadpole stage. Captive frogs and toads have been recorded as living for up to 40 years, an age achieved by a European common toad ("Bufo bufo"). The cane toad ("Bufo marinus") has been known to survive 24 years in captivity, and the American bullfrog ("Rana catesbeiana") 14 years. Frogs from temperate climates hibernate during the winter, and four species are known to be able to withstand freezing during this time, including the wood frog ("Rana sylvatica").


title: Frog

text: Although care of offspring is poorly understood in frogs, up to an estimated 20% of amphibian species may care for their young in some way. The evolution of parental care in frogs is driven primarily by the size of the water body in which they breed. Those that breed in smaller water bodies tend to have greater and more complex parental care behaviour. Because predation of eggs and larvae is high in large water bodies, some frog species started to lay their eggs on land. Once this happened, the desiccating terrestrial environment demands that one or both parents keep them moist to ensure their survival. The subsequent need to transport hatched tadpoles to a water body required an even more intense form of parental care.


title: Frog

text: In small pools, predators are mostly absent and competition between tadpoles becomes the variable that constrains their survival. Certain frog species avoid this competition by making use of smaller phytotelmata (water-filled leaf axils or small woody cavities) as sites for depositing a few tadpoles. While these smaller rearing sites are free from competition, they also lack sufficient nutrients to support a tadpole without parental assistance. Frog species that changed from the use of larger to smaller phytotelmata have evolved a strategy of providing their offspring with nutritive but unfertilized eggs. The female strawberry poison-dart frog ("Oophaga pumilio") lays her eggs on the forest floor. The male frog guards them from predation and carries water in his cloaca to keep them moist. When they hatch, the female moves the tadpoles on her back to a water-holding bromeliad or other similar water body, depositing just one in each location. She visits them regularly and feeds them by laying one or two unfertilized eggs in the phytotelma, continuing to do this until the young are large enough to undergo metamorphosis. The granular poison frog ("Oophaga granulifera") looks after its tadpoles in a similar way.


title: Frog

text: Many other diverse forms of parental care are seen in frogs. The tiny male "Colostethus subpunctatus" stands guard over his egg cluster, laid under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, he transports the tadpoles on his back to a temporary pool, where he partially immerses himself in the water and one or more tadpoles drop off. He then moves on to another pool. The male common midwife toad ("Alytes obstetricans") carries the eggs around with him attached to his hind legs. He keeps them damp in dry weather by immersing himself in a pond, and prevents them from getting too wet in soggy vegetation by raising his hindquarters. After three to six weeks, he travels to a pond and the eggs hatch into tadpoles. The tungara frog ("Physalaemus pustulosus") builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs from predation. The foam is made from proteins and lectins, and seems to have antimicrobial properties. Several pairs of frogs may form a colonial nest on a previously built raft. The eggs are laid in the centre, followed by alternate layers of foam and eggs, finishing with a foam capping.


title: Frog

text: Some frogs protect their offspring inside their own bodies. Both male and female pouched frogs ("Assa darlingtoni") guard their eggs, which are laid on the ground. When the eggs hatch, the male lubricates his body with the jelly surrounding them and immerses himself in the egg mass. The tadpoles wriggle into skin pouches on his side, where they develop until they metamorphose into juvenile frogs. The female gastric-brooding frog ("Rheobatrachus" sp.) from Australia, now probably extinct, swallows her fertilized eggs, which then develop inside her stomach. She ceases to feed and stops secreting stomach acid. The tadpoles rely on the yolks of the eggs for nourishment. After six or seven weeks, they are ready for metamorphosis. The mother regurgitates the tiny frogs, which hop away from her mouth. The female Darwin's frog ("Rhinoderma darwinii") from Chile lays up to 40 eggs on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. When the tadpoles are about to hatch, they are engulfed by the male, which carries them around inside his much-enlarged vocal sac. Here they are immersed in a frothy, viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs. They remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis, after which they move into the male's mouth and emerge.


title: Frog

text: At first sight, frogs seem rather defenceless because of their small size, slow movement, thin skin, and lack of defensive structures, such as spines, claws or teeth. Many use camouflage to avoid detection, the skin often being spotted or streaked in neutral colours that allow a stationary frog to merge into its surroundings. Some can make prodigious leaps, often into water, that help them to evade potential attackers, while many have other defensive adaptations and strategies.


title: Frog

text: The skin of many frogs contains mild toxic substances called bufotoxins to make them unpalatable to potential predators. Most toads and some frogs have large poison glands, the parotoid glands, located on the sides of their heads behind the eyes and other glands elsewhere on their bodies. These glands secrete mucus and a range of toxins that make frogs slippery to hold and distasteful or poisonous. If the noxious effect is immediate, the predator may cease its action and the frog may escape. If the effect develops more slowly, the predator may learn to avoid that species in future. Poisonous frogs tend to advertise their toxicity with bright colours, an adaptive strategy known as aposematism. The poison dart frogs in the family Dendrobatidae do this. They are typically red, orange, or yellow, often with contrasting black markings on their bodies. "Allobates zaparo" is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of two different toxic species with which it shares a common range in an effort to deceive predators. Other species, such as the European fire-bellied toad ("Bombina bombina"), have their warning colour underneath. They "flash" this when attacked, adopting a pose that exposes the vivid colouring on their bellies.


title: Frog

text: Some frogs, such as the poison dart frogs, are especially toxic. The native peoples of South America extract poison from these frogs to apply to their weapons for hunting, although few species are toxic enough to be used for this purpose. At least two non-poisonous frog species in tropical America ("Eleutherodactylus gaigei" and "Lithodytes lineatus") mimic the colouration of dart poison frogs for self-protection. Some frogs obtain poisons from the ants and other arthropods they eat. Others, such as the Australian corroboree frogs ("Pseudophryne corroboree" and "Pseudophryne pengilleyi"), can synthesize the alkaloids themselves. The chemicals involved may be irritants, hallucinogens, convulsants, nerve poisons or vasoconstrictors. Many predators of frogs have become adapted to tolerate high levels of these poisons, but other creatures, including humans who handle the frogs, may be severely affected.


title: Frog

text: Some frogs use bluff or deception. The European common toad ("Bufo bufo") adopts a characteristic stance when attacked, inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered. The bullfrog ("Rana catesbeiana") crouches down with eyes closed and head tipped forward when threatened. This places the parotoid glands in the most effective position, the other glands on its back begin to ooze noxious secretions and the most vulnerable parts of its body are protected. Another tactic used by some frogs is to "scream", the sudden loud noise tending to startle the predator. The gray tree frog ("Hyla versicolor") makes an explosive sound that sometimes repels the shrew "Blarina brevicauda". Although toads are avoided by many predators, the common garter snake ("Thamnophis sirtalis") regularly feeds on them. The strategy employed by juvenile American toads ("Bufo americanus") on being approached by a snake is to crouch down and remain immobile. This is usually successful, with the snake passing by and the toad remaining undetected. If it is encountered by the snake's head, however, the toad hops away before crouching defensively.


title: Frog

text: Frogs live on all the continents except Antarctica, but they are not present on certain islands, especially those far away from continental land masses. Many species are isolated in restricted ranges by changes of climate or inhospitable territory, such as stretches of sea, mountain ridges, deserts, forest clearance, road construction, or other man-made barriers. Usually, a greater diversity of frogs occurs in tropical areas than in temperate regions, such as Europe. Some frogs inhabit arid areas, such as deserts, and rely on specific adaptations to survive. Members of the Australian genus "Cyclorana" bury themselves underground where they create a water-impervious cocoon in which to aestivate during dry periods. Once it rains, they emerge, find a temporary pool, and breed. Egg and tadpole development is very fast in comparison to those of most other frogs, so breeding can be completed before the pond dries up. Some frog species are adapted to a cold environment. The wood frog ("Rana sylvatica"), whose habitat extends into the Arctic Circle, buries itself in the ground during winter. Although much of its body freezes during this time, it maintains a high concentration of glucose in its vital organs, which protects them from damage.


title: Frog

text: In 2006, of 4,035 species of amphibians that depend on water during some lifecycle stage, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened. This is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which evidence was insufficient to assess their status. Frog populations have declined dramatically since the 1950s. More than one-third of frog species are considered to be threatened with extinction, and more than 120 species are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s. Among these species are the gastric-brooding frogs of Australia and the golden toad of Costa Rica. The latter is of particular concern to scientists because it inhabited the pristine Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve and its population crashed in 1987, along with about 20 other frog species in the area. This could not be linked directly to human activities, such as deforestation, and was outside the range of normal fluctuations in population size. Elsewhere, habitat loss is a significant cause of frog population decline, as are pollutants, climate change, increased UVB radiation, and the introduction of non-native predators and competitors. A Canadian study conducted in 2006 suggested heavy traffic in their environment was a larger threat to frog populations than was habitat loss. Emerging infectious diseases, including chytridiomycosis and ranavirus, are also devastating populations.


title: Frog

text: Many environmental scientists believe amphibians, including frogs, are good biological indicators of broader ecosystem health because of their intermediate positions in food chains, their permeable skins, and typically biphasic lives (aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults). It appears that species with both aquatic eggs and larvae are most affected by the decline, while those with direct development are the most resistant.


title: Frog

text: Frog mutations and genetic defects have increased since the 1990s. These often include missing legs or extra legs. Various causes have been identified or hypothesized, including an increase in ultraviolet radiation affecting the spawn on the surface of ponds, chemical contamination from pesticides and fertilizers, and parasites such as the trematode "Ribeiroia ondatrae". Probably all these are involved in a complex way as stressors, environmental factors contributing to rates of disease, and vulnerability to attack by parasites. Malformations impair mobility and the individuals may not survive to adulthood. An increase in the number of frogs eaten by birds may actually increase the likelihood of parasitism of other frogs, because the trematode's complex lifecycle includes the ramshorn snail and several intermediate hosts such as birds.


title: Frog

text: In a few cases, captive breeding programs have been established and have largely been successful. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums named 2008 as the "Year of the Frog" in order to draw attention to the conservation issues faced by them.


title: Frog

text: The cane toad ("Bufo marinus") is a very adaptable species native to South and Central America. In the 1930s, it was introduced into Puerto Rico, and later various other islands in the Pacific and Caribbean region, as a biological pest control agent. In 1935, 3000 toads were liberated in the sugar cane fields of Queensland, Australia, in an attempt to control cane beetles such as "Dermolepida albohirtum", the larvae of which damage and kill the canes. Initial results in many of these countries were positive, but it later became apparent that the toads upset the ecological balance in their new environments. They bred freely, competed with native frog species, ate bees and other harmless native invertebrates, had few predators in their adopted habitats, and poisoned pets, carnivorous birds, and mammals. In many of these countries, they are now regarded both as pests and invasive species, and scientists are looking for a biological method to control them.


title: Frog

text: Frog legs are eaten by humans in many parts of the world. Indonesia is the world's largest exporter of frog meat, exporting more than 5,000 tonnes of frog meat each year, mostly to France, Belgium and Luxembourg. Originally, they were supplied from local wild populations, but overexploitation led to a diminution in the supply. This resulted in the development of frog farming and a global trade in frogs. The main importing countries are France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the United States, while the chief exporting nations are Indonesia and China. The annual global trade in the American bullfrog ("Rana catesbeiana"), mostly farmed in China, varies between 1200 and 2400 tonnes.


title: Frog

text: The mountain chicken frog, so-called as it tastes of chicken, is now endangered, in part due to human consumption, and was a major food choice of the Dominicans. Coon, possum, partridges, prairie hen, and frogs were among the fare Mark Twain recorded as part of American cuisine.


title: Frog

text: In November, 1970, NASA sent two bullfrogs into space for six days during the Orbiting Frog Otolith mission to test weightlessness.


title: Frog

text: Frogs are used for dissections in high school and university anatomy classes, often first being injected with coloured substances to enhance contrasts among the biological systems. This practice is declining due to animal welfare concerns, and "digital frogs" are now available for virtual dissection.


title: Frog

text: Frogs have served as experimental animals throughout the history of science. Eighteenth-century biologist Luigi Galvani discovered the link between electricity and the nervous system by studying frogs. He created one of the first tools for measuring electric current out of a frog leg. In 1852, H. F. Stannius used a frog's heart in a procedure called a Stannius ligature to demonstrate the ventricle and atria beat independently of each other and at different rates. The African clawed frog or platanna ("Xenopus laevis") was first widely used in laboratories in pregnancy tests in the first half of the 20th century. A sample of urine from a pregnant woman injected into a female frog induces it to lay eggs, a discovery made by English zoologist Lancelot Hogben. This is because a hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin, is present in substantial quantities in the urine of women during pregnancy. In 1952, Robert Briggs and Thomas J. King cloned a frog by somatic cell nuclear transfer. This same technique was later used to create Dolly the sheep, and their experiment was the first time a successful nuclear transplantation had been accomplished in higher animals.


title: Frog

text: Frogs are used in cloning research and other branches of embryology. Although alternative pregnancy tests have been developed, biologists continue to use "Xenopus" as a model organism in developmental biology because their embryos are large and easy to manipulate, they are readily obtainable, and can easily be kept in the laboratory. "Xenopus laevis" is increasingly being displaced by its smaller relative, "Xenopus tropicalis", which reaches its reproductive age in five months rather than the one to two years for "X. laevis", thus facilitating faster studies across generations.


title: Frog

text: Genomes of "Xenopus laevis", "X. tropicalis", "Rana catesbeiana", "Rhinella marina", and "Nanorana parkeri" have been sequenced and deposited in the NCBI Genome database.


title: Frog

text: Due to being inexpensive and relatively easy to care for, many species of frogs and toads have become popular as exotic pets. They are undemanding and require low maintenance. Both frogs and toads can be housed in paludariums, terrariums and aquariums.


title: Frog

text: Because frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse, they have raised the interest of biochemists as a "natural pharmacy". The alkaloid epibatidine, a painkiller 200 times more potent than morphine, is made by some species of poison dart frogs. Other chemicals isolated from the skins of frogs may offer resistance to HIV infection. Dart poisons are under active investigation for their potential as therapeutic drugs.


title: Frog

text: It has long been suspected that pre-Columbian Mesoamericans used a toxic secretion produced by the cane toad as a hallucinogen, but more likely they used substances secreted by the Colorado River toad ("Bufo alvarius"). These contain bufotenin (5-MeO-DMT), a psychoactive compound that has been used in modern times as a recreational drug. Typically, the skin secretions are dried and then smoked. Illicit drug use by licking the skin of a toad has been reported in the media, but this may be an urban myth.


title: Frog

text: Exudations from the skin of the golden poison frog ("Phyllobates terribilis") are traditionally used by native Colombians to poison the darts they use for hunting. The tip of the projectile is rubbed over the back of the frog and the dart is launched from a blowgun. The combination of the two alkaloid toxins batrachotoxin and homobatrachotoxin is so powerful, one frog contains enough poison to kill an estimated 22,000 mice. Two other species, the Kokoe poison dart frog ("Phyllobates aurotaenia") and the black-legged dart frog ("Phyllobates bicolor") are also used for this purpose. These are less toxic and less abundant than the golden poison frog. They are impaled on pointed sticks and may be heated over a fire to maximise the quantity of poison that can be transferred to the dart.


title: Frog

text: Frogs have been featured in mythology, fairy tales and popular culture. In traditional Chinese myths, the world rests on a giant frog, who would try to swallow the moon, causing the lunar eclipse. Frogs have been featured in religion, folklore, and popular culture. The ancient Egyptians depicted the god Heqet, protector of newborns, with the head of a frog. For the Mayans, frogs represented water, crops, fertility and birth and were associated with the god Chaac. In the Bible, Moses unleashes a plague of frogs on the Egyptians. Medieval Europeans associated frogs and toads with evil and witchcraft. The Brothers Grimm fairy tale "The Frog Prince" features a princess taking in a frog and it turning into a handsome prince. In modern culture, frogs may take a comedic or hapless role, such as Mr. Toad of the 1908 novel "The Wind in the Willows", Michigan J. Frog of Warner Bros. Cartoons, the Muppet Kermit the Frog and in the game Frogger.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (; Hebrew: "Tānāḵh"), also known in Hebrew as Miqra (; Hebrew: "Mīqrā"), is the canonical collection of Hebrew scriptures, including the Torah, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Different branches of Judaism and Samaritanism have maintained different versions of the canon, including the 3rd-century Septuagint text used by Second-Temple Judaism, the Syriac language Peshitta, the Samaritan Torah, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and most recently the 10th century medieval Masoretic text created by the Masoretes currently used in modern Rabbinic Judaism. The terms "Hebrew Bible" or "Hebrew Canon" are frequently confused with the Masoretic text, however, this is a medieval version and one of several texts considered authoritative by different types of Judaism throughout history. The modern Masoretic text is mostly in Biblical Hebrew, with a few passages in Biblical Aramaic (in the books of Daniel and Ezra, and the verse Jeremiah 10:11).


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The authoritative form of the modern Hebrew Bible used in Rabbinic Judaism is the Masoretic Text (7th to 10th century CE), which consists of 24 books, divided into "pesuqim" (verses). The contents of the Medieval Masoretic text are similar, but not identical, to those of the Protestant Old Testament, in which the material is divided into 39 books and arranged in a different order. This is due to the Tiberian-Masoretic text having been considered the "original" Hebrew text across Europe since the Renaissance, including within the Catholic church. Scholars within the Catholic church started to treat these books differently due to this misunderstanding of the Masoretic text, and Martin Luther took this understanding even further due to the Ad Fontes influence of Humanism. Luther did not know the Masoretic was a modern interpretation when using it to justify removing 7 books from the Christian Old Testament. The ancient Christian Bibles currently used by the Catholic and Orthodox churches are based on the Septuagint, which was considered the authoritative scriptural canon by Second-Temple Judaism practiced by the 1st century Christians.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern scholars seeking to understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use a range of sources. These include the Septuagint, the Syriac language Peshitta translation, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea Scrolls collection and quotations from rabbinic manuscripts. These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some cases and often differ from it. These differences have given rise to the theory that yet another text, an Urtext of the Hebrew Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant today. However, such an Urtext has never been found, and which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch) is closest to the Urtext is debated.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: "Tanakh" is an acronym, made from the first Hebrew letter of each of the Masoretic Text's three traditional divisions: Torah (literally 'Instruction' or 'Law'), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—hence TaNaKh.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The three-part division reflected in the acronym "Tanakh" is well attested in the rabbinic literature. During that period, however, "Tanakh" was not used. Instead, the proper title was "Mikra" (or "Miqra", מקרא, meaning "reading" or "that which is read") because the biblical texts were read publicly. The acronym 'Tanakh' is first recorded in the medieval era. "Mikra" continues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken Hebrew, they are interchangeable.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of the term "Hebrew Bible" (or "Hebrew Scriptures") as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g. "Tanakh" or Old Testament). The Society of Biblical Literature's "Handbook of Style", which is the standard for major academic journals like the "Harvard Theological Review" and conservative Protestant journals like the "Bibliotheca Sacra" and the "Westminster Theological Journal", suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either. Alister McGrath points out that while the term emphasizes that it is largely written in Hebrew and "is sacred to the Hebrew people", it "fails to do justice to the way in which Christianity sees an essential continuity between the Old and New Testaments", arguing that there is "no generally accepted alternative to the traditional term 'Old Testament'." However, he accepts that there is no reason why non-Christians should feel obliged to refer to these books as the Old Testament, "apart from custom of use".


title: Hebrew Bible

text: Christianity has long asserted a close relationship between the Hebrew Bible and New Testament, although there have sometimes been movements like Marcionism (viewed as heretical by the early church) that have struggled with it. Modern Christian formulations of this tension include supersessionism, covenant theology, new covenant theology, dispensationalism, and dual-covenant theology. All of these formulations, except some forms of dual-covenant theology, are objectionable to mainstream Judaism and to many Jewish scholars and writers, for whom there is one eternal covenant between God and the Israelites, and who therefore reject the term "Old Testament" as a form of antinomianism.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: Christian usage of the "Old Testament" does not refer to a universally agreed upon set of books but, rather, varies depending on denomination. Lutheranism and Protestant denominations that follow the Westminster Confession of Faith accept the entire Jewish canon as the Old Testament without additions, although in translation they sometimes give preference to the Septuagint (LXX) rather than the Masoretic Text; for example, see .


title: Hebrew Bible

text: "Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the Second Temple era and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day. The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic (mostly in the books of Daniel and Ezra), written and printed in Aramaic square-script, which was adopted as the Hebrew alphabet after the Babylonian exile.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty, while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: According to Louis Ginzberg's "Legends of the Jews", the twenty-four book canon of the Hebrew Bible was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the Second Temple period.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: According to the Talmud, much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of the Great Assembly ("Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah"), a task completed in 450 BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The 24-book canon is mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12: "Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion".


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The original writing system of the Hebrew text was an abjad: consonants written with some applied vowel letters (""matres lectionis""). During the early Middle Ages, scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of vocalization. This was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, in the Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian vocalization. It also included some innovations of Ben Naftali and the Babylonian exiles. Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the pronunciation and cantillation to derive from the revelation at Sinai, since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses. The combination of a text ( "mikra"), pronunciation ( "niqqud") and cantillation ( "te`amim") enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 are hapax legomena, words or expressions that occur only once. The number of distinct Semitic roots, on which many of these biblical words are based, is roughly 2000.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books, counting as one book each 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel, 1 Kings and 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles, and Ezra–Nehemiah. The Twelve Minor Prophets () are also counted as a single book. In Hebrew, the books are often referred to by their prominent first words.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The Torah (, literally "teaching") is also known as the "Pentateuch", or as the "Five Books of Moses". Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often called ( "Five fifth-sections of the Torah") and informally as .


title: Hebrew Bible

text: "Nevi'im" ( , "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. This division includes the books which cover the time from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the Babylonian captivity of Judah (the ""period of prophecy""). Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, yields , which is also the Hebrew for "truth").


title: Hebrew Bible

text: These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The five relatively short books of the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther are collectively known as the (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon, with the latest parts having dates ranging into the 2nd century BCE. These scrolls are traditionally read over the course of the year in many Jewish communities.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: These books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular occasions, the occasion listed below in parenthesis.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b – 15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: Nach, also anglicized , refers to the Nevi'im and Ketuvim portions of Tanakh. Nach is often referred to as its own subject, separate from Torah.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: It is a major subject in the curriculum of Orthodox high schools for girls and in the seminaries which they subsequently attend, and is often taught by different teachers than those who teach Chumash. The curriculum of Orthodox high schools for boys includes only some portions of Nach, such as the book of Joshua, the book of Judges, and the Five Megillot.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The major commentary used for the Chumash is the Rashi commentary. The Rashi commentary and Metzudot commentary are the major commentaries for the Nach.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: There are two major approaches to the study of, and commentary on, the Tanakh. In the Jewish community, the classical approach is a religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible is divinely inspired. Another approach is to study the Bible as a human creation. In this approach, Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies. The latter practice, when applied to the Torah, is considered heresy by the Orthodox Jewish community. As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered forbidden by rabbis teaching in Orthodox yeshivas. Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Gersonides, and Maimonides, used many elements of contemporary biblical criticism, including their knowledge of history, science, and philology. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered acceptable by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.


title: Hebrew Bible

text: The Modern Orthodox Jewish community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the


title: Hebrew Bible

text: academic world, e.g. the Da'at Miqra series. Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from the Targums to classical rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern-day commentaries.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: Animal Kingdom is an American drama television series developed by Jonathan Lisco. It is based on the 2010 Australian film of the same name inspired by the criminal Pettingill family created by David Michôd, who is an executive producer for the series, alongside Liz Watts, who also produced the movie.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: "Animal Kingdom" premiered on TNT on June 14, 2016, with the first season consisting of 10 episodes. Starting with the second season, each subsequent season consisted of 13 episodes. The second season premiered on May 30, 2017. The third season premiered on May 29, 2018. The fourth season premiered on May 28, 2019. The fifth season premiered on July 11, 2021. The sixth and final season premiered on June 19, 2022. The series concluded on August 28, 2022, after six seasons for a total of 75 episodes. It was the penultimate scripted original series to air on TNT before the production of original programming was ceased.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: The series centers on 17-year-old Joshua "J" Cody who, after the death of his mother, moves in with his estranged relatives, the Codys, who run a criminal family enterprise set in Oceanside, California that's governed by the respected matriarch Janine "Smurf" Cody.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: The Codys partake in numerous criminal activities and pull off various heists to make money. These jobs are undertaken by J's uncles who consist of Barry "Baz" Blackwell, Smurf's adopted son who calls the shots, Andrew "Pope" Cody, the oldest and most dangerous of Smurf's sons, Craig Cody, the tough and fearless middle son and Deran Cody, the troubled and suspicious youngest son. Associates of the Cody Family include Catherine Belen, Baz's girlfriend and mother of their daughter Lena, Nicky Belmont, J's girlfriend and fellow high school student, Lucy, Baz's mistress from Mexico, and Mia Benitez, a young gang member.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: A younger Smurf, who's a member of a crew of career criminals while establishing her future criminal enterprise, is also depicted in the years 1977, 1984, 1992 and 1999. Members of her crew include Jake Dunmore, her on-again/ off-again boyfriend, Manny, the leader of her crew, and later her own children, teenagers Andrew and Baz and her only daughter, Julia Cody.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: TNT ordered the pilot of "Animal Kingdom" in May 2015; Barkin and Speedman were the first to be cast in July 2015, as matriarch Smurf and her adopted son Baz, respectively. In August, Cole and Weary were added as J and Deran, with Hatosy and Robson soon cast as the remaining Cody brothers Pope and Craig. Alonso was later announced as Baz's wife Catherine, and Molly Gordon as J's girlfriend Nicky.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: The project was picked up to series with a 10-episode order in December 2015. The show debuted on June 14, 2016, and on July 6, 2016, TNT renewed it for a 13-episode second season. On July 27 TNT announced it would be renewing "Animal Kingdom" for a third season, which premiered on May 29, 2018. The season 3 premiere was aired after a game on TNT beginning 12:30/11:30 central the day before the premiere. On July 2, 2018, TNT renewed the series for a fourth season. Production on the fourth season began on January 10, 2019. The fourth season premiered on May 28, 2019.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: On July 24, 2019, TNT renewed the series for a fifth season. On March 16, 2020, production on the fifth season was suspended "until further notice" due to the global covid-19 pandemic. Production on the fifth season resumed on September 7, 2020. Filming for the season wrapped on December 11, 2020. On January 14, 2021, ahead of the fifth season premiere, TNT renewed the series for a sixth and final season. Production on the final season began on March 6, 2021. Filming for the season wrapped on August 12, 2021.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: The first season of "Animal Kingdom" has received positive reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 76% based on 33 reviews. The consensus is: "Bolstered by Ellen Barkin's acting prowess, "Animal Kingdom" is a darkly intriguing, although occasionally predictable, twisted family drama." On Metacritic, the series has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: In Canada, the show is broadcast on CTV Drama Channel, formerly known as Bravo, and all seasons are available on Netflix and Crave. Beginning with its fourth season, the episodes were broadcast on Bravo at the same time and day as the original TNT broadcasts. In French, the show airs on Z.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: All episodes of the first through fifth seasons are available in the U.S. on Amazon Prime and seasons 1 through 6 in the U.K.


title: Animal Kingdom (TV series)

text: The first season was released in DVD and Blu-ray formats on April 28, 2017. Each set contains behind-the-scenes featurettes and deleted scenes. The home media for the first two season's DVD releases were distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment. For Season 3, the Warner Archive Collection label also produced the Blu-ray format starting with Season 2, and began manufacture on demand DVD releases for the remaining seasons.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: Underworld is a series of dark fantasy action horror films created by Len Wiseman, Kevin Grevioux, and Danny McBride, that follows characters who are caught up in a war between vampires and werewolves (called "lycans" within the films). Most of the movies star Kate Beckinsale as the protagonist, Selene, based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. The first film, "Underworld", was released in 2003; it introduces Selene, an elite vampire-warrior who defies her orders, and Michael Corvin (Scott Speedman), a human who gets caught up in the war. The second film, "" (released in 2006) follows Selene and Michael as they are hunted by their enemies. The third film, "" (2009), is the prequel to the series, chronicling the origins of the vampire-lycan war. The fourth film, "" (2012) is the sequel to "Underworld: Evolution". In this film, humans have discovered the existence of vampires and lycans, and are trying to eradicate both species. A final film, titled "", was released internationally on November 24, 2016, and in the United States on January 6, 2017.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: The series received generally negative reviews from critics, but amassed a strong fan following and grossed a total of $539 million, against a combined budget of $207 million.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: "Underworld" tells the story of Selene (Kate Beckinsale) a Death Dealer bent on destroying the lycans who allegedly killed her family. She discovers that the lycans are pursuing a human, Michael Corvin, for experimentation; Selene captures Michael herself to find out what the lycans are up to. Along the way, Selene not only discovers a mutinous plot to destroy the vampire Elders, but also a shocking revelation about her father figure Elder, Viktor.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: The vampires and lycans are not supernatural creatures, but rather the product of a mutation of the Plague.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: It is revealed in the film that Alexander Corvinus is the first of the vampire and lycan lines. He was the only survivor of the plague that wiped out his village. Somehow, his body was able to mutate the pathogen, mold it to his own benefit. He had three sons, two of whom inherited their father's immortality and were bitten, one, Markus, by a bat, and the other, William, by a wolf, resulting in the vampire and werewolf lines. Corvinus's unnamed third son, who did not inherit immortality, also carried the Corvinus Strain as an exact duplicate of the original pathogen, hidden away in his genetic code and passed along to his human descendants through the centuries. This, according to Singe, is the key to creating a hybrid.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In "Underworld: Evolution", Selene takes Michael to a vampire safe house and plans to return to Viktor's estate to awaken Markus, the last vampire Elder. Before she can return, Markus confronts her, having been awakened by the blood of the lycan scientist, Singe, after he was killed. Markus does not seem keen to help Selene and wishes to steal her memories for information. While on the run from Markus, Selene and Michael discover that Markus is the first vampire and that he plans to free his imprisoned brother, William, the first and most savage werewolf.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: "Underworld: Rise of the Lycans" is a 2009 American film directed by Patrick Tatopoulos. It is the third installment (chronologically the first) in the "Underworld" series, focusing primarily on the origins of some characters and the events leading to the vampirelycan war, depicted in the previous films "Underworld" and "".


title: Underworld (film series)

text: As shown in the film, the original werewolves were uncontrollable beasts, unable to retake human form once bitten. However, there was a single werewolf who gave birth to a human-looking child. This child carried a mutation of the original pathogen, permitting him to alternate between human and werewolf form. He was Lucian, dubbed by Viktor as "the first of the lycans".


title: Underworld (film series)

text: The vampires used the lycans as slaves to be the guardians of their lairs during the daylight hours and labor during the night. However, Viktor's daughter, Sonja, and Lucian fell in love and she became pregnant. Lucian, the lycan leader, led a revolt after Viktor killed Sonja to prevent the blending of the species.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: A fourth film, entitled "Awakening", shot in 3D, was directed by Måns Mårlind and Björn Stein and released on January 20, 2012. Kate Beckinsale reprises her role as Selene and screenwriter John Hlavin stated prior to the film's release that it will not be like any of the previous films. Production began in March 2011 in Vancouver with Tom Rosenberg, Gary Lucchesi, and Len Wiseman producing. On April 4, 2011, the title of the film was announced and the following plot synopsis was given:


title: Underworld (film series)

text: Kate Beckinsale, star of the first two films, returns in her lead role as the vampire death dealer Selene, who escapes imprisonment to find herself in a world where humans have discovered the existence of both vampire and lycan clans, and are conducting an all-out war to eradicate both immortal species.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: Selene also learns that she has a hybrid daughter born while she was imprisoned, who has the ability to see through her parents' eyes. The same goes for Selene, who has the ability to see through the child's eyes and uses it to find her daughter several times in the movie.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: On August 27, 2014, Lakeshore Entertainment announced plans to reboot the franchise. Cory Goodman was hired to write the script for the first film. Tom Rosenberg and Gary Lucchesi would be producers. Later it was confirmed not to be a reboot but another entry in the series. The fifth film, originally tentatively titled "", was in production with Kate Beckinsale reprising her role as Selene and Anna Foerster set to direct the fifth film in Prague in October. Theo James was set to reprise his role as David from the fourth film as the new lead, but said that "[his] involvement in it is... I think it's going to be very difficult to do that with these Divergent movies, and my other commitments." James however remained in the film to fulfill an option agreement. It was announced by "Deadline" that Tobias Menzies was cast as Marius, a mysterious new lycan leader who'd more than likely go toe-to-toe with Selene and her vampire clan. In September 2015, Deadline reported that Bradley James was hired as the villain Varga, Clementine Nicholson as Lena (the Nordic Coven's greatest warrior and daughter of Vidar), and Lara Pulver as Semira.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: The film was released internationally on November 24, 2016, and in the United States on January 6, 2017.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In September 2018, Beckinsale cast doubt on appearing in a sixth "Underworld" film. By July 2021 however, she stated that she was not opposed to reprising the role.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In 2014, a crossover with the film "I, Frankenstein" was planned by Kevin Grevioux, co-creator of the "Underworld" franchise and creator of the "I, Frankenstein" graphic novel. He stated in a pre-release interview that, in an early draft of his screenplay, Beckinsale would have made a post-credit cameo appearance as Selene and that there would have been "Underworld" easter eggs, but none of this was used.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In October 2016, Kate Beckinsale stated that a crossover film between "Underworld" and the "Blade" franchise, featuring Wesley Snipes reprising his role as Blade, had been in development and discussed with Marvel the previous year, but was declined after Marvel Studios regained the film rights to the character and planned to introduce the character into the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In 2016, producer David Kern revealed that a crossover film with the "Resident Evil" film series had also been considered.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: "Underworld: Endless War" is a 2011 animated film, which includes three individual short films beginning in 1890 and leading up to the events of "". The film follows Selene as she hunts down a group of three lycan brothers in three separate time periods.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In October 2014, Wiseman announced plans to expand the film series into a franchise with the possibility of spin-offs in addition to a television series. In January 2016, the filmmaker confirmed that he is still developing the series though there is no timetable for when it will debut. He stated that the series will explore characters that tie into the film series.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: The series officially entered development in September 2017. Wiseman was announced to return to the franchise as executive producer. The filmmaker stated that the series will be a "pretty big departure from the films", specifying that the tone and character of the show will be different. The series will be a joint-venture production between Sony Pictures Television, Screen Gems, Sketch Films, Lakeshore Entertainment, and 20th Century Television.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In September 2003, shortly after the release of "Underworld", production companies Screen Gems and Lakeshore planned to release a prequel as the third film following "Underworld"s sequel, "Underworld: Evolution". Kate Beckinsale, who portrayed Selene in "Underworld", expressed interest in reprising her role for the sequel and the prequel.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In December 2005, "Underworld: Evolution" director Len Wiseman explained that the "Underworld" franchise was originally conceived as a trilogy. Wiseman said: "We sort of mapped out an entire history and story... a massive collection of ideas and stories that we're putting out at certain times." Wiseman anticipated creating a third installment for the franchise based on the audiences' reception of "Underworld: Evolution", which would be released the following month.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In a June 2006 interview, Wiseman said, "The third film is going to be a prequel. It will be the origin story and we find out things we didn't know about Lucian; he'll have a much bigger part in it. It will be about the creation [of the races] and what started the war. It will be a period piece. The movie will also focus for the first time through the lycans' point of view." The director also shared, "In terms of the writing, a lot of the writing has been done. We've been developing "Underworld 3" for a while. I won't be directing "Underworld: Rise of the Lycans"; I'm just going to be producing and writing." When asked if Kate Beckinsale would reprise her role as Selene in the prequel, Wiseman said, "It will be in the time period before, but it will overlap into the creation of her as well. We're in the process of seeing how far we go with that." The following October, actor Michael Sheen, who portrays Lucian in the film series, expressed interest in being part of the prequel.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: "The Hollywood Reporter" announced that the film would be written by Danny McBride and mark the directorial début of Patrick Tatopoulos, who designed the creature effects for all three "Underworld" films. Len Wiseman would produce, and contribute to the writing of this film, but would not direct, nor would Kate Beckinsale reprise her lead role of Selene nor would Scott Speedman reprise his role of Michael. In late September 2007, Outlander scribes Dirk Blackman and Howard McCain were brought on board and delivered a draft on November 3, mere days before the 2007-2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Pre-production began shortly thereafter.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: The prequel film was shot in Auckland, New Zealand and in Roxboro, North Carolina. There is a brief pickup shot of Tenaya Lake in Yosemite National Park as well.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In a 2009 interview, "Underworld" co-creator Kevin Grevioux revealed that he had based the Selene character off of the Marvel Comics character of the same name, without the company's permission.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: Filming for "Underworld: Awakening" began in March 2011 at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver, British Columbia. "Underworld: Awakening" is the first movie to be shot using RED EPIC digital cameras in 3D.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: IDW Publishing has published a number of "Underworld" comics, including "", and also an adaptation of the third film "Rise of the Lycans" written by Kevin Grevioux which was published and released in 2009.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In addition to the novelizations of "Underworld" and "Underworld: Evolution", there is an original novel written by Greg Cox, published by Pocket Star Books in 2004, titled "Underworld: Blood Enemy"; written before "Evolution", it depicts an alternate origin to the war, based on such details as Sonja's initial portrayal as a blonde in flashbacks.


title: Underworld (film series)

text: In September 2003, Sony contracted with Black Widow Games for the production of "Underworld: Bloodline" (a "Half-Life" mod). An action video game based on the first film entitled "" was scheduled for release on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles in 2004, but it only saw release for the PlayStation 2 in Europe, and was cancelled in all other regions.


title: Justine Bateman

text: Justine Tanya Bateman (born February 19, 1966) is an American writer, director and producer. Her former acting work includes "Family Ties", "Satisfaction", "Men Behaving Badly", "The TV Set", "Desperate Housewives", and "Californication". Her feature film directorial debut, "Violet", starring Olivia Munn, Luke Bracey, and Justin Theroux, premiered at the 2021 SXSW Film Festival. Bateman also wrote, directed and produced the film short "Five Minutes", which premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival.


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman was born in Rye, New York, to Victoria Elizabeth, a former flight attendant for Pan Am who was originally from the United Kingdom, and Kent Bateman. She is the older sister of actor Jason Bateman.


title: Justine Bateman

text: She attended Taft High School in Woodland Hills, California. However, Bateman could not attend college at the time due to her contractual obligations with "Family Ties". Bateman stated that she was informed by the series' line producer Carol Himes, "You're under contract to Paramount Studios."


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman's most prominent acting role began when she was a teenager, playing the role of superficial Mallory Keaton on the television sitcom "Family Ties" in 1982; she continued the role throughout the show's run which ended in 1989. She hosted an episode of "Saturday Night Live" during its 13th season in 1988. From her work on "Family Ties" she was nominated for two Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award.


title: Justine Bateman

text: In the 1996–97 NBC American version of the British TV comedy "Men Behaving Badly", featuring Rob Schneider and Ron Eldard, she starred as Sarah, Eldard's character's girlfriend. Bateman returned to TV with the 2003 Showtime mini-series "Out of Order", alongside Eric Stoltz, Felicity Huffman and William H. Macy.


title: Justine Bateman

text: In the third-season "Arrested Development" episode "Family Ties," which was broadcast in February 2006, her character is initially believed to be Michael Bluth's sister, but she turns out to be a prostitute taken advantage of by his father, and pimped by his brother. Michael Bluth was played by Bateman's brother Jason.


title: Justine Bateman

text: In 1988, Bateman starred in the lead role in the motion picture "Satisfaction". The film, about an all-girl musical band, also featured Julia Roberts, Liam Neeson, and Britta Phillips. Bateman starred as the lead vocalist and also performed the vocals on the soundtrack. Other films include "The Night We Never Met", with Matthew Broderick, and "The TV Set", with David Duchovny and Sigourney Weaver.


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman has acted in several web series. She acted in John August's "Remnants", Illeana Douglas' IKEA-sponsored "Easy to Assemble" (for which in 2010 Bateman was among the winners of the Streamy Award for Best Ensemble Cast and was nominated for a Streamy Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Web-Series), and Anthony Zuiker's digi-novel series "Level 26: Dark Prophecy", in which she plays a tarot card reader.


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman's theater experience includes Arthur Miller's "The Crucible" (Roundabout Theater), David Mamet's "Speed the Plow" (Williamstown Theater Fest), and Frank Wedekind's "Lulu" (Berkeley Rep).


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman wrote her feature film directorial debut, "Violet", premiered at the 2021 SXSW Film Festival. Bateman also wrote her short film directorial debut, "Five Minutes". It premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2017. She made her first script sale to Disney's "Wizards of Waverly Place". She also co-wrote the adaptation of Lisi Harrison's teenage book series "The Clique" for a Warner Bros. internet series. Bateman's first book, "Fame: The Hijacking of Reality", was published in 2018 by Akashic Books. Her second book, "Face: One Square Foot of Skin", was also published by Akashic Books in 2021.


title: Justine Bateman

text: In the fall of 2007, Bateman helped produce the Speechless campaign in support of the Writers Guild of America strike.


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman also co-produced and co-presented with fashion maven Kelly Cutrone on their internet talk show "Wake Up and Get Real" ("WUAGR"). Described as an alternative to the television series "The View", "WUAGR" was last broadcast in June 2011. She was also a producer on the internet series "Easy to Assemble ("which garnered more than 5.1 million views during its second season.),


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman produced the film short, "Z", "Five Minutes" (Toronto Film Festival 2017 premiere), and "Push," and the feature film, "Violet" (SXSW 2021 Film Festival Premiere).


title: Justine Bateman

text: Her feature film directorial debut, "Violet", starring Olivia Munn, Justin Theroux, and Luke Bracey, premiered at the SXSW 2021 film festival. Her short film directorial debut, "Five Minutes", was an official selection at various film festivals, including the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival and the 2018 Tribeca Film Festival. It was a winner in Amazon Prime's Festival Stars competition, and one of Vimeo's Short of the Week.


title: Justine Bateman

text: During a hiatus from the entertainment business, Bateman established a clothing design company in 2000. She managed it until its closure in 2003. Justine Bateman Designs was known for one-of-a-kind hand knits. It sold to BendelsNY, Saks Fifth Avenue, and Fred Segal.


title: Justine Bateman

text: She served on the National Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild until July 2009, when she resigned just before the end of her initial three-year term.


title: Justine Bateman

text: In 2001, Bateman married Mark Fluent, with whom she has two children. An outspoken supporter of net neutrality, she testified before the United States Senate Commerce Committee in support of it in 2008.


title: Justine Bateman

text: Bateman earned a degree in computer science and digital media management from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in 2016.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a common infection caused by a group of enteroviruses. It typically begins with a fever and feeling generally unwell. This is followed a day or two later by flat discolored spots or bumps that may blister, on the hands, feet and mouth and occasionally buttocks and groin. Signs and symptoms normally appear 3–6 days after exposure to the virus. The rash generally resolves on its own in about a week. Fingernail and toenail loss may occur a few weeks later, but they will regrow with time.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: The viruses that cause HFMD are spread through close personal contact, through the air from coughing and the feces of an infected person. Contaminated objects can also spread the disease. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause, and enterovirus 71 is the second-most common cause. Other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible. Some people may carry and pass on the virus despite having no symptoms of disease. Other animals are not involved. Diagnosis can often be made based on symptoms. Occasionally, a throat or stool sample may be tested for the virus.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Most people with hand, foot, and mouth disease get better on their own in 7 to 10 days. Most cases require no specific treatment. No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. For fever and for painful mouth sores, over-the-counter pain medications such as ibuprofen may be used, though aspirin should be avoided in children. The illness is usually not serious. Occasionally, intravenous fluids are given to children who are dehydrated. Very rarely, viral meningitis or encephalitis may complicate the disease. Because HFMD is normally mild, children can continue to go to child care and schools as long as they have no fever or uncontrolled drooling with mouth sores, and as long as they feel well enough to participate in classroom activities.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: HFMD occurs in all areas of the world. It often occurs in small outbreaks in nursery schools or kindergartens. Large outbreaks have been occurring in Asia since 1997. It usually occurs during the spring, summer and fall months. Typically it occurs in children less than five years old but can occasionally occur in adults. HFMD should not be confused with foot-and-mouth disease (also known as hoof-and-mouth disease), which mostly affects livestock.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Common constitutional signs and symptoms of the HFMD include fever, nausea, vomiting, feeling tired, generalized discomfort, loss of appetite, and irritability in infants and toddlers. Skin lesions frequently develop in the form of a rash of flat discolored spots and bumps which may be followed by vesicular sores with blisters on palms of the hands, soles of the feet, buttocks, and sometimes on the lips. The rash is rarely itchy for children, but can be extremely itchy for adults. Painful facial ulcers, blisters, or lesions may also develop in or around the nose or mouth. HFMD usually resolves on its own after 7–10 days. Most cases of the disease are relatively harmless, but complications including encephalitis, meningitis, and paralysis that mimics the neurological symptoms of polio can occur.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: The viruses that cause the disease are of the "Picornaviridae" family. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause of HFMD. Enterovirus 71 (EV-71) is the second-most common cause. Many other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: HFMD is highly contagious and is transmitted by nasopharyngeal secretions such as saliva or nasal mucus, by direct contact, or by fecal–oral transmission. It is possible to be infectious for days to weeks after the symptoms have resolved.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Child care settings are the most common places for HFMD to be contracted because of toilet training, diaper changes, and the fact that children often put their hands into their mouths. HFMD is contracted through nose and throat secretions such as saliva, sputum, nasal mucus and as well as fluid in blisters, and stool.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: A diagnosis usually can be made by the presenting signs and symptoms alone. If the diagnosis is unclear, a throat swab or stool specimen may be taken to identify the virus by culture. The common incubation period (the time between infection and onset of symptoms) ranges from three to six days. Early detection of HFMD is important in preventing an outbreak in the pediatric population.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Preventive measures include avoiding direct contact with infected individuals (including keeping infected children home from school), proper cleaning of shared utensils, disinfecting contaminated surfaces, and proper hand hygiene. These measures have been shown to be effective in decreasing the transmission of the viruses responsible for HFMD.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Protective habits include hand washing and disinfecting surfaces in play areas. Breast-feeding has also shown to decrease rates of severe HFMD, though does not reduce the risk for the infection of the disease.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: A vaccine known as the EV71 vaccine is available to prevent HFMD in China . No vaccine is currently available in the United States.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Medications are usually not needed as hand, foot, and mouth disease is a viral disease that typically resolves on its own. Currently, there is no specific curative treatment for hand, foot and mouth disease. Disease management typically focuses on achieving symptomatic relief. Pain from the sores may be eased with the use of analgesic medications. Infection in older children, adolescents, and adults is typically mild and lasts approximately 1 week, but may occasionally run a longer course. Fever reducers can help decrease body temperature.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: In 2018, National Health Commission of China assembled a panel of experts to revise their guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of hand, foot and mouth disease. Consumption of Traditional Chinese medicine, prescribed by certified physicians, are recommended to clear the symptoms.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: A minority of individuals with hand, foot and mouth disease may require hospital admission due to complications such as inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the meninges, or acute flaccid paralysis. Non-neurologic complications such as inflammation of the heart, fluid in the lungs, or bleeding into the lungs may also occur.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Complications from the viral infections that cause HFMD are rare, but require immediate medical treatment if present. HFMD infections caused by Enterovirus 71 tend to be more severe and are more likely to have neurologic or cardiac complications including death than infections caused by Coxsackievirus A16. Viral or aseptic meningitis can occur with HFMD in rare cases and is characterized by fever, headache, stiff neck, or back pain. The condition is usually mild and clears without treatment; however, hospitalization for a short time may be needed. Other serious complications of HFMD include encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), or flaccid paralysis in rare circumstances.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Fingernail and toenail loss have been reported in children 4–8 weeks after having HFMD. The relationship between HFMD and the reported nail loss is unclear; however, it is temporary and nail growth resumes without treatment.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Minor complications due to symptoms can occur such as dehydration, due to mouth sores causing discomfort with intake of foods and fluid.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Hand, foot and mouth disease most commonly occurs in children under the age of 10 and more often under the age of 5, but it can also affect adults with varying symptoms. It tends to occur in outbreaks during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons. This is believed to be due to heat and humidity improving spread. HFMD is more common in rural areas than urban areas; however, socioeconomic status and hygiene levels need to be considered. Poor hygiene is a risk factor for HFMD.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: An outbreak of an illness referred to as "tomato fever" or "tomato flu" was identified in the Kollam district on May 6, 2022. The illness is endemic to Kerala, India and gets its name because of the red and round blisters it causes, which look like tomatoes. The disease may be a new variant of the viral HFMD or an effect of chikungunya or dengue fever. "Flu" may be a misnomer.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: The condition mainly affects children under the age of five. An article in "The Lancet" states that the appearance of the blisters is similar to that seen in monkey pox, and the illness is not thought to be related to SARS-CoV-2. Symptoms, treatment and prevention are similar to HFMD.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: HFMD cases were first described clinically in Canada and New Zealand in 1957. The disease was termed "Hand Foot and Mouth Disease", by Thomas Henry Flewett, after a similar outbreak in 1960.


title: Hand, foot, and mouth disease

text: Novel antiviral agents to prevent and treat infection with the viruses responsible for HFMD are currently under development. Preliminary studies have shown inhibitors of the EV-71 viral capsid to have potent antiviral activity.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Victor-Marie Hugo (; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romantic writer and politician. During a literary career that spanned more than sixty years, he wrote in a variety of genres and forms. He is considered to be one of the greatest French writers of all time.


title: Victor Hugo

text: His most famous works are the novels "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame" (1831) and "Les Misérables" (1862). In France, Hugo is renowned for his poetry collections, such as ("The Contemplations") and ("The Legend of the Ages"). Hugo was at the forefront of the Romantic literary movement with his play "Cromwell" and drama "Hernani". Many of his works have inspired music, both during his lifetime and after his death, including the opera "Rigoletto" and the musicals "Les Misérables" and "Notre-Dame de Paris". He produced more than 4,000 drawings in his lifetime, and campaigned for social causes such as the abolition of capital punishment.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Though he was a committed royalist when young, Hugo's views changed as the decades passed, and he became a passionate supporter of republicanism, serving in politics as both deputy and senator. His work touched upon most of the political and social issues and the artistic trends of his time. His opposition to absolutism and his literary stature established him as a national hero. He was honoured by interment in the Panthéon.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Victor-Marie Hugo was born on 26 February 1802 in in Eastern France. He was the youngest son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo (1774–1828), a general in the Napoleonic army, and Sophie Trébuchet (1772–1821); the couple had two more sons: Abel Joseph (1798–1855) and (1800–1837). The Hugo family came from Nancy in Lorraine where Victor Hugo's grandfather was a wood merchant. Léopold enlisted in the army of Revolutionary France at fourteen. He was an atheist and an ardent supporter of the republic created following the abolition of the monarchy in 1792. Victor's mother Sophie was loyal to the deposed dynasty but would declare her children to be Protestants. They met in Châteaubriant, a few miles from Nantes, in 1796 and married the following year.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Since Hugo's father was an officer in Napoleon's army, the family moved frequently from posting to posting, Sophie had three children in four years. Léopold Hugo wrote to his son that he had been conceived on one of the highest peaks in the Vosges Mountains, on a journey from Lunéville to Besançon. "This elevated origin", he went on, "seems to have had effects on you so that your muse is now continually sublime." Hugo believed himself to have been conceived on 24 June 1801, which is the origin of Jean Valjean's prisoner number 24601.


title: Victor Hugo

text: In 1810 Hugo's father was created Count Hugo de Cogolludo y Sigüenza by the then King of Spain Joseph Bonaparte, though it seems that the Spanish title was not legally recognized in France. Hugo later titled himself as a viscount, and it was as "Vicomte Victor Hugo" that he was appointed a peer of France on 13 April 1845.