title: Thomas Cromwell

text: On 17 December 1538, the Inquisitor-General of France forbade the printing of Miles Coverdale's Great Bible. Then, Cromwell persuaded the King of France to release the unfinished books so that printing could continue in England. The first edition was finally available in April 1539. The publication of the Great Bible was one of Cromwell's principal achievements, being the first authoritative version in English.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: The King, however, continued to resist further Reformation measures. A Parliamentary committee was established to examine doctrine, and the Duke of Norfolk presented six questions on 16 May 1539 for the House to consider, which were duly passed as the Act of Six Articles shortly before the session ended on 28 June. The Six Articles reaffirmed a traditional view of the Mass, the Sacraments, and the priesthood.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Henry's third wife, Jane, died in 1537, less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, the future Edward VI. In early October 1539, the King finally accepted Cromwell's suggestion that he should marry Anne of Cleves, the sister of Duke Wilhelm of Cleves, partly on the basis of a portrait which Hans Holbein had painted of her. On 27 December, Anne of Cleves arrived at Dover. On New Year's Day 1540, the King met her at Rochester and was immediately repelled by her physically: "I like her not!". The wedding ceremony, Archbishop Cranmer officiating, took place on 6 January in the Queen's Closet at Greenwich Palace, but the marriage was not consummated. Henry said that he found it impossible to enjoy conjugal relations with a woman whom he found so unattractive.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: On 18 April 1540, Henry granted Cromwell the earldom of Essex and the senior Court office of Lord Great Chamberlain. Despite these signs of royal favour, Cromwell's tenure as the King's chief minister was nearing its end. The King's anger at being manoeuvered into marrying Anne of Cleves was the opportunity Cromwell's conservative opponents, most notably the Duke of Norfolk, had been hoping for.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: During 1536 Cromwell had proven himself an agile political survivor. However, the gradual slide towards Protestantism at home and the King's ill-starred marriage to Anne of Cleves, which Cromwell engineered in January 1540, proved costly. Some historians believe that Hans Holbein the Younger was partly responsible for Cromwell's downfall because he had provided a very flattering portrait of Anne which may have deceived the king. The painting is now displayed at the Louvre in Paris. When Henry finally met her, the king was reportedly shocked by her plain appearance. Cromwell had passed on to Henry some exaggerated claims of Anne's beauty.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Henry VIII confided in Cromwell that he had been unable to consummate the union with Anne and he allowed Cromwell to impart this information to William Fitzwilliam, 1st Earl of Southampton who, as Lord Admiral, had conveyed Anne from Calais. Back home at Austin Friars, and uncertain how to deal with this new problem, Cromwell also told Thomas Wriothesley, his principal secretary (who also served the king in various important positions). When Henry's humiliation became common knowledge, Southampton (who was anxious to avoid the king's displeasure for his part in bringing Anne to London), or possibly Wriothesley's close friend Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London, made sure that Cromwell was blamed for the indiscretion. Wriothesley, the bishop and the Lord Admiral were erstwhile friends of Cromwell and their self-serving disloyalty indicated that the minister's position was already known to be weakening.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: A long-mooted Franco-Imperial alliance (contrary to England's interests) had failed to materialise: Cromwell had caused the Duke of Norfolk to be sent to the court of the French king Francis I to offer Henry's support in his unresolved dispute with Emperor Charles V, and the mission had been received favourably. This changed the balance of power in England's favour and demonstrated that Cromwell's earlier foreign policy of wooing support from the Duchy of Cleves had unnecessarily caused his king's conjugal difficulty. Furthermore, the possibility of war was arising between the Duke of Cleves and Charles V and, if this materialised, Henry would be trapped by his new alliance with Cleves into declaring war on France, an unwelcome reversal of previous policy.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Early in 1540 Cromwell's religiously conservative, aristocratic enemies, headed by the Duke of Norfolk and supported by Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester (given the nickname "Wily Winchester" by polemical historian John Foxe for his mischievous counsels to the king) decided that the country's decline towards "doctrinal radicalism" in religion, as expressed in a series of parliamentary debates held throughout that spring, had gone too far. They saw in Catherine Howard, Norfolk's niece, "considerately put in the king's way by that pander, her uncle of Norfolk", an opportunity to displace their foe. Catherine's assignations with the king were openly facilitated by the duke and the bishop and as she "strode…towards the throne" the two conspirators found themselves edging once more into political power. It would have been a simple matter for Cromwell to arrange an annulment of Henry's marriage to the tractable Anne, but this would have put him in greater jeopardy as it would clear the way for Catherine to marry the king. At this point, however, cynical self-interest may have made Henry hesitate to act immediately against Cromwell, as the minister was guiding two important revenue bills (the Subsidy Bill—whereby Cromwell sought to extend the principle that taxation could be levied for general government purposes rather than a specified objective—and a bill to confiscate the assets of the Order of St John) through parliament; Henry was anxious that any unpopularity caused by the measures would fall on Cromwell and not himself.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Cromwell was arrested at a Council meeting at Westminster on 10 June 1540 and accused of various charges. "Cromwell may have been arrested for his promotion of religious reformation, but few could doubt that Henry was also punishing Cromwell for the humiliation of his latest marriage." His enemies took every opportunity to humiliate him: The Duke of Norfolk snatched the St George's collar (insignia of the Order of the Garter) from Cromwell's shoulders, saying: "A traitor must not wear it", while the prisoner's former friend the Earl of Southampton untied the ceremonial garter of the Order. His initial reaction was defiance: "This then is my reward for faithful service!" he cried out, and angrily defied his fellow councillors to call him a traitor. He was taken by barge to the Tower and imprisoned.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: A Bill of Attainder containing a long list of indictments, including supporting Anabaptists, corrupt practices, leniency in matters of justice, acting for personal gain, protecting Protestants accused of heresy and thus failing to enforce the Act of Six Articles, and plotting to marry King Henry's daughter Mary, was introduced into the House of Lords a week later. It was augmented with a further charge of sacramentarianism, for which the Six Articles allowed only the death penalty, two days after that. It passed on 29 June 1540.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: All Cromwell's honours were forfeited and it was publicly proclaimed that he could be called only "Thomas Cromwell, cloth carder". The King deferred the execution until his marriage to Anne of Cleves could be annulled; Cromwell was being spared for the time being in case he was needed to give evidence of the king's distaste for Anne. Anne, however, agreed to an amicable annulment (and was treated with great generosity by Henry as a result). Hoping for clemency, Cromwell wrote in support of the annulment, in his last personal address to the King. He ended the letter: "Most gracious Prince, I cry for mercy, mercy, mercy."


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Cromwell was condemned to death without trial, lost all his titles and property and was publicly beheaded on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540, on the same day as the King's marriage to Catherine Howard. Cromwell made a prayer and speech on the scaffold, professing to die, "in the traditional [Catholic] faith" and denying that he had aided heretics. This was a necessary disavowal, to protect his family. The circumstances of his execution are a source of debate: whilst some accounts state that the executioner had great difficulty severing his head, others claim that this is and that it took only one blow. Afterwards, his head was set on a spike on London Bridge.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Many lamented but more rejoiced, and specially such as either had been religious men, or favoured religious persons; for they banqueted and triumphed together that night, many wishing that that day had been seven years before; and some fearing lest he should escape, although he were imprisoned, could not be merry. Others who knew nothing but truth by him both lamented him and heartily prayed for him. But this is true that of certain of the clergy he was detestably hated, & specially of such as had borne swynge [beaten hard], and by his means was put from it; for in deed he was a man that in all his doings seemed not to favour any kind of Popery, nor could not abide the snoffyng pride of some prelates, which undoubtedly, whatsoever else was the cause of his death, did shorten his life and procured the end that he was brought unto.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Henry came to regret Cromwell's killing and later accused his ministers of bringing about Cromwell's downfall by "pretexts" and "false accusations"; over important issues and policies he had always been liable to be "bounced" into a hasty decision by the intrigues of the factions within his court. On 3 March 1541, the French ambassador, Charles de Marillac, reported in a letter that the King was now said to be lamenting that,


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: under pretext of some slight offences which he had committed, they had brought several accusations against him, on the strength of which he had put to death the most faithful servant he ever had.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: There remains an element of what G. R. Elton describes as "mystery" about Cromwell's demise. In April 1540, just three months before he went to the block, he was created Earl of Essex and Lord Great Chamberlain. The arbitrary and unpredictable streak in the King's personality, which more than once exercised influence during his reign, had surfaced again and washed Cromwell away in its wake.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Although Cromwell always maintained a primarily political outlook on general affairs, there is consensus among scholars that at least while he held power he was a Protestant, with a Lutheran mindset. For him, the Henrician Reformation was certainly more than a jurisdictional revolution masquerading in religious garb. For instance, in the mid-1530s, he promoted Protestant ideas to forge an alliance with German Lutheran states, but his support for the Protestant cause is too general to be accurately explained in narrow political terms.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: In 1535 Cromwell succeeded in having clearly identified reformers, such as Hugh Latimer, Edward Foxe and Nicholas Shaxton, appointed to the episcopacy. He encouraged and supported the work of reformers, such as Robert Barnes; and he obtained the licence to publish the Matthew's Bible, providing significant funding for the printing of this English translation of the Bible and sending one to every parish in England. By 1538, it was compulsory for all churches to own a Bible, in accordance with Cromwell's injunctions. The revised version, the Great Bible, was widely available by 1539 and included a picture of Henry VIII, Thomas Cranmer and Cromwell on the title page.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: When Cromwell fell from favour in 1540, his alleged support for Anabaptism was cited. Although the charge was spurious, the fact that it was levelled at all demonstrates the reputation for evangelical sympathies Cromwell had developed.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Until the 1950s, historians discounted Cromwell's role, calling him a doctrinaire hack who was little more than the agent of the despotic King Henry VIII. The 1911 "Encyclopædia Britannica" article (written by Albert Pollard) states "his power has been overrated." Geoffrey Elton, however, in "The Tudor Revolution" (1953), featured him as the central figure in the Tudor revolution in government, the presiding genius, much more so than the king, in handling the break with Rome and in creating the laws and administrative procedures that reshaped post-Reformation England. Elton wrote that Cromwell had been responsible for translating royal supremacy into parliamentary terms, creating powerful new organs of government to take charge of Church lands, and largely removing the medieval features of central government.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Subsequent historians have agreed with Elton as to Cromwell's importance, though not with his claims of "revolution". Leithead (2004) wrote, "Against significant opposition he secured acceptance of the king's new powers, created a more united and more easily governable kingdom, and provided the crown, at least temporarily, with a very significant landed endowment." Diarmaid MacCulloch credits the advancement of the most significant politicians and administrators of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, including William Cecil and Nicholas Bacon, to the influence and guidance of Thomas Cromwell at the start of their careers.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: During Cromwell's years in power, he skilfully managed Crown finances and extended royal authority. In 1536, he established the Court of Augmentations to handle the massive windfall to the royal coffers from the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Two other important financial institutions, the Court of Wards and the Court of First Fruits and Tenths, owed their existence to him, although they were not set up until after his death. He strengthened royal authority in the north of England, through reform of the Council of the North, extended royal power and introduced Protestantism in Ireland, and was the architect of the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, which promoted stability and gained acceptance for the royal supremacy in Wales. He also introduced important social and economic reforms in England in the 1530s, including action against enclosures, the promotion of English cloth exports and the poor relief legislation of 1536.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Thomas Cromwell's son Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell, married Elizabeth Seymour, the sister of Queen Jane Seymour and widow of Sir Anthony Ughtred. They had five children:


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell was the great-grandson of Sir Richard Cromwell, Thomas Cromwell's nephew.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Thomas Cromwell was a patron of Hans Holbein the Younger, as were Thomas More and Anne Boleyn. In the New York Frick Collection, two portraits by Holbein hang facing each other on the same wall of the Study, one depicting Thomas Cromwell, the other a "fearless" Thomas More, Cromwell's executed political and religious opponent.


title: Thomas Cromwell

text: Cromwell has been portrayed in a number of plays, feature films, and television miniseries, usually as a villainous character. More recently, however, Hilary Mantel's two Man Booker Prize-winning novels "Wolf Hall" (2009) and "Bring up the Bodies" (2012), and the final volume in the trilogy, "The Mirror and the Light" (2020), have shown Cromwell in a more sympathetic light. In the fiction, he is imbued with family affections, genuine respect for Cardinal Wolsey, zeal for the Reformation, and support for a limited degree of social reform, while the villainous character is Thomas More.


title: Chi-squared test

text: A chi-squared test (also chi-square or test) is a statistical hypothesis test used in the analysis of contingency tables when the sample sizes are large. In simpler terms, this test is primarily used to examine whether two categorical variables ("two dimensions of the contingency table") are independent in influencing the test statistic ("values within the table"). The test is valid when the test statistic is chi-squared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically Pearson's chi-squared test and variants thereof. Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more categories of a contingency table. For contingency tables with smaller sample sizes, a Fisher's exact test is used instead.


title: Chi-squared test

text: In the standard applications of this test, the observations are classified into mutually exclusive classes. If the null hypothesis that there are no differences between the classes in the population is true, the test statistic computed from the observations follows a frequency distribution. The purpose of the test is to evaluate how likely the observed frequencies would be assuming the null hypothesis is true.


title: Chi-squared test

text: Test statistics that follow a distribution occur when the observations are independent. There are also tests for testing the null hypothesis of independence of a pair of random variables based on observations of the pairs.


title: Chi-squared test

text: "Chi-squared tests" often refers to tests for which the distribution of the test statistic approaches the distribution asymptotically, meaning that the sampling distribution (if the null hypothesis is true) of the test statistic approximates a chi-squared distribution more and more closely as sample sizes increase.


title: Chi-squared test

text: In the 19th century, statistical analytical methods were mainly applied in biological data analysis and it was customary for researchers to assume that observations followed a normal distribution, such as Sir George Airy and Mansfield Merriman, whose works were criticized by Karl Pearson in his 1900 paper.


title: Chi-squared test

text: At the end of the 19th century, Pearson noticed the existence of significant skewness within some biological observations. In order to model the observations regardless of being normal or skewed, Pearson, in a series of articles published from 1893 to 1916, devised the Pearson distribution, a family of continuous probability distributions, which includes the normal distribution and many skewed distributions, and proposed a method of statistical analysis consisting of using the Pearson distribution to model the observation and performing a test of goodness of fit to determine how well the model really fits to the observations.


title: Chi-squared test

text: In 1900, Pearson published a paper on the test which is considered to be one of the foundations of modern statistics. In this paper, Pearson investigated a test of goodness of fit.


title: Chi-squared test

text: Suppose that observations in a random sample from a population are classified into mutually exclusive classes with respective observed numbers (for ), and a null hypothesis gives the probability that an observation falls into the th class. So we have the expected numbers for all , where


title: Chi-squared test

text: Pearson proposed that, under the circumstance of the null hypothesis being correct, as the limiting distribution of the quantity given below is the distribution.


title: Chi-squared test

text: Pearson dealt first with the case in which the expected numbers are large enough known numbers in all cells assuming every may be taken as normally distributed, and reached the result that, in the limit as becomes large, follows the distribution with degrees of freedom.


title: Chi-squared test

text: However, Pearson next considered the case in which the expected numbers depended on the parameters that had to be estimated from the sample, and suggested that, with the notation of being the true expected numbers and being the estimated expected numbers, the difference


title: Chi-squared test

text: will usually be positive and small enough to be omitted. In a conclusion, Pearson argued that if we regarded as also distributed as distribution with degrees of freedom, the error in this approximation would not affect practical decisions. This conclusion caused some controversy in practical applications and was not settled for 20 years until Fisher's 1922 and 1924 papers.


title: Chi-squared test

text: One test statistic that follows a chi-squared distribution exactly is the test that the variance of a normally distributed population has a given value based on a sample variance. Such tests are uncommon in practice because the true variance of the population is usually unknown. However, there are several statistical tests where the chi-squared distribution is approximately valid:


title: Chi-squared test

text: For an exact test used in place of the 2 × 2 chi-squared test for independence, see Fisher's exact test.


title: Chi-squared test

text: For an exact test used in place of the 2 × 1 chi-squared test for goodness of fit, see binomial test.


title: Chi-squared test

text: Using the chi-squared distribution to interpret Pearson's chi-squared statistic requires one to assume that the discrete probability of observed binomial frequencies in the table can be approximated by the continuous chi-squared distribution. This assumption is not quite correct and introduces some error.


title: Chi-squared test

text: To reduce the error in approximation, Frank Yates suggested a correction for continuity that adjusts the formula for Pearson's chi-squared test by subtracting 0.5 from the absolute difference between each observed value and its expected value in a contingency table. This reduces the chi-squared value obtained and thus increases its "p"-value.


title: Chi-squared test

text: If a sample of size is taken from a population having a normal distribution, then there is a result (see distribution of the sample variance) which allows a test to be made of whether the variance of the population has a pre-determined value. For example, a manufacturing process might have been in stable condition for a long period, allowing a value for the variance to be determined essentially without error. Suppose that a variant of the process is being tested, giving rise to a small sample of product items whose variation is to be tested. The test statistic in this instance could be set to be the sum of squares about the sample mean, divided by the nominal value for the variance (i.e. the value to be tested as holding). Then has a chi-squared distribution with degrees of freedom. For example, if the sample size is 21, the acceptance region for with a significance level of 5% is between 9.59 and 34.17.


title: Chi-squared test

text: Suppose there is a city of 1,000,000 residents with four neighborhoods: , , , and . A random sample of 650 residents of the city is taken and their occupation is recorded as "white collar", "blue collar", or "no collar". The null hypothesis is that each person's neighborhood of residence is independent of the person's occupational classification. The data are tabulated as:


title: Chi-squared test

text: Let us take the sample living in neighborhood , 150, to estimate what proportion of the whole 1,000,000 live in neighborhood . Similarly we take to estimate what proportion of the 1,000,000 are white-collar workers. By the assumption of independence under the hypothesis we should "expect" the number of white-collar workers in neighborhood to be


title: Chi-squared test

text: The sum of these quantities over all of the cells is the test statistic; in this case, formula_6. Under the null hypothesis, this sum has approximately a chi-squared distribution whose number of degrees of freedom is


title: Chi-squared test

text: If the test statistic is improbably large according to that chi-squared distribution, then one rejects the null hypothesis of independence.


title: Chi-squared test

text: A related issue is a test of homogeneity. Suppose that instead of giving every resident of each of the four neighborhoods an equal chance of inclusion in the sample, we decide in advance how many residents of each neighborhood to include. Then each resident has the same chance of being chosen as do all residents of the same neighborhood, but residents of different neighborhoods would have different probabilities of being chosen if the four sample sizes are not proportional to the populations of the four neighborhoods. In such a case, we would be testing "homogeneity" rather than "independence". The question is whether the proportions of blue-collar, white-collar, and no-collar workers in the four neighborhoods are the same. However, the test is done in the same way.


title: Chi-squared test

text: In cryptanalysis, the chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of plaintext and (possibly) decrypted ciphertext. The lowest value of the test means that the decryption was successful with high probability. This method can be generalized for solving modern cryptographic problems.


title: Chi-squared test

text: In bioinformatics, the chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of certain properties of genes (e.g., genomic content, mutation rate, interaction network clustering, etc.) belonging to different categories (e.g., disease genes, essential genes, genes on a certain chromosome etc.).


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The Asian section of the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification acted as qualifiers for the 2022 FIFA World Cup to be held in Qatar for national teams who are members of the Asian Football Confederation (AFC). Apart from Qatar (who qualified automatically as hosts), a total of 4.5 slots (4 direct slots and 1 inter-confederation play-off slot) in the final tournament were available for AFC teams.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The qualification process involved four rounds; the first two doubled as the qualification for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. Despite qualifying as hosts, Qatar participated in these rounds to seek Asian Cup qualification. The first round would have acted as qualifiers for the cancelled 2020 AFC Solidarity Cup.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: All 46 FIFA-affiliated nations from the AFC entered qualification. The FIFA World Rankings of April 2019 were used to determine which nations would compete in the first round. For seeding in the second round and third round draws, the most recent FIFA Rankings prior to those draws will be used.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: According to the joint format of the World Cup and Asian Cup qualifiers, both Qatar (as the host nation of the 2022 World Cup) and China (as the host nation of the 2023 Asian Cup) also entered the second round of the qualifiers.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: Timor-Leste was banned from participating in the Asian Cup qualification after being found to have fielded a total of 12 ineligible players in 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification matches among other competitions. However, as FIFA did not ban them from the World Cup qualifiers, Timor-Leste was allowed to enter the competition, but ineligible to qualify for the Asian Cup.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The schedule of the competition is expected to be as follows, according to the FIFA International Match Calendar.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: On 9 March 2020, FIFA and AFC announced that the second round matches on matchdays 7–10 due to take place in March and June 2020 were postponed by the COVID-19 pandemic, with the new dates to be confirmed. However, subject to approval by FIFA and AFC, and agreement of both member associations, the matches may be played as scheduled provided that the safety of all individuals involved meets the required standards. On 5 June, AFC confirmed that matchdays 7 and 8 were scheduled to take place on 8 and 13 October respectively while matchdays 9 and 10 were also scheduled to kick off on 12 and 17 November. On 12 August, FIFA announced that the matches scheduled for October and November 2020 would be rescheduled to 2021.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: On 25 June 2020, FIFA announced that the inter-confederation play-offs, originally scheduled to be played in March 2022, were moved to June.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: On 11 November 2020, the AFC Competitions Committee announced that all the Asian qualifiers second round matches should be completed by 15 June 2021 with matchdays 7 and 8 in March 2021 and matchdays 9 and 10 in June 2021 with the final round of the Asian qualifiers beginning in September 2021. Also all 10 matchdays of the Asian qualifiers final round should be finished by the end of March 2022 with the Asian and inter-continental play-offs proposed for the FIFA window of May/June 2022. The Asian play-off for the World Cup in Qatar was proposed as a single match. On the same day, however, FIFA, along with the Bangladeshi and Qatari associations, gave approval to the only second round match originally scheduled for 2020, Qatar v. Bangladesh, which was played on 4 December.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The draw for the first round was held on 17 April 2019 at 11:00 MST (), at the AFC House in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The draw for the second round was held on 17 July 2019 at 17:00 MST (), at AFC House in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: North Korea withdrew from the qualifying round due to safety concerns related to the COVID-19 pandemic, therefore the results of their matches were excluded from the group standings.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: Since North Korea withdrew from Group H, results against the fifth-placed teams of each group were not counted in determining the ranking of the runner-up teams.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The third round consisted of two groups of six teams. The first two teams in each group qualified for the World Cup. The two third-placed teams proceeded to the fourth round. The draw was held on 1 July 2021 in Malaysia.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The two third-placed teams in each group from the third round played against each other in a single match to determine which team advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)

text: The inter-confederation play-off was determined by a draw held on 26 November 2021. The AFC fourth round winners was drawn against the fifth-placed team from CONMEBOL. The play-off was played as a single match in Qatar on 13 June 2022.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: Super Bowl LVII is the upcoming championship game of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2022 NFL season. The game is scheduled to be played on February 12, 2023, at State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. It will be the fourth Super Bowl hosted by the Phoenix metropolitan area, with the most recent being Super Bowl XLIX in 2015, also held at State Farm Stadium (then called University of Phoenix Stadium). The game will be televised nationally by Fox.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: A new system was introduced to select hosting sites for the Super Bowl, which began with Super Bowl LVI. The previous process that allowed cities to submit bids for the hosting rights was discarded. Instead, the league unilaterally chooses a single hosting site for each game, not allowing other cities to bid; the chosen city then puts together a proposal that is voted upon at the league's owners' meetings.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: Arizona was the first location chosen under this process; its proposal was accepted unanimously on May 23, 2018.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: The official logo was unveiled on February 14, 2022; it follows the updated logo template introduced by Super Bowl LVI, with imagery of a desert canyon and sky (the latter resembling Arizona's state flag) to reflect the landscapes of the host region.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: In response to state legislation adding restrictions on voting, as well as restricting access to some medical procedures and school sports participation from transgender youth in the sports teams of their gender identity, a number of public figures requested that the Super Bowl be moved out of Arizona, citing Super Bowl XXVII's removal from Tempe after the state legislature failed to recognize Martin Luther King Day as precedent. In February 2022, over 200 faith leaders, including Reverend Jesse Jackson and Reverend William Barber petitioned NFL commissioner Roger Goodell to move Super Bowl LVII out of Arizona in response to voting restrictions introduced in Arizona bills HB 1003, SB 1485, and SB 1819. Arizona Democratic Party vice chair Brianna Westbrook also voiced her support to move the Super Bowl after the Arizona legislature passed S.B. 1138 and S.B. 1165, which restricts access to gender reassignment procedures from minors, and bans transgender girls, who were assigned male at birth, from playing on girls’ sports teams.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: Super Bowl LVII will be televised by Fox (per the three-year rotation between Fox, CBS, and NBC, the NFL's three network broadcast partners). Super Bowl LVII marks the final game to be broadcast under the current NFL television contract. Fox will air the season premiere of "Next Level Chef" as its lead-out program.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: This will be the first Super Bowl assignment for Fox's new broadcast team of Kevin Burkhardt and Greg Olsen, who replaced Joe Buck and Troy Aikman after they departed for ESPN and "Monday Night Football". Tom Brady signed with Fox to serve as its future lead analyst after his retirement, with reports that the network planned to incorporate him into its Super Bowl coverage in some way if the Tampa Bay Buccaneers do not advance to the game.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: On September 23, 2022, Apple Music was announced as the new naming rights sponsor of the Super Bowl halftime show, replacing Pepsi, which had sponsored the previous ten halftime shows. Some media reports alleged on social media that American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift would be the headlining performer, based on her associations with Apple and traditional Pepsi rival, Coca-Cola. Subsequently, various outlets reported that Swift had turned down the offer, claiming that she would not do the halftime show until her re-recording process was complete; other sources said that Swift had never been scheduled in the slot.


title: Super Bowl LVII

text: On September 25, Barbadian singer Rihanna was announced as the headliner of the halftime show. It will mark Rihanna's first live performance in over five years, and the end of her self-imposed boycott of the event, which she had instigated in solidarity with Colin Kaepernick.


title: Kamikaze

text: , officially , were a part of the Japanese Special Attack Units of military aviators who flew suicide attacks for the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, intending to destroy warships more effectively than with conventional air attacks. About 3,800 "kamikaze" pilots died during the war, and more than 7,000 naval personnel were killed by "kamikaze" attacks.


title: Kamikaze

text: "Kamikaze" aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosive missiles, purpose-built or converted from conventional aircraft. Pilots would attempt to crash their aircraft into enemy ships in what was called a "body attack" ("tai-atari") in aircraft loaded with bombs, torpedoes and or other explosives. About 19% of "kamikaze" attacks were successful. The Japanese considered the goal of damaging or sinking large numbers of Allied ships to be a just reason for suicide attacks; "kamikaze" was more accurate than conventional attacks and often caused more damage. Some "kamikazes" were still able to hit their targets even after their aircraft had been crippled.


title: Kamikaze

text: The attacks began in October 1944, at a time when the war was looking increasingly bleak for the Japanese. They had lost several important battles, many of their best pilots had been killed, their aircraft were becoming outdated, and they had lost command of the air. Japan was losing pilots faster than it could train their replacements, and the nation's industrial capacity was diminishing relative to that of the Allies. These factors, along with Japan's unwillingness to surrender, led to the use of "kamikaze" tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands.


title: Kamikaze

text: The tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture; one of the primary values in the samurai life and the "Bushido" code was loyalty and honor until death. In addition to "kamikazes", the Japanese military also used or made plans for non-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including those involving Kairyu (submarines), Kaiten human torpedoes, Shinyo speedboats and Fukuryu divers.


title: Kamikaze

text: The Japanese word "kamikaze" is usually translated as "divine wind" ("kami" is the word for "god", "spirit", or "divinity", and "kaze" for "wind"). The word originated from "Makurakotoba" of waka poetry modifying "Ise" and has been used since August 1281 to refer to the major typhoons that dispersed Mongol-Koryo fleets who invaded Japan under Kublai Khan in 1274.


title: Kamikaze

text: A Japanese monoplane that made a record-breaking flight from Tokyo to London in 1937 for the Asahi newspaper group was named "Kamikaze". She was a prototype for the Mitsubishi Ki-15 ("Babs").


title: Kamikaze

text: In Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–1945 is "tokubetsu kōgekitai" (特別攻撃隊), which literally means "special attack unit". This is usually abbreviated to "tokkōtai" (特攻隊). More specifically, air suicide attack units from the Imperial Japanese Navy were officially called "shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai" (神風特別攻撃隊, "divine wind special attack units"). "Shinpū" is the on-reading ("on'yomi" or Chinese-derived pronunciation) of the same characters as the kun-reading ("kun'yomi" or Japanese pronunciation) "kamikaze" in Japanese. During World War II, the pronunciation "kamikaze" was used only informally in the Japanese press in relation to suicide attacks, but after the war, this usage gained acceptance worldwide and was re-imported into Japan.


title: Kamikaze

text: Before the formation of "kamikaze" units, pilots had made deliberate crashes as a last resort when their aircraft had suffered severe damage and they did not want to risk being captured or wanted to do as much damage to the enemy as possible, since they were crashing anyway. Such situations occurred in both the Axis and Allied air forces. Axell and Kase see these suicides as "individual, impromptu decisions by men who were mentally prepared to die".


title: Kamikaze

text: One example of this may have occurred on 7 December 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor. First Lieutenant Fusata Iida's aircraft had taken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Naval Air Station Kaneohe. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his aircraft were to become badly damaged he would crash it into a "worthy enemy target". Another possible example occurred at the Battle of Midway when a damaged American bomber flew at the 's bridge but missed. But in most cases, little evidence exists that such hits represented more than accidental collisions of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea or air battles.


title: Kamikaze

text: The carrier battles in 1942, particularly Midway, inflicted irreparable damage on the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS), such that they could no longer put together a large number of fleet carriers with well-trained aircrews. Japanese planners had assumed a quick war and lacked comprehensive programs to replace the losses of ships, pilots, and sailors; and Midway; the Solomon Islands campaign (1942–1945) and the New Guinea campaign (1942–1945), notably the Battles of Eastern Solomons (August 1942); and Santa Cruz (October 1942), decimated the IJNAS veteran aircrews, and replacing their combat experience proved impossible.


title: Kamikaze

text: During 1943–1944, U.S. forces steadily advanced toward Japan. Newer U.S.-made aircraft, especially the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, outclassed and soon outnumbered Japan's fighters. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of spare parts and fuel, made operations more and more difficult for the IJNAS. By the Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 1944), the Japanese had to make do with obsolete aircraft and inexperienced aviators in the fight against better-trained and more experienced US Navy airmen who flew radar-directed combat air patrols. The Japanese lost over 400 carrier-based aircraft and pilots in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, effectively putting an end to their carriers' potency. Allied aviators called the action the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot".


title: Kamikaze

text: On 19 June 1944, aircraft from the carrier approached a US task group. According to some accounts, two made suicide attacks, one of which hit .


title: Kamikaze

text: The important Japanese base of Saipan fell to the Allied forces on 15 July 1944. Its capture provided adequate forward bases that enabled U.S. air forces using the Boeing B-29 Superfortress to strike at the Japanese home islands. After the fall of Saipan, the Japanese High Command predicted that the Allies would try to capture the Philippines, strategically important to Tokyo because of the islands' location between the oilfields of Southeast Asia and Japan.


title: Kamikaze

text: Captain Motoharu Okamura, in charge of the Tateyama Base in Tokyo, as well as the 341st Air Group Home, was, according to some sources, the first officer to officially propose "kamikaze" attack tactics. With his superiors, he arranged the first investigations into the plausibility and mechanisms of intentional suicide attacks on 15 June 1944.


title: Kamikaze

text: In August 1944, it was announced by the Domei news agency that a flight instructor named Takeo Tagata was training pilots in Taiwan for suicide missions.


title: Kamikaze

text: One source claims that the first "kamikaze" mission occurred on 13 September 1944. A group of pilots from the army's 31st Fighter Squadron on Negros Island decided to launch a suicide attack the following morning. First Lieutenant Takeshi Kosai and a sergeant were selected. Two bombs were attached to two fighters, and the pilots took off before dawn, planning to crash into carriers. They never returned, but there is no record of a Kamikaze hitting an Allied ship that day.


title: Kamikaze

text: Rear Admiral Masafumi Arima, the commander of the 26th Air Flotilla (part of the 11th Air Fleet), is sometimes credited with inventing the "kamikaze" tactic. Arima personally led an attack by a Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" twin engined bomber against a large "Essex"-class aircraft carrier, , near Leyte Gulf, on or about 15 October 1944. Arima was killed and part of an aircraft hit "Franklin". The Japanese high command and propagandists seized on Arima's example. He was promoted posthumously to Vice Admiral and was given official credit for making the first "kamikaze" attack. It is not clear that this was a planned suicide attack, and official Japanese accounts of Arima's attack bore little resemblance to the actual events.


title: Kamikaze

text: On 17 October 1944, Allied forces assaulted Suluan Island, beginning the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The Imperial Japanese Navy's 1st Air Fleet, based at Manila, was assigned the task of assisting the Japanese ships that would attempt to destroy Allied forces in Leyte Gulf. That unit had only 41 aircraft: 34 Mitsubishi A6M Zero ("Zeke") carrier-based fighters, three Nakajima B6N "Tenzan" ("Jill") torpedo bombers, one Mitsubishi G4M ("Betty") and two Yokosuka P1Y "Ginga" ("Frances") land-based bombers, and one additional reconnaissance aircraft. The task facing the Japanese air forces seemed impossible. The 1st Air Fleet commandant, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, decided to form a suicide offensive force, the Special Attack Unit. In a meeting on 19 October at Mabalacat Airfield (known to the U.S. military as Clark Air Base) near Manila, Onishi told officers of the 201st Flying Group headquarters: "I don't think there would be any other certain way to carry out the operation [to hold the Philippines] than to put a 250 kg bomb on a Zero and let it crash into a U.S. carrier, in order to disable her for a week."


title: Kamikaze

text: Commander Asaichi Tamai asked a group of 23 talented student pilots, all of whom he had trained, to volunteer for the special attack force. All of the pilots raised both of their hands, volunteering to join the operation. Later, Tamai asked Lieutenant Yukio Seki to command the special attack force. Seki is said to have closed his eyes, lowered his head, and thought for ten seconds before saying: "Please do appoint me to the post." Seki became the 24th "kamikaze" pilot to be chosen. He later said: "Japan's future is bleak if it is forced to kill one of its best pilots" and "I am not going on this mission for the Emperor or for the Empire ... I am going because I was ordered to."


title: Kamikaze

text: The names of the four subunits within the "Kamikaze" Special Attack Force were "Unit Shikishima", "Unit Yamato", "Unit Asahi" and "Unit Yamazakura". These names were taken from a patriotic death poem, "Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana" by the Japanese classical scholar, Motoori Norinaga. The poem reads:


title: Kamikaze

text: Ōnishi, addressing this unit, told them that their nobility of spirit would keep the homeland from ruin even in defeat.


title: Kamikaze

text: Several suicide attacks, carried out during the invasion of Leyte by Japanese pilots from units other than the Special Attack Force, have been described as the first "kamikaze" attacks. Early on 21 October 1944, a Japanese aircraft deliberately crashed into the foremast of the heavy cruiser . This aircraft was possibly either an Aichi D3A dive bomber, from an unidentified unit of the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service, or a Mitsubishi Ki-51 of the 6th Flying Brigade, Imperial Japanese Army Air Force. The attack killed 30 personnel, including the cruiser's captain, Emile Dechaineux, and wounded 64, including the Australian force commander, Commodore John Collins. The Australian official history of the war claimed that this was the first "kamikaze" attack on an Allied ship. Other sources disagree because it was not a planned attack by a member of the Special Attack Force and was most likely undertaken on the pilot's own initiative.


title: Kamikaze

text: The sinking of the ocean tug on 24 October is listed in some sources as the first ship lost to a "kamikaze" strike, but the attack occurred before the first mission of the Special Attack Force (on 25 October) and the aircraft used, a Mitsubishi G4M, was not flown by the original four Special Attack Squadrons.


title: Kamikaze

text: On 25 October 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the "Kamikaze" Special Attack Force carried out its first mission. Five A6M Zeros, led by Lieutenant Seki, were escorted to the target by leading Japanese ace Hiroyoshi Nishizawa where they attacked several escort carriers. One Zero attempted to hit the bridge of but instead exploded on the port catwalk and cartwheeled into the sea. Two others dived at but were destroyed by anti-aircraft fire. The last two, Seki among them, ran at . Seki however, under heavy fire and trailing smoke, aborted the attack on "White Plains" and instead banked toward , diving into the flight deck, where his bomb caused fires that resulted in the bomb magazine exploding, sinking the carrier.


title: Kamikaze

text: By 26 October day's end, 55 "kamikazes" from the Special Attack Force had also damaged three large escort carriers: , , and (which had


title: Kamikaze

text: taken a "kamikaze" strike forward of its aft elevator the day before); and three smaller escorts: USS "White Plains", , and "Kitkun Bay". In total, seven carriers were hit, as well as 40 other ships (five sunk, 23 heavily damaged and 12 moderately damaged).


title: Kamikaze

text: Early successes – such as the sinking of USS "St. Lo" – were followed by an immediate expansion of the program, and over the next few months over 2,000 aircraft made such attacks.


title: Kamikaze

text: When Japan began to suffer intense strategic bombing by Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, the Japanese military attempted to use suicide attacks against this threat. During the northern hemisphere winter of 1944–45, the IJAAF formed the 47th Air Regiment, also known as the "Shinten" Special Unit ("Shinten Seiku Tai") at Narimasu Airfield, Nerima, Tokyo, to defend the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. The unit was equipped with Nakajima Ki-44 "Shoki" ("Tojo") fighters, whose pilots were instructed to collide with United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) B-29s approaching Japan. Targeting the aircraft proved to be much less successful and practical than attacks against warships, as the bombers made for much faster, more maneuverable, and smaller targets. The B-29 also had formidable defensive weaponry, so suicide attacks against B-29s demanded considerable piloting skill to be successful, which worked against the very purpose of using expendable pilots. Even encouraging capable pilots to bail out before impact was ineffective because vital personnel were often lost when they mistimed their exits and were killed as a result.


title: Kamikaze

text: On 11 March, the U.S. carrier was hit and moderately damaged at Ulithi Atoll, in the Caroline Islands, by a "kamikaze" that had flown almost from Japan, in a mission called Operation Tan No. 2. On 20 March, the submarine survived a hit from an aircraft just off Japan.


title: Kamikaze

text: Purpose-built "kamikazes", opposed to converted fighters and dive-bombers, were also being constructed. Ensign Mitsuo Ohta had suggested that piloted glider bombs, carried within range of targets by a mother aircraft, should be developed. The First Naval Air Technical Bureau ("Kugisho") in Yokosuka refined Ohta's idea. Yokosuka MXY-7 "Ohka" rocket-powered aircraft, launched from bombers, were first deployed in "kamikaze" attacks from March 1945. U.S. personnel gave them the derisive nickname ""Baka" Bombs" ("baka" is Japanese for "idiot" or "stupid"). The Nakajima Ki-115 "Tsurugi" was a simple, easily built propeller aircraft with a wooden airframe that used engines from existing stocks. Its non-retractable landing gear was jettisoned shortly after takeoff for a suicide mission, recovered, and reused. Obsolete aircraft such as Yokosuka K5Y biplane trainers were also converted to "kamikazes". During 1945, the Japanese military began stockpiling "Tsurugi", Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka, other aircraft and suicide boats for use against Allied forces expected to invade Japan. The invasion never happened, and few were ever used.


title: Kamikaze

text: In early 1945, U.S. Navy aviator Commander John Thach, already famous for developing effective aerial tactics against the Japanese such as the Thach Weave, developed a defensive strategy against "kamikazes" called the "big blue blanket" to establish Allied air supremacy well away from the carrier force. This recommended combat air patrols (CAP) that were larger and operated further from the carriers than before, a line of picket destroyers and destroyer escorts at least from the main body of the fleet to provide earlier radar interception and improved coordination between fighter direction officers on carriers. This plan also called for around-the-clock fighter patrols over Allied fleets. A final element included intensive fighter sweeps over Japanese airfields, and bombing Japanese runways, using delayed-action bombs making repairs more difficult.


title: Kamikaze

text: Late in 1944, the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) used the high-altitude performance of its Supermarine Seafires (the naval version of the Spitfire) on combat air patrol duties. Seafires were involved in countering the "kamikaze" attacks during the Iwo Jima landings and beyond. The Seafires' best day was 15 August 1945, shooting down eight attacking aircraft with a single loss.


title: Kamikaze

text: Allied pilots were more experienced, better trained and in command of superior aircraft, making the poorly trained "kamikaze" pilots easy targets. The U.S. Fast Carrier Task Force alone could bring over 1,000 fighter aircraft into play. Allied pilots became adept at destroying enemy aircraft before they struck ships.


title: Kamikaze

text: Allied gunners had begun to develop techniques to negate "kamikaze" attacks. Light rapid-fire anti-aircraft weapons such as the 20 mm Oerlikon autocannons were still useful though the 40 mm Bofors was preferred, and though their high rate of fire and quick training remained advantageous, they lacked the punch to take down a kamikaze bearing down on the ship they defended. It was found that heavy anti-aircraft guns such as the 5"/38 caliber gun (127 mm) were the most effective as they had sufficient firepower to destroy aircraft at a safe range from the ship, which was preferable since even a heavily damaged "kamikaze" could reach its target. The speedy "Ohkas" presented a very difficult problem for anti-aircraft fire, since their velocity made fire control extremely difficult. By 1945, large numbers of anti-aircraft shells with radiofrequency proximity fuzes, on average seven times more effective than regular shells, became available, and the U.S. Navy recommended their use against "kamikaze" attacks.


title: Kamikaze

text: The peak period of "kamikaze" attack frequency came during April–June 1945 at the Battle of Okinawa. On 6 April 1945, waves of aircraft made hundreds of attacks in Operation Kikusui ("floating chrysanthemums"). At Okinawa, "kamikaze" attacks focused at first on Allied destroyers on picket duty, and then on the carriers in the middle of the fleet. Suicide attacks by aircraft or boats at Okinawa sank or put out of action at least 30 U.S. warships and at least three U.S. merchant ships, along with some from other Allied forces. The attacks expended 1,465 aircraft. Many warships of all classes were damaged, some severely, but no aircraft carriers, battleships or cruisers were sunk by "kamikaze" at Okinawa. Most of the ships lost were destroyers or smaller vessels, especially those on picket duty. The destroyer earned the nickname "The Ship That Would Not Die" after surviving six "kamikaze" attacks and four bomb hits during this battle.


title: Kamikaze

text: U.S. carriers, with their wooden flight decks, appeared to suffer more damage from "kamikaze" hits than the armoured-decked carriers from the British Pacific Fleet. U.S. carriers also suffered considerably heavier casualties from "kamikaze" strikes; for instance, 389 men were killed in one attack on , greater than the combined number of fatalities suffered on all six Royal Navy armoured carriers from all forms of attack during the entire war. "Bunker Hill" and "Franklin" were both hit (in "Franklin's" case, although by a dive bomber and not a kamikaze) while conducting operations with fully fueled and armed aircraft spotted on deck for takeoff, an extremely vulnerable state for any carrier. Eight "kamikaze" hits on five British carriers resulted in only 20 deaths while a combined total of 15 bomb hits, most of weight or greater, and one torpedo hit on four carriers caused 193 fatal casualties earlier in the war – striking proof of the protective value of the armoured flight deck.


title: Kamikaze

text: The resilience of well-armoured vessels was shown on 4 May, just after 11:30, when there was a wave of suicide attacks against the British Pacific Fleet. One Japanese aircraft made a steep dive from "a great height" at the carrier and was engaged by anti-aircraft guns. Although the "kamikaze" was hit by gunfire, it managed to drop a bomb that detonated on the flight deck, making a crater long, wide and deep. A long steel splinter speared down through the hangar deck and the main boiler room (where it ruptured a steam line) before coming to rest in a fuel tank near the aircraft park, where it started a major fire. Eight personnel were killed and 47 were wounded. One Corsair and 10 Grumman Avengers were destroyed. The fires were gradually brought under control, and the crater in the deck was repaired with concrete and steel plate. By 17:00, Corsairs were able to land. On 9 May, "Formidable" was again damaged by a "kamikaze", as were the carrier and the battleship . The British were able to clear the flight deck and resume flight operations in just hours, while their American counterparts took a few days or even months, as observed by a U.S. Navy liaison officer on who commented: "When a "kamikaze" hits a U.S. carrier it means six months of repair at Pearl Harbor. When a "kamikaze" hits a Limey carrier it's just a case of 'Sweepers, man your brooms'."


title: Kamikaze

text: Twin-engine aircraft were occasionally used in planned "kamikaze" attacks. For example, Mitsubishi Ki-67 "Hiryū" ("Peggy") medium bombers, based on Formosa, undertook "kamikaze" attacks on Allied forces off Okinawa, while a pair of Kawasaki Ki-45 "Toryu" ("Nick") heavy fighters caused enough damage for the destroyer to be scuttled. The last ship in the war to be sunk, the Fletcher-class destroyer , was sunk by an obsolete wood and fabric Yokosuka K5Y "kamikaze" biplane while on the radar picket line off Okinawa.


title: Kamikaze

text: Almost nothing is known about the actions of the kamikaze pilots against the Red Army during the Soviet–Japanese War in 1945. Between August 9 and September 2, 1945, several airstrikes involving kamikaze pilots were recorded. Thus, on August 18, a Japanese plane Ki-45, flown by the Japanese kamikaze pilot Lieutenant Yoshira Tsiohara, attacked a tanker in the port of Vladivostok. The plane was shot down and the pilot was killed. He was found to have orders to attack the largest tanker in the port of Vladivostok, and if he failed, to ram the biggest house in the city. On the same day, a Soviet minesweeper KT-152 was sunk during the Battle of Shumshu. It is believed to have been attacked by a kamikaze pilot. In the middle of August the Japanese military command planned to dispatch a group of 30 Kamikaze pilots from Japan to Korea to attack Soviet warships, but the Japanese leadership decided to surrender and the operation was cancelled. Kamikazes also operated against Red Army ground units. On August 10, three kamikaze planes were attacking a tank column of the 20th Guards Tank Brigade. The paratroopers succeeded in shooting down two of the attacking aircraft, while the third crashed into a tank. During 12-13 August 14 Japanese planes including kamikazes raids on tanks of the 5th Guards Tank Corps. Soviet fighter aviation, which managed to destroyed three enemy aircraft and an anti-aircraft artillery which lost two planes participated in repulsing the air raids. Nine Japanese kamikaze planes crashed to the ground without hitting their targets. Damage from these attacks was negligible. On August 17, the Kwantung Army command gave its units an order to surrender, but some of the pilots got out of control and the Japanese air attacks continued. After the 17th, the kamikazes acted exclusively. On 18 August convoys of the 20th and 21st Armoured Brigade were attacked. The kamikazes traded six of their aircraft for a tank and a couple of cars. The kamikazes also flew solo. Thus, on August 18, several ammunition resupply vehicles carrying ammunition for BM-13 were destroyed by a kamikaze pilot in the Tao'an area. The personnel were unharmed as they managed to evade the raid. On 19 August, nine aircraft raided the tanks of the 21st Guards Tank Brigade. Seven vehicles were shot down by heavy barrage. Two planes broke through to the tanks and rammed them. One tank was destroyed and the other damaged. About the kamikaze raid the author of the book "Tanker on a foreign vehicle" D. Loza recalls six Japanese aircraft attacked the convoy, which damaged one Sherman tank and destroyed a medical vehicle. For one tank destroyed, the Japanese lost six aircraft. Japanese commanders, in order to prevent kamikaze sorties that got out of hand, ordered weapons depots to be secured and the propellers of aircraft on airfields to be removed. Supposedly, the kamikazes carried out more than 50 suicide attacks against Soviet Red Army during the August 1945 hostilities with Japan. That is the number of aircraft the Japanese attribute to "other losses". Overall, the kamikaze airstrikes proved ineffective and had little or no effect to Red Army during Soviet–Japanese War.


title: Kamikaze

text: Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki, the commander of the IJN 5th Air Fleet based in Kyushu, participated in one of the final kamikaze attacks on American ships on 15 August 1945, hours after Japan's announced surrender.


title: Kamikaze

text: On 19 August 1945, 11 young officers under Second Lieutenant Hitoshi Imada, attached to the 675th Manchuria Deatachment, accompanied by two women of their engagement, left the Daikosan airfield and made a final aerial suicide attack against one of the Soviet armoured units that had invaded Manchuria knowns as the Shinshu Fumetsu Special Attack Corps (Japanese: 神州不滅特別攻撃隊), the last kamikaze attacks were recorded on 20 August 1945.


title: Kamikaze

text: Shortly afterward, the main strength of the Japanese Army began to lay down its arms in surrender per the Emperor's broadcast. The Soviet–Japanese War, and World War II, had come to an end.


title: Kamikaze

text: At the time of the surrender, the Japanese had more than 9,000 aircraft in the home islands available for Kamikaze attack, and more than 5,000 had already been specially fitted for suicide attack to resist the planned either American or Soviet invasion.


title: Kamikaze

text: As the end of the war approached, the Allies did not suffer more serious significant losses, despite having far more ships and facing a greater intensity of "kamikaze" attacks. Although causing some of the heaviest casualties on U.S. carriers in 1945 (particularly as "Bunker Hill" was unlucky to get hit with fueled and armed aircraft on deck), the IJN had sacrificed 2,525 "kamikaze" pilots and the IJAAF 1,387 without successfully sinking any fleet carriers, cruisers, or battleships. This was far more than the IJN had lost in 1942 when it sank or crippled three U.S. fleet carriers (albeit without inflicting significant casualties). In 1942, when U.S. Navy vessels were scarce, the temporary absence of key warships from the combat zone would tie up operational initiatives. By 1945, however, the U.S. Navy was large enough that damaged ships could be detached back home for repair without significantly hampering the fleet's operational capability. The only U.S. surface losses were escort carriers, destroyers, and smaller ships, all of which lacked the armor protection and/or capability to sustain heavy damage. Overall, the "kamikazes" were unable to turn the tide of the war and stop the Allied invasion.


title: Kamikaze

text: In the immediate aftermath of "kamikaze" strikes, British fleet carriers with their armoured flight decks recovered more quickly compared to their US counterparts. Post-war analysis showed that some British carriers such as HMS "Formidable" suffered structural damage that led to them being scrapped, as being beyond economic repair. played a role in the decision to not repair damaged carriers, while even seriously damaged American carriers such as USS "Bunker Hill" were repaired, although they were then mothballed or sold off as surplus after World War II without re-entering service.


title: Kamikaze

text: The exact number of ships sunk is a matter of debate. According to a wartime Japanese propaganda announcement, the missions sank 81 ships and damaged 195, and according to a Japanese tally, "kamikaze" attacks accounted for up to 80% of the U.S. losses in the final phase of the war in the Pacific. In a 2004 book, "World War II", the historians Willmott, Cross, and Messenger stated that more than 70 U.S. vessels were "sunk or damaged beyond repair" by "kamikazes".


title: Kamikaze

text: According to the United States Strategic Bombing Survey, from October 1944 until the end of the war, 2,550 Kamikaze missions were flown with only 475 (or 18.6%) achieving a hit or a damaging near miss. Warships of all types were damaged including 12 aircraft carriers, 15 battleships, and 16 light and escort carriers. However, no ship larger than an escort carrier was sunk. Approximately 45 ships were sunk, the bulk of which were destroyers. To the United States, the losses were of such concern that more than 2,000 B-29 sorties were diverted from attacking Japanese cities and industries to striking Kamikaze air fields in Kyushu.


title: Kamikaze

text: Australian journalists Denis and Peggy Warner, in a 1982 book with Japanese naval historian Sadao Seno ("The Sacred Warriors: Japan's Suicide Legions"), arrived at a total of 57 ships sunk by "kamikazes". Bill Gordon, an American Japanologist who specializes in "kamikazes", lists in a 2007 article 47 ships known to have been sunk by "kamikaze" aircraft. Gordon says that the Warners and Seno included ten ships that did not sink. He lists:


title: Kamikaze

text: It was claimed by the Japanese forces at the time that there were many volunteers for the suicidal forces. Captain Motoharu Okamura commented that "there were so many volunteers for suicide missions that he referred to them as a swarm of bees", explaining: "Bees die after they have stung." Okamura is credited with being the first to propose the "kamikaze" attacks. He had expressed his desire to lead a volunteer group of suicide attacks some four months before Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi, commander of the Japanese naval air forces in the Philippines, presented the idea to his staff. While Vice-Admiral Shigeru Fukudome, commander of the second air fleet, was inspecting the 341st Air Group, Captain Okamura took the chance to express his ideas on crash-dive tactics:


title: Kamikaze

text: When the volunteers arrived for duty in the corps, there were twice as many persons as aircraft available. "After the war, some commanders would express regret for allowing superfluous crews to accompany sorties, sometimes squeezing themselves aboard bombers and fighters so as to encourage the suicide pilots and, it seems, join in the exultation of sinking a large enemy vessel." Many of the "kamikaze" pilots believed their death would pay the debt they owed and show the love they had for their families, friends, and emperor. "So eager were many minimally trained pilots to take part in suicide missions that when their sorties were delayed or aborted, the pilots became deeply despondent. Many of those who were selected for a body crashing mission were described as being extraordinarily blissful immediately before their final sortie."


title: Kamikaze

text: However, an evidence-based study of 2,000 pilots' uncensored letters revealed that the pilots candidly expressed myriad emotions in private. Typically, they declared their determination to die to protect the homeland and thanked their school teachers, parents, siblings, and friends for their selfless devotion. Although most pilots were unmarried (the average age was 19), some young fathers left loving instructions for their young wives and children to live well, and others expressed memories of unrequited love or the sorrow of dying young.


title: Kamikaze

text: As time wore on, modern critics questioned the nationalist portrayal of "kamikaze" pilots as noble soldiers willing to sacrifice their lives for the country. In 2006, Tsuneo Watanabe, editor-in-chief of the "Yomiuri Shimbun", criticized Japanese nationalists' glorification of "kamikaze" attacks:


title: Kamikaze

text: It's all a lie that they left filled with braveness and joy, crying, "Long live the emperor!" They were sheep at a slaughterhouse. Everybody was looking down and tottering. Some were unable to stand up and were carried and pushed into their aircraft by maintenance soldiers.


title: Kamikaze

text: "Tokkōtai" pilot training, as described by Takeo Kasuga, generally "consisted of incredibly strenuous training, coupled with cruel and torturous corporal punishment as a daily routine". The training, in theory, lasted for thirty days, but because of American raids and shortage of fuel it could last up to two months.


title: Kamikaze

text: Daikichi Irokawa, who trained at Tsuchiura Naval Air Base, recalled that he "was struck on the face so hard and frequently that [his] face was no longer recognizable". He also wrote: "I was hit so hard that I could no longer see and fell on the floor. The minute I got up, I was hit again by a club so that I would confess." This brutal "training" was justified by the idea that it would instil a "soldier's fighting spirit", but daily beatings and corporal punishment eliminated patriotism among many pilots.


title: Kamikaze

text: Pilots were given a manual that detailed how they were supposed to think, prepare, and attack. From this manual, pilots were told to "attain a high level of spiritual training", and to "keep [their] health in the very best condition". These instructions, among others, were meant to make pilots mentally ready to die.


title: Kamikaze

text: The "tokkōtai" pilot's manual also explained how a pilot may turn back if he could not locate a target, and that a pilot "should not waste [his] life lightly". One pilot, a graduate from Waseda University, who continually came back to base was shot after his ninth return.


title: Kamikaze

text: The manual was very detailed in how a pilot should attack. A pilot would dive towards his target and "aim for a point between the bridge tower and the smokestacks". Entering a smokestack was also said to be "effective". Pilots were told not to aim at a carrier's bridge tower but instead to target the elevators or the flight deck. For horizontal attacks, the pilot was to "aim at the middle of the vessel, slightly higher than the waterline" or to "aim at the entrance to the aircraft hangar, or the bottom of the stack" if the former was too difficult.


title: Kamikaze

text: The "tokkōtai" pilot's manual told pilots to never close their eyes, as this would lower the chances of hitting their targets. In the final moments before the crash, the pilot was to yell ""hissatsu"" (必殺) at the top of his lungs, which translates to "certain kill" or "sink without fail".


title: Kamikaze

text: In 1944–45, US military leaders invented the term "State Shinto" as part of the Shinto Directive to differentiate the Japanese state's ideology from traditional Shinto practices. As time went on, Americans claimed, Shinto was used increasingly in the promotion of nationalist sentiment. In 1890, the Imperial Rescript on Education was passed, under which students were required to ritually recite its oath to offer themselves "courageously to the state" as well as protect the Imperial family. The ultimate offering was to give up one's life. It was an honour to die for Japan and the Emperor. Axell and Kase pointed out: "The fact is that innumerable soldiers, sailors and pilots were determined to die, to become "eirei", that is 'guardian spirits' of the country. ... Many Japanese felt that to be enshrined at Yasukuni was a special honour because the Emperor visited the shrine to pay homage twice a year. Yasukuni is the only shrine deifying common men which the Emperor would visit to pay his respects." Young Japanese people were indoctrinated from an early age with these ideals.


title: Kamikaze

text: Following the commencement of the "kamikaze" tactic, newspapers and books ran advertisements, articles and stories regarding the suicide bombers to aid in recruiting and support. In October 1944, the "Nippon Times" quoted Lieutenant Sekio Nishina: "The spirit of the Special Attack Corps is the great spirit that runs in the blood of every Japanese ... The crashing action which simultaneously kills the enemy and oneself without fail is called the Special Attack ... Every Japanese is capable of becoming a member of the Special Attack Corps." Publishers also played up the idea that the "kamikaze" were enshrined at Yasukuni and ran exaggerated stories of "kamikaze" bravery – there were even fairy tales for little children that promoted the "kamikaze". A Foreign Office official named Toshikazu Kase said: "It was customary for GHQ [in Tokyo] to make false announcements of victory in utter disregard of facts, and for the elated and complacent public to believe them."


title: Kamikaze

text: While many stories were falsified, some were true, such as that of Kiyu Ishikawa, who saved a Japanese ship when he crashed his aircraft into a torpedo that an American submarine had launched. The sergeant-major was posthumously promoted to second lieutenant by the emperor and was enshrined at Yasukuni. Stories like these, which showed the kind of praise and honour death produced, encouraged young Japanese to volunteer for the Special Attack Corps and instilled a desire in the youth to die as a "kamikaze".


title: Kamikaze

text: Ceremonies were carried out before "kamikaze" pilots departed on their final mission. The "kamikaze" shared ceremonial cups of sake or water known as "mizu no sakazuki". Many "kamikaze" Army officers took their swords along, while the Navy pilots (as a general rule) did not. The "kamikaze", along with all Japanese aviators flying over unfriendly territory, were issued (or purchased, if they were officers) a Nambu pistol with which to end their lives if they risked being captured. Like all Army and Navy servicemen, the "kamikaze" would wear their "senninbari", a "belt of a thousand stitches" given to them by their mothers. They also composed and read a death poem, a tradition stemming from the samurai, who did so before committing "seppuku". Pilots carried prayers from their families and were given military decorations. The "kamikaze" were escorted by other pilots whose function was to protect them en route to their destination and report on the results. Some of these escort pilots, such as Zero pilot Toshimitsu Imaizumi, were later sent out on their own "kamikaze" missions.


title: Kamikaze

text: While it is commonly perceived that volunteers signed up in droves for "kamikaze" missions, it has also been contended that there was extensive coercion and peer pressure involved in recruiting soldiers for the sacrifice. Their motivations in "volunteering" were complex and not simply about patriotism or bringing honour to their families. Firsthand interviews with surviving "kamikaze" and escort pilots has revealed that they were motivated by a desire to protect their families from perceived atrocities and possible extinction at the hands of the Allies. They viewed themselves as the last defense.


title: Kamikaze

text: At least one of these pilots was a conscripted Korean with a Japanese name, adopted under the pre-war "Soshi-kaimei" ordinance that compelled Koreans to take Japanese personal names. Eleven of the 1,036 IJA "kamikaze" pilots who died in sorties from Chiran and other Japanese air bases during the Battle of Okinawa were Koreans.


title: Kamikaze

text: It is said that young pilots on "kamikaze" missions often flew southwest from Japan over the Mount Kaimon. The mountain is also called ""Satsuma Fuji"" (meaning a mountain like Mount Fuji but located in the Satsuma Province region). Suicide-mission pilots looked over their shoulders to see the mountain, the southernmost on the Japanese mainland, said farewell to their country and saluted the mountain. Residents on Kikaishima Island, east of Amami Ōshima, say that pilots from suicide-mission units dropped flowers from the air as they departed on their final missions.


title: Kamikaze

text: "Kamikaze" pilots who were unable to complete their missions (because of mechanical failure, interception, etc.) were stigmatized in the years following the war. This stigma began to diminish some 50 years after the war as scholars and publishers began to distribute the survivors' stories.


title: Kamikaze

text: Some Japanese military personnel were critical of the policy. Officers such as Minoru Genda, Tadashi Minobe and Yoshio Shiga, refused to obey the policy. They said that the commander of a "kamikaze" attack should engage in the task first. Some persons who obeyed the policy, such as Kiyokuma Okajima, Saburo Shindo and Iyozo Fujita, were also critical of the policy. Saburō Sakai said: "We never dared to question orders, to doubt authority, to do anything but immediately carry out all the commands of our superiors. We were automatons who obeyed without thinking." Tetsuzō Iwamoto refused to engage in a "kamikaze" attack because he thought the task of fighter pilots was to shoot down aircraft.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application layer protocol in the Internet protocol suite model for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, where hypertext documents include hyperlinks to other resources that the user can easily access, for example by a mouse click or by tapping the screen in a web browser.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989 and summarized in a simple document describing the behavior of a client and a server using the first HTTP protocol version that was named 0.9.<ref name="HTTP/0.9-specifications"></ref>


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: That first version of HTTP protocol soon evolved into a more elaborated version that was the first draft toward a far future version 1.0.<ref name="HTTP/1.0-first-unofficial-draft"></ref>


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Development of early HTTP Requests for Comments (RFCs) started a few years later and it was a coordinated effort by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), with work later moving to the IETF.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP/1 was finalized and fully documented (as version 1.0) in 1996. It evolved (as version 1.1) in 1997 and then its specifications were updated in 1999, 2014, and 2022.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: [[HTTP/2]], published in 2015, provides a more efficient expression of HTTP's semantics "on the wire". It is now used by 41% of websites and supported by almost all web browsers (over 97% of users). It is also supported by major web servers over [[Transport Layer Security]] (TLS) using an [[Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation]] (ALPN) extension where [[TLS 1.2]] or newer is required.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: [[HTTP/3]], the successor to HTTP/2, was published in 2022. It is now used by over 25% of websites and is supported by many web browsers (over 75% of users). HTTP/3 uses [[QUIC]] instead of [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] for the underlying transport protocol. Like HTTP/2, it does not obsolesce previous major versions of the protocol. Support for HTTP/3 was added to [[Cloudflare]] and [[Google Chrome]] first, and is also enabled in [[Firefox]]. HTTP/3 has lower latency for real-world web pages, if enabled on the server, load faster than with HTTP/2, and even faster than HTTP/1.1, in some cases over 3× faster than HTTP/1.1 (which is still commonly only enabled).


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP functions as a [[request–response]] protocol in the [[client–server model]]. A [[web browser]], for example, may be the "client" whereas a [[Process (computing)|process]], named [[web server]], running on a computer [[Host (network)|hosting]] one or more [[website]]s may be the "server". The client submits an HTTP "request" message to the server. The server, which provides "resources" such as [[HTML]] files and other content or performs other functions on behalf of the client, returns a "response" message to the client. The response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: A web browser is an example of a "[[user agent]]" (UA). Other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers ([[web crawler]]s), [[voice browser]]s, [[mobile app]]s, and other [[software]] that accesses, consumes, or displays web content.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers. High-traffic websites often benefit from [[web cache]] servers that deliver content on behalf of [[upstream server]]s to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them, whenever possible, to reduce network traffic. HTTP [[proxy server]]s at [[private network]] boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, by relaying messages with external servers.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: To allow intermediate HTTP nodes (proxy servers, web caches, etc.) to accomplish their functions, some of the [[List of HTTP header fields|HTTP headers]] (found in HTTP requests/responses) are managed [[Hop-by-hop transport|hop-by-hop]] whereas other HTTP headers are managed [[End-to-end principle|end-to-end]] (managed only by the source client and by the target web server).


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP is an [[application layer]] protocol designed within the framework of the [[Internet protocol suite]]. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable [[transport layer]] protocol, thus [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) is commonly used. However, HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP), for example in [[HTTPU]] and [[Simple Service Discovery Protocol]] (SSDP).


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: [[Web resource|HTTP resources]] are identified and located on the network by [[Uniform Resource Locator]]s (URLs), using the [[Uniform Resource Identifier]]s (URI's) schemes "http" and "[[https]]". As defined in , URIs are encoded as [[hyperlink]]s in [[HTML]] documents, so as to form interlinked [[hypertext]] documents.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In HTTP/1.0 a separate [[Connection-oriented communication|connection]] to the same server is made for every resource request.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In HTTP/1.1 instead a TCP connection can be reused to make multiple resource requests (i.e. of HTML pages, frames, images, [[Client-side scripting|scripts]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|stylesheets]], etc.).


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less [[Latency (engineering)|latency]] as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead, specially under high traffic conditions.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: [[HTTP/2]] is a revision of previous HTTP/1.1 in order to maintain the same client–server model and the same protocol methods but with these differences in order:


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP/2 communications therefore experience much less latency and, in most cases, even more speed than HTTP/1.1 communications.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: [[HTTP/3]] is a revision of previous HTTP/2 in order to use [[QUIC]] + UDP transport protocols instead of TCP/IP connections also to slightly improve the average speed of communications and to avoid the occasional (very rare) problem of TCP/IP connection [[TCP congestion control|congestion]] that can temporarily block or slow down the data flow of all its streams (another form of ""head of line blocking"").


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: The term [[hypertext]] was coined by [[Ted Nelson]] in 1965 in the [[Xanadu Project]], which was in turn inspired by [[Vannevar Bush]]'s 1930s vision of the microfilm-based information retrieval and management "[[memex]]" system described in his 1945 essay "[[As We May Think]]". [[Tim Berners-Lee]] and his team at [[CERN]] are credited with inventing the original HTTP, along with HTML and the associated technology for a [[web server]] and a client [[user interface]] called [[web browser]]. Berners-Lee designed HTTP in order to help with the adoption of his other idea: the "WorldWideWeb" project, which was first proposed in 1989, now known as the [[World Wide Web]].


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: [[CERN httpd|The first web server]] went live in 1990. The protocol used had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server. The response from the server was always an HTML page.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP is a [[stateless protocol|stateless]] application-level protocol and it requires a reliable network transport connection to exchange data between client and server. In HTTP implementations, [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP/IP]] connections are used using well known [[TCP and UDP port|port]]s (typically [[TCP port|port 80]] if the connection is unencrypted or port 443 if the connection is encrypted, see also [[List of TCP and UDP port numbers]]). In HTTP/2, a TCP/IP connection plus multiple protocol channels are used. In HTTP/3, the application transport protocol [[QUIC]] over UDP is used.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Data is exchanged through a sequence of [[Request-response|request–response messages]] which are exchanged by a [[session layer]] transport connection. An HTTP client initially tries to connect to a server establishing a connection (real or virtual). An HTTP(S) server listening on that port accepts the connection and then waits for a client's request message. The client sends its request to the server. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back an HTTP response message (header plus a body if it is required). The body of this message is typically the requested resource, although an error message or other information may also be returned. At any time (for many reasons) client or server can close the connection. Closing a connection is usually advertised in advance by using one or more HTTP headers in the last request/response message sent to server or client.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In HTTP/0.9, the TCP/IP connection is always closed after server response has been sent, so it is never persistent.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In HTTP/1.0, as stated in RFC 1945, the TCP/IP connection should always be closed by server after a response has been sent.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was officially introduced so that a connection could be reused for more than one request/response. Such persistent connections reduce request [[latency (engineering)|latency]] perceptibly because the client does not need to re-negotiate the [[Transmission Control Protocol#Connection establishment|TCP 3-Way-Handshake connection]] after the first request has been sent. Another positive side effect is that, in general, the connection becomes faster with time due to TCP's [[TCP congestion control#Slow start|slow-start]]-mechanism.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP/1.1 added also [[HTTP pipelining]] in order to further reduce lag time when using persistent connections by allowing clients to send multiple requests before waiting for each response. This optimization was never considered really safe because a few web servers and many [[proxy server]]s, specially transparent proxy servers placed in Internet / [[Intranet]]s between clients and servers, did not handle pipelined requests properly (they served only the first request discarding the others, they closed the connection because they saw more data after the first request or some proxies even returned responses out of order etc.). Besides this only HEAD and some GET requests (i.e. limited to real file requests and so with [[URL]]s without query string used as a command, etc.) could be pipelined in a [[#Safe methods|safe]] and [[#Idempotent methods|idempotent]] mode. After many years of struggling with the problems introduced by enabling pipelining, this feature was first disabled and then removed from most browsers also because of the announced adoption of HTTP/2.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP/2 extended the usage of persistent connections by multiplexing many concurrent requests/responses through a single TCP/IP connection.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP/3 does not use TCP/IP connections but QUIC + UDP (see also: [[#Technical overview|technical overview]]).


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP provides multiple authentication schemes such as [[basic access authentication]] and [[digest access authentication]] which operate via a challenge–response mechanism whereby the server identifies and issues a challenge before serving the requested content.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP provides a general framework for access control and authentication, via an extensible set of challenge–response authentication schemes, which can be used by a server to challenge a client request and by a client to provide authentication information.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: The authentication mechanisms described above belong to the HTTP protocol and are managed by client and server HTTP software (if configured to require authentication before allowing client access to one or more web resources), and not by the web applications using [[#HTTP application session|a web application session]].


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: The HTTP Authentication specification also provides an arbitrary, implementation-specific construct for further dividing resources common to a given root [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI]]. The realm value string, if present, is combined with the canonical root URI to form the protection space component of the challenge. This in effect allows the server to define separate authentication scopes under one root URI.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP is a [[stateless protocol]]. A stateless protocol does not require the web server to retain information or status about each user for the duration of multiple requests.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Some [[web application]]s need to manage user sessions, so they implement states, or [[Session (computer science)|server side sessions]], using for instance [[HTTP cookie]]s or hidden [[variable (computer science)|variable]]s within [[Form (web)|web form]]s.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: To start an application user session, an interactive [[authentication]] via web application [[login]] must be performed. To stop a user session a [[logout]] operation must be requested by user. These kind of operations do not use [[#HTTP authentication|HTTP authentication]] but a custom managed web application authentication.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 specification in .


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: HTTP defines methods (sometimes referred to as "verbs", but nowhere in the specification does it mention "verb") to indicate the desired action to be performed on the identified resource. What this resource represents, whether pre-existing data or data that is generated dynamically, depends on the implementation of the server. Often, the resource corresponds to a file or the output of an executable residing on the server. The HTTP/1.0 specification defined the GET, HEAD, and POST methods, and the HTTP/1.1 specification added five new methods: PUT, DELETE, CONNECT, OPTIONS, and TRACE. Any client can use any method and the server can be configured to support any combination of methods. If a method is unknown to an intermediate, it will be treated as an unsafe and [[idempotence|non-idempotent]] method. There is no limit to the number of methods that can be defined, which allows for future methods to be specified without breaking existing infrastructure. For example, [[WebDAV]] defined seven new methods and specified the [[Patch verb|PATCH]] method.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Method names are case sensitive. This is in contrast to HTTP header field names which are case-insensitive.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: All general-purpose web servers are required to implement at least the GET and HEAD methods, and all other methods are considered optional by the specification.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: A request method is "safe" if a request with that method has no intended effect on the server. The methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS, and TRACE are defined as safe. In other words, safe methods are intended to be [[Command–query separation|read-only]]. They do not exclude [[Side effect (computer science)|side effects]] though, such as appending request information to a [[Server log|log file]] or charging an [[Web banner|advertising account]], since they are not requested by the client, by definition.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In contrast, the methods POST, PUT, DELETE, CONNECT, and PATCH are not safe. They may modify the state of the server or have other effects such as sending an [[email]]. Such methods are therefore not usually used by conforming [[Internet bot|web robots]] or web crawlers; some that do not conform tend to make requests without regard to context or consequences.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Despite the prescribed safety of GET requests, in practice their handling by the server is not technically limited in any way. Careless or deliberately irregular programming can allow GET requests to cause non-trivial changes on the server. This is discouraged because of the problems which can occur when [[web caching]], [[search engines]], and other automated agents make unintended changes on the server. For example, a website might allow deletion of a resource through a URL such as "<nowiki>https://example.com/article/1234/delete</nowiki>", which, if arbitrarily fetched, even using GET, would simply delete the article. A properly coded website would require a DELETE or POST method for this action, which non-malicious bots would not make.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: One example of this occurring in practice was during the short-lived [[Google Web Accelerator]] [[Beta test|beta]], which prefetched arbitrary URLs on the page a user was viewing, causing records to be automatically altered or deleted "en masse". The beta was suspended only weeks after its first release, following widespread criticism.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: A request method is "idempotent" if multiple identical requests with that method have the same effect as a single such request. The methods PUT and DELETE, and safe methods are defined as idempotent. Safe methods are trivially idempotent, since they are intended to have no effect on the server whatsoever; the PUT and DELETE methods, meanwhile, are idempotent since successive identical requests will be ignored. A website might, for instance, set up a PUT endpoint to modify a user's recorded email address. If this endpoint is configured correctly, any requests which ask to change a user's email address to the same email address which is already recorded—e.g. duplicate requests following a successful request—will have no effect. Similarly, a request to DELETE a certain user will have no effect if that user has already been deleted.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In contrast, the methods POST, CONNECT, and PATCH are not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further modify the state of the server or have further effects, such as sending multiple [[email]]s. In some cases this is the desired effect, but in other cases it may occur accidentally. A user might, for example, inadvertently send multiple POST requests by clicking a button again if they were not given clear feedback that the first click was being processed. While [[web browser]]s may show [[alert dialog box]]es to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to handle cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Note that whether or not a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server. It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request. To do so against recommendations, however, may result in undesirable consequences, if a [[user agent]] assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it is not.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: A request method is "cacheable" if responses to requests with that method may be stored for future reuse. The methods GET, HEAD, and POST are defined as cacheable.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Request header fields allow the client to pass additional information beyond the request line, acting as request modifiers (similarly to the parameters of a procedure). They give information about the client, about the target resource, or about the expected handling of the request.


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the "status line" and includes a numeric "status code" (such as "[[HTTP 404|404]]") and a textual "reason phrase" (such as "Not Found"). The response status code is a three-digit integer code representing the result of the server's attempt to understand and satisfy the client's corresponding request. The way the client handles the response depends primarily on the status code, and secondarily on the other response header fields. Clients may not understand all registered status codes but they must understand their class (given by the first digit of the status code) and treat an unrecognized status code as being equivalent to the x00 status code of that class.