title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: Carrie-Anne Moss (born August 21, 1967) is a Canadian actress. After early roles on television, she rose to international prominence for her role of Trinity in "The Matrix" series (1999–present). She has starred in "Memento" (2000) for which she won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female, "Red Planet" (2000), "Chocolat" (2000), "Fido" (2006), "Snow Cake" (2006) for which she won the Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role, "Disturbia" (2007), "Unthinkable" (2010), "" (2012), and "Pompeii" (2014). She also portrayed Jeri Hogarth in several television series produced by Marvel Television for Netflix, most notably "Jessica Jones" (2015–2019).


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: Carrie-Anne Moss was born in Burnaby, British Columbia, the daughter of Barbara and Melvyn Moss. She has an older brother, Brooke. Moss's mother reportedly named her after the Hollies' 1967 hit song, "Carrie Anne", which had been released in May that year. Moss lived with her mother in Vancouver as a child. At the age of 11, she joined the Vancouver children's musical theatre and later went on to tour Europe with the Magee Secondary School Choir in her senior year.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: While living in Spain, Moss obtained a role as Tara, the clerk to Judge Bruce Marshall in the drama series "Dark Justice", her first television appearance. She moved from Barcelona to Los Angeles with the series in 1992. Moss left "Dark Justice" before the series' third and final season and was replaced by Elisa Heinsohn as Samantha "Sam" Collins. She enrolled at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in Pasadena upon her return, and she subsequently starred in Fox's primetime soap opera "Models Inc.," a spin-off of "Melrose Place", as a model. The series was cancelled in July 1995. She headlined a short-lived made-in-Canada series entitled "Matrix." For most of the 1990s, she appeared in several television series such as "Street Justice", "Baywatch", "", and "Due South", for which she scored a nomination for the Gemini Award for Best Guest Actress in a Drama. Many of her film roles in the decade were in B movies, including "Flashfire" (1994), "The Soft Kill" (1994), "Tough Guy" (1994), "Lethal Tender" (1996), "Sabotage" (1996), and "The Secret Life of Algernon" (1997).


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: Her breakthrough role came when she played Trinity in the science-fiction thriller "The Matrix" (1999). Her role demanded extreme acrobatic actions, and she underwent a three-hour physical test during casting. The film grossed over US$460 million worldwide and was highly acclaimed by critics, some of whom have considered it one of the greatest science-fiction films ever made. Moss asserted that prior to being cast in "The Matrix", she had "no career". It launched Moss into international recognition and transformed her career; in a "New York Daily News" interview, she stated, ""The Matrix" gave me so many opportunities. Everything I've done since then has been because of that experience. It gave me so much." Moss was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress, and for the MTV Movie Award for Breakthrough Female Performance.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: Moss had four film releases in 2000—"Chocolat", "Red Planet", "The Crew", and "Memento". In the romantic comedy "Chocolat", she took on the role of Caroline Clairmont, a cold, devoutly pious woman living in a French village. As part of an overall positive response towards the film, "The New York Times" remarked that Moss, "as an upright widowed mother swathed in mournful baby blue, radiates glimmers of hurt; she shows it's not easy to keep up such a front." The film made US$152 million at the international box office. The science-fiction thriller "Red Planet" had her play the commander and leader of a rescue mission to Mars. "A.V. Club" felt that Moss was "largely reduced to worrying while modelling a series of tight-fitting space fashions". Despite a US$80 million budget, the film only grossed US$33 million worldwide. She appeared as detective Olivia Neal in the crime black comedy "The Crew", directed by Michael Dinner.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: In Christopher Nolan's neo-noir psychological thriller "Memento", she portrayed a manipulative bartender who meets a man suffering from anterograde amnesia. Producer Jennifer Todd suggested Moss for the part after being impressed by her performance in "The Matrix". Nolan decided to cast Moss as Natalie, saying, "She added an enormous amount to the role of Natalie that wasn't on the page". The film became a sleeper hit, being acclaimed by critics and earning US$39.7 million over a US$9 million budget. She won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female for her performance.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: Moss reprised the role of Trinity in the back-to-back sequels "The Matrix Reloaded" and "The Matrix Revolutions", both released in 2003. Like the original, "The Matrix Reloaded" received positive critical reception, and became a major box office hit, grossing US$742.1 million worldwide. "The Matrix Revolutions" received a lukewarm critical reception, but made US$427.3 million globally. During an interview with BBC Online, Moss expressed her pride for starring in the franchise, which she described as a "segment of [her] life": "It's deep and it's beautiful to have been part of it for so long. It's pretty spectacular". She provided voiceovers for video game and animated spin-offs of the films.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: In 2005, Moss starred in the little-seen thriller "Suspect Zero" as FBI agent Fran Kulok, and was part of an ensemble cast in the independent dramedy "The Chumscrubber", which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. Moss next appeared in the zombie comedy "Fido" (2006), playing a housewife in a 1950s-esque alternate universe where radiation from space has turned the dead into zombies. She noted the "very rich" and "very visual" script for the film, and became drawn to the project for its "underlying messages about control and domination". "Fido" was an opening night film at the Toronto International Film Festival, and received largely favourable reviews, with the "Los Angeles Times" calling it a "crafty mixture of George Romero and Douglas Sirk." Moss played the neighbour of an autistic woman in the small-scale romantic drama "Snow Cake" (2006). It was released in selected theatres, to positive reviews from critics. Moss earned a nomination for Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: In the Hitchcockian thriller "Disturbia" (2007), Moss portrayed the mother of a troubled teenager who suspects one of his neighbours is a serial killer. The film was met with a positive critical reception and made US$117.8 million around the globe. She played one of the people who are brought together in the wake of a deadly car accident in the independent drama "Normal" (2007), released for selected theatres. Moss appeared in the drama "Fireflies in the Garden", which revolved around the inner lives and affairs of a family. The production premiered at the 2008 Berlin International Film Festival and was released theatrically in the United States in October 2011. She starred in the straight-to-DVD romantic comedy "Love Hurts" (2009).


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: In the thriller "Unthinkable" (2010), directed by Gregor Jordan, Moss played the leader of an FBI counter-terrorism team assigned to interrogate a man who threatens to detonate three nuclear bombs in the United States. The film was released direct-to-DVD and generated controversy over its subject matter. She took on the role of antagonist Claudia Wolf in the sequel to the 2006 horror film "Silent Hill", "" (2012). Budgeted at US$20 million, the film grossed US$52.3 million worldwide, but garnered an overwhelmingly negative reception among film critics and fans alike. Mentioning Moss in its review for the film, "The New York Times" remarked that the supporting actors "deserve much, much better". She voiced the character Aria in the video games "Mass Effect 2" (2010) and "Mass Effect 3" (2012).


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: She had a four-episode arc in the series "Chuck" between 2011 and 2012, and played the regular role of Las Vegas Assistant District Attorney Katherine O'Connell in the CBS period drama series "Vegas", which premiered in September 2012, but was cancelled after its first season, despite an overall positive response. Writing for "The New York Times", Mike Hale felt that Moss "feels out of place in this frontier tale, but looks great in snug wool suits". Moss obtained the role of Penelope, a California candidate for governor who runs a free health clinic, in the political thriller "Knife Fight" (2012), directed by Bill Guttentag. The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival and was released for a two-theater run and digital platforms. Moss headlined the psychological dark comedy "Compulsion" (2013), in which she played one of two people occupying neighbouring apartments, each one grappling with psychological disorders that begin to overtake their lives. The film opened for limited release. She voiced the character of Admiral Wells in the fantasy animated film "The Clockwork Girl" (2014).


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: She starred in the 3D historical disaster picture "Pompeii" (2014), produced and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. The film, inspired by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 that destroyed the Roman Empire city Pompeii, had her portray Aurelia, the wife of the city governor. In the independent drama "Elephant Song" (2014), directed by Charles Binamé, Moss starred as the wife of a psychiatrist. The film was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, and in its review for the film, "Variety" described her role as "a pushily self-centered second wife" and found her part to be "a poorly integrated subplot" in the film. In 2015, she voiced a widowed mother in the made-for-television animated film "Pirate's Passage", was one of the narrators in the documentary "Unity", and appeared as the wife of Victor Frankenstein in "Frankenstein", an updated adaptation of Mary Shelley's book.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: In 2015, Moss appeared in "Jessica Jones" as Jeri Hogarth, an attorney and potentially powerful ally to the title character. The gender of the character was changed from male to female for the series, and the character was written as a lesbian. Moss signed on to the series after reading the first two scripts, having been pitched the character by producer Jeph Loeb and screenwriter Melissa Rosenberg. She described the character by saying, "she's fierce, she's strong, she's powerful, and she likes that power". The web series premiered on Netflix, to critical acclaim. Moss has also reprised her role of Jeri Hogarth in the second-season finale of "Daredevil", and has had recurring arcs in "Iron Fist" and "The Defenders". Moss took on the lead role of Dr. Athena Morrow, an AI researcher invited to reverse engineer a consciousness program, in the second season of the science-fiction series "Humans". Moss filmed a supporting part in the supernatural horror film "The Bye Bye Man" (2017), playing what "Variety" described as "the world's most soft-edged hard-bitten police detective". Despite negative reviews, the film grossed US$24 million worldwide on a budget of US$7 million.


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: Moss returned to the Matrix film series in the 2021 film "The Matrix Resurrections", in which Moss reprises her role as Trinity. The film was released on December 22, 2021, in theaters and on HBO Max. The film overall received mixed reviews from critics, yet Moss's performance as Trinity was again praised. Moss welcomed her return to the role, stating, "Who am I if not Trinity?"


title: Carrie-Anne Moss

text: Moss married American actor Steven Roy in 1999, and they have two sons and a daughter. They live in Los Angeles. She is the founder of Annapurna Living, a lifestyle brand designed to empower women through mindfulness, meditation, and devotion. She is vegan.


title: Joule

text: The joule ( , ; symbol: J) is the unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI). It is equal to the amount of work done when a force of 1 newton displaces a mass through a distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force applied. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889).


title: Joule

text: In terms of SI base units and in terms of SI derived units with special names, the joule is defined as


title: Joule

text: The erg was adopted as its unit of energy in 1882. Wilhelm Siemens, in his inauguration speech as chairman of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (23 August 1882) first proposed the "Joule" as unit of heat, to be derived from the electromagnetic units Ampere and Ohm, in cgs units equivalent to .


title: Joule

text: The naming of the unit in honour of James Prescott Joule (1818–1889), at the time retired but still living (aged 63), is due to Siemens:


title: Joule

text: At the second International Electrical Congress, on 31 August 1889, the joule was officially adopted alongside the watt and the "quadrant" (later renamed to henry).


title: Joule

text: At the fourth congress (1893), the "international ampere" and "international ohm" were defined, with slight changes in the specifications for their measurement, with the "international joule" being the unit derived from them.


title: Joule

text: In 1935, the International Electrotechnical Commission (as the successor organisation of the International Electrical Congress) adopted the "Giorgi system", which by virtue of assuming a defined value for the magnetic constant also implied a redefinition of the Joule. The Giorgi system was approved by the International Committee for Weights and Measures in 1946. The joule was now no longer defined based on electromagnetic unit, but instead as the unit of work performed by one unit of force (at the time not yet named newton)


title: Joule

text: over the distance of 1 metre. The joule was explicitly intended as the unit of energy to be used in both electromagnetic and mechanical contexts. The ratification of the definition at the ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures, in 1948,


title: Joule

text: added the specification that the joule was also to be preferred as the unit of heat in the context of calorimetry, thereby officially deprecating the use of the calorie.


title: Joule

text: This definition was the direct precursor of the joule as adopted in the modern International System of Units in 1960.


title: Joule

text: The definition of the joule as J = kg⋅m⋅s has remained unchanged since 1946, but the joule as a derived unit has inherited changes in the definitions of the second (in 1960 and 1967), the metre (in 1983) and the kilogram (in 2019).


title: Joule

text: In mechanics, the concept of force (in some direction) has a close analogue in the concept of torque (about some angle):


title: Joule

text: A result of this similarity is that the SI unit for torque is the newton-metre, which works out algebraically to have the same dimensions as the joule, but they are not interchangeable. The General Conference on Weights and Measures has given the unit of energy the name "joule", but has not given the unit of torque any special name, hence it is simply the newton-metre (N⋅m) – a compound name derived from its constituent parts. The use of newton-metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications.


title: Joule

text: The distinction may be seen also in the fact that energy is a scalar quantity – the dot product of a force vector and a displacement vector. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a force vector and a distance vector. Torque and energy are related to one another by the equation


title: Joule

text: where "E" is energy, "τ" is (the vector magnitude of) torque, and "θ" is the angle swept (in radians). Since plane angles are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions.


title: Joule

text: A watt-second (symbol W s or W⋅s) is a derived unit of energy equivalent to the joule. The watt-second is the energy equivalent to the power of one watt sustained for one second. While the watt-second is equivalent to the joule in both units and meaning, there are some contexts in which the term "watt-second" is used instead of "joule", such as in the rating of photographic electronic flash units.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Mount St. Helens (known as Lawetlat'la to the indigenous Cowlitz people, and Loowit or Louwala-Clough to the Klickitat) is an active stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It lies northeast of Portland, Oregon, and south of Seattle. Mount St. Helens takes its English name from that of the British diplomat Lord St Helens, a friend of explorer George Vancouver who surveyed the area in the late 18th century. The volcano is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, a segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The Mount St. Helens major eruption of May 18, 1980 remains the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in U.S. history. Fifty-seven people were killed; 200 homes, 47 bridges, of railways, and of highway were destroyed. A massive debris avalanche, triggered by a magnitude 5.1 earthquake, caused a lateral eruption that reduced the elevation of the mountain's summit from to , leaving a  wide horseshoe-shaped crater. The debris avalanche was in volume. The 1980 eruption disrupted terrestrial ecosystems near the volcano. By contrast, aquatic ecosystems in the area greatly benefited from the amounts of ash, allowing life to multiply rapidly. Six years after the eruption, most lakes in the area had returned to their normal state.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: After its 1980 eruption, the volcano experienced continuous volcanic activity until 2008. Geologists predict that future eruptions will be more destructive, as the configuration of the lava domes require more pressure to erupt. However, Mount St. Helens is a popular hiking spot and it is climbed year-round. In 1982, the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument was established by President Ronald Reagan and the U.S. Congress.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Mount St. Helens is west of Mount Adams, in the western part of the Cascade Range. Considered "brother and sister" mountains, the two volcanoes are approximately from Mount Rainier, the highest of the Cascade volcanoes. Mount Hood, the nearest major volcanic peak in Oregon, is southeast of Mount St. Helens.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Mount St. Helens is geologically young compared with the other major Cascade volcanoes. It formed only within the past 40,000 years, and the summit cone present before its 1980 eruption began rising about 2,200 years ago. The volcano is considered the most active in the Cascades within the Holocene epoch, which encompasses roughly the last 10,000 years.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Prior to the 1980 eruption, Mount St. Helens was the fifth-highest peak in Washington. It stood out prominently from surrounding hills because of the symmetry and extensive snow and ice cover of the pre-1980 summit cone, earning it the nickname, by some, "Fuji-san of America". The peak rose more than above its base, where the lower flanks merge with adjacent ridges. The mountain is across at its base, which is at an elevation of on the northeastern side and elsewhere. At the pre-eruption tree line, the width of the cone was .


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Streams that originate on the volcano enter three main river systems: The Toutle River on the north and northwest, the Kalama River on the west, and the Lewis River on the south and east. The streams are fed by abundant rain and snow. The average annual rainfall is , and the snowpack on the mountain's upper slopes can reach . The Lewis River is impounded by three dams for hydroelectric power generation. The southern and eastern sides of the volcano drain into an upstream impoundment, the Swift Reservoir, which is directly south of the volcano's peak.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Although Mount St. Helens is in Skamania County, Washington, access routes to the mountain run through Cowlitz County to the west, and Lewis County to the north. State Route 504, locally known as the Spirit Lake Memorial Highway, connects with Interstate 5 at Exit 49, to the west of the mountain. That north–south highway skirts the low-lying cities of Castle Rock, Longview and Kelso along the Cowlitz River, and passes through the Vancouver, Washington–Portland, Oregon metropolitan area less than to the southwest. The community nearest the volcano is Cougar, Washington, in the Lewis River valley south-southwest of the peak. Gifford Pinchot National Forest surrounds Mount St. Helens.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: During the winter of 1980–1981, a new glacier appeared. Now officially named Crater Glacier, it was formerly known as the Tulutson Glacier. Shadowed by the crater walls and fed by heavy snowfall and repeated snow avalanches, it grew rapidly ( per year in thickness). By 2004, it covered about , and was divided by the dome into a western and eastern lobe. Typically, by late summer, the glacier looks dark from rockfall from the crater walls and ash from eruptions. As of 2006, the ice had an average thickness of and a maximum of , nearly as deep as the much older and larger Carbon Glacier of Mount Rainier. The ice is all post-1980, making the glacier very young geologically. However, the volume of the new glacier is about the same as all the pre-1980 glaciers combined.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: From 2004, volcanic activity pushed aside the glacier lobes and upward by the growth of new volcanic domes. The surface of the glacier, once mostly without crevasses, turned into a chaotic jumble of icefalls heavily criss-crossed with crevasses and seracs caused by movement of the crater floor. The new domes have almost separated the Crater Glacier into an eastern and western lobe. Despite the volcanic activity, the termini of the glacier have still advanced, with a slight advance on the western lobe and a more considerable advance on the more shaded eastern lobe. Due to the advance, two lobes of the glacier joined in late May 2008 and thus the glacier completely surrounds the lava domes. In addition, since 2004, new glaciers have formed on the crater wall above Crater Glacier feeding rock and ice onto its surface below; there are two rock glaciers to the north of the eastern lobe of Crater Glacier.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Mount St. Helens is part of the Cascades Volcanic Province, an arc-shaped band extending from southwestern British Columbia to Northern California, roughly parallel to the Pacific coastline. Beneath the Cascade Volcanic Province, a dense oceanic plate sinks beneath the North American Plate; a process known as subduction in geology. As the oceanic slab sinks deeper into the Earth's interior beneath the continental plate, high temperatures and pressures allow water molecules locked in the minerals of solid rock to escape. The water vapor rises into the pliable mantle above the subducting plate, causing some of the mantle to melt. This newly formed magma ascends upward through the crust along a path of least resistance, both by way of fractures and faults as well as by melting wall rocks. The addition of melted crust changes the geochemical composition. Some of the melt rises toward the Earth's surface to erupt, forming the Cascade Volcanic Arc above the subduction zone.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The magma from the mantle has accumulated in two chambers below the volcano: one approximately below the surface, the other about . The lower chamber may be shared with Mount Adams and the Indian Heaven volcanic field.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The early eruptive stages of Mount St. Helens are known as the "Ape Canyon Stage" (around 40,000–35,000 years ago), the "Cougar Stage" (ca. 20,000–18,000 years ago), and the "Swift Creek Stage" (roughly 13,000–8,000 years ago). The modern period, since about 2500 BC, is called the "Spirit Lake Stage". Collectively, the pre–Spirit Lake stages are known as the "ancestral stages". The ancestral and modern stages differ primarily in the composition of the erupted lavas; ancestral lavas consisted of a characteristic mixture of dacite and andesite, while modern lava is very diverse (ranging from olivine basalt to andesite and dacite).


title: Mount St. Helens

text: St. Helens started its growth in the Pleistocene 37,600 years ago, during the Ape Canyon stage, with dacite and andesite eruptions of hot pumice and ash. Thirty-six thousand years ago a large mudflow cascaded down the volcano; mudflows were significant forces in all of St. Helens' eruptive cycles. The Ape Canyon eruptive period ended around 35,000 years ago and was followed by 17,000 years of relative quiet. Parts of this ancestral cone were fragmented and transported by glaciers 14,000–18,000 years ago during the last glacial period of the current ice age.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The second eruptive period, the Cougar Stage, started 20,000 years ago and lasted for 2,000 years. Pyroclastic flows of hot pumice and ash along with dome growth occurred during this period. Another 5,000 years of dormancy followed, only to be upset by the beginning of the Swift Creek eruptive period, typified by pyroclastic flows, dome growth and blanketing of the countryside with tephra. Swift Creek ended 8,000 years ago.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: A dormancy of about 4,000 years was broken around 2500 BC with the start of the Smith Creek eruptive period, when eruptions of large amounts of ash and yellowish-brown pumice covered thousands of square miles. An eruption in 1900 BC was the largest known eruption from St. Helens during the Holocene epoch, depositing the Yn tephra. This eruptive period lasted until about 1600 BC and left deep deposits of material distant in what is now Mount Rainier National Park. Trace deposits have been found as far northeast as Banff National Park in Alberta, and as far southeast as eastern Oregon. All told there may have been up to of material ejected in this cycle. Some 400 years of dormancy followed.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: St. Helens came alive again around 1200 BC — the Pine Creek eruptive period. This lasted until about 800 BC and was characterized by smaller-volume eruptions. Numerous dense, nearly red hot pyroclastic flows sped down St. Helens' flanks and came to rest in nearby valleys. A large mudflow partly filled of the Lewis River valley sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The next eruptive period, the Castle Creek period, began about 400 BC, and is characterized by a change in the composition of St. Helens' lava, with the addition of olivine and basalt. The pre-1980 summit cone started to form during the Castle Creek period. Significant lava flows in addition to the previously much more common fragmented and pulverized lavas and rocks (tephra) distinguished this period. Large lava flows of andesite and basalt covered parts of the mountain, including one around the year 100 BC that traveled all the way into the Lewis and Kalama river valleys. Others, such as Cave Basalt (known for its system of lava tubes), flowed up to from their vents. During the first century, mudflows moved down the Toutle and Kalama river valleys and may have reached the Columbia River. Another 400 years of dormancy ensued.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The Sugar Bowl eruptive period was short and markedly different from other periods in Mount St. Helens history. It produced the only unequivocal laterally directed blast known from Mount St. Helens before the 1980 eruptions. During Sugar Bowl time, the volcano first erupted quietly to produce a dome, then erupted violently at least twice producing a small volume of tephra, directed-blast deposits, pyroclastic flows, and lahars.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Roughly 700 years of dormancy were broken in about 1480, when large amounts of pale gray dacite pumice and ash started to erupt, beginning the Kalama period. The 1480 eruption was several times larger than that of May 18, 1980. In 1482, another large eruption rivaling the 1980 eruption in volume is known to have occurred. Ash and pumice piled northeast of the volcano to a thickness of ; away, the ash was deep. Large pyroclastic flows and mudflows subsequently rushed down St. Helens' west flanks and into the Kalama River drainage system.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: This 150-year period next saw the eruption of less silica-rich lava in the form of andesitic ash that formed at least eight alternating light- and dark-colored layers. Blocky andesite lava then flowed from St. Helens' summit crater down the volcano's southeast flank. Later, pyroclastic flows raced down over the andesite lava and into the Kalama River valley. It ended with the emplacement of a dacite dome several hundred feet (~200 m) high at the volcano's summit, which filled and overtopped an explosion crater already at the summit. Large parts of the dome's sides broke away and mantled parts of the volcano's cone with talus. Lateral explosions excavated a notch in the southeast crater wall. St. Helens reached its greatest height and achieved its highly symmetrical form by the time the Kalama eruptive cycle ended, in about 1647. The volcano remained quiet for the next 150 years.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The 57-year eruptive period that started in 1800 was named after the Goat Rocks dome and is the first period for which both oral and written records exist. As with the Kalama period, the Goat Rocks period started with an explosion of dacite tephra, followed by an andesite lava flow, and culminated with the emplacement of a dacite dome. The 1800 eruption probably rivaled the 1980 eruption in size, although it did not result in massive destruction of the cone. The ash drifted northeast over central and eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and western Montana. There were at least a dozen reported small eruptions of ash from 1831 to 1857, including a fairly large one in 1842. (The 1831 eruption is likely what tinted the sun bluish-green in Southampton County, Virginia on the afternoon of August 13 — which Nat Turner interpreted as a final signal to launch the United States' largest slave rebellion.) The vent was apparently at or near Goat Rocks on the northeast flank. Goat Rocks dome was the site of the bulge in the 1980 eruption, and it was obliterated in the major eruption event on May 18, 1980, that destroyed the entire north face and top of the mountain.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: On March 20, 1980, Mount St. Helens experienced a magnitude 4.2 earthquake, and on March 27, steam venting started. By the end of April, the north side of the mountain had started to bulge.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: On May 18, a second earthquake, of magnitude 5.1, triggered a massive collapse of the north face of the mountain. It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history. The magma in St. Helens burst forth into a large-scale pyroclastic flow that flattened vegetation and buildings over an area of . More than 1.5 million metric tons of sulfur dioxide were released into the atmosphere. On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a 5, and categorized as a Plinian eruption.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The collapse of the northern flank of St. Helens mixed with ice, snow, and water to create lahars (volcanic mudflows). The lahars flowed many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz Rivers, destroying bridges and lumber camps. A total of of material was transported south into the Columbia River by the mudflows.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: For more than nine hours, a vigorous plume of ash erupted, eventually reaching 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27 km) above sea level. The plume moved eastward at an average speed of with ash reaching Idaho by noon. Ashes from the eruption were found on top of cars and roofs the next morning as far away as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: By about 5:30 p.m. on May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, and less-severe outbursts continued through the night and for the next several days. The St. Helens May 18 eruption released 24 megatons of thermal energy and ejected more than of material. The removal of the north side of the mountain reduced St. Helens' height by about and left a crater to wide and deep, with its north end open in a huge breach. The eruption killed 57 people, nearly 7,000 big-game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and an estimated 12 million fish from a hatchery. It destroyed or extensively damaged more than 200 homes, of highway, and of railways.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Between 1980 and 1986, activity continued at Mount St. Helens, with a new lava dome forming in the crater. Numerous small explosions and dome-building eruptions occurred. From December 7, 1989, to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990, to February 14, 1991, the mountain erupted, sometimes huge clouds of ash.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Magma reached the surface of the volcano about October 11, 2004, resulting in the building of a new lava dome on the existing dome's south side. This new dome continued to grow throughout 2005 and into 2006. Several transient features were observed, such as a lava spine nicknamed the "whaleback", which comprised long shafts of solidified magma being extruded by the pressure of magma beneath. These features were fragile and broke down soon after they were formed. On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, causing a rockfall that sent ash and dust several hundred meters into the air.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Mount St. Helens showed significant activity on March 8, 2005, when a plume of steam and ash emerged — visible from Seattle. This relatively minor eruption was a release of pressure consistent with ongoing dome building. The release was accompanied by a magnitude 2.5 earthquake.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Another feature to emerge from the dome was called the "fin" or "slab". Approximately half the size of a football field, the large, cooled volcanic rock was being forced upward as quickly as per day. In mid-June 2006, the slab was crumbling in frequent rockfalls, although it was still being extruded. The height of the dome was , still below the height reached in July 2005 when the whaleback collapsed.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: On October 22, 2006, at 3:13 p.m. PST, a magnitude 3.5 earthquake broke loose Spine 7. The collapse and avalanche of the lava dome sent an ash plume over the western rim of the crater; the ash plume then rapidly dissipated.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of condensing steam was observed, leading some media people to assume there had been a small eruption. However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the USGS did not mention any significant ash plume. The volcano was in continuous eruption from October 2004, but this eruption consisted in large part of a gradual extrusion of lava forming a dome in the crater.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: On January 16, 2008, steam began seeping from a fracture on top of the lava dome. Associated seismic activity was the most noteworthy since 2004. Scientists suspended activities in the crater and the mountain flanks, but the risk of a major eruption was deemed low. By the end of January, the eruption paused; no more lava was being extruded from the lava dome. On July 10, 2008, it was determined that the eruption had ended, after more than six months of no volcanic activity.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Future eruptions of Mount St. Helens will likely be even larger than the 1980 eruption. The current configuration of lava domes in the crater means that much more pressure will be required for the next eruption, and hence the level of destruction will be higher. Significant ashfall may spread over , disrupting transportation. A large lahar flow is likely on branches of the Toutle River, possibly causing destruction in inhabited areas along the I-5 corridor.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: In its undisturbed state, the slopes of Mount St. Helens lie in the Western Cascades Montane Highlands ecoregion. This ecoregion has abundant precipitation; an average of of precipitation falls each year at Spirit Lake. This precipitation supported dense forest up to , with western hemlock, Douglas fir, and western redcedar. Above this, this forest was dominated by Pacific silver fir up to . Finally, below treeline, the forest consisted of mountain hemlock, Pacific silver fir and Alaska yellow cedar. Large mammals included Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, American black bear, and mountain lion.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The Treeline at Mount St. Helens was unusually low, at about , the result of prior volcanic disturbance of the forest, as the treeline was thought to be moving up the slopes before the eruption. Alpine meadows were uncommon at Mount St. Helens. Mountain goats inhabited higher elevations of the peak, although their population was eliminated by the 1980 eruption.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The eruption of Mount St. Helens has been subject to more ecological study than has any other eruption, because research into disturbance commenced immediately after the eruption and because the eruption did not sterilize the immediate area. More than half of the papers on ecological response to volcanic eruption originated from studies of Mount St. Helens.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Perhaps the most important ecological concept originating from the study of Mount St. Helens is the biological legacy. Biological legacies are the survivors of catastrophic disturbance; they can either be alive (e.g., plants that survive ashfall or pyroclastic flow), organic debris, or biotic patterns remaining from before the disturbance. These biological legacies highly influence the reestablishment of the post-disturbance ecology.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Native American lore contains numerous stories to explain the eruptions of Mount St. Helens and other Cascade volcanoes. The best known of these is the Bridge of the Gods story told by the Klickitat people.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: In the story, the chief of all the gods and his two sons, Pahto (also called Klickitat) and Wy'east, traveled down the Columbia River from the Far North in search for a suitable area to settle.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: They came upon an area that is now called The Dalles and thought they had never seen a land so beautiful. The sons quarreled over the land, so to solve the dispute their father shot two arrows from his mighty bow – one to the north and the other to the south. Pahto followed the arrow to the north and settled there while Wy'east did the same for the arrow to the south. The chief of the gods then built the Bridge of the Gods, so his family could meet periodically.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: When the two sons of the chief of the gods fell in love with a beautiful maiden named Loowit, she could not choose between them. The two young chiefs fought over her, burying villages and forests in the process. The area was devastated and the earth shook so violently that the huge bridge fell into the river, creating the cascades of the Columbia River Gorge.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: For punishment, the chief of the gods struck down each of the lovers and transformed them into great mountains where they fell. Wy'east, with his head lifted in pride, became the volcano known today as Mount Hood. Pahto, with his head bent toward his fallen love, was turned into Mount Adams. The beautiful Loowit became Mount St. Helens, known to the Klickitats as Louwala-Clough, which means "smoking or fire mountain" in their language (the Sahaptin call the mountain Loowit).


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The mountain is also of sacred importance to the Cowlitz and Yakama tribes that also live in the area. They find the area above its tree line to be of exceptional spiritual significance, and the mountain (which they call "Lawetlat'la", roughly translated as "the smoker") features prominently in their creation story, and in some of their songs and rituals. In recognition of its cultural significance, over of the mountain (roughly bounded by the Loowit Trail) have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Other area tribal names for the mountain include "nšh´ák´" ("water coming out") from the Upper Chehalis, and "aka akn" ("snow mountain"), a Kiksht term.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Royal Navy Commander George Vancouver and the officers of HMS "Discovery" made the Europeans' first recorded sighting of Mount St. Helens on 19 May 1792, while surveying the northern Pacific Ocean coast. Vancouver named the mountain for British diplomat Alleyne Fitzherbert, 1st Baron St Helens on 20 October 1792, as it came into view when the "Discovery" passed into the mouth of the Columbia River.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Years later, explorers, traders, and missionaries heard reports of an erupting volcano in the area. Geologists and historians determined much later that the eruption took place in 1800, marking the beginning of the 57 year-long Goat Rocks Eruptive Period (see geology section). Alarmed by the "dry snow," the Nespelem tribe of northeastern Washington supposedly danced and prayed rather than collecting food and suffered during that winter from starvation.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: In late 1805 and early 1806, members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition spotted Mount St. Helens from the Columbia River but did not report either an ongoing eruption or recent evidence of one. They did however report the presence of quicksand and clogged channel conditions at the mouth of the Sandy River near Portland, suggesting an eruption by Mount Hood sometime in the previous decades.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: In 1829, Hall J. Kelley led a campaign to rename the Cascade Range as the President's Range and also to rename each major Cascade mountain after a former President of the United States. In his scheme Mount St. Helens was to be renamed Mount Washington.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The first authenticated non-Indigenous eyewitness report of a volcanic eruption was made in March 1835 by Meredith Gairdner, while working for the Hudson's Bay Company stationed at Fort Vancouver. He sent an account to the "Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal", which published his letter in January 1836. James Dwight Dana of Yale University, while sailing with the United States Exploring Expedition, saw the quiescent peak from off the mouth of the Columbia River in 1841. Another member of the expedition later described "cellular basaltic lavas" at the mountain's base.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: In the late fall or early winter of 1842, nearby European settlers and missionaries witnessed the so-called Great Eruption. This small-volume outburst created large ash clouds, and mild explosions followed for 15 years. The eruptions of this period were likely phreatic (steam explosions). Josiah Parrish in Champoeg, Oregon witnessed Mount St. Helens in eruption on 22 November 1842. Ash from this eruption may have reached The Dalles, Oregon, 48 miles (80 km) southeast of the volcano.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: In October 1843, future California governor Peter H. Burnett recounted a very likely apocryphal story of an Indigenous man who badly burned his foot and leg in lava or hot ash while hunting for deer. The story went that the injured man sought treatment at Fort Vancouver, but the contemporary fort commissary steward, Napoleon McGilvery, disclaimed knowledge of the incident. British lieutenant Henry J. Warre sketched the eruption in 1845, and two years later Canadian painter Paul Kane created watercolors of the gently smoking mountain. Warre's work showed erupting material from a vent about a third of the way down from the summit on the mountain's west or northwest side (possibly at Goat Rocks), and one of Kane's field sketches shows smoke emanating from about the same location.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: On April 17, 1857, the "Republican", a Steilacoom, Washington, newspaper, reported that "Mount St. Helens, or some other mount to the southward, is seen ... to be in a state of eruption". The lack of a significant ash layer associated with this event indicates that it was a small eruption. This was the first reported volcanic activity since 1854.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Before the 1980 eruption, Spirit Lake offered year-round recreational activities. In the summer there was boating, swimming, and camping, while in the winter there was skiing.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Fifty-seven people were killed during the eruption. Had the eruption occurred one day later, when loggers would have been at work, rather than on a Sunday, the death toll could have been much higher.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Eighty-three-year-old Harry R. Truman, who had lived near the mountain for 54 years, gained media attention when he decided not to evacuate before the impending eruption, despite repeated pleas by local authorities. His body was never found after the eruption.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Another victim of the eruption was 30-year-old volcanologist David A. Johnston, who was stationed on the nearby Coldwater Ridge. Moments before his position was hit by the pyroclastic flow, Johnston radioed his last words: "Vancouver! Vancouver! This is it!" Johnston's body was never found.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said, "Someone said this area looked like a moonscape. But the moon looks more like a golf course compared to what's up there." A film crew, led by Seattle filmmaker Otto Seiber, was dropped by helicopter on St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. Their compasses, however, spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred on May 25, but the crew survived and was rescued two days later by National Guard helicopter pilots. Their film, "The Eruption of Mount St. Helens", later became a popular documentary.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The eruption had negative effects beyond the immediate area of the volcano. Ashfall caused approximately $100 million of damage to agriculture downwind in Eastern Washington.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The eruption also had positive impacts on society. Apple and wheat production were higher in the 1980 growing season, possibly due to ash helping to retain moisture in the soil. The ash was also a source of income: it was the raw material for the artificial gemstone helenite, or for ceramic glazes, or sold as a tourist curio.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: In 1982, President Ronald Reagan and the U.S. Congress established the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a area around the mountain and within the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Following the 1980 eruption, the area was left to gradually return to its natural state. In 1987, the U.S. Forest Service reopened the mountain to climbing. It remained open until 2004 when renewed activity caused the closure of the area around the mountain (see "Geological history" section above for more details). The Monitor Ridge trail, which previously let up to 100 permitted hikers per day climb to the summit, ceased operation. On July 21, 2006, the mountain was again opened to climbers. In February 2010, a climber died after falling from the rim into the crater.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: Mount St. Helens is a common climbing destination for both beginning and experienced mountaineers. The peak is climbed year-round, although it is more often climbed from late spring through early fall. All routes include sections of steep, rugged terrain. A permit system has been in place for climbers since 1987. A climbing permit is required year-round for anyone who will be above on the slopes of Mount St. Helens.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The standard hiking/mountaineering route in the warmer months is the Monitor Ridge Route, which starts at the Climbers Bivouac. This is the most crowded route to the summit in the summer and gains about in approximately to reach the crater rim. Although strenuous, it is considered a non-technical climb that involves some scrambling. Most climbers complete the round trip in 7 to 12 hours.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The Worm Flows Route is considered the standard winter route on Mount St. Helens, as it is the most direct route to the summit. The route gains about in elevation over about from trailhead to summit but does not demand the technical climbing that some other Cascade peaks like Mount Rainier do. The route name refers to the rocky lava flows that surround the route. This route can be accessed via the Marble Mountain Sno-Park and the Swift Ski Trail.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: The mountain is now circled by the Loowit Trail at elevations of . The northern segment of the trail from the South Fork Toutle River on the west to Windy Pass on the east is a restricted zone where camping, biking, pets, fires, and off-trail excursions are all prohibited.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: On April 14, 2008, John Slemp, a snowmobiler from Damascus, Oregon, fell 1,500 feet into the crater after a snow cornice gave way beneath him on a trip to the volcano with his son. Despite his long fall, Slemp survived with minor injuries, and was able to walk after coming to a stop at the foot of the crater wall, where he was rescued by a mountain rescue helicopter.


title: Mount St. Helens

text: A visitor center run by the Washington State Parks is in Silver Lake, Washington, about west of Mount St. Helens. Exhibits include a large model of the volcano, a seismograph, a theater program, and an outdoor natural trail.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian Automotive, Inc. is an American electric vehicle manufacturer and automotive technology company founded in 2009. Rivian is building an electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) and pickup truck on a "skateboard" platform that can support future vehicles or be adopted by other companies. An electric delivery van is also being built as part of a partnership with Amazon. Rivian started deliveries of its R1T pickup truck in late 2021. The company plans to build an exclusive charging network in the United States and Canada by the end of 2023.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian is based in Irvine, California, with its manufacturing plant in Normal, Illinois, and other facilities in Palo Alto, California; Carson, California; Plymouth, Michigan; Vancouver, British Columbia; Wittmann, Arizona; and Woking, England. Additionally, Rivian has plans to build another US$5 billion factory in Georgia.


title: Rivian

text: The company was founded in 2009 as Mainstream Motors by Robert "RJ" Scaringe. After being renamed as Avera Automotive or Avera Motors, and finally Rivian Automotive in 2011 (a word play on the Indian River in Florida, where Scaringe grew up), the company began focusing on autonomous and electric vehicles.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian's first car model was intended to be a sports car. This vehicle, dubbed the R1, was prototyped as a mid-engine hybrid coupe for the U.S. market, designed by Peter Stevens. However, it was shelved in late 2011 as Rivian looked to restart its business in an effort to have a larger impact on the automotive industry.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian received a large investment and grew significantly in 2015, opening research facilities in Michigan and the Bay Area. Shortly thereafter, Rivian began working exclusively on electric autonomous vehicles, in an attempt to build a network of related products. It also began gearing its prototypes toward the "ride-sharing and driverless car markets."


title: Rivian

text: By September 2016, Rivian was negotiating to buy a manufacturing plant formerly owned by Mitsubishi Motors in Normal, Illinois. In January 2017, Rivian acquired the plant and its manufacturing contents for $16 million, with the plant to become Rivian's primary North American manufacturing facility. Rivian's acquisition of a near production-ready facility instead of building a new factory has been likened to Tesla's acquisition of the NUMMI plant in California.


title: Rivian

text: In December 2017, Rivian revealed its first two products: an electric five-passenger pickup truck and an electric seven-passenger SUV, provisionally named the A1T and A1C, respectively. In November 2018, the truck and SUV were renamed the R1T and R1S, respectively, and unveiled at the LA Auto Show. Both vehicles were described as ready for rough terrain and semi-autonomous, and the company outlined a plan for its next generation of models to be fully autonomous. Production was scheduled to begin in 2020.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian had 250 employees at the start of 2018. By February 2019, however, Rivian was employing 750 people across facilities in Michigan, Illinois, California, and the United Kingdom. In November 2020, Rivian employed 3,000-plus workers. Over the span of another year, employment roughly tripled, and in November 2021, Rivian was listed as having 9,000-plus employees.


title: Rivian

text: In late 2020, Rivian planned to begin shipments of the R1T in June 2021. The June 2021 date later slipped to August. By August, vehicle shipments were delayed again, partly due to the global shortage of chips. In September 2021, Rivian became the first automaker to bring a fully electric pickup to the consumer market, beating industry mainstays such as GM, Ford, and Tesla. In October 2021, Rivian began delivering the R1T truck to customers.


title: Rivian

text: On November 10, 2021, Rivian became a public company through an IPO. 153 million shares were sold at an initial offering price of $78.00, valuing the company at $66.5 billion. The shares began trading on the Nasdaq under the ticker "RIVN." On its first trading day, the stock closed at $100.73 per share, valuing the company at just under $100 billion.


title: Rivian

text: On November 19, 2021, Ford and Rivian announced that the two automakers no longer plan to co-develop an electric vehicle. Ford announced the company would retain a 12 percent stake in Rivian, which reached a value of more than $10 billion after the IPO.


title: Rivian

text: In December 2021, at the same time that Rivian began to deliver its R1S SUVs, Rivian's chief operations officer, Rod Copes, stepped down and retired from the company as it began to ramp up production of its vehicles.


title: Rivian

text: On March 1, 2022, Rivian announced price increases of 17% for the R1T and 20% for the R1S, citing a shortage of semiconductors and higher costs for other components. There was immediate backlash from customers that had previously made reservations as the price hike would also affect their preorders. Rivian later apologized for the retroactive price increases and stated that the original configured price would be honored for anyone with a Rivian preorder as of the March 1 pricing announcement.


title: Rivian

text: On March 14, 2022, Rivian announced the company hired Frank Klein as its COO (chief operations officer). Klein began on June 1, 2022.


title: Rivian

text: On July 27, 2022, Rivian announced it would reduce its workforce by 6% in response to high inflation, rising interest rates, and an increase in parts prices.


title: Rivian

text: In August 2022, regulatory filings revealed that investor George Soros sold roughly 8.5 million of shares of the company while at the same time buying Tesla and Ford.


title: Rivian

text: In September 2022, Rivian signed an MoU with Mercedes-Benz Group to establish a joint venture to invest in and operate a factory in Europe, producing large commercial electric vans starting in a "few years." The facility will have a common assembly line to produce a different design for each company. "The New York Times" characterized the move as "a rare example of cooperation between a traditional carmaker and a new challenger" and noted that Mercedes' extensive experience in manufacturing may allow Rivian to overcome its own issues with it. Rivian said this planned partnership would not go forward with this plan in December 2022 but stated that future collaborations may still be possible.


title: Rivian

text: Designed to be capable off-road, both R1 models have of ground clearance. The truck was claimed in early testing to be able to accelerate from in under 3 seconds, wade through of water and climb a 45degree incline. The truck has a motor near each of the four wheels, and like some competitors, each wheel can be controlled interdependently. According to Engadget, "the most expensive models will reach around on a charge and feature [an] 800HP [] electric motor Scaringe stated would beat Italian supercars." Rivian has said it is designing the vehicles to facilitate "carsharing" with their autonomous features. In addition, Rivian announced the intention to make an electric delivery van (EDV) in three different sizes, capable of carrying of packages. All three EDVs would share their basic electrical and network architecture, ECUs and battery packs with the Rivian R1 models.


title: Rivian

text: As of December 2021, Rivian reported that it has over 71,000 pre-orders for its R1 models. They have produced a total of 14,317 cars up to October 2022. A recall of 13,000 vehicles was issued in October 2022 due to a potential loose fastener.


title: Rivian

text: The R1T features four electric motors, two located on each axle (front and rear). The front two motors produce and of torque while the rear two motors produce and of torque. The result is a Rivian-claimed time of 3.0 seconds.


title: Rivian

text: The Rivian R1T is offered with three battery sizes: 105 kWh, 135 kWh, or 180 kWh. The R1T has a projected range of with the smallest battery, with the medium battery and over with the largest battery. Extra batteries can be mounted in the R1T's bed for improved range. Those backup/auxiliary batteries can be charged by another R1T, if no charging infrastructure is available.


title: Rivian

text: In August 2022, the company announced it would eliminate the base model of the R1T, called the Explore package, due to low customer demand, and would emphasize the Adventure model. The company said this would help it "streamline" its supply chain issues and deliver as many vehicles as possible.


title: Rivian

text: The R1S is a sport utility vehicle version of the first Rivian platform. Because of a shared electric chassis, the R1S design aimed, , to have 91 percent shared components with the R1T. The chassis includes braking, suspension and cooling systems with a battery in the center. Rivian's skateboard platform is a relatively flat, low center of gravity chassis typical of electric vehicles, which enables straightforward modification for different body types.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian entered into a commercial agreement with its investor Amazon, Inc. in February 2019. By September 2019, Amazon's Logistics division had agreed to collaborate with Rivian to design, produce, and purchase 100,000 electric delivery vehicles (EDVs). Initial plans suggested a first delivery date in 2021. , Amazon expected to have as many as 10,000 electric vans in operation by 2022, but was not planning to take delivery of the entire 100,000 Rivian vans the contract calls for until 2030. In November 2022, Rivian announced that it had delivered 1,000 EDVs to Amazon. The Rivian collaboration is part of Amazon's plan to convert its delivery fleet to 100% renewable energy by 2030.


title: Rivian

text: The van is slated to be built in three sizes, carrying , , or of packages, each with the same stand-up interior height, but with a narrower smallest model. All of the vans will be built on the same platform, which shares the same electrical and network architecture, ECUs, and battery-pack design with the Rivian R1T/R1S models; most will use a basic single-motor e-axle drive unit driving the front wheels. The van is to be produced exclusively for Amazon, and will be built with a steel chassis on a "low-feature-content" assembly line to keep costs down. The van is explicitly designed to allow Amazon to reduce costs and shrink its carbon footprint.


title: Rivian

text: A prototype for the Amazon electric delivery van was tested on public roads in early 2021. Testing began in Los Angeles and San Francisco. By April 2021, testing was being conducted in Denver with plans to test in 16 U.S. cities in different climate zones. Tests in Oklahoma and Michigan were underway by July 2021.


title: Rivian

text: Amazon contracted Rivian to eventually deliver 100,000 electric delivery vans. Amazon also will source electric vans and three-wheelers from other OEMs, such as Stellantis, Mercedes-Benz Group, and Mahindra.


title: Rivian

text: In March 2021, Rivian announced ambitious plans to develop a network of public charging stations across the United States and Canada by the end of 2023. Similar to competitor Tesla, it plans to offer a combination of fast chargers and slower destination chargers and also sell home chargers. The target for the charging network is set for 600 Rivian-exclusive Adventure Network sites made up of 3,500 DC fast chargers at high-traffic locations; 200 kW will be the initial charging speed, with an eventual target of 300 kW.


title: Rivian

text: The company is also planning 10,000 destination chargers (Level 2, 11.5 kW)—called "Rivian Waypoints"—at retail, lodging and dining businesses, as well as parks and other locations; Waypoint chargers are designed to be usable by all electric vehicles with a J1772 connector. Starting July 2021, Rivian planned to install two Rivian Waypoint chargers at up to 50 Colorado State Parks and state recreation areas. However, by October, none had yet been installed as the contract was still making its way through state government bureaucracy with first installations expected in early 2022. In September 2021, the first Waypoint 11.5 kW chargers were installed near Moab, Utah.


title: Rivian

text: In July 2021, Rivian and the state of Tennessee announced plans to install Waypoint chargers at all 56 Tennessee state parks, saying that "Rivian will begin site surveys and engineering over the summer, with installation beginning as early as fall 2021". The first site, Radnor Lake State Park, was unveiled on October 1, 2021.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian is headquartered in Irvine, California, with its location focusing on vehicle engineering and design, propulsion and battery system development, and commercial functions. Rivian's sole production factory in Normal, Illinois, manufactures vehicle components, such as battery packs. The 2.6-million-square-foot (240,000 m) plant has a paint shop, robotics, stamping machines, and other production equipment, such as injection molding. Rivian's facility in Plymouth, Michigan, focuses on vehicle engineering, prototyping, supply chain, and accounting. Rivian's facility in Palo Alto, California, focuses on software development and engineering, including self-driving features. The company has additional office locations in Carson, California, and Woking, England, working on electric power conversion and advanced engineering, respectively.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian's Normal factory has steadily grown over the years. In July 2020, Rivian's plans for additions totaling 576,000 sq ft to its production facility were approved by the city council. In October 2021, Rivian made public plans to grow the facility with a addition to be built on the west side of the existing facility, which if built would bring the total Rivian facility size to .


title: Rivian

text: In December 2021, Rivian announced plans to build a $5 billion battery and assembly plant east of Atlanta. Construction is planned to begin in summer 2022 with car production beginning in 2024 with plans to manufacture up to 400,000 vehicles a year. The plant is currently projected to employ 7,500 workers with possible growth to 10,000 workers. Some locals are opposed to the Rivian plant with reasons such as environmental concerns and government costs, including Georgia proposing to allocate $125 million for costs associated with the factory.


title: Rivian

text: As of December 2021, Rivian is a public company trading under the symbol RIVN on the Nasdaq stock exchange.


title: Rivian

text: From initial seed stage capital invested by CEO Scaringe in 2009 to its final $2.5 billion round in 2021, Rivian secured 10 rounds of private funding to support the completion of development of line of its vehicles and build out to support production. On November 10, 2021, the company completed its initial public offering, raising $13.5 billion.


title: Rivian

text: 2012 – The company filed a second Form D, reporting debts and warrants totaling $1 million Jeddah-based investment firm Abdul Latif Jameel claims to have been the company's earliest investor.


title: Rivian

text: 2013–2016 – There were no filings or announcements of funding for Rivian. Cumulative funding remained at $1.25 million.


title: Rivian

text: 2017 – In January 2017, at the time the company acquired the former Mitsubishi plant in Normal, Illinois, Rivian received a $1 million grant and a five-year tax abatement from Normal, contingent on meeting certain employment targets and investing $40.5 million over five years. Rivian also received $49.5 million in tax credits from the Illinois state government; these credits are also contingent upon meeting employment targets and investing at least $175 million into the site by 2024.


title: Rivian

text: Sumitomo Corporation made a "large strategic investment" in Rivian in December 2017. The amount was not disclosed.


title: Rivian

text: 2018 – Announced on May 23, 2018, Rivian closed on $200 million in debt financing from Standard Chartered Bank, bringing total raised funds to upwards of $450 million. Other backers at the time included existing investors Abdul Latif Jameel and Sumitomo Corporation.


title: Rivian

text: 2019–2020 – Announced on February 15, 2019, Amazon led an investment round of $700 million into Rivian. The round included participation from existing shareholders.


title: Rivian

text: Announced on April 24, 2019, Ford Motor Company invested $500 million at a pre-money valuation of $4.5 billion.


title: Rivian

text: Announced on September 10, 2019, Cox Automotive invested $350 million into Rivian, bringing the total raised in 2019 to $1.5 billion. Rivian remained independent, but Cox Automotive planned to add a representative to Rivian's board as part of the investment.


title: Rivian

text: On November 19, 2021, Ford and Rivian announced that they no longer plan to co-develop an electric vehicle. Originally, both companies had planned the joint development of a vehicle for Ford's luxury Lincoln brand. Those plans were canceled in 2020. Ford continued to hold a stake in Rivian, valued at over $10 billion as of November 2021.


title: Rivian

text: In December 2019, Rivian announced it raised billion in a round led by investment manager T Rowe Price with existing investors Ford and Amazon, alongside new investors London/New York firm Pario Ventures and BlackRock-managed funds.


title: Rivian

text: 2021 – Announced on January 19, 2021, Rivian raised $2.65 billion led by existing investor T. Rowe Price alongside Soros Fund Management, Fidelity Management & Research, Coatue Management, BlackRock-managed funds, Abdul Latif Jameel, and Amazon, now through its Climate Pledge Fund, plus new investors D1 Capital Partners. Abdul Latif J holds almost 114 million shares in Rivian acquired through $303 million of loans made to the company. Bloomberg estimated the company's value at nearly $28 billion.


title: Rivian

text: Announced on July 23, 2021, Rivian raised $2.5 billion in a round led by Amazon's Climate Pledge Fund, D1 Capital Partners, and Ford Motor Company, alongside existing investors T. Rowe Price, Coatue Management, Fidelity Management & Research. New investors Third Point Ventures and Dragoneer Investment Group joined the round.


title: Rivian

text: In August 2021, Rivian filed for an initial public offering, seeking a valuation as high as $80 billion. By then, the firm had raised a total of approximately $11 billion.


title: Rivian

text: In November 2021, Rivian completed its IPO with net proceeds to the firm of $13.5 billion. While initial price targets were in the $58 to $62 range, the actual offering price was $78.00 per share. On its first trading day on November 10, the stock closed at $100.73 per share with a market value of just under $100 billion. At that value, it was worth more than General Motors or Ford and was behind only Tesla in terms of the market cap of automakers. CEO R.J. Scaringe's ownership of 17.6 million shares was worth approximately $2 billion.


title: Rivian

text: Amazon purchased $200 million of stock in the IPO, raising its total stake in Rivian to 22%. Previously, in October 2021, Amazon stated that it owned a 20% stake in the company.


title: Rivian

text: The stock peaked at a closing price of $146.07 on November 13, 2021. From there, the stock price fell more or less continuously during the tech sell-off of winter/spring 2022 to reach $30.68 on April 26, 2022. The market value at the end of April 2022 had declined to roughly $29 billion, a loss of 79 percent. At the beginning of May 2022 the stock price fell further, closing at an all-time low of $22.78 on May 9, 2022, the decline from the peak in November 2021 being nearly 85 percent.


title: Rivian

text: On December 20, 2018, professional rock climber Alex Honnold announced his partnership with Rivian as a brand partner and collaborator. During a live stream on June 15, 2019, Rivian announced plans to collaborate with the Honnold Foundation and nonprofit Casa Pueblo on a solar project aiming to establish a microgrid in Adjuntas, Puerto Rico, a city that was severely affected by Hurricane Maria in 2017. Rivian planned to repurpose used battery packs from its development vehicles into stationary energy storage units. The microgrid is intended to grant residents access to electricity for core business and will be used daily to mitigate the high cost of energy in Puerto Rico, which is twice the U.S. national average. The project was expected to launch in 2020.


title: Rivian

text: In 2019, Rivian partnered with actors Ewan McGregor and Charley Boorman to provide the first ever production pickups (VIN 000001 and 000002) for use as logistics vehicles and camera cars for the British TV series "Long Way Up". They also set up 240 level 2 and level 3 charging stations at 140 locations, along the route from Tierra del Fuego to Los Angeles.


title: Rivian

text: Rivian partners with Yakima for their roof racks (bike, kayak, surfboard etc) and rooftop tents, MAXTRAX for their recovery boards.


title: Rivian

text: In July 2020, Tesla sued Rivian for allegedly stealing proprietary information, as well as for poaching employees.


title: Rivian

text: In March 2021, the Illinois Automobile Dealers Association filed a lawsuit against Rivian and fellow EV manufacturer Lucid Motors for their plans to sell electric vehicles directly to consumers.


title: Rivian

text: In November 2021, Rivian's former sales and marketing vice president Laura Schwab filed a suit against the company, claiming she was fired a month after raising concerns of discrimination and Rivian being a "boys' club" to the company's HR department. Schwab also claimed that she warned company executives of their vehicles being underpriced and the manufacturing process not conforming to security standards. According to the lawsuit, issues she raised were ignored until male colleagues also raised them subsequently.


title: Caracal

text: The caracal (Caracal caracal) () is a medium-sized wild cat native to Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and arid areas of Pakistan and northwestern India. It is characterised by a robust build, long legs, a short face, long tufted ears, and long canine teeth. Its coat is uniformly reddish tan or sandy, while the ventral parts are lighter with small reddish markings. It reaches at the shoulder and weighs . It was first scientifically described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1776. Three subspecies are recognised.


title: Caracal

text: Typically nocturnal, the caracal is highly secretive and difficult to observe. It is territorial, and lives mainly alone or in pairs. The caracal is a carnivore that typically preys upon small mammals, birds, and rodents. It can leap higher than and catch birds in midair. It stalks its prey until it is within of it, after which it runs it down and kills its prey with a bite to the throat or to the back of the neck. Both sexes become sexually mature by the time they are one year old and breed throughout the year. Gestation lasts between two and three months, resulting in a litter of one to six kittens. Juveniles leave their mothers at the age of nine to ten months, though a few females stay back with their mothers. The average lifespan of captive caracals is nearly 16 years.


title: Caracal

text: "Felis caracal" was the scientific name used by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1776 who described a caracal skin from the Cape of Good Hope. In 1843, John Edward Gray placed it in the genus "Caracal". It is placed in the family Felidae and subfamily Felinae.


title: Caracal

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, several caracal specimens were described and proposed as subspecies. Since 2017, three subspecies have been recognised as valid:


title: Caracal

text: Results of a phylogenetic study indicates that the caracal and the African golden cat ("Caracal aurata") diverged between 2.93 and 1.19 million years ago. These two species together with the serval ("Leptailurus serval") form the "Caracal" lineage, which diverged between 11.56 and 6.66 million years ago. The ancestor of this lineage arrived in Africa between 8.5 and 5.6 million years ago.


title: Caracal

text: The name 'caracal' was proposed by Georges Buffon in 1761 who referred to its Turkish name 'Karrah-kulak' or 'Kara-coulac', meaning 'cat with black ears'. The 'lynx' of the Greeks and Romans was most probably the caracal, and the name 'lynx' is sometimes still applied to it, but the present-day lynx proper is a separate genus.


title: Caracal

text: The caracal is a slender, moderately sized cat characterised by a robust build, a short face, long canine teeth, tufted ears, and long legs. It reaches nearly at the shoulder. The tan, bushy tail extends to the hocks. The caracal is sexually dimorphic; the females are smaller than the males in most bodily parameters.


title: Caracal

text: The prominent facial features include the 4.5-cm-long black tufts on the ears, two black stripes from the forehead to the nose, the black outline of the mouth, the distinctive black facial markings, and the white patches surrounding the eyes and the mouth. The eyes appear to be narrowly open due to the lowered upper eyelid, probably an adaptation to shield the eyes from the sun's glare. The ear tufts may start drooping as the animal ages. The coat is uniformly reddish tan or sandy, though black caracals are also known. The underbelly and the insides of the legs are lighter, often with small reddish markings.


title: Caracal

text: The fur, soft, short, and dense, grows coarser in the summer. The ground hairs (the basal layer of hair covering the coat) are denser in winter than in summer. The length of the guard hairs (the hair extending above the ground hairs) can be up to long in winter, but shorten to in summer. These features indicate the onset of moulting in the hot season, typically in October and November. The hind legs are longer than the forelegs, so the body appears to be sloping downward from the rump.


title: Caracal

text: Male caracals measure in head-to-body length and have long tails; 77 male caracals ranged in weight between . The head-to-body length of females is with a tail of ; 63 females ranged in weight between .


title: Caracal

text: The caracal is often confused with a lynx, as both cats have tufted ears. However, a notable point of difference between the two is that "Lynx" species are spotted and blotched, while the caracal shows no such markings on the coat. The African golden cat has a similar build as the caracal's, but is darker and lacks the ear tufts. The sympatric serval can be distinguished from the caracal by the former's lack of ear tufts, white spots behind the ears, spotted coat, longer legs, longer tail, and smaller footprints.


title: Caracal

text: The skull of the caracal is high and rounded, featuring large auditory bullae, a well-developed supraoccipital crest normal to the sagittal crest, and a strong lower jaw. The caracal has a total of 30 teeth; the dental formula is . The deciduous dentition is . The canines are up to long and sharp. The caracal lacks the second upper premolars, and the upper molars are diminutive. The large paws have four digits in the hind legs and five in the fore legs. The first digit of the fore leg remains above the ground and features the dewclaw. The sharp and retractile claws are larger but less curved in the hind legs.


title: Caracal

text: In Africa, the caracal is widely distributed south of the Sahara, but considered rare in North Africa. In Asia, it occurs from the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan to western India.


title: Caracal

text: It inhabits forests, savannas, marshy lowlands, semideserts, and scrub forests, but prefers dry areas with low rainfall and availability of cover. In montane habitats such as in the Ethiopian Highlands, it occurs up to an elevation of .


title: Caracal

text: In the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, a male caracal was photographed by camera traps in Jebel Hafeet National Park in the Al-Ain Region, Abu Dhabi in spring 2019, the first such record since the mid 1980s.


title: Caracal

text: In southern Turkey, caracals are present in a wildlife reserve in the vicinity of Antalya that is regularly used for recreational and agricultural activities. However, they avoid humans and are active mostly at night. In Uzbekistan, caracals were recorded only in the desert regions of the Ustyurt Plateau and Kyzylkum Desert. Between 2000 and 2017, 15 individuals were sighted alive, and at least 11 were killed by herders.


title: Caracal

text: In Iran, the caracal has been recorded in Abbasabad Naein Reserve, Bahram’gur Protected Area, Kavir National Park and in Yazd Province.


title: Caracal

text: The caracal is typically nocturnal (active at night), though some activity may be observed during the day as well. However, the cat is so secretive and difficult to observe that its activity at daytime might easily go unnoticed. A study in South Africa showed that caracals are most active when the air temperature drops below ; activity typically ceases at higher temperatures. A solitary cat, the caracal mainly occurs alone or in pairs; the only groups seen are of mothers with their offspring. Females in oestrus temporarily pair with males. A territorial animal, the caracal marks rocks and vegetation in its territory with urine and probably with dung, which is not covered with soil. Claw scratching is prominent, and dung middens are typically not formed. In Israel, males are found to have territories averaging , while that of females averaged . The male territories vary from in Saudi Arabia. In Mountain Zebra National Park, the home ranges of females vary between . These territories overlap extensively. The conspicuous ear tufts and the facial markings often serve as a method of visual communication; caracals have been observed interacting with each other by moving the head from side to side so that the tufts flicker rapidly. Like other cats, the caracal meows, growls, hisses, spits, and purrs.


title: Caracal

text: A carnivore, the caracal typically preys upon small mammals and birds. In South Africa, it preys on the Cape grysbok, common duiker, bush vlei rats, rock hyrax and Cape hare. Mammals generally comprise at least 80% of its diet, and it may also target larger antelopes such as young kudu, bushbuck, impala, mountain reedbuck and springbok. The remaining percentage is made up of lizards, snakes and insects.


title: Caracal

text: Rodents comprise a significant portion of its diet in western India. It feeds on a variety of sources, but tend to focus on the most abundant one. In South Africa, caracals have been documented preying on small livestock in areas where sheep and goat are farmed. Livestock is however only a small and seasonal portion of their diet when wild prey is scarce. Occasionally, it consumes grasses and grapes, which help to clear the immune system and stomach of any parasites.


title: Caracal

text: The caracals's speed and agility make it an efficient hunter, able to take down prey two to three times its size. The powerful hind legs allow it to leap more than in the air to catch birds on the wing. It can even twist and change its direction mid-air. It is an adroit climber. It stalks its prey until it is within , following which it can launch into a sprint. While large prey such as antelopes are suffocated by a throat bite, smaller prey are killed by a bite on the back of the neck. Kills are consumed immediately, and less commonly dragged to cover. It returns to large kills if undisturbed. It has been observed to begin feeding on antelope kills at the hind parts. It may scavenge at times, though this has not been frequently observed.


title: Caracal

text: Both sexes become sexually mature by the time they are a year old; production of gametes begins even earlier at seven to ten months. However, successful mating takes place only at 12 to 15 months. Breeding takes place throughout the year. Oestrus, one to three days long, recurs every two weeks unless the female is pregnant. Females in oestrus show a spike in urine-marking, and form temporary pairs with males. Mating has not been extensively studied; a limited number of observations suggest that copulation, lasting nearly four minutes on an average, begins with the male smelling the areas urine-marked by the female, which then rolls on the ground. Following this, the male approaches and mounts the female. The pair separate after copulation.


title: Caracal

text: Gestation lasts about two to three months, following which a litter consisting of one to six kittens is born. Births generally peak from October to February. Births take place in dense vegetation or deserted burrows of aardvarks and porcupines. Kittens are born with their eyes and ears shut and the claws not retractable (unable to be drawn inside); the coat resembles that of adults, but the abdomen is spotted. Eyes open by ten days, but it takes longer for the vision to become normal. The ears become erect and the claws become retractable by the third or the fourth week. Around the same time, the kittens start roaming their birthplace, and start playing among themselves by the fifth or the sixth week. They begin taking solid food around the same time; they have to wait for nearly three months before they make their first kill. As the kittens start moving about by themselves, the mother starts shifting them every day. All the milk teeth appear in 50 days, and permanent dentition is completed in 10 months. Juveniles begin dispersing at nine to ten months, though a few females stay back with their mothers. The average lifespan of the caracal in captivity is nearly 16 years.


title: Caracal

text: In the 1990s, a captive caracal spontaneously mated with a domestic cat in the Moscow Zoo, resulting in a felid hybrid offspring.


title: Caracal

text: The caracal is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2002, as it is widely distributed in over 50 range countries, where the threats to caracal populations vary in extent. Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, the building of roads and settlements is a major threat in all range countries. It is thought to be close to extinction in North Africa, critically endangered in Pakistan, endangered in Jordan, but stable in central and Southern Africa. Local people kill caracal to protect livestock, or in retaliation for its preying on small livestock. Additionally, it is threatened by hunting for the pet trade on the Arabian Peninsula. In Turkey and Iran, caracals are frequently killed in road accidents.


title: Caracal

text: In Uzbekistan, the major threat to caracal is killing by herders in retaliation for livestock losses. Guarding techniques and sheds are inadequate to protect small livestock like goats and sheep from being attacked by predators. Additionally, similarly to Ethiopia, heavy-traffic roads crossing caracal habitat pose a potential threat for the species.


title: Caracal

text: African caracal populations are listed under CITES Appendix II, while Asian populations come under CITES Appendix I. Hunting of caracal is prohibited in Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Caracals occur in a number of protected areas across their range.


title: Caracal

text: In South Africa, the caracal is considered Least Concern, as it is widespread and adaptable to a variety of habitats. It is tolerant to human-dominated areas, although it has been persecuted for many decades. Farmers are encouraged to report sightings of caracals, both dead and alive, and livestock killed by caracals to the national Predation Management Information Centre.


title: Caracal

text: The Central Asian caracal population is listed as Critically Endangered in Uzbekistan since 2009, and in Kazakhstan since 2010.


title: Caracal

text: The caracal appears to have been religiously significant in the ancient Egyptian culture, as it occurs in paintings and as bronze figurines; sculptures are thought to have guarded the tombs of pharaohs. Embalmed caracals have also been discovered.


title: Caracal

text: The caracal was esteemed for its ability to catch birds in flight and was used for coursing by Mughal emperors in India at least since the Delhi Sultanate. Chinese emperors used caracals as gifts. In the 13th and the 14th centuries, Yuan dynasty rulers bought numerous caracals, cheetahs ("Acinonyx jubatus") and tigers ("Panthera tigris") from Muslim merchants in the western parts of the empire in return for gold, silver, cash and silk. According to the "Ming Shilu", the subsequent Ming dynasty continued this practice. Until as recently as the 20th century, the caracal was used in hunts by Indian rulers to hunt small game, while the cheetah was used for larger game. In those times, caracals were used to hunt bustards, francolins, and other game birds. They were also placed in arenas with flocks of pigeons and people would bet on which caracal would kill the largest number of pigeons. This probably gave rise to the expression "to put the cat among the pigeons". Its pelt was used for making fur coats.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: Victoria Pedretti (born March 23, 1995) is an American actress. Recognized as a scream queen, she is known for her portrayals of disturbed, villainous characters. Her accolades include an MTV Award and nominations for two Critics' Choice Awards and a Saturn Award.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: Pedretti rose to prominence for her work in the Netflix anthology series "The Haunting", playing the supporting role of Eleanor "Nell" Crain in its first season, "Hill House" (2018), and the leading role of Danielle "Dani" Clayton in its second season, "Bly Manor" (2020). She starred as Love Quinn in the Netflix thriller series "You" (2019–2021), and played Leslie Van Houten in the comedy-drama film "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood" (2019) and Katherine in the biographical-drama film "Shirley" (2020).


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: Pedretti was born in Philadelphia on March 23, 1995. Three of her father's four grandparents were Italian, while her maternal grandmother was Ashkenazi Jewish. Pedretti had a bat mitzvah. She has said that she grew up in an emotionally abusive household, but said of her parents that she "love[s] them very much and they tried their best". She was diagnosed with ADHD when she was six years old.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: Pedretti attended Pennsbury High School in Fairless Hills, where she expressed an interest in musical theatre, and the Carnegie Mellon School of Drama in Pittsburgh, where she earned a BFA in acting in 2017.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: Pedretti rose to prominence for her role on Netflix's 2018 series "The Haunting of Hill House", where she played Eleanor "Nell" Crain Vance. She was lauded for her performance, and earned Saturn Award and MTV Award nominations in 2019; she was promptly established as a modern-day scream queen. Dakota Moss of MovieWeb wrote that "Pedretti's emotions to the role add a horrifying realism to the character, and viewers can feel all of Nell's pain and anguish to the very end. This is one of the defining roles for Victoria Pedretti, and she's only getting started."


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: Pedretti auditioned for the role of Guinevere Beck on the thriller series "You"; although she was rejected, the directors later cast her as Love Quinn in the show's second season after seeing her previous acting work and her chemistry with her co-star Penn Badgley. The second season was released by Netflix on December 26, 2019, with Pedretti's performance and the show being received positively. Also in 2019, Pedretti appeared as Leslie Van Houten in Quentin Tarantino's comedy-drama film "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood", which was a commercial success, and earned her a nomination for the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Acting Ensemble.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: In 2020, Pedretti guest-starred in the anthology series "Amazing Stories" as Evelyn Porter, and in the same year starred as Katherine in the biographical-drama film "Shirley", the latter of which received positive reviews from critics. Pedretti was next announced to lead the follow-up season to "Hill House", later revealed to be titled "The Haunting of Bly Manor", which was released in 2020 to positive reception. "Screen Rant" wrote in 2021 that "if there is any performance that has absolutely been a star-making one, one would need look no further than Victoria Pedretti's incredible work..." For her performance, she earned a nomination from the Critics' Choice Super Awards and won the award for Best Frightened Performance at the 2021 MTV Movie & TV Awards. She stated that the role of Dani helped her to grow comfortable towards playing darker roles in the horror and thriller genres, later stating that she has "got a knack for" them.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: In 2021, Pedretti appeared in singer-songwriter Kacey Musgraves' film "Star-Crossed", a companion feature to Musgraves' album of the same name, in a cameo role as a woman participating in a heist. A clip from the film featuring Pedretti served as the music video for Musgraves' song "Simple Times". She reprised the role of Love Quinn for the third season of "You", which was released on October 15, 2021. Filming was done amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, where the intimate scenes posed a challenge Pedretti to film: "This is not a show where you can be like, 'Nobody's going to kiss. It'll be fine.' So it took months to figure out how to do it safely. [...] It's weird. We have a rapport. We played a couple before, but it didn't just immediately come back after being in a global pandemic." She was nominated for Best Villain at the 2022 MTV Movie & TV Awards.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: In May 2021, it was announced that Pedretti would star in the film "Lucky", based on the memoir of the same name, in which she would be portraying writer Alice Sebold during her freshman year at Syracuse University. However, in November 2021, it was announced that the film was cancelled after losing its financing. The following year, Pedretti was announced to be headlining the Hulu original series "Saint X". The following month, it was reported that Pedretti left the series due to creative differences, with Alycia Debnam-Carey replacing her in the lead role.


title: Victoria Pedretti

text: In 2021, Pedretti responded to a comment about her Instagram account, which did not have any posts, and said, "I rarely find that any relationships I have are strengthened through social media".


title: Umami

text: Umami ( from ), or savoriness, is one of the five basic tastes. It has been described as savory and is characteristic of broths and cooked meats.


title: Umami

text: People taste umami through taste receptors that typically respond to glutamates and nucleotides, which are widely present in meat broths and fermented products. Glutamates are commonly added to some foods in the form of monosodium glutamate (MSG), and nucleotides are commonly added in the form of disodium guanylate, inosine monophosphate (IMP) or guanosine monophosphate (GMP). Since umami has its own receptors rather than arising out of a combination of the traditionally recognized taste receptors, scientists now consider umami to be a distinct taste.


title: Umami

text: Foods that have a strong umami flavor include meats, shellfish, fish (including fish sauce and preserved fish such as maldive fish, "Katsuobushi", sardines, and anchovies), tomatoes, mushrooms, hydrolyzed vegetable protein, meat extract, yeast extract, cheeses, and soy sauce.


title: Umami

text: A loanword from Japanese , "umami" can be translated as "pleasant savory taste". This neologism was coined in 1908 by Japanese chemist Kikunae Ikeda from a nominalization of "umai" () "delicious". The compound (with "mi" () "taste") is used for a more general sense of a food as delicious. There is no current English equivalent of umami; however, some close descriptions are "meaty", "savory", and "broth-like".


title: Umami

text: Scientists have debated whether umami was a basic taste since Kikunae Ikeda first proposed its existence in 1908. In 1985, the term "umami" was recognized as the scientific term to describe the taste of glutamates and nucleotides at the first Umami International Symposium in Hawaii. Umami represents the taste of the amino acid L-glutamate and 5'-ribonucleotides such as guanosine monophosphate (GMP) and inosine monophosphate (IMP). It can be described as a pleasant "brothy" or "meaty" taste with a long-lasting, mouthwatering and coating sensation over the tongue.


title: Umami

text: The sensation of umami is due to the detection of the carboxylate anion of glutamate in specialized receptor cells present on the human and other animal tongues. Some 52 peptides may be responsible for detecting umami taste. Its effect is to balance taste and round out the overall flavor of a dish. Umami enhances the palatability of a wide variety of foods. Glutamate in acid form (glutamic acid) imparts little umami taste, whereas the salts of glutamic acid, known as glutamates, give the characteristic umami taste due to their ionized state. GMP and IMP amplify the taste intensity of glutamate.


title: Umami

text: Monosodium L-aspartate has an umami taste about four times less intense than MSG whereas ibotenic acid and tricholomic acid (likely as their salts or with salt) are claimed to be many times more intense.


title: Umami

text: Glutamate has a long history in cooking. Fermented fish sauces (garum), which are rich in glutamate, were used widely in ancient Rome, fermented barley sauces (murri) rich in glutamate were used in medieval Byzantine and Arab cuisine, and fermented fish sauces and soy sauces have histories going back to the third century in China. To be sure, in the late 1800s, chef Auguste Escoffier, who opened restaurants in Paris and London, created meals that combined umami with salty, sour, sweet, and bitter tastes. However, he did not know the chemical source of this unique quality.


title: Umami

text: Umami was first scientifically identified in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda, a professor of the Tokyo Imperial University. He found that glutamate was responsible for the palatability of the broth from "kombu" seaweed. He noticed that the taste of "kombu" "dashi" was distinct from sweet, sour, bitter, and salty and named it "umami".


title: Umami

text: Professor Shintaro Kodama, a disciple of Ikeda, discovered in 1913 that dried bonito flakes (a type of tuna) contained another umami substance. This was the ribonucleotide IMP. In 1957, Akira Kuninaka realized that the ribonucleotide GMP present in shiitake mushrooms also conferred the umami taste. One of Kuninaka's most important discoveries was the synergistic effect between ribonucleotides and glutamate. When foods rich in glutamate are combined with ingredients that have ribonucleotides, the resulting taste intensity is higher than would be expected from merely adding the intensity of the individual ingredients.


title: Umami

text: This synergy of umami may help explain various classical food pairings: the Japanese make "dashi" with "kombu" seaweed and dried bonito flakes; the Chinese add Chinese leek and Chinese cabbage to chicken soup, as do Scots in the similar Scottish dish of cock-a-leekie soup; and Italians grate the Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese on a variety of different dishes.


title: Umami

text: Umami has a mild but lasting aftertaste associated with salivation and a sensation of furriness on the tongue, stimulating the throat, the roof and the back of the mouth. By itself, umami is not palatable, but it makes a great variety of foods pleasant, especially in the presence of a matching aroma. Like other basic tastes, umami is pleasant only within a relatively narrow concentration range.


title: Umami

text: The optimum umami taste depends also on the amount of salt, and at the same time, low-salt foods can maintain a satisfactory taste with the appropriate amount of umami. One study showed that ratings of pleasantness, taste intensity, and ideal saltiness of low-salt soups were greater when the soup contained umami, whereas low-salt soups without umami were less pleasant. Another study demonstrated that using fish sauce as a source of umami could reduce the need for salt by 10–25% to flavor such foods as chicken broth, tomato sauce, or coconut curry while maintaining overall taste intensity.