title: Logic

text: A "proof system" is a collection of formal rules which define when a conclusion follows from given premises. For instance, the classical rule of conjunction introduction states that formula_13 follows from the premises formula_14 and formula_15. Rules in a proof systems are always defined in terms of formulas' syntactic form, never in terms of their meanings. Such rules can be applied sequentially, giving a mechanical procedure for generating conclusions from premises. There are a number of different types of proof systems including natural deduction and sequent calculi. Proof systems are closely linked to philosophical work which characterizes logic as the study of valid inference.


title: Logic

text: A "semantics" is a system for mapping expressions of a formal language to their denotations. In many systems of logic, denotations are truth values. For instance, the semantics for classical propositional logic assigns the formula formula_16 the denotation "true" whenever formula_14 and formula_18 are true. Entailment is a semantic relation which holds between formulas when the first cannot be true without the second being true as well. Semantics is closely tied to the philosophical characterization of logic as the study of logical truth.


title: Logic

text: A system of logic is "sound" when its proof system cannot derive a conclusion from a set of premises unless it is semantically entailed by them. In other words, its proof system cannot lead to false conclusions, as defined by the semantics. A system is "complete" when its proof system can derive every conclusion that is semantically entailed by its premises. In other words, its proof system can lead to any true conclusion, as defined by the semantics. Thus, soundness and completeness together describe a system whose notions of validity and entailment line up perfectly.


title: Logic

text: The study of properties of formal systems is called "metalogic". Other important metalogical properties include "consistency", "decidability", and "expressive power".


title: Logic

text: Systems of logic are theoretical frameworks for assessing the correctness of reasoning and arguments. For over two thousand years, Aristotelian logic was treated as the canon of logic in the Western world, but modern developments in this field have led to a vast proliferation of logical systems. One prominent categorization divides modern formal logical systems into classical logic, extended logics, and deviant logics. Classical logic is to be distinguished from traditional or Aristotelian logic. It encompasses propositional logic and first-order logic. It is "classical" in the sense that it is based on various fundamental logical intuitions shared by most logicians. These intuitions include the law of excluded middle, the double negation elimination, the principle of explosion, and the bivalence of truth. It was originally developed to analyze mathematical arguments and was only later applied to other fields as well. Because of this focus on mathematics, it does not include logical vocabulary relevant to many other topics of philosophical importance, like the distinction between necessity and possibility, the problem of ethical obligation and permission, or the relations between past, present, and future. Such issues are addressed by extended logics. They build on the fundamental intuitions of classical logic and expand it by introducing new logical vocabulary. This way, the exact logical approach is applied to fields like ethics or epistemology that lie beyond the scope of mathematics.


title: Logic

text: Deviant logics, on the other hand, reject some of the fundamental intuitions of classical logic. Because of this, they are usually seen not as its supplements but as its rivals. Deviant logical systems differ from each other either because they reject different classical intuitions or because they propose different alternatives to the same issue.


title: Logic

text: Informal logic is usually carried out in a less systematic way. It often focuses on more specific issues, like investigating a particular type of fallacy or studying a certain aspect of argumentation. Nonetheless, some systems of informal logic have also been presented that try to provide a systematic characterization of the correctness of arguments.


title: Logic

text: Aristotelian logic encompasses a great variety of topics, including metaphysical theses about ontological categories and problems of scientific explanation. But in a more narrow sense, it refers to term logic or syllogistics. A syllogism is a certain form of argument involving three propositions: two premises and a conclusion. Each proposition has three essential parts: a subject, a predicate, and a copula connecting the subject to the predicate. For example, the proposition "Socrates is wise" is made up of the subject "Socrates", the predicate "wise", and the copula "is". The subject and the predicate are the "terms" of the proposition. In this sense, Aristotelian logic does not contain complex propositions made up of various simple propositions. It differs in this aspect from propositional logic, in which any two propositions can be linked using a logical connective like "and" to form a new complex proposition.


title: Logic

text: Aristotelian logic differs from predicate logic in that the subject is either "universal", "particular", "indefinite", or "singular". For example, the term "all humans" is a universal subject in the proposition "all humans are mortal". A similar proposition could be formed by replacing it with the particular term "some humans", the indefinite term "a human", or the singular term "Socrates". In predicate logic, on the other hand, universal and particular propositions would be expressed by using a quantifier and two predicates. Another important difference is that Aristotelian logic only includes predicates for simple properties of entities, but lacks predicates corresponding to relations between entities. The predicate can be linked to the subject in two ways: either by affirming it or by denying it. For example, the proposition "Socrates is not a cat" involves the denial of the predicate "cat" to the subject "Socrates". Using different combinations of subjects and predicates, a great variety of propositions and syllogisms can be formed. Syllogisms are characterized by the fact that the premises are linked to each other and to the conclusion by sharing one predicate in each case. Thus, these three propositions contain three predicates, referred to as "major term", "minor term", and "middle term". The central aspect of Aristotelian logic involves classifying all possible syllogisms into valid and invalid arguments according to how the propositions are formed. For example, the syllogism "all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal" is valid. The syllogism "all cats are mortal; Socrates is mortal; therefore Socrates is a cat", on the other hand, is invalid.


title: Logic

text: Propositional logic comprises formal systems in which formulae are built from atomic propositions using logical connectives. For instance, propositional logic represents the conjunction of two atomic propositions formula_14 and formula_15 as the complex formula formula_13. Unlike predicate logic where terms and predicates are the smallest units, propositional logic takes full propositions with truth values as its most basic component. Thus, propositional logics can only represent logical relationships that arise from the way complex propositions are built from simpler ones; it cannot represent inferences that results from the inner structure of a proposition.


title: Logic

text: First-order logic includes the same propositional connectives as propositional logic but differs from it because it articulates the internal structure of propositions. This happens through devices such as singular terms, which refer to particular objects, predicates, which refer to properties and relations, and quantifiers, which treat notions like "some" and "all". For example, to express the proposition "this raven is black", one may use the predicate formula_22 for the property "black" and the singular term formula_23 referring to the raven to form the expression formula_24. To express that some objects are black, the existential quantifier formula_25 is combined with the variable formula_26 to form the proposition formula_27. First-order logic contains various rules of inference that determine how expressions articulated this way can form valid arguments, for example, that one may infer formula_27 from formula_24.


title: Logic

text: The development of first-order logic is usually attributed to Gottlob Frege, who is also credited as one of the founders of analytic philosophy. However, the formulation of first-order logic most often used today is found in Principles of Mathematical Logic by David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann in 1928. The analytical generality of first-order logic allowed the formalization of mathematics, drove the investigation of set theory, and allowed the development of Alfred Tarski's approach to model theory. It provides the foundation of modern mathematical logic.


title: Logic

text: Many extended logics take the form of modal logic by introducing modal operators. Modal logics were originally developed to represent statements about necessity and possibility. For instance the modal formula formula_30 can be read as "possibly formula_14" while formula_32 can be read as "necessarily formula_14". Modal logics can be used to represent different phenomena depending on what "flavor" of necessity and possibility is under consideration. When formula_34 is used to represent epistemic necessity, formula_32 states that formula_14 is known. When formula_34 is used to represent deontic necessity, formula_32 states that formula_14 is a moral or legal obligation. Within philosophy, modal logics are widely used in formal epistemology, formal ethics, and metaphysics. Within linguistic semantics, systems based on modal logic are used to analyze linguistic modality in natural languages. Other fields such as computer science and set theory have applied the relational semantics for modal logic beyond its original conceptual motivation, using it to provide insight into patterns including the set-theoretic multiverse and transition systems in computation.


title: Logic

text: Higher-order logics extend classical logic not by using modal operators but by introducing new forms of quantification. Quantifiers correspond to terms like "all" or "some". In classical first-order logic, quantifiers are only applied to individuals. The formula ("some" apples are sweet) is an example of the existential quantifier applied to the individual variable . In higher-order logics, quantification is also allowed over predicates. This increases its expressive power. For example, to express the idea that Mary and John share some qualities, one could use the formula . In this case, the existential quantifier is applied to the predicate variable . The added expressive power is especially useful for mathematics since it allows for more succinct formulations of mathematical theories. But it has various drawbacks in regard to its meta-logical properties and ontological implications, which is why first-order logic is still much more widely used.


title: Logic

text: A great variety of deviant logics have been proposed. One major paradigm is intuitionistic logic, which rejects the law of the excluded middle. Intuitionism was developed by the Dutch mathematicians L.E.J. Brouwer and Arend Heyting to underpin their constructive approach to mathematics, in which the existence of a mathematical object can only be proven by constructing it. Intuitionism was further pursued by Gerhard Gentzen, Kurt Gödel, Michael Dummett, among others. Intuitionistic logic is of great interest to computer scientists, as it is a constructive logic and sees many applications, such as extracting verified programs from proofs and influencing the design of programming languages through the formulae-as-types correspondence. It is closely related to nonclassical systems such as Gödel–Dummett logic and inquisitive logic.


title: Logic

text: Multi-valued logics depart from classicality by rejecting the principle of bivalence which requires all propositions to be either true or false. For instance, Jan Łukasiewicz and Stephen Cole Kleene both proposed ternary logics which have a third truth value representing that a statement's truth value is indeterminate. These logics have seen applications including to presupposition in linguistics. Fuzzy logics are multivalued logics that have an infinite number of "degrees of truth", represented by a real number between 0 and 1.


title: Logic

text: Paraconsistent logics are logical systems that can deal with contradictions. They are formulated to avoid the principle of explosion: for them, it is not the case that anything follows from a contradiction. They are often motivated by dialetheism, the view that contradictions are real or that reality itself is contradictory. Graham Priest is an important contemporary proponent of this position and similar views have been ascribed to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.


title: Logic

text: The "pragmatic" or "dialogical approach" to informal logic sees arguments as speech acts and not merely as a set of premises together with a conclusion. As speech acts, they occur in a certain context, like a dialogue, which affects the standards of right and wrong arguments. A prominent version by Douglas N. Walton understands a dialogue as a game between two players. The initial position of each player is characterized by the propositions to which they are committed and the conclusion they intend to prove. Dialogues are games of persuasion: each player has the goal of convincing the opponent of their own conclusion. This is achieved by making arguments: arguments are the moves of the game. They affect to which propositions the players are committed. A winning move is a successful argument that takes the opponent's commitments as premises and shows how one's own conclusion follows from them. This is usually not possible straight away. For this reason, it is normally necessary to formulate a sequence of arguments as intermediary steps, each of which brings the opponent a little closer to one's intended conclusion. Besides these positive arguments leading one closer to victory, there are also negative arguments preventing the opponent's victory by denying their conclusion. Whether an argument is correct depends on whether it promotes the progress of the dialogue. Fallacies, on the other hand, are violations of the standards of proper argumentative rules. These standards also depend on the type of dialogue. For example, the standards governing the scientific discourse differ from the standards in business negiotiations.


title: Logic

text: The "epistemic approach" to informal logic, on the other hand, focuses on the epistemic role of arguments. It is based on the idea that arguments aim to increase our knowledge. They achieve this by linking justified beliefs to beliefs that are not yet justified. Correct arguments succeed at expanding knowledge while fallacies are epistemic failures: they do not justify the belief in their conclusion. In this sense, logical normativity consists in epistemic success or rationality. For example, the fallacy of begging the question is a "fallacy" because it fails to provide independent justification for its conclusion, even though it is deductively valid. The Bayesian approach is one example of an epistemic approach. Central to Bayesianism is not just whether the agent believes something but the degree to which they believe it, the so-called "credence". Degrees of belief are understood as subjective probabilities in the believed proposition, i.e. as how certain the agent is that the proposition is true. On this view, reasoning can be interpreted as a process of changing one's credences, often in reaction to new incoming information. Correct reasoning, and the arguments it is based on, follows the laws of probability, for example, the principle of conditionalization. Bad or irrational reasoning, on the other hand, violates these laws.


title: Logic

text: Logic is studied in various fields. In many cases, this is done by applying its formal method to specific topics outside its scope, like to ethics or computer science. In other cases, logic itself is made the subject of research in another discipline. This can happen in diverse ways, like by investigating the philosophical presuppositions of fundamental logical concepts, by interpreting and analyzing logic through mathematical structures, or by studying and comparing abstract properties of formal logical systems.


title: Logic

text: "Philosophy of logic" is the philosophical discipline studying the scope and nature of logic. It investigates many presuppositions implicit in logic, like how to define its fundamental concepts or the metaphysical assumptions associated with them. It is also concerned with how to classify the different logical systems and considers the ontological commitments they incur. "Philosophical logic" is one important area within the philosophy of logic. It studies the application of logical methods to philosophical problems in fields like metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology. This application usually happens in the form of extended or deviant logical systems.


title: Logic

text: Mathematical logic is the study of logic within mathematics. Major subareas include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and computability theory.


title: Logic

text: Research in mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal systems of logic. However, it can also include attempts to use logic to analyze mathematical reasoning or to establish logic-based foundations of mathematics. The latter was a major concern in early 20th century mathematical logic, which pursued the program of logicism pioneered by philosopher-logicians such as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. Mathematical theories were supposed to be logical tautologies, and the programme was to show this by means of a reduction of mathematics to logic. The various attempts to carry this out met with failure, from the crippling of Frege's project in his "Grundgesetze" by Russell's paradox, to the defeat of Hilbert's program by Gödel's incompleteness theorems.


title: Logic

text: Set theory originated in the study of the infinite by Georg Cantor, and it has been the source of many of the most challenging and important issues in mathematical logic. They include Cantor's theorem, the status of the Axiom of Choice, the question of the independence of the continuum hypothesis, and the modern debate on large cardinal axioms.


title: Logic

text: Recursion theory captures the idea of computation in logical and arithmetic terms; its most classical achievements are the undecidability of the Entscheidungsproblem by Alan Turing, and his presentation of the Church–Turing thesis. Today recursion theory is mostly concerned with the more refined problem of complexity classes and the classification of degrees of unsolvability.


title: Logic

text: In computer science, logic is studied as part of the theory of computation. Key areas of logic that are relevant to computing include computability theory, modal logic, and category theory. Early computer machinery was based on ideas from logic such as the lambda calculus. Computer scientists also apply concepts from logic to problems in computing and vice versa. The works of Claude Shannon were influential in this regard. He showed how boolean logic can be used to understand and implement computer circuits. The interaction between the two disciplines can be seen, for example, in how modern artificial intelligence builds on logicians' work in argumentation theory, while automated theorem proving can assist logicians in finding and checking proofs. In logic programming languages such as Prolog, a program computes the consequences of logical axioms and rules to answer a query.


title: Logic

text: Formal semantics, a subfield of both linguistics and philosophy, uses logic to analyze meaning in natural language. It is an empirical field which seeks to characterize the denotations of linguistic expressions and explain how those denotations are composed from the meanings of their parts. The field was developed by Richard Montague and Barbara Partee in the 1970s, and remains an active area of research. Central questions include scope, binding, and linguistic modality.


title: Logic

text: The epistemology of logic investigates how one knows that an argument is valid or that a proposition is logically true. This includes questions like how to justify that modus ponens is a valid rule of inference or that contradictions are false. The traditionally dominant view is that this form of logical understanding belongs to knowledge a priori. In this regard, it is often argued that the mind has a special faculty to examine relations between pure ideas and that this faculty is also responsible for apprehending logical truths. A similar approach understands the rules of logic in terms of linguistic conventions. On this view, the laws of logic are trivial since they are true by definition: they just express the meanings of the logical vocabulary.


title: Logic

text: Important objections to the view that logic is knowable a priori were presented in the 20th century by W. V. Quine and Hilary Putnam. In his paper "Is Logic Empirical?", Putnam builds on a suggestion by Quine and argues that, in general, the facts of propositional logic have a similar epistemological status as facts about the physical universe. This pertains, for example, to the laws of mechanics or of general relativity, and in particular to what physicists have learned about quantum mechanics. According to Putnam, these insights provide a compelling case for abandoning certain familiar principles of classical logic: if one wants to be a realist about the physical phenomena described by quantum theory, then one should abandon the principle of distributivity. He suggests that classical logic be replaced with the quantum logic proposed by Garrett Birkhoff and John von Neumann.


title: Logic

text: Logic was developed independently in several cultures during antiquity. One major early contributor was Aristotle, who developed term logic in his "Organon" and "Prior Analytics". In this approach, "judgements" are broken down into "propositions" consisting of two terms that are related by one of a fixed number of relations. Inferences are expressed by means of syllogisms that consist of two propositions sharing a common term as premise, and a conclusion that is a proposition involving the two unrelated terms from the premises. Aristotle's monumental insight was the notion that arguments can be characterized in terms of their form. The later logician Łukasiewicz described this insight as "one of Aristotle's greatest inventions". Aristotle's system of logic was also responsible for the introduction of hypothetical syllogism, temporal modal logic, and inductive logic, as well as influential vocabulary such as terms, predicables, syllogisms and propositions. Aristotelian logic was highly regarded in classical and medieval times, both in Europe and the Middle East. It remained in wide use in the West until the early 19th century. It has now been superseded by later work, though many of its key insights are still present in modern systems of logic.


title: Logic

text: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037 CE) was the founder of Avicennian logic, which replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world. It also had an important influence on Western medieval writers such as Albertus Magnus and William of Ockham. Ibn Sina wrote on the hypothetical syllogism and on the propositional calculus. He developed an original "temporally modalized" syllogistic theory, involving temporal logic and modal logic. He also made use of inductive logic, such as his methods of agreement, difference, and concomitant variation, which are critical to the scientific method. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "first figure" and formulated an early system of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).


title: Logic

text: In Europe during the later medieval period, major efforts were made to show that Aristotle's ideas were compatible with Christian faith. During the High Middle Ages, logic became a main focus of philosophers, who would engage in critical logical analyses of philosophical arguments, often using variations of the methodology of scholasticism. Initially, medieval Christian scholars drew on the classics that had been preserved in Latin through commentaries by such figures such as Boethius. Later, the work of Islamic philosophers such as Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd (Averroes 1126–1198 CE) were drawn on. This expanded the range of ancient works available to medieval Christian scholars since more Greek work was available to Muslim scholars that had been preserved in Latin commentaries. In 1323, William of Ockham's influential "Summa Logicae" was released. By the 18th century, the structured approach to arguments had degenerated and fallen out of favour, as depicted in Holberg's satirical play "Erasmus Montanus". Friedrich Nietzsche criticized logic based on the claim that the logical structure of thought is a useful tool for human survival while "[l]ogic itself rests upon assumptions to which nothing in the world of reality corresponds".


title: Logic

text: The Chinese logical philosopher Gongsun Long () proposed the paradox "One and one cannot become two, since neither becomes two". In China, the tradition of scholarly investigation into logic, however, was repressed by the Qin dynasty following the legalist philosophy of Han Feizi.


title: Logic

text: In India, the Anviksiki school of logic was founded by Medhātithi (c. 6th century BCE). Innovations in the scholastic school, called Nyaya, continued from ancient times into the early 18th century with the Navya-Nyāya school. By the 16th century, it developed theories resembling modern logic, such as Gottlob Frege's "distinction between sense and reference of proper names" and his definition of number. Its development of the theory of "restrictive conditions for universals" anticipated some of the developments in modern set theory. Since 1824, Indian logic attracted the attention of many Western scholars, and has had an influence on important 19th-century logicians such as Charles Babbage, Augustus De Morgan, and George Boole. In the 20th century, Western philosophers like Stanislaw Schayer and Klaus Glashoff have explored Indian logic more extensively.


title: Logic

text: The syllogistic logic developed by Aristotle predominated in the West until the mid-19th century, when interest in the foundations of mathematics stimulated the development of symbolic logic (now called mathematical logic). In 1854, George Boole published "The Laws of Thought", introducing symbolic logic and the principles of what is now known as Boolean logic. In 1879, Gottlob Frege published "Begriffsschrift", which inaugurated modern logic with the invention of quantifier notation. This invention reconciled the Aristotelian and Stoic logics in a broader system, and solved problems for which Aristotelian logic was impotent, such as the problem of multiple generality. From 1910 to 1913, Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell published "Principia Mathematica" on the foundations of mathematics, attempting to derive mathematical truths from axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic. In 1931, Gödel raised serious problems with the foundationalist program and logic ceased to focus on such issues.


title: Logic

text: The development of logic since Frege, Russell, and Wittgenstein had a profound influence on the practice of philosophy and the perceived nature of philosophical problems (see analytic philosophy) and philosophy of mathematics. Logic, especially sentential logic, is implemented in computer logic circuits and is fundamental to computer science. Logic is commonly taught by university philosophy, sociology, advertising and literature departments, often as a compulsory discipline.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The Mikoyan MiG-31 (; NATO reporting name: Foxhound) is a supersonic interceptor aircraft that was developed for use by the Soviet Air Forces. The aircraft was designed by the Mikoyan design bureau as a replacement for the earlier MiG-25 "Foxbat"; the MiG-31 is based on and shares design elements with the MiG-25. The MiG-31 is among the fastest combat jets in the world. It continues to be operated by the Russian Air Force and the Kazakh Air Force following the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The Russian Defence Ministry expects the MiG-31 to remain in service until 2030 or beyond; that was confirmed in 2020 when an announcement was made to extend the service lifetime from 2,500 to 3,500 hours on the existing airframes.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The single-seat MiG-25 could achieve high speed, altitude and rate of climb; however, it lacked maneuverability at interception speeds and was difficult to fly at low altitudes. The MiG-25's speed was normally limited to Mach 2.83, but it could reach a maximum speed of Mach 3.2 or more with the risk of engine damage.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Development of the MiG-25's replacement began with the Ye-155MP () prototype which first flew on 16 September 1975. Although it bore a superficial resemblance to the MiG-25, it had a longer fuselage to accommodate the radar operator's cockpit and was in many respects a new design. An important development was the MiG-31's advanced radar, capable of both look-up and look-down/shoot-down engagement, as well as multiple target tracking. This gave the Soviet Union an interceptor with the capability to engage the most likely Western intruders (low-flying cruise missiles and bombers) at long range. The MiG-31 replaced the Tu-128 as the Soviet Union's dedicated long-range interceptor, with far more advanced sensors and weapons, while its range is almost double that of the MiG-25.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Like that of its MiG-25 predecessor, the introduction of the MiG-31 was surrounded by early speculation and misinformation concerning its design and abilities. The West learned of the new interceptor from Lieutenant Viktor Belenko, a pilot who defected to Japan in 1976 with his MiG-25P. Belenko described an upcoming "Super Foxbat" with two seats and an ability to intercept cruise missiles. According to his testimony, the new interceptor was to have air intakes similar to the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23, which the MiG-31 does not have, at least in production variants.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Serial production of the MiG-31 began in 1979. A group of four MiG-31 interceptors is able to control an area of air space across a total length of ; its radar possessing a maximum detection range of in distance (radius) and the typical width of detection along the front of .


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: MiG-31 production ended in 1994. The first production batch of 519 MiG-31s including 349 "baseline models" was produced at the Sokol plant between 1976 and 1988. The second batch of 101 MiG-31DZs was produced from 1989 to 1991. The final batch of 69 MiG-31B aircraft was produced between 1990 and 1994. From the final batch 50 were retained by the Kazakhstan Air Force after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Of the "baseline models", 40 airframes were upgraded to MiG-31BS standard.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Some upgrade programs have found their way into the MiG-31 fleet, like the MiG-31BM multirole version with upgraded avionics, new multimode radar, hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls, liquid crystal (LCD) color multi-function displays (MFDs), ability to carry the R-77 missile and various Russian air-to-ground missiles (AGMs) such as the Kh-31 anti-radiation missile (ARM), a new and more powerful computer, and digital data links. A project to upgrade the Russian MiG-31 fleet to the MiG-31BM standard began in 2010; 100 aircraft are to be upgraded to MiG-31BM standard by 2020. Russian Federation Defence Ministry chief Colonel Yuri Balyko has claimed that the upgrade will increase the combat effectiveness of the aircraft several times over. 18 MIG-31BMs were delivered in 2014. The Russian military will receive more than 130 upgraded MiG-31BMs, and the first 24 aircraft have already been delivered, Russian Deputy Defense Minister Yuri Borisov told reporters on 9 April 2015.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Russia plans to start development of a replacement for the MiG-31 by 2019. The aircraft will be called PAK-DP (ПАК ДП, "Перспективный авиационный комплекс дальнего перехвата" – Prospective Air Complex for Long-Range Interception). Development of the new aircraft, designated MiG-41, began in April 2013. Such development is favored over restarting MiG-31 production. In March 2014, Russian test pilot Anatoly Kvochur said that work began on a Mach 4 capable MiG-41 based on the MiG-31. Later reports said that development of the MiG-31 replacement is to begin in 2017, with the first aircraft to be delivered in 2020, and the replacement entering service in 2025.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Like the MiG-25, the MiG-31 is a large twin-engine aircraft with side-mounted air intake ramps, a shoulder-mounted wing with an aspect ratio of 2.94, and twin vertical tailfins. Unlike the MiG-25, it has two seats, with the rear occupied by a dedicated weapon systems officer. The MiG-31 is limited to five "g" when travelling at supersonic speeds. While flying under combat weight, its wing loading is marginal and its thrust-to-weight ratio is favorable. The MiG-31 is not designed for close combat or rapid turning.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The wings and airframe of the MiG-31 are stronger than those of the MiG-25, permitting supersonic flight at low altitudes. Like the MiG-25, its flight surfaces are built primarily of nickel-steel alloy, enabling the aircraft to tolerate kinetic heating at airspeeds approaching Mach 3. The MiG-31 airframe comprises 49% arc-welded nickel steel, 33% light metal alloy, 16% titanium and 2% composites. Its D30-F6 jet engines, each rated at 152 kN thrust, allow a maximum speed of Mach 1.23 at low altitude. High-altitude speed is temperature-redlined to Mach 2.83 – the thrust-to-drag ratio is sufficient for speeds in excess of Mach 3, but such speeds pose unacceptable hazards to engine and airframe life in routine use.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The MiG-31 was among the first aircraft with a phased array radar, and one of two aircraft in the world capable of independently firing long-range air-to-air missiles as of 2013.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The MiG-31 was the world's first operational fighter with a passive electronically scanned array (PESA) radar, the "Zaslon S-800". Its maximum range against fighter-sized targets is approximately , and it can track up to 10 targets and simultaneously attack four of them with its Vympel R-33 missiles. The radar is matched with an infrared search and track (IRST) system in a retractable undernose fairing.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The MiG-31 was equipped with RK-RLDN and APD-518 digital secure datalinks. The RK-RLDN datalink is for communication with ground control centers. The APD-518 datalink enables a flight of four MiG-31 to automatically exchange radar-generated data within from each other. It also enables other aircraft with less sophisticated avionics, such as MiG-23s, 25s, and 29s and Su-15s and 27s, to be directed to targets spotted by MiG-31 (a maximum of four (long-range) for each MiG-31 aircraft). The A-50 AEW aircraft and MiG-31 can automatically exchange aerial and terrestrial radar target designation, as well as air defense. The MiG-31 is equipped with ECM of radar and infrared ranges.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The flight-navigation equipment of the MiG-31 includes a complex of automatic control system SAU-155МP and sighting-navigation complex KN-25 with two inertial systems and IP-1-72A with digital computer, electronic long range navigation system Radical NP (312) or A-331, electronic system of the long-range navigation A-723. Distant radio navigation is carried out by means of two systems: Chayka (similar to the system of Loran) and «Route» (similar to the system of Omega).


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Similarly to the complex S-300 missile system, aircraft group with APD-518 can share data obtained by various radars from different directions (active or passive scanning of radiation) and summarize the data. The target can be detected passively (via its emissions of jamming or use of its radar) and/or actively simultaneously from many different directions (with the MiG-31 using its radar). Every aircraft with the APD-518 will have the exact data, even if it is not involved in the search.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The aircraft is a two-seater with the rear seat occupant controlling the radar. Although cockpit controls are duplicated across cockpits, it is normal for the aircraft to be flown only from the front seat. The pilot flies the aircraft by means of a centre stick and left hand throttles. The rear cockpit has only two small vision ports on the sides of the canopy. The presence of the WSO (weapon systems operator) in the rear cockpit improves aircraft effectiveness since the WSO is entirely dedicated to radar operations and weapons deployment, thus decreasing the workload of the pilot and increasing efficiency. Both cockpits are fitted with zero/zero ejection seats which allow the crew to eject at any altitude and airspeed.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The MiG-31's main armament is four R-33 air-to-air missiles (NATO codename AA-9 'Amos') carried under the belly.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Serial production of the MiG-31 began in 1979. The MiG-31 entered operational service with the Soviet Air Defence Forces (PVO) in 1981. It was the world's first aircraft with a phased array radar. The MiG-31BM has a detection range of for a target with a radar cross-section of 5 square meters.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, MiG-31 aircraft have reportedly shot down several Ukrainian aircraft, mainly by utilising the long range R-37 air-to-air missile. By remaining at high speed and high altitude, MiG-31s have been able to operate virtually unopposed due to Ukraine's own fighters lacking range, speed, or altitude.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: The R-37M has, since October 2022, been the main threat against the Ukrainian Air Force. The Ukrainian Air Force has a significant lack of fire-and-forget missiles. They relied on the R-27 missiles, both the R-27ER and R-27ET; the R-27ET's range is 60 miles. A Ukrainian pilot must illuminate a Russian aircraft with radar to guide the missile to the target. Russian pilots firing the active-radar, fire-and-forget R-77 give them the ability to launch their missiles and then take evasive action. Ukrainian pilots were forced to "exploit ground clutter and terrain-masking to get close enough to fire before being engaged". During the first three days of the war both sides lost aircraft. The Ukrainians replaced them with older airframes that were made flyable. However the Russian Air Force turned to the MiG-31 with the R-37M missile that has a range of 200 miles. Combined with its superior radar, on the MiG-31, the Ukrainian Air Force has started losing more aircraft. A report by the Royal United Services Institute states that in October some six R-37Ms were being fired at the Ukrainian Air Force a day. Four MiG-31 were also deployed to Crimea. To avoid R-37M missiles, Ukraine has had to attempt to destroy MiG-31s while they are still on the ground, such as the attack on the Belbek airbase and an attempted drone attack in August.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: In 1992 Russia offered the MiG-31 to Finland, which had a selection programme ongoing for a new fighter, but the offer was not submitted to the program, where Russia had submitted the MiG-29. Finland didn't take up the offer, and chose the new fighter from the selection programme.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: Syria ordered eight MiG-31E aircraft in 2007 for the Syrian Air Force. The order was suspended in May 2009 reportedly either due to Israeli pressure or lack of Syrian funds.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: On 4 April 1984, a MiG-31 crashed while on a test flight, killing Mikoyan chief test pilot and Hero of the Soviet Union, Aleksandr Vasilyevich Fedotov and his navigator V. Zaitsev.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: On 26 April 2017, a MiG-31 crashed after it was accidentally hit by "friendly fire" during a training session near the Telemba proving ground in Russian Far East. This occurred during a training exercise over the Telemba proving ground in Buryatia; both crew members ejected successfully. While Russian state media did not offer any details, independent investigators discovered from a leaked government document that the aircraft was shot down by an R-33 missile fired from another MiG-31 and that pilot error from both airplanes was at fault. The report also suggested problems with the Zaslon-AM radar and Baget-55 fire control system that might increase the risk of more accidental shootdowns.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: On 16 April 2020, a MiG-31 interceptor of the Kazakh Air Force crashed in the country's Karaganda region.


title: Mikoyan MiG-31

text: On 2 December 2022, a MiG-31 of the Russian Air Force crashed during a training flight in the far eastern Primorsky Region.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Heart of Darkness (1899) is a novella by Polish-English novelist Joseph Conrad in which the sailor Charles Marlow tells his listeners the story of his assignment as steamer captain for a Belgian company in the African interior. The novel is widely regarded as a critique of European colonial rule in Africa, whilst also examining the themes of power dynamics and morality. Although Conrad does not name the river on which most of the narrative takes place, at the time of writing the Congo Free State, the location of the large and economically important Congo River, was a private colony of Belgium's King Leopold II. Marlow is given a text by Kurtz, an ivory trader working on a trading station far up the river, who has "gone native" and is the object of Marlow's expedition.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Central to Conrad's work is the idea that there is little difference between "civilised people" and "savages." "Heart of Darkness" implicitly comments on imperialism and racism. The novella's setting provides the frame for Marlow's story of his fascination for the prolific ivory trader Kurtz. Conrad draws parallels between London ("the greatest town on earth") and Africa as places of darkness.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Originally issued as a three-part serial story in "Blackwood's Magazine" to celebrate the thousandth edition of the magazine, "Heart of Darkness" has been widely republished and translated into many languages. It provided the inspiration for Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 film "Apocalypse Now". In 1998, the Modern Library ranked "Heart of Darkness" 67th on their list of the 100 best novels in English of the twentieth century.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In 1890, at the age of 32, Conrad was appointed by a Belgian trading company to serve on one of its steamers. While sailing up the Congo River from one station to another, the captain became ill and Conrad assumed command. He guided the ship up the tributary Lualaba River to the trading company's innermost station, Kindu, in Eastern Congo Free State; Marlow has similar experiences to the author.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: When Conrad began to write the novella, eight years after returning from Africa, he drew inspiration from his travel journals. He described "Heart of Darkness" as "a wild story" of a journalist who becomes manager of a station in the (African) interior and makes himself worshipped by a tribe of natives. The tale was first published as a three-part serial, in February, March and April 1899, in "Blackwood's Magazine" (February 1899 was the magazine's 1000th issue: special edition). In 1902 "Heart of Darkness" was included in the book "", published on 13 November 1902 by William Blackwood.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: The volume consisted of "Youth: a Narrative", "Heart of Darkness" and "The End of the Tether" in that order. In 1917, for future editions of the book, Conrad wrote an "" where he, after denying any "unity of artistic purpose" underlying the collection, discusses each of the three stories and makes light commentary on Marlow, the narrator of the tales within the first two stories. He said Marlow first appeared in "Youth".


title: Heart of Darkness

text: I call your own kind self to witness ... the last pages of "Heart of Darkness" where the interview of the man and the girl locks in—as it were—the whole 30000 words of narrative description into one suggestive view of a whole phase of life and makes of that story something quite on another plane than an anecdote of a man who went mad in the Centre of Africa.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: There have been many proposed sources for the character of the antagonist, Kurtz. Georges-Antoine Klein, an agent who became ill and died aboard Conrad's steamer, is proposed by literary critics as a basis for Kurtz. The principal figures involved in the disastrous "rear column" of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition have also been identified as likely sources, including column leader Edmund Musgrave Barttelot, slave trader Tippu Tip and the expedition leader, Welsh explorer Henry Morton Stanley. Conrad's biographer Norman Sherry judged that Arthur Hodister (1847–1892), a Belgian solitary but successful trader, who spoke three Congolese languages and was venerated by Congolese to the point of deification, served as the main model, while later scholars have refuted this hypothesis. Adam Hochschild, in "King Leopold's Ghost", believes that the Belgian soldier Léon Rom influenced the character. Peter Firchow mentions the possibility that Kurtz is a composite, modelled on various figures present in the Congo Free State at the time as well as on Conrad's imagining of what they might have had in common.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: A corrective impulse to impose one's rule characterizes Kurtz's writings which were discovered by Marlow during his journey, where he rants on behalf of the so-called "International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs" about his supposedly altruistic and sentimental reasons to civilise the "savages"; one document ends with a dark proclamation to "Exterminate all the brutes!". The "International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs" is interpreted as a sarcastic reference to one of the participants at the Berlin Conference, the International Association of the Congo (also called "International Congo Society"). The predecessor to this organisation was the "International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa".


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Charles Marlow tells his friends the story of how he became captain of a river steamboat for an ivory trading company. As a child, Marlow was fascinated by "the blank spaces" on maps, particularly Africa. The image of a river on the map particularly fascinated Marlow.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In a flashback, Marlow makes his way to Africa, taking passage on a steamer. He travels up the river where his company's station is. Work on a railway is going on. Marlow explores a narrow ravine, and is horrified to find himself in a place full of critically ill Africans who worked on the railroad and are now dying. Marlow must wait for ten days in the company's devastated Outer Station. Marlow meets the company's chief accountant, who tells him of a Mr. Kurtz, who is in charge of a very important trading post, and is described as a respected first-class agent. The accountant predicts that Kurtz will go far.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Marlow departs with sixty men to travel to the Central Station, where the steamboat is based that he will command. At the station, he learns that his steamboat has been wrecked in an accident. The general manager informs Marlow that he could not wait for Marlow to arrive, and tells him of a rumour that Kurtz is ill. Marlow fishes his boat out of the river and spends months repairing it. Delayed by the lack of tools and replacement parts, Marlow is frustrated by the time it takes to perform the repairs. He learns that Kurtz is resented, not admired, by the manager. Once underway, the journey to Kurtz's station takes two months.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: The journey pauses for the night about below the Inner Station. In the morning the boat is enveloped by a thick fog. The steamboat is later attacked by a barrage of arrows, and the helmsman is killed. Marlow sounds the steam whistle repeatedly, frightening the attackers away.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: After landing at Kurtz's station, a man boards the steamboat: a Russian wanderer who strayed into Kurtz's camp. Marlow learns that the natives worship Kurtz and that he has been very ill. The Russian tells of how Kurtz opened his mind and admires Kurtz even for his power and his willingness to use it. Marlow suspects that Kurtz has gone mad.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Marlow observes the station and sees a row of posts topped with the severed heads of natives. Around the corner of the house, Kurtz appears with supporters who carry him as a ghost-like figure on a stretcher. The area fills with natives ready for battle, but Kurtz shouts something and they retreat. His entourage carries Kurtz to the steamer and lay him in a cabin. The manager tells Marlow that Kurtz has harmed the company's business in the region because his methods are "unsound". The Russian reveals that Kurtz believes the company wants to kill him, and Marlow confirms that hangings were discussed.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: After midnight, Kurtz returns to shore. Marlow finds Kurtz crawling back to the station house. Marlow threatens to harm Kurtz if he raises an alarm, but Kurtz only laments that he did not accomplish more. The next day they prepare to journey back down the river.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Kurtz's health worsens during the trip. The steamboat breaks down, and while stopped for repairs, Kurtz gives Marlow a packet of papers, including his commissioned report and a photograph, telling him to keep them from the manager. When Marlow next speaks with him, Kurtz is near death; Marlow hears him weakly whisper, "The horror! The horror!" A short while later, the manager's boy announces to the crew that Kurtz has died. The next day Marlow pays little attention to Kurtz's pilgrims as they bury "something" in a muddy hole.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Returning to Europe, Marlow is embittered and contemptuous of the "civilised" world. Several callers come to retrieve the papers Kurtz entrusted to him, but Marlow withholds them or offers papers he knows they have no interest in. He gives Kurtz's report to a journalist, for publication if he sees fit. Marlow is left with some personal letters and a photograph of Kurtz's fiancée. When Marlow visits her, she is deep in mourning although it has been more than a year since Kurtz's death. She presses Marlow for information, asking him to repeat Kurtz's final words. Marlow tells her that Kurtz's final word was her name.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: The novella was not a big success during Conrad's life. When it was published as a single volume in 1902 with two novellas, "Youth" and "The End of the Tether", it received the least commentary from critics. F. R. Leavis referred to "Heart of Darkness" as a "minor work" and criticised its "adjectival insistence upon inexpressible and incomprehensible mystery". Conrad did not consider it to be particularly notable; but by the 1960s it was a standard assignment in many college and high school English courses.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Literary critic Harold Bloom wrote that "Heart of Darkness" had been analysed more than any other work of literature that is studied in universities and colleges, which he attributed to Conrad's "unique propensity for ambiguity". In "King Leopold's Ghost" (1998), Adam Hochschild wrote that literary scholars have made too much of the psychological aspects of "Heart of Darkness", while paying scant attention to Conrad's accurate recounting of the horror arising from the methods and effects of colonialism in the Congo Free State. ""Heart of Darkness" is experience ... pushed a little (and only very little) beyond the actual facts of the case". Other critiques include Hugh Curtler's "Achebe on Conrad: Racism and Greatness in Heart of Darkness" (1997). The French philosopher Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe called "Heart of Darkness" "one of the greatest texts of Western literature" and used Conrad's tale for a reflection on "The Horror of the West".


title: Heart of Darkness

text: "Heart of Darkness" is criticised in postcolonial studies, particularly by Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe. In his 1975 public lecture "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's "Heart of Darkness"", Achebe described Conrad's novella as "an offensive and deplorable book" that de-humanised Africans. Achebe argued that Conrad, "blinkered ... with xenophobia", incorrectly depicted Africa as the antithesis of Europe and civilisation, ignoring the artistic accomplishments of the Fang people who lived in the Congo River basin at the time of the book's publication. He argued that the book promoted and continues to promote a prejudiced image of Africa that "depersonalises a portion of the human race" and concluded that it should not be considered a great work of art.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Achebe's critics argue that he fails to distinguish Marlow's view from Conrad's, which results in very clumsy interpretations of the novella. In their view, Conrad portrays Africans sympathetically and their plight tragically, and refers sarcastically to, and condemns outright, the supposedly noble aims of European colonists, thereby demonstrating his skepticism about the moral superiority of European men. Ending a passage that describes the condition of chained, emaciated slaves, Marlow remarks: "After all, I also was a part of the great cause of these high and just proceedings." Some observers assert that Conrad, whose native country had been conquered by imperial powers, empathised by default with other subjugated peoples. Jeffrey Meyers notes that Conrad, like his acquaintance Roger Casement, "was one of the first men to question the Western notion of progress, a dominant idea in Europe from the Renaissance to the Great War, to attack the hypocritical justification of colonialism and to reveal... the savage degradation of the white man in Africa." Likewise, E.D. Morel, who led international opposition to King Leopold II's rule in the Congo, saw Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" as a condemnation of colonial brutality and referred to the novella as "the most powerful thing written on the subject."


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Conrad scholar Peter Firchow writes that "nowhere in the novel does Conrad or any of his narrators, personified or otherwise, claim superiority on the part of Europeans on the grounds of alleged genetic or biological difference". If Conrad or his novel is racist, it is only in a weak sense, since "Heart of Darkness" acknowledges racial distinctions "but does not suggest an essential superiority" of any group. Achebe's reading of "Heart of Darkness" can be (and has been) challenged by a reading of Conrad's other African story, "An Outpost of Progress", which has an omniscient narrator, rather than the embodied narrator, Marlow. Masood Ashraf Raja has suggested that Conrad's positive representation of Muslims in his Malay novels complicates these charges of racism.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In 2003, Motswana scholar Peter Mwikisa concluded the book was "the great lost opportunity to depict dialogue between Africa and Europe". Zimbabwean scholar Rino Zhuwarara, however, broadly agreed with Achebe, though considered it important to be "sensitised to how peoples of other nations perceive Africa". The novelist Caryl Phillips stated in 2003 that: "Achebe is right; to the African reader the price of Conrad's eloquent denunciation of colonisation is the recycling of racist notions of the 'dark' continent and her people. Those of us who are not from Africa may be prepared to pay this price, but this price is far too high for Achebe".


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In his 1983 criticism, the British academic Cedric Watts criticizes the insinuation in Achebe's critique—the premise that only black people may accurately analyse and assess the novella, as well as mentioning that Achebe's critique falls into self-contradictory arguments regarding Conrad's writing style, both praising and denouncing it at times. Stan Galloway writes, in a comparison of "Heart of Darkness" with " Jungle Tales of Tarzan", "The inhabitants [of both works], whether antagonists or compatriots, were clearly imaginary and meant to represent a particular fictive cipher and not a particular African people". More recent critics have stressed that the "continuities" between Conrad and Achebe are profound and that a form of "postcolonial mimesis" ties the two authors.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Orson Welles adapted and starred in "Heart of Darkness" in a CBS Radio broadcast on 6 November 1938 as part of his series, "The Mercury Theatre on the Air". In 1939, Welles adapted the story for his first film for RKO Pictures, writing a screenplay with John Houseman. The story was adapted to focus on the rise of a fascist dictator. Welles intended to play Marlow and Kurtz and it was to be entirely filmed as a POV from Marlow's eyes. Welles even filmed a short presentation film illustrating his intent. It is reportedly lost. The film's prologue to be read by Welles said "You aren't going to see this picture - this picture is going to happen to you." The project was never realised; one reason given was the loss of European markets after the outbreak of World War II. Welles still hoped to produce the film when he presented another radio adaptation of the story as his first program as producer-star of the CBS radio series "This Is My Best". Welles scholar Bret Wood called the broadcast of 13 March 1945, "the closest representation of the film Welles might have made, crippled, of course, by the absence of the story's visual elements (which were so meticulously designed) and the half-hour length of the broadcast."


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In 1991, Australian author/playwright Larry Buttrose wrote and staged a theatrical adaptation titled "Kurtz" with the Crossroads Theatre Company, Sydney. The play was announced to be broadcast as a radio play to Australian radio audiences in August 2011 by the Vision Australia Radio Network, and also by the RPH – Radio Print Handicapped Network across Australia.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In 2011, composer Tarik O'Regan and librettist Tom Phillips adapted an opera of the same name, which premiered at the Linbury Theatre of the Royal Opera House in London. A suite for orchestra and narrator was subsequently extrapolated from it.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In 2015, an adaption of Welles' screenplay by Jamie Lloyd and Laurence Bowen aired on BBC Radio 4. The production starred James McAvoy as Marlow.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: The CBS television anthology "Playhouse 90" aired a loose 90-minute adaptation in 1958, "Heart of Darkness (Playhouse 90)". This version, written by Stewart Stern, uses the encounter between Marlow (Roddy McDowall) and Kurtz (Boris Karloff) as its final act, and adds a backstory in which Marlow had been Kurtz's adopted son. The cast includes Inga Swenson and Eartha Kitt.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Perhaps the best known adaptation is Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 film "Apocalypse Now", based on the screenplay by John Milius, which moves the story from the Congo to Vietnam and Cambodia during the Vietnam War. In "Apocalypse Now", Martin Sheen stars as Captain Benjamin L. Willard, a US Army Captain assigned to "terminate the command" of Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, played by Marlon Brando. A film documenting the production, titled "", showed some of the difficulties which director Coppola faced making the film, which resembled some of the novella's themes.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: On 13 March 1993, TNT aired a new version of the story, directed by Nicolas Roeg, starring Tim Roth as Marlow and John Malkovich as Kurtz.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: James Gray's 2019 science fiction film "Ad Astra" is loosely inspired by the events of the novel. It features Brad Pitt as an astronaut travelling to the edge of the Solar System to confront and potentially kill his father (Tommy Lee Jones), who has gone rogue.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In 2020, "African Apocalypse", a documentary film directed and produced by Rob Lemkin and featuring Femi Nylander portrays a journey from Oxford, England to Niger on the trail of a colonial killer called Captain Paul Voulet. Voulet's descent into barbarity mirrors that of Kurtz in Conrad's "Heart of Darkness". Nylander discovers Voulet's massacres happened at exactly the same time that Conrad wrote his book in 1899. It was broadcast by the BBC in May 2021 as an episode of the "Arena" documentary series.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In 2022, in "Mr. Harrigan's Phone", Stephen King's Netflix horror film, a child who reads classic English books to an old American billionaire businessman one day reads a passage from "Heart of Darkness". The old man, Mr. Harrigan, then asks the child if he understood what he read, to which the child responds that he thinks he does. The old man seems unconvinced and satisfied and quickly changes the subject, as he feels the child is either not ready, or should be protected from understanding the meaning of the ideas delivered from that book. Later in the film, the boy turned young adult recalls the passage he read as he ponders a horrifying truth he just learned.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: The video game "Far Cry 2", released on 21 October 2008, is a loose modernised adaptation of "Heart of Darkness". The player assumes the role of a mercenary operating in Africa whose task it is to kill an arms dealer, the elusive "Jackal". The last area of the game is called "The Heart of Darkness".


title: Heart of Darkness

text: "", released on 26 June 2012, is a direct modernised adaptation of "Heart of Darkness". The player assumes the role of Delta Force operator Captain Martin Walker as he and his team search Dubai for survivors in the aftermath of catastrophic sandstorms that left the city without contact to the outside world. The character John Konrad, who replaces the character Kurtz, is a reference to Joseph Conrad.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: "Victoria II", a grand strategy game produced by Paradox Interactive, launched an expansion pack titled "Heart of Darkness" on 16 April 2013, which revamped the game's colonial system, and naval warfare.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: "World of Warcraft"s seventh expansion, "", has a dark, swampy zone named Nazmir that makes many references to both "Heart of Darkness" and "Apocalypse Now". Examples include the sub zone "Heart of Darkness" and a quest of the same name that mentions a character named "Captain Conrad", amongst others.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: T. S. Eliot's 1925 poem "The Hollow Men" quotes, as its first epigraph, a line from "Heart of Darkness": "Mistah Kurtz – he dead." Eliot had planned to use a quotation from the climax of the tale as the epigraph for "The Waste Land", but Ezra Pound advised against it. Eliot said of the quote that "it is much the most appropriate I can find, and somewhat elucidative." Biographer Peter Ackroyd suggested that the passage inspired or at least anticipated the central theme of the poem.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Chinua Achebe's 1958 novel "Things Fall Apart" is Achebe's response to what he saw as Conrad's portrayal of Africa and Africans as symbols-- "the antithesis of Europe and therefore civilization". Achebe set out to write a novel about Africa and Africans by an African. In "Things Fall Apart" we see the effects of colonialism and Christian missionary endeavors on an Igbo community in West Africa through the eyes of that community's West African protagonists.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: In Josef Škvorecký's 1984 novel "The Engineer of Human Souls", Kurtz is seen as the epitome of exterminatory colonialism and, there and elsewhere, Škvorecký emphasises the importance of Conrad's concern with Russian imperialism in Eastern Europe.


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Timothy Findley's 1993 novel "Headhunter" is an extensive adaptation that reimagines Kurtz and Marlow as psychiatrists in Toronto. The novel begins: "On a winter's day, while a blizzard raged through the streets of Toronto, Lilah Kemp inadvertently set Kurtz free from page 92 of "Heart of Darkness"."


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Another literary work with an acknowledged debt to "Heart of Darkness" is Wilson Harris' 1960 postcolonial novel "Palace of the Peacock".


title: Heart of Darkness

text: J. G. Ballard's 1962 climate fiction novel "The Drowned World" includes many similarities to Conrad's novella. However, Ballard said he had read nothing by Conrad before writing the novel, prompting literary critic Robert S. Lehman to remark that "the novel's allusion to Conrad works nicely, even if it is not really an allusion to Conrad".


title: Heart of Darkness

text: Robert Silverberg's 1970 novel "Downward to the Earth" uses themes and characters based on "Heart of Darkness" set on the alien world of Belzagor.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: William Z. McFarland (born 1991) is an American con artist and convicted felon who co-founded the ill-fated Fyre Festival. He defrauded investors of $27.4 million by marketing and selling tickets to the festival and other events.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: In 2013, McFarland founded Magnises, a card-based club targeted at millennials, using $1.5 million of investor funding. He later founded and was CEO of Fyre Media, which developed the Fyre mobile app for booking music talent. In late 2016, along with rapper Ja Rule, McFarland co-founded the Fyre Festival, a "luxury" music festival intended to promote the Fyre app. The event was scheduled to take place in April and May 2017, but was aborted after attendees had arrived due to problems with security, food, logistics, understaffing, accommodations, and talent relations.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: In May 2017, McFarland and Ja Rule were sued for $100 million in a class action lawsuit on behalf of Fyre Festival attendees. The following month, McFarland was arrested and charged with wire fraud in Manhattan federal court for his role in the organization of the festival. After pleading guilty to two counts of wire fraud in March 2018, he was sentenced to six years in federal penitentiary. He was released from the penitentiary in late March 2022, after serving over four years.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: Short Hills section of Millburn, New Jersey. His parents are real estate developers. McFarland told the "New York Post" that at age 13, he founded an online outsourcing startup that matched clients with web designers. He graduated from the Pingry School in 2010. He then attended Bucknell University, where he dropped out in May of his freshman year.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: After McFarland dropped out of college he founded the short-lived online advertisement platform Spling, where he served as CEO. TechCrunch described Spling as a content sharing network, criticizing its similarity to other services which existed at the time.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: In August 2013, McFarland seeded payments company Magnises with $1.5 million of investor funding, aiming to create an exclusive "black card" with social perks, such as club membership, targeted at status-oriented millennials in certain big cities. McFarland also launched Fyre Media Inc., the parent company of the Fyre Festival. In a term sheet sent to investors, Fyre Media claimed to be worth $90 million, however according to authorities the company only did about $60,000 in business.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: McFarland founded Fyre Media and publicized a luxury music festival in the Bahamas, called Fyre Festival, to promote the Fyre music-booking application. The festival, to be held in April 2017, was advertised by a video which included a bevy of Instagram models including Bella Hadid and Emily Ratajkowski who, along with Kendall Jenner, were all expected to be at the festival. However, the festival experienced a number of serious management, administration, and misrepresentation issues and was canceled after guests had begun to arrive on Great Exuma island. Guests were met with tents and pre-packaged sandwiches instead of the lavish villas and meals they were promised. The festival subsequently became the focus of U.S. federal investigations and multiple lawsuits.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: McFarland borrowed as much as $7 million in an effort to fund the festival, taking one loan with an effective annualized rate of 120 percent. McFarland defaulted on the loan and the lender sued.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: The controversy around Fyre Festival were detailed in two documentaries in January 2019: Hulu released "Fyre Fraud" directed by Jenner Furst and Julia Willoughby Nason on January 14, and Netflix released "Fyre: The Greatest Party That Never Happened", directed by Chris Smith, on January 18.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: On May 1, 2017, Fyre Festival organizers Billy McFarland and Ja Rule were sued for $100 million in a class-action lawsuit in relation to the failed Fyre Festival that left attendees stranded on the island of Great Exuma without basic provisions. In addition to the class-action lawsuit filed in May 2017, 6 federal and 4 individual lawsuits were filed in relation to the scheme. McFarland was arrested by federal agents on June 30, 2017, and charged with wire fraud in relation to Fyre and Fyre Festival. He was released on $300,000 bail on July 1. McFarland faced up to 4 years and 9 months under U.S. sentencing guidelines, according to Assistant U.S. Attorney Kristy Greenberg. She added that McFarland's short but eventful career showed a "pattern of deception" and "overpromising luxury experiences that were not delivered". In July 2017, McFarland was represented by a public defender at a bail hearing after his previous legal team "had not been paid enough to continue to represent him". McFarland later hired the private firm Boies, Schiller & Flexner as representation. While on bail, he committed further fraud with a scheme called "NYC VIP Access" selling tickets to events that had either not been announced or that tickets were unavailable for public purchase to attend, including the Met Gala. Footage of him carrying out this fraud was (inadvertently) recorded and later appeared in Netflix's "Fyre" documentary.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: In March 2018, McFarland pleaded guilty to 2 counts of wire fraud in federal court in Manhattan and admitted to using fake documents to attract investors to put more than $26 million into his company. He agreed to forfeit $26 million. On June 12, 2018, McFarland was charged with selling fraudulent tickets to events such as the Met Gala, Burning Man, and Coachella while out on bail.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: On October 11, 2018, McFarland was sentenced to six years in federal prison. In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, McFarland requested compassionate release from Federal Correctional Institution, Elkton, in Lisbon, Ohio, to avoid contracting the virus, with the reasoning that as an asthmatic he was especially vulnerable to the virus. His request was denied the same month. McFarland was housed at the RRM New York in Brooklyn New York and, in July 2020, it was reported that McFarland tested positive for COVID-19 at the facility.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: He was released from prison early on March 30, 2022 to be relocated to a halfway house. His time under house arrest ended in September 2022.


title: Billy McFarland (fraudster)

text: In October 2022 McFarland teased in a video on TikTok and YouTube Shorts that he was planning a new business venture called “PYRT”, with more details to be announced in November 2022.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Rumours is the eleventh studio album by British-American rock band Fleetwood Mac, released on 4 February 1977 by Warner Bros. Records. Largely recorded in California in 1976, it was produced by the band with Ken Caillat and Richard Dashut. The recording sessions took place in the aftermath of several relationship breakups among its members in addition to heavy drug use, both of which shaped the album's direction.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Recorded with the intention of making "a pop album" that would expand on the commercial success of their self-titled 1975 album, the music of "Rumours" is characterized by a mix of electric and acoustic instrumentation, accented rhythms, guitars and keyboards, while its lyrics concern personal and often troubled relationships. Its release was postponed by delays in the mixing process. Following the album's release, Fleetwood Mac undertook worldwide concert tours. "Rumours" became the band's first number-one album on the UK Albums Chart and also topped the US "Billboard" 200. The songs "Go Your Own Way", "Dreams", "Don't Stop", and "You Make Loving Fun" were released as singles, all of which reached the US top 10, with "Dreams" reaching number one.


title: Rumours (album)

text: "Rumours" was an instant commercial success, selling over 10 million copies worldwide within just a month of its release. It garnered widespread acclaim from critics, with praise centred on its production quality and harmonies, which frequently relied on the interplay among three vocalists and has inspired the work of musical acts in different genres. It won Album of the Year at the 1977 Grammy Awards. It has sold over 40 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums of all time. It has received Diamond certifications in several countries, including the UK, Canada, and Australia, and has been certified 20× Platinum in the US.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Often considered Fleetwood Mac's magnum opus, "Rumours" has frequently been cited as one of the greatest albums of all time. In 2004, "Rumours" was remastered and reissued with the addition of "Silver Springs", which had been excluded from the original, and a bonus CD of outtakes from the recording sessions. In 2003, it was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2018, it was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry, being deemed "culturally, historically, or artistically significant" by the Library of Congress. In 2020, "Rumours" was rated the seventh-greatest album of all time in "Rolling Stone"s list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time".


title: Rumours (album)

text: In July 1975, Fleetwood Mac's eponymous tenth album was released to great commercial success, reaching No. 1 in the U.S. in 1976. The record's biggest hit single, "Rhiannon", gave the band extensive radio exposure. At the time, Fleetwood Mac's line-up consisted of guitarist and vocalist Lindsey Buckingham, drummer Mick Fleetwood, keyboard player and vocalist Christine McVie, bass guitarist John McVie, and vocalist Stevie Nicks. After six months of non-stop touring, the McVies divorced, ending eight years of marriage. The couple stopped talking to each other socially and discussed only musical matters. Buckingham and Nicks—who had joined the band before 1975's "Fleetwood Mac" after guitarist Bob Welch had left—were having an on/off relationship that led them to fight often. The duo's arguments stopped only when they worked on songs together. Fleetwood faced domestic problems of his own after discovering that his wife Jenny, mother of his two children, was having an affair with his best friend.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Press intrusions into the band members' lives led to inaccurate stories. Christine McVie was reported to have been in the hospital with a serious illness, while Buckingham and Nicks were declared the parents of Fleetwood's daughter Lucy after being photographed with her. The press also wrote about a rumoured return of original Fleetwood Mac members Peter Green, Danny Kirwan, and Jeremy Spencer for a 10th anniversary tour. Despite false reports, the band did not change its lineup, although its members had no time to come to terms with the separations before recording for a new album began. Fleetwood has noted the "tremendous emotional sacrifices" made by everyone just to attend studio work. In early 1976, Fleetwood Mac crafted some new tracks in Florida. Founding members Fleetwood and John McVie chose to dispense with the services of their previous producer, Keith Olsen, because he favoured a lower emphasis on the rhythm section. The duo formed a company called Seedy Management to represent the band's interests.


title: Rumours (album)

text: In February 1976, Fleetwood Mac convened at the Record Plant in Sausalito, California, with hired engineers Ken Caillat and Richard Dashut. Production duties were shared by the three parties, while the more technically adept Caillat was responsible for most of the engineering; he took a leave of absence from Wally Heider Studios in Los Angeles on the premise that Fleetwood Mac would eventually use their facilities. The set-up in Sausalito included a number of small recording rooms in a large, windowless, wooden building. Most band members complained about the studio and wanted to record at their homes, but Fleetwood did not allow any moves. Christine McVie and Nicks decided to live in two condominiums near the city's harbour, while the male contingent stayed at the studio's lodge in the adjacent hills. Recording occurred in a room which included a 3M 24-track tape machine, a range of high-quality microphones, and an API mixing console with 550A equalisers; the latter were used to control frequency differences or a track's timbre. Although Caillat was impressed with the set-up, he felt that the room lacked ambience because of its "very dead speakers" and large amounts of soundproofing.


title: Rumours (album)

text: The record's working title in Sausalito was "Yesterday's Gone". Buckingham took charge of the studio sessions to make "a pop album". According to Dashut, while Fleetwood and the McVies came from an improvisational blues-rock background, the guitarist understood "the craft of record making". During the formative stages of compositions, Buckingham and Christine McVie played guitar and piano together to create the album's basic structures. The latter was the only classically trained musician in Fleetwood Mac, but both shared a similar sense of musicality. When the band jammed, Fleetwood often played his drum kit outside the studio's partition screen to better gauge Caillat's and Dashut's reactions to the music's groove. Baffles were placed around the drums and around John McVie, who played his bass guitar facing Fleetwood. Buckingham performed close to the rhythm section, while Christine McVie's keyboards were kept away from the drum kit. Caillat and Dashut spent about nine days working with a range of microphones and amplifiers to get a larger sound, before discovering they could adjust the sound effectively on the API mixing console.


title: Rumours (album)

text: As the studio sessions progressed, the band members' new intimate relationships that formed after various separations started to have a negative effect on Fleetwood Mac. The musicians did not meet or socialise after their daily work at the Record Plant. At the time, the hippie movement still affected Sausalito's culture and drugs were readily available. Open-ended budgets enabled the band and the engineers to become self-indulgent; sleepless nights and the extensive use of cocaine marked much of the album's production. Chris Stone, one of the Record Plant's owners, indicated in 1997 that Fleetwood Mac brought "excess at its most excessive" by taking over the studio for long and extremely expensive sessions; he stated, "The band would come in at 7 at night, have a big feast, party till 1 or 2 in the morning, and then when they were so whacked-out they couldn't do anything, they'd start recording".


title: Rumours (album)

text: Nicks has suggested that Fleetwood Mac created the best music when in the worst shape, while, according to Buckingham, the tensions between band members informed the recording process and led to "the whole being more than the sum of the parts". The couple's work became "bittersweet" after their final split, although Buckingham still had a skill for taking Nicks' tracks and "making them beautiful". The vocal harmonies between the duo and Christine McVie worked well and were captured using the best microphones available. Nicks' lyrical focus allowed the instrumentals in the songs that she wrote to be looser and more abstract. According to Dashut, all the recordings captured "emotion and feeling without a middle man ... or tempering". John McVie tended to clash with Buckingham about the make-up of songs, but both admit to achieving good outcomes. Christine McVie's "Songbird", which Caillat felt needed a concert hall's ambience, was recorded during an all-night session at Zellerbach Auditorium in Berkeley, across San Francisco Bay from Sausalito.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Following over two months in Sausalito, Fleetwood arranged a ten-day tour to give the band a break and get fan feedback. After the concerts, recording resumed at venues in Los Angeles, including Wally Heider Studios. Christine McVie and Nicks did not attend most of the sessions and took time off until they were needed to record any remaining vocals. The rest of Fleetwood Mac, with Caillat and Dashut, struggled to finalise the overdubbing and mixing of "Rumours" after the Sausalito tapes were damaged by repeated use during recording; the kick and snare drum audio tracks sounded "lifeless". A sell-out autumn tour of the US was cancelled to allow the completion of the album, whose scheduled release date of September 1976 was pushed back. A specialist was hired to rectify the Sausalito tapes using a vari-speed oscillator. Through a pair of headphones which played the damaged tapes in his left ear and the safety master recordings in his right, he converged their respective speeds aided by the timings provided by the snare and hi-hat audio tracks. Fleetwood Mac and their co-producers wanted a "no-filler" final product, in which every track seemed a potential single. After the final mastering stage and hearing the songs back-to-back, the band members sensed they had recorded something "pretty powerful".


title: Rumours (album)

text: In autumn 1976, while still recording, Fleetwood Mac showcased tracks from "Rumours" at the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles. John McVie suggested the album title to the band because he felt the members were writing "journals and diaries" about each other through music. Warner Bros. confirmed the release details to the press in December and chose "Go Your Own Way" as a December 1976 promotional single. The label's aggressive marketing of 1975's "Fleetwood Mac", in which links with dozens of FM and AM radio stations were formed across America, aided the promotion of "Rumours". At the time, the album's advance order of 800,000 copies was the largest in Warner Bros.' history.


title: Rumours (album)

text: "Rumours" was released on 4 February 1977 in the US, and a week later in the UK. The front cover features a stylised shot of Fleetwood and Nicks dressed in her "Rhiannon" stage persona, while the back has a montage of band portraits; all the photographs were taken by Herbert Worthington. On 28 February 1977, after rehearsing at SIR Studios in Los Angeles, Fleetwood Mac started a seven-month-long promotional tour of America. Nicks has noted that, after performing mostly "Rumours" songs during gigs, the band initially encountered poor receptions from fans who were not accustomed to the new material. A one-off March performance at a benefit concert for United States Senator Birch Bayh in Indiana was followed by a short European tour of the UK, the Netherlands, France, and Germany in April. Nigel Williamson of "Uncut" called Fleetwood Mac's performances "rock's greatest soap opera". "Dreams", released in March 1977, became the band's only number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 that June.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Fleetwood Mac's main writers — Buckingham, Christine McVie and Nicks — worked individually on songs but sometimes shared lyrics with each other. "The Chain" is the only track on which all members, including Fleetwood and John McVie, collaborated. All songs on "Rumours" concern personal, often troubled relationships. According to Christine McVie, the fact that the lyricists were focusing on the various separations became apparent to the band only in hindsight. "You Make Loving Fun" is about her boyfriend, Fleetwood Mac's lighting director, whom she dated after splitting from John. Nicks' "Dreams" details a breakup and has a hopeful message, while Buckingham's similar effort in "Go Your Own Way" is more pessimistic. After a short fling with a New England woman, he was inspired to write "Never Going Back Again", a song about the illusion of thinking that sadness will never occur again once content with life. The lines "Been down one time/Been down two times" refer to the lyricist's efforts when persuading the woman to give him a chance.


title: Rumours (album)

text: "Don't Stop", written by Christine McVie, is a song about optimism. She noted that Buckingham helped her craft the verses because their personal sensibilities overlapped. McVie's next track, "Songbird", features more introspective lyrics about "nobody and everybody" in the form of "a little prayer". "Oh Daddy", the last McVie song on the album, was written about Fleetwood and his wife Jenny Boyd, who had just got back together. The band's nickname for Fleetwood was "the Big Daddy". McVie commented that the writing is slightly sarcastic and focuses on the drummer's direction for Fleetwood Mac, which always turned out to be right. Nicks provided the final lines "And I can't walk away from you, baby/If I tried". Her own song "Gold Dust Woman" is inspired by Los Angeles and the hardship encountered in such a city. After struggling with the rock lifestyle, Nicks became addicted to cocaine; the lyrics address her belief in "keeping going".


title: Rumours (album)

text: Featuring a soft rock and pop rock sound, "Rumours" is built around a mix of acoustic and electric instrumentation. Buckingham's guitar work and Christine McVie's use of Fender Rhodes piano or Hammond B-3 organ are present on all but two tracks. The record often includes stressed drum sounds and distinctive percussion such as congas and maracas. It opens with "Second Hand News", originally an acoustic demo titled "Strummer". After hearing Bee Gees' "Jive Talkin'", Buckingham and co-producer Dashut built up the song with four audio tracks of electric guitar and the use of chair percussion to evoke Celtic rock. "Dreams" includes "ethereal spaces" and a recurring two note pattern on the bass guitar. Nicks wrote the song in an afternoon and led the vocals, while the band played around her. The third track on "Rumours", "Never Going Back Again", began as "Brushes", a simple acoustic guitar tune played by Buckingham, with snare rolls by Fleetwood using brushes; the band added vocals and further instrumental audio tracks to make it more layered. Inspired by triple step dancing patterns, "Don't Stop" includes both conventional acoustic and tack piano. In the latter instrument, nails are placed on the points where the hammers hit the strings, producing a more percussive sound. "Go Your Own Way" is more guitar-oriented and has a four-to-the-floor dance beat influenced by The Rolling Stones' "Street Fighting Man". The album's pace slows down with "Songbird", conceived solely by Christine McVie using a nine-foot Steinway piano.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Side two of "Rumours" begins with "The Chain", one of the record's most complicated compositions. A Christine McVie demo, "Keep Me There", and a Nicks song were re-cut in the studio and were heavily edited to form parts of the track. The whole of the band crafted the rest using an approach akin to creating a film score; John McVie provided a prominent solo using a fretless bass guitar, which marked a speeding up in tempo and the start of the song's final third. Inspired by R&B, "You Make Loving Fun" has a simpler composition and features a clavinet, a special type of keyboard instrument, while the rhythm section plays interlocking notes and beats. The ninth track on "Rumours", "I Don't Want to Know", makes use of a twelve string guitar and harmonising vocals. Influenced by the music of Buddy Holly, Buckingham and Nicks created it in 1974 before they were in Fleetwood Mac. "Oh Daddy" was crafted spontaneously and includes improvised bass guitar patterns from John McVie and keyboard blips from Christine McVie. The album ends with "Gold Dust Woman", a song inspired by free jazz, which has music from a harpsichord, a Fender Stratocaster guitar, and a dobro, an acoustic guitar whose sound is produced by one or more metal cones.


title: Rumours (album)

text: "Rumours" has been acclaimed by music critics since its release. Robert Christgau, reviewing in "The Village Voice", described it as "more consistent and more eccentric" than its predecessor. He added that it "jumps right out of the speakers at you". "Rolling Stone" magazine's John Swenson believed the interplay among the three vocalists was one of the album's most pleasing elements; he stated, "Despite the interminable delay in finishing the record, "Rumours" proves that the success of "Fleetwood Mac" was no fluke." In a review for "The New York Times", John Rockwell said the album is "a delightful disk, and one hopes the public thinks so, too", while Dave Marsh of the "St. Petersburg Times" claimed the songs are "as grandly glossy as anything right now". Robert Hilburn was less receptive and called "Rumours" a "frustratingly uneven" record in his review for the "Los Angeles Times", while Juan Rodriguez of "The Gazette" suggested that, while the music is "crisper and clearer", Fleetwood Mac's ideas are "slightly more muddled". The album finished fourth in "The Village Voice"s 1977 Pazz & Jop critics' poll, which aggregated the votes of hundreds of prominent reviewers.


title: Rumours (album)

text: In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave "Rumours" five stars and noted that, regardless of the voyeuristic element, the record was "an unparalleled blockbuster" because of the music's quality; he concluded, "Each tune, each phrase regains its raw, immediate emotional power—which is why "Rumours" touched a nerve upon its 1977 release, and has since transcended its era to be one of the greatest, most compelling pop albums of all time." According to "Slant Magazine"s Barry Walsh, Fleetwood Mac drew on romantic dysfunction and personal turmoil to create a timeless, five-star record, while Andy Gill of "The Independent" claimed it "represents, along with "The Eagles Greatest Hits", the high-water mark of America's Seventies rock-culture expansion, the quintessence of a counter-cultural mindset lured into coke-fuelled hedonism". In 2007, the BBC's Daryl Easlea labelled the sonic results as "near perfect", "like a thousand angels kissing you sweetly on the forehead", while Patrick McKay of "Stylus Magazine" wrote, "What distinguishes "Rumours"—what makes it art—is the contradiction between its cheerful surface and its anguished heart. Here is a radio-friendly record about anger, recrimination, and loss."


title: Rumours (album)

text: "Rumours" was a huge commercial success and became Fleetwood Mac's second US number-one record, following the 1975 eponymous release. It stayed at the top of the "Billboard" 200 for 31 non-consecutive weeks, while also reaching number one in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. In May 2011 it re-entered "Billboard" 200 chart at number 11, and the Australian ARIA chart at number 2, due to several songs from the album being used for the "Rumours" episode of the American TV series "Glee". It re-entered the "Billboard" 200 top ten in October 2020 in the wake of a viral TikTok by Nathan Apodaca which showed him skateboarding while "Dreams" played, even prompting Mick Fleetwood and Stevie Nicks to create similar videos. The album was certified platinum in America and the UK within months of release after one million units and 300,000 units were shipped, respectively. All three major US trade publications—"Billboard", "Cash Box", and "Record World"—named it Album of the Year for 1977. After a debut at number seven, "Rumours" peaked at the top of the UK Albums Chart in January 1978, becoming Fleetwood Mac's first number one album in the country. In February, the band and co-producers Caillat and Dashut won the 1978 Grammy Award for Album of the Year. By March, the album had sold over 10 million copies worldwide, including over eight million in the US alone.


title: Rumours (album)

text: By 1980, 13 million copies of "Rumours" had been sold worldwide. As of 2017, sales were over 40 million copies. , "Rumours" has spent 800 weeks in the UK Top 100 album chart and is the 11th-best-selling album in UK history and is certified 14× platinum by the British Phonographic Industry, the equivalent of 4.2 million units shipped. The record has received a Diamond Award from the Recording Industry Association of America for a 20× platinum certification or 20 million copies shipped, making it, , tied for the eleventh highest certified album in US history (by number of copies shipped). "Rumours" was the UK's bestselling album on vinyl during 2020, with the Official Charts Company confirming 32,500 annual sales in the format.


title: Rumours (album)

text: Mick Fleetwood has called "Rumours" "the most important album we ever made", because its success allowed the group to continue recording for years to come. Pop culture journalist Chuck Klosterman links the record's sales figures to its "really likable songs" but suggests that "no justification for greatness" is intrinsically provided by them. "The Guardian" collated worldwide data in 1997 from a range of renowned critics, artists, and radio DJs, who placed the record at number 78 in the list of the 100 Best Albums Ever. In 1998, "Legacy: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac's Rumours" was produced by Fleetwood and released. The record contained each song of the original "Rumours" covered by a different act influenced by it. Among the musicians involved were alternative rock bands Tonic, Matchbox 20, and Goo Goo Dolls; Celtic rock groups The Corrs and The Cranberries; and singer-songwriters Elton John, Duncan Sheik, and Jewel. Other diverse acts influenced by "Rumours" include baroque pop artist Tori Amos, hard rock group Saliva, indie rock band Death Cab for Cutie, and art pop singer Lorde, who called it a "perfect record".


title: Rumours (album)

text: In 1998, "Q" placed "Rumours" at number three—behind The Clash's "London Calling" and Pink Floyd's "The Dark Side of the Moon"—in its list of 50 Best Albums of the 70s. In 1999, "Vibe" featured it as one of 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century. In 2001, VH1 ranked the record at number 16 during its 100 Greatest Albums countdown, while "Slant" included it as one of 50 Essential Pop Albums. The same year, "USA Today" placed "Rumours" at number 23 in its Top 40 Albums list, while "Rolling Stone" ranked it at number 25 in its special issue of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", the highest Fleetwood Mac record, and 26 in a 2012 revised list. In 2000 it was voted number 31 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums". In 2006, "Time" named it in its All-TIME 100 Albums shortlist, while "Mojo" featured it in its unnumbered list of 70 from the 1970s: Decade's Greatest Albums. The record is included in both "The Guardian"s "1000 Albums to Hear Before You Die" and the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". For the 2013 reissue of the album, "Pitchfork"s Jessica Hopper gave the album a rare 10 out of 10, earning it a "best new reissue" designation.


title: Stock market

text: A stock market, equity market, or share market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers of stocks (also called shares), which represent ownership claims on businesses; these may include "securities" listed on a public stock exchange, as well as stock that is only traded privately, such as shares of private companies which are sold to investors through equity crowdfunding platforms. Investment is usually made with an investment strategy in mind.


title: Stock market

text: The total market capitalization of all publicly traded securities worldwide rose from US$2.5 trillion in 1980 to US$93.7 trillion at the end of 2020.


title: Stock market

text: , there are 60 stock exchanges in the world. Of these, there are 16 exchanges with a market capitalization of $1 trillion or more, and they account for 87% of global market capitalization. Apart from the Australian Securities Exchange, these 16 exchanges are all in North America, Europe, or Asia.


title: Stock market

text: By country, the largest stock markets as of January 2022 are in the United States of America (about 59.9%), followed by Japan (about 6.2%) and United Kingdom (about 3.9%).


title: Stock market

text: A stock exchange is an exchange (or bourse) where stockbrokers and traders can buy and sell shares (equity stock), bonds, and other securities. Many large companies have their stocks listed on a stock exchange. This makes the stock more liquid and thus more attractive to many investors. The exchange may also act as a guarantor of settlement. These and other stocks may also be traded "over the counter" (OTC), that is, through a dealer. Some large companies will have their stock listed on more than one exchange in different countries, so as to attract international investors.


title: Stock market

text: Stock exchanges may also cover other types of securities, such as fixed-interest securities (bonds) or (less frequently) derivatives, which are more likely to be traded OTC.