title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: However, not all law enforcement agencies have been as critical; many real CSI investigators have responded positively to the show's influence and enjoy their new reputation. In the UK, scenes of crime officers now commonly refer to themselves as CSIs. Some constabularies, such as those in Norfolk, have even gone so far as to change the name of their crime scene unit to "CSI". CSI recruitment and training programs have also seen an increase in applicants as a result of the show, with a wider range of people now interested in something previously regarded as a scientific backwater.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: The ""CSI" effect" is the alleged phenomenon of "CSI" raising crime victims' and jury members' real-world expectations of forensic science, especially crime scene investigation and DNA testing. This is said to have changed the way that many trials are presented today, in that prosecutors are pressured to deliver more forensic evidence in court. Victims and their families are coming to expect instant answers from showcased techniques such as DNA analysis and fingerprinting, when actual forensic processing often takes days or weeks, with no guarantee of revealing a "smoking gun" for the prosecution's case. District attorneys state that the conviction rate has decreased in cases with little physical evidence, largely due to the influence of "CSI" on jury members. Some police and district attorneys have criticized the show for giving the public an inaccurate perception of how police solve crimes.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: In 2006, the evidence cited in support of the supposed effect was mainly anecdotes from law enforcement personnel and prosecutors, and, allegedly, little empirical examination had been done on the effect. The one study published by then suggested that the phenomenon might be an urban myth. However, more recent research suggests that these modern TV shows do have an influence on public perceptions and expectations, and on juror behavior. One researcher has suggested screening jurors for the level of influence that such TV programs has had.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: The US box sets are released by CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount), while the Canadian box sets are released by Alliance Atlantis (distributed by Universal Studios). The first season DVD release differs from all subsequent seasons in that it is available only in 1.33:1 or 4:3 full frame, rather than the subsequent aspect ratio of 1.78:1 or 16:9 widescreen, which is the HDTV standard aspect ratio.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: The first season is also the only DVD release of the series not to feature Dolby Digital 5.1 surround audio, instead offering Dolby Digital stereo sound.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: Regions 2 and 4 releases followed a pattern whereby each season was progressively released in two parts (each of 11 or 12 episodes [except for Season 8, in which part 1 contained 8 episodes and the "Without a Trace" crossover and part 2 contained the remaining 9 episodes] with special features split up) before finally being sold as a single box set.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> = Re-released in slimline full-season packaging. Seasons 1–8 were released in two parts between 2003 and 2009.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: Season One is the only season in 4:3 with the remaining seasons in 16:9. All seasons including Season One are in Dolby Digital 5.1.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount) released the first season on high-definition Blu-ray Disc on May 12, 2009.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: Unlike its DVD counterpart, this release is in its original 16:9 widescreen format and features 7.1 surround sound. Features on the Season 1 BD set are also in high definition.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: Season 10 was released on November 18, 2011, in region B. Like the season 1 Blu-ray release, it features a 16:9 widescreen transfer, but it only has DTS-HD 5.1 sound.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: Season 9 was released on September 1, 2009. Like the season 1 Blu-ray release, it features a 16:9 widescreen transfer with DTS-HD Master Audio 7.1 surround sound. Extras include commentaries, featurettes and BD-Live functionality.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: "CSI" has also been released as a series of mobile games. In Fall 2007, CBS teamed up with game developer Gameloft to bring "CSI" to mobile phones. The first of the series to be published was "". The game features actual cast members such as Alexx Woods and Calleigh Duquesne who are trying to solve a murder in South Beach with the player's assistance. The game is also available for download on various iPod devices.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: In spring 2008, Gameloft and CBS released "CSI: Crime Scene Investigation – The Mobile Game" which is based on the original series in Las Vegas. This game introduces the unique ability to receive calls during the game to provide tips and clues about crime scenes and evidence. As for the storyline, the game developers collaborated with Anthony E. Zuiker (the series creator) to ensure that the plot and dialogue were aligned with the show's style.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: Nine video games based on "CSI: Crime Scene Investigation" have been created. Three games based on the spin-off series "" and one for the "" series have also been created. Radical Entertainment, under its 369 Interactive banner, developed the "CSI" games until 2004. Telltale Games has been developing the games for the franchise since. Ubisoft has published all of the "CSI" video games.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: "CSI" airs on the Nine Network and TVHits (formerly TV1) in Australia, on Channel 5 in United Kingdom, on CTV in Canada, on RecordTV in Brazil, on Italia 1 in Italy, on Prime in New Zealand, on RTÉ2 in Ireland, on TF1 in France, AXN in Asia and Latin America, Skai TV in Greece, on HOT Zone in Israel, on TV3 in Estonia and Latvia, on TVNorge in Norway and on Kanal 5 in Sweden and Denmark and on GEM TV in Iran.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: The use of forensic science in the investigation of crime has been the central theme of several other TV mystery-suspense dramas, including:


title: Runes

text: Runes are the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic alphabets native to the Germanic peoples. Runes were used to write various Germanic languages (with some exceptions) before they adopted the Latin alphabet, and for specialised purposes thereafter. In addition to representing a sound value (a phoneme), runes can be used to represent the concepts after which they are named (ideographs). Scholars refer to instances of the latter as ('concept runes'). The Scandinavian variants are also known as "futhark" or "fuþark" (derived from their first six letters of the script: "F", "U", "Þ", "A", "R", and "K"); the Anglo-Saxon variant is "futhorc" or "" (due to sound-changes undergone in Old English by the names of those six letters).


title: Runes

text: Runology is the academic study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, and their history. Runology forms a specialised branch of Germanic philology.


title: Runes

text: The earliest secure runic inscriptions date from around A.D. 150, with a potentially earlier inscription dating to A.D. 50 and Roman senator Tacitus's potential description of rune use from around A.D. 98. Runes were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent Christianisation, by approximately A.D. 700 in central Europe and 1100 in northern Europe. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes beyond this period. Up until the early 20th century, runes were still used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on runic calendars.


title: Runes

text: The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (ca. A.D. 150–800), the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100), and the Younger Futhark (800–1100). The Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes (also called "Danish", although they were also used in Norway, Sweden, and Frisia); short-branch or Rök runes (also called "Swedish-Norwegian", although they were also used in Denmark); and the "" or Hälsinge runes (staveless runes). The Younger Futhark developed further into the medieval runes (1100–1500), and the Dalecarlian runes ( 1500–1800).


title: Runes

text: The exact development of the early runic alphabet remains unclear but the script ultimately stems from the Phoenician alphabet. Early runes may have developed from the Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. At the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited for epigraphy, which would become characteristic of the runes and related scripts in the region.


title: Runes

text: The process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest clear inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. A "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a "Gothic hypothesis" presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion. Runes continue to be used in a wide variety of ways in modern popular culture.


title: Runes

text: The name stems from a Proto-Germanic form reconstructed as , which may be translated as 'secret, mystery; secret conversation; rune'. It is the source of Gothic (, 'secret, mystery, counsel'), Old English ('whisper, mystery, secret, rune'), Old Saxon ('secret counsel, confidential talk'), Middle Dutch ('id'), Old High German ('secret, mystery'), and Old Norse ('secret, mystery, rune'). The earliest Germanic epigraphic attestation is the Primitive Norse (accusative singular), found on the Einang stone (A.D. 350–400) and the Noleby stone (A.D. 450).


title: Runes

text: The term is related to Proto-Celtic ('secret, magic'), which is attested in Old Irish ('mystery, secret'), Middle Welsh ('mystery, charm'), Middle Breton ('secret wisdom'), and possibly in the ancient Gaulish (< 'confident'; cf. Middle Welsh , Middle Breton , Middle Irish 'shared secret, confidence') and (< 'sacred secret'), as well as in Lepontic (< * 'belonging to the secret'). However, it is difficult to tell whether they are cognates (linguistic siblings from a common origin), or if the Proto-Germanic form reflects an early borrowing from Celtic. Various connections have been proposed with other Indo-European terms (for example: Sanskrit 'roar', Latin 'noise, rumor'; Ancient Greek 'ask' and 'investigate'), although linguist Ranko Matasović finds them difficult to justify for semantic or linguistic reasons. Because of this, some scholars have speculated that the Germanic and Celtic words may have been a shared religious term borrowed from an unknown non-Indo-European language.


title: Runes

text: In early Germanic, a rune could also be referred to as , a compound of and ('staff; letter'). It is attested in Old Norse , Old English , and Old High German .' Other Germanic terms derived from include ('counsellor'), and ('secret, mystery'), ('trial, inquiry, experiment'), ('secret of the mind, magical rune'), and ('witch, sorceress'; literally '[possessor of the] Hel-secret').' It is also often part of personal names, including Gothic (), Frankish , Old Norse , , , , , Old English , and Lombardic .


title: Runes

text: The Finnish word , meaning 'poem', is an early borrowing from Proto-Germanic, and the source of the term for rune, , meaning 'scratched letter'. The root may also be found in the Baltic languages, where Lithuanian means both 'to cut (with a knife)' and 'to speak'.


title: Runes

text: The Old English form survived into the early modern period as "roun", which is now obsolete. The modern English "rune" is a later formation that is partly derived from Late Latin , Old Norse , and Danish .


title: Runes

text: The runes were in use among the Germanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century AD. This period corresponds to the late Common Germanic stage linguistically, with a continuum of dialects not yet clearly separated into the three branches of later centuries: North Germanic, West Germanic, and East Germanic.


title: Runes

text: No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for labiovelars in the Elder Futhark (such signs were introduced in both the Anglo-Saxon futhorc and the Gothic alphabet as variants of "p"; see .)


title: Runes

text: The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, with the Kylver Stone being the first evidence of the "futhark" ordering as well as of the "p" rune.


title: Runes

text: Specifically, the Rhaetic alphabet of Bolzano is often advanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes ( "e", "ï", "j", "ŋ", "p") having no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet. Scandinavian scholars tend to favor derivation from the Latin alphabet itself over Raetic candidates. A "North Etruscan" thesis is supported by the inscription on the Negau helmet dating to the 2nd century BC. This is in a northern Etruscan alphabet but features a Germanic name, . Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante suggest that runes derived from some North Italic alphabet, specifically Venetic: but since Romans conquered Veneto after 200 BC, and then the Latin alphabet became prominent and Venetic culture diminished in importance, Germanic people could have adopted the Venetic alphabet within the 3rd century BC or even earlier.


title: Runes

text: The angular shapes of the runes are shared with most contemporary alphabets of the period that were used for carving in wood or stone. There are no "horizontal" strokes: when carving a message on a flat staff or stick, it would be along the grain, thus both less legible and more likely to split the wood. This characteristic is also shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin alphabet used for the Duenos inscription, but it is not universal, especially among early runic inscriptions, which frequently have variant rune shapes, including horizontal strokes. Runic manuscripts (that is "written" rather than carved runes, such as ) also show horizontal strokes.


title: Runes

text: The "West Germanic hypothesis" speculates on an introduction by West Germanic tribes. This hypothesis is based on claiming that the earliest inscriptions of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, found in bogs and graves around Jutland (the Vimose inscriptions), exhibit word endings that, being interpreted by Scandinavian scholars to be Proto-Norse, are considered unresolved and long having been the subject of discussion. Inscriptions such as , , and are supposed to represent tribe names, tentatively proposed to be Vangiones, the Nidensis, and the Harii tribes located in the Rhineland. Since names ending in reflect Germanic morphology representing the Latin ending , and the suffix was reflected by Germanic , the question of the problematic ending in masculine Proto-Norse would be resolved by assuming Roman (Rhineland) influences, while "the awkward ending -a of may be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed be West Germanic". In the early Runic period, differences between Germanic languages are generally presumed to be small. Another theory presumes a Northwest Germanic unity preceding the emergence of Proto-Norse proper from roughly the 5th century. An alternative suggestion explaining the impossibility of classifying the earliest inscriptions as either North or West Germanic is forwarded by È. A. Makaev, who presumes a "special runic koine", an early "literary Germanic" employed by the entire Late Common Germanic linguistic community after the separation of Gothic (2nd to 5th centuries), while the spoken dialects may already have been more diverse.


title: Runes

text: With the potential exception of the Meldorf fibula, a possible runic inscription found in Schleswig-Holstein dating to around 50 AD, the earliest reference to runes (and runic divination) may occur in Roman Senator Tacitus's ethnographic "Germania".


title: Runes

text: Dating from around 98 CE, Tacitus describes the Germanic peoples as utilizing a divination practice involving rune-like inscriptions:


title: Runes

text: As Victoria Symons summarizes, "If the inscriptions made on the lots that Tacitus refers to are understood to be letters, rather than other kinds of notations or symbols, then they would necessarily have been runes, since no other writing system was available to Germanic tribes at this time."


title: Runes

text: Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period 150–550 AD are described as "Period I". These inscriptions are generally in Elder Futhark, but the set of letter shapes and bindrunes employed is far from standardized. Notably the "j", "s", and "ŋ" runes undergo considerable modifications, while others, such as "p" and "ï", remain unattested altogether prior to the first full futhark row on the Kylver Stone ( 400 AD).


title: Runes

text: Artifacts such as spear heads or shield mounts have been found that bear runic marking that may be dated to 200 AD, as evidenced by artifacts found across northern Europe in Schleswig (North Germany), Funen, Zealand, Jutland (Denmark), and Scania (Sweden). Earlier—but less reliable—artifacts have been found in Meldorf, , in northern Germany; these include brooches and combs found in graves, most notably the Meldorf fibula, and are supposed to have the earliest markings resembling runic inscriptions.


title: Runes

text: The stanza 157 of attribute to runes the power to bring that which is dead back to life. In this stanza, Odin recounts a spell:


title: Runes

text: The earliest runic inscriptions found on artifacts give the name of either the craftsman or the proprietor, or sometimes, remain a linguistic mystery. Due to this, it is possible that the early runes were not used so much as a simple writing system, but rather as magical signs to be used for charms. Although some say the runes were used for divination, there is no direct evidence to suggest they were ever used in this way. The name "rune" itself, taken to mean "secret, something hidden", seems to indicate that knowledge of the runes was originally considered esoteric, or restricted to an elite. The 6th-century Björketorp Runestone warns in Proto-Norse using the word "rune" in both senses:


title: Runes

text: The same curse and use of the word, rune, is also found on the Stentoften Runestone. There also are some inscriptions suggesting a medieval belief in the magical significance of runes, such as the Franks Casket (AD 700) panel.


title: Runes

text: Charm words, such as , , , and most commonly, , appear on a number of Migration period Elder Futhark inscriptions as well as variants and abbreviations of them. Much speculation and study has been produced on the potential meaning of these inscriptions. Rhyming groups appear on some early bracteates that also may be magical in purpose, such as and . Further, an inscription on the Gummarp Runestone (500–700 AD) gives a cryptic inscription describing the use of three runic letters followed by the Elder Futhark f-rune written three times in succession.


title: Runes

text: Nevertheless, it has proven difficult to find unambiguous traces of runic "oracles": although Norse literature is full of references to runes, it nowhere contains specific instructions on divination. There are at least three sources on divination with rather vague descriptions that may, or may not, refer to runes: Tacitus's 1st-century , Snorri Sturluson's 13th-century , and Rimbert's 9th-century .


title: Runes

text: The first source, Tacitus's , describes "signs" chosen in groups of three and cut from "a nut-bearing tree", although the runes do not seem to have been in use at the time of Tacitus' writings. A second source is the , where Granmar, the king of , goes to Uppsala for the . There, the "chips" fell in a way that said that he would not live long (). These "chips", however, are easily explainable as a (sacrificial chip), which was "marked, possibly with sacrificial blood, shaken, and thrown down like dice, and their positive or negative significance then decided."


title: Runes

text: The third source is Rimbert's , where there are three accounts of what some believe to be the use of runes for divination, but Rimbert calls it "drawing lots". One of these accounts is the description of how a renegade Swedish king, Anund Uppsale, first brings a Danish fleet to Birka, but then changes his mind and asks the Danes to "draw lots". According to the story, this "drawing of lots" was quite informative, telling them that attacking Birka would bring bad luck and that they should attack a Slavic town instead. The tool in the "drawing of lots", however, is easily explainable as a (lot-twig), which according to Foote and Wilson would be used in the same manner as a .


title: Runes

text: The lack of extensive knowledge on historical use of the runes has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating entire systems of divination from what few specifics exist, usually loosely based on the reconstructed names of the runes and additional outside influence.


title: Runes

text: A recent study of runic magic suggests that runes were used to create magical objects such as amulets, but not in a way that would indicate that runic writing was any more inherently magical, than were other writing systems such as Latin or Greek.


title: Runes

text: As Proto-Germanic evolved into its later language groups, the words assigned to the runes and the sounds represented by the runes themselves began to diverge somewhat and each culture would create new runes, rename or rearrange its rune names slightly, or stop using obsolete runes completely, to accommodate these changes. Thus, the Anglo-Saxon futhorc has several runes peculiar to itself to represent diphthongs unique to (or at least prevalent in) the Anglo-Saxon dialect.


title: Runes

text: Some later runic finds are on monuments (runestones), which often contain solemn inscriptions about people who died or performed great deeds. For a long time it was presumed that this kind of grand inscription was the primary use of runes, and that their use was associated with a certain societal class of rune carvers.


title: Runes

text: In the mid-1950s, however, approximately 670 inscriptions, known as the Bryggen inscriptions, were found in Bergen. These inscriptions were made on wood and bone, often in the shape of sticks of various sizes, and contained inscriptions of an everyday nature—ranging from name tags, prayers (often in Latin), personal messages, business letters, and expressions of affection, to bawdy phrases of a profane and sometimes even of a vulgar nature. Following this find, it is nowadays commonly presumed that, at least in late use, Runic was a widespread and common writing system.


title: Runes

text: In the later Middle Ages, runes also were used in the clog almanacs (sometimes called "Runic staff", "Prim", or "Scandinavian calendar") of Sweden and Estonia. The authenticity of some monuments bearing Runic inscriptions found in Northern America is disputed; most of them have been dated to modern times.


title: Runes

text: In Norse mythology, the runic alphabet is attested to a divine origin (). This is attested as early as on the Noleby Runestone from that reads , meaning "I prepare the suitable divine rune..." and in an attestation from the 9th century on the Sparlösa Runestone, which reads , meaning "And interpret the runes of divine origin". In the Poetic Edda poem , Stanza 80, the runes also are described as :


title: Runes

text: The poem explains that the originator of the runes was the major deity, Odin. Stanza 138 describes how Odin received the runes through self-sacrifice:


title: Runes

text: In the Poetic Edda poem another origin is related of how the runic alphabet became known to humans. The poem relates how , identified as in the introduction, sired three sons— (slave), (freeman), and (noble)—by human women. These sons became the ancestors of the three classes of humans indicated by their names. When Jarl reached an age when he began to handle weapons and show other signs of nobility, returned and, having claimed him as a son, taught him the runes. In 1555, the exiled Swedish archbishop recorded a tradition that a man named had stolen three rune staffs from Odin and learned the runes and their magic.


title: Runes

text: The Elder Futhark, used for writing Proto-Norse, consists of 24 runes that often are arranged in three groups of eight; each group is referred to as an Ætt (Old Norse, meaning 'clan, group'). The earliest known sequential listing of the full set of 24 runes dates to approximately AD 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland, Sweden.


title: Runes

text: Most probably each rune had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves. Germanic philologists reconstruct names in Proto-Germanic based on the names given for the runes in the later alphabets attested in the rune poems and the linked names of the letters of the Gothic alphabet. For example, the letter /a/ was named from the runic letter called Ansuz. An asterisk before the rune names means that they are unattested reconstructions. The 24 Elder Futhark runes are the following:


title: Runes

text: The futhorc (sometimes written "fuþorc") are an extended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later 33 characters. It was probably used from the 5th century onwards. There are competing theories as to the origins of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed in Frisia and later spread to England, while another holds that Scandinavians introduced runes to England, where the futhorc was modified and exported to Frisia. Some examples of futhorc inscriptions are found on the Thames scramasax, in the Vienna Codex, in Cotton Otho B.x (Anglo-Saxon rune poem) and on the Ruthwell Cross.


title: Runes

text: The Anglo-Saxon rune poem gives the following characters and names: feoh, ur, þorn, os, rad, cen, gyfu, ƿynn, hægl, nyd, is, ger, eoh, peorð, eolh, sigel, tir, beorc, eh, mann, lagu, ing, œthel, dæg, ac, æsc, yr, ior, ear.


title: Runes

text: Extra runes attested to outside of the rune poem include cweorð, calc, gar, and stan. Some of these additional letters have only been found in manuscripts. Feoh, þorn, and sigel stood for [f], [þ], and [s] in most environments, but voiced to [v], [ð], and [z] between vowels or voiced consonants. Gyfu and wynn stood for the letters yogh and wynn, which became [g] and [w] in Middle English.


title: Runes

text: A runic alphabet consisting of a mixture of Elder Futhark with Anglo-Saxon futhorc is recorded in a treatise called "De Inventione Litterarum", ascribed to Hrabanus Maurus and preserved in 8th- and 9th-century manuscripts mainly from the southern part of the Carolingian Empire (Alemannia, Bavaria). The manuscript text attributes the runes to the "Marcomanni, quos nos Nordmannos vocamus", and hence traditionally, the alphabet is called "Marcomannic runes", but it has no connection with the Marcomanni, and rather is an attempt of Carolingian scholars to represent all letters of the Latin alphabets with runic equivalents.


title: Runes

text: The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian Futhark, is a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters. The reduction correlates with phonetic changes when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse. They are found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. They are divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions is a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference between them was functional (viz., the long-branch runes were used for documentation on stone, whereas the short-twig runes were in everyday use for private or official messages on wood).


title: Runes

text: In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the Old Norse language. Dotted variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune forms, and some letters, such as "s", "c", and "z" often were used interchangeably.


title: Runes

text: Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed, some of the medieval runic inscriptions are written in Latin.


title: Runes

text: According to Carl-Gustav Werner, "In the isolated province of Dalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin letters developed." The Dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century and remained in some use up to the 20th century. Some discussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books written on the subject. The character inventory was used mainly for transcribing Elfdalian.


title: Runes

text: While Roman script would ultimately replace runes in most contexts, it differed significantly from runic script. For example, on the differences between the use of Anglo-Saxon runes and the Latin script that would come to replace them, runologist Victoria Symons says:


title: Runes

text: In addition to their historic use as letters in the runic alphabets, runes were also used to represent their names (ideographs). Such instances are sometimes referred to by way of the modern German loan word "Begriffsrunen", meaning 'concept-runes' (singular "Begriffsrune"). The criteria for the use of "Begriffsrunen" and the frequency of their use by ancient rune-writers remains controversial. The topic of "Begriffsrunen" has produced much discussion among runologists. Runologist Klaus Düwel has proposed a two-point criteria for the identification of runes as "Begriffsrunen": A graphic argument and a semantic argument.


title: Runes

text: In addition to the instances above, several different runes occurs as ideographs in Old English and Old Norse manuscripts (featuring Anglo-Saxon runes and Younger Futhark runes respectively). Runologist Thomas Birkett summarizes these numerous instances as follows:


title: Runes

text: The modern study of runes was initiated during the Renaissance, by Johannes Bureus (1568–1652). Bureus viewed runes as holy or magical in a kabbalistic sense. The study of runes was continued by Olof Rudbeck Sr (1630–1702) and presented in his collection "Atlantica". Anders Celsius (1701–1744) further extended the science of runes and travelled around the whole of Sweden to examine the "runstenar". From the "golden age of philology" in the 19th century, runology formed a specialized branch of Germanic linguistics.


title: Runes

text: The largest group of surviving Runic inscription are Viking Age Younger Futhark runestones, commonly found in Denmark and Sweden. Another large group are medieval runes, most commonly found on small objects, often wooden sticks. The largest concentration of runic inscriptions are the Bryggen inscriptions found in Bergen, more than 650 in total. Elder Futhark inscriptions number around 350, about 260 of which are from Scandinavia, of which about half are on bracteates. Anglo-Saxon futhorc inscriptions number around 100 items.


title: Runes

text: Runic alphabets have seen numerous uses since the 18th-century Viking revival, in Scandinavian Romantic nationalism (Gothicismus) and Germanic occultism in the 19th century, and in the context of the Fantasy genre and of Germanic Neopaganism in the 20th century.


title: Runes

text: The pioneer of the "Armanist" branch of Ariosophy and one of the more important figures in esotericism in Germany and Austria in the late 19th and early 20th century was the Austrian occultist, mysticist, and völkisch author, Guido von List. In 1908, he published in "Das Geheimnis der Runen" ("The Secret of the Runes") a set of eighteen so-called, "Armanen runes", based on the Younger Futhark and runes of List's own introduction, which allegedly were revealed to him in a state of temporary blindness after cataract operations on both eyes in 1902.


title: Runes

text: The use of runes in Germanic mysticism, notably List's "Armanen runes" and the derived "Wiligut runes" by Karl Maria Wiligut, played a certain role in Nazi symbolism. The fascination with runic symbolism was mostly limited to Heinrich Himmler, and not shared by the other members of the Nazi top echelon. Consequently, runes appear mostly in insignia associated with the "Schutzstaffel" ("SS"), the paramilitary organization led by Himmler. Wiligut is credited with designing the SS-Ehrenring, which displays a number of "Wiligut runes".


title: Runes

text: Runes are popular in Germanic neopaganism, and to a lesser extent in other forms of Neopaganism and New Age esotericism. Various systems of Runic divination have been published since the 1980s, notably by Ralph Blum (1982), Stephen Flowers (1984, onward), Stephan Grundy (1990), and Nigel Pennick (1995).


title: Runes

text: In 2002, Swedish esotericist Thomas Karlsson popularized this "Uthark" runic row, which he refers to as, the "night side of the runes", in the context of modern occultism.


title: Runes

text: The Bluetooth logo is the combination of two runes of the Younger Futhark, "hagall" and "bjarkan", equivalent to the letters H and B, that are the initials of Harald Blåtand's name ("Bluetooth" in English), who was a king of Denmark from the Viking Age.


title: Runes

text: In J. R. R. Tolkien's novel "The Hobbit" (1937), the Anglo-Saxon runes are used on a map and on the title page to emphasize its connection to the Dwarves. They also were used in the initial drafts of "The Lord of the Rings", but later were replaced by the Cirth rune-like alphabet invented by Tolkien, used to write the language of the Dwarves, Khuzdul. Following Tolkien, historical and fictional runes appear commonly in modern popular culture, particularly in fantasy literature, but also in other forms of media such as video games (for example the 1992 video game "Heimdall" used it as "magical symbols" associated with unnatural forces) and role-playing games, such as the "Ultima" series which use a runic font for in-game signs and printed maps and booklets, and Metagaming's "The Fantasy Trip", which used rune-based cipher for clues and jokes throughout its publications.


title: Runes

text: Runic alphabets were added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0.


title: Runes

text: The Unicode block for Runic alphabets is U+16A0–U+16FF. It is intended to encode the letters of the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Frisian runes, and the Younger Futhark long-branch and short-twig (but not the staveless) variants, in cases where cognate letters have the same shape resorting to "unification".


title: Runes

text: The block as of Unicode 3.0 contained 81 symbols: 75 runic letters (U+16A0–U+16EA), 3 punctuation marks (Runic Single Punctuation U+16EB , Runic Multiple Punctuation U+16EC and Runic Cross Punctuation U+16ED ), and three runic symbols that are used in early modern runic calendar staves ("Golden number Runes", Runic Arlaug Symbol U+16EE , Runic Tvimadur Symbol U+16EF , Runic Belgthor Symbol U+16F0 ). As of Unicode 7.0 (2014), eight characters were added, three attributed to J. R. R. Tolkien's mode of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes, and five for the "cryptogrammic" vowel symbols used in an inscription on the Franks Casket.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Marvel's Jessica Jones is an American television series created by Melissa Rosenberg for the streaming service Netflix, based on the Marvel Comics character Jessica Jones. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), acknowledging the continuity of the franchise's films, and was the second Marvel Netflix series leading to the crossover miniseries "The Defenders". The series was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Tall Girls Productions, with Rosenberg serving as showrunner. Scott Reynolds was co-showrunner for the third season.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Krysten Ritter stars as Jessica Jones, an ex-superhero turned private investigator who opens her own detective agency, Alias Investigations. Rachael Taylor, Eka Darville, and Carrie-Anne Moss also star, with Mike Colter, Wil Traval, Erin Moriarty, and David Tennant joining them for the first season, J.R. Ramirez, Terry Chen, Leah Gibson, and Janet McTeer joining the cast for second season, and Benjamin Walker, Sarita Choudhury, Jeremy Bobb, and Tiffany Mack joining for the third season. A version of the series was developed by Rosenberg for ABC in 2010, but the network passed on it. She was reworking it for Netflix by late 2013 as "A.K.A. Jessica Jones", with the title later being simplified. Ritter was cast as Jones in December 2014, and the series took specific influence from the character's creators, Brian Michael Bendis and Michael Gaydos. Filming took place in New York City, in areas that still look like old Hell's Kitchen.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: The first season was released in its entirety on Netflix on November 20, 2015, followed by the second on March 8, 2018, and the third on June 14, 2019. They were met with positive reviews, and received numerous accolades including a Peabody Award, Hugo Award, and Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Award. Netflix canceled "Jessica Jones" on February 18, 2019; all of the Marvel Netflix series were removed from Netflix on March 1, 2022, after Disney regained the license for them. They began streaming on Disney+ from March 16.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Jessica Jones is a superpowered woman who had a brief superhero career until an incident in which the villainous Kilgrave caused her to kill someone. After that incident, she became a private investigator. When Kilgrave resurfaces, Jessica must rise up to stop him.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In the second season, Jessica Jones discovers that her mother is still alive due to the experiments done by Karl Malus.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In the third season, Jessica Jones faces off against Gregory Sallinger, an enemy who is determined to prove that she is a fraud, as well as her adoptive sister turned murderous vigilante Trish Walker.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In December 2010, Melissa Rosenberg was developing "AKA Jessica Jones" for ABC under her new production banner Tall Girls Productions, along with ABC Studios and Marvel Television. The series, which would be based on the comic book series "Alias" and centered on the character Jessica Jones, was intended to air in 2011 of the 2011–12 television season, with Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb, Joe Quesada, Alan Fine, and Howard Klein serving as executive producers, and "Alias" writer Brian Michael Bendis acting as a consultant. At the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con International, Loeb said the series was "about a failed superhero who is rebuilding her life as a private detective in New York City", and would include the characters Carol Danvers and Luke Cage. In November, Rosenberg said the show was now "hoping to get on the schedule for" 2012 of the 2012–13 television season, and added, "I love this character. That is an incredibly damaged, dark, complex female character that kicks ass ... [she is] a former superhero with PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder." She also stated that, while Cage was a part of the series, the couple's daughter Danielle would appear "way down the road". Rosenberg said later in the month that the series would acknowledge the existence of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, with references to Tony Stark and Stark Industries in the pilot script, but admitted that "as we go along things will alter in terms of what is made available to us, but we're definitely in that universe. We are in no way denying that that universe exists. And as much as I can I'm going to pull everything in from there that I can use". She also confirmed that Danvers would be a principal character in the series.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In May 2012, ABC president Paul Lee said the network had passed on the series. Loeb revealed that ABC had requested the series switch its focus to Danvers as the main character, who has "a great life" living on Fifth Avenue, with Jones become a side character to Danvers' story. Later that year, Rosenberg was shopping the show around to other networks, saying "I don't know if it's an ABC show. It might be a cable show, really. The ["Alias"] graphic novel is the first one that Marvel did that was meant to serve an adult audience. I toned it down a little bit for network, but it's very, very easy to translate that into cable. Very easy." In October 2013, "Deadline" reported that Marvel was preparing four drama series and a miniseries, totaling 60 episodes, to present to video on demand services and cable providers, with Netflix, Amazon, and WGN America expressing interest. A few weeks later, Marvel and Disney announced that Marvel Television and ABC Studios would provide Netflix with live action series centered around Jessica Jones, Daredevil, Iron Fist, and Luke Cage, leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders. Rosenberg was brought on to write and produce the new incarnation of the series, to be reconfigured from her original project, which she called a "page one do-over" from her original vision. Liz Friedman also serves as an executive producer on the series during the first season. In December 2014, the official title was revealed to be "Marvel's A.K.A. Jessica Jones". However, in June 2015, Marvel revealed that the title for the series would be shortened to "Marvel's Jessica Jones". On why the title was shortened, Loeb said, "It literally just became one of those things that happens. We had talked about whether that was the best title for it, and that's how it happened." Rosenberg added that the "AKA" would still be seen in the name of each episode.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In January 2016, Netflix ordered a second season of 13 episodes. Raelle Tucker joined the series as an executive producer and writer for the second season, replacing Friedman, who departed the series to work on the pilot for the ABC series "Conviction". A third season was ordered on April 12, 2018, a month after the second season was released. That August, Rosenberg signed a deal to move from Netflix to Warner Bros. Television to develop new projects for the latter, after she had been looking to "do something different". Rosenberg remained showrunner of the series through completion of the third season, with Scott Reynolds joining her as co-showrunner.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Rosenberg talked about the freedom that the series had, saying that it would go "even further in all our storytelling" than what Brian Michael Bendis did in the "Alias" comic: "That's the beauty of working with Netflix. It's 13 [episodes]. There's no pilot and then getting feedback, reaction and ratings. You're in this bubble. So, what's the story you want to tell? Where do you want to go with [the characters]?" Expanding on this, Rosenberg said that "we start off with [Bendis'] incredible source material and Jessica Jones isn't as well known in the universe obviously as Daredevil and everyone else, so it really allows for a lot of freedom in there. So there are restrictions in terms of the Marvel [Cinematic U]niverse of certain rules of mythology, but within that it's free pass." Rosenberg noted that the final series is very different from the version she developed for ABC because of the different mythology of the MCU.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Rosenberg invited Bendis to the series' writers room early on in the writing process, so the writers could ask Bendis any questions about the character. He walked away from the meeting saying, "they were asking the right questions, and that's a good sign." Bendis also noted that Rosenberg was approaching the character and issues of rape and abuse differently to him, on which he said "I made the right choice for me as a writer then and they're making the right choice for them as writers now. I thought about how much is different and how much has changed, and if it's not brought up in "Jessica", when will it be brought up? So I was like, 'Yeah, you should.' I thought that Melissa and the writers were the people to do that and that medium was better-suited to tell that kind of story."


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In August 2014, Sarandos said the series was beginning to look "at casting Jessica." By November, Krysten Ritter, Alexandra Daddario, Teresa Palmer, Jessica De Gouw, and Marin Ireland were being tested for the role of Jessica Jones, with Ritter having been auditioning since October. Additionally, Lance Gross, Mike Colter, and Cleo Anthony were in contention for the role of Luke Cage, which was envisioned as a recurring role in the series before headlining "Luke Cage". The next month, Ritter was cast as Jessica Jones. Ritter and Palmer had been the final candidates for the role, with both auditioning opposite Colter to test chemistry. Colter was confirmed as Luke Cage later in December. In January 2015, David Tennant was cast as Kilgrave, and Rachael Taylor was cast as Patricia "Trish" Walker. The latter character was added to the series as a replacement for Danvers, as she was set to feature in her own film. A month later, Carrie-Ann Moss joined the cast, with her role revealed that October to be a female version of male comic book character Jeryn Hogarth. Also in February, Eka Darville, Erin Moriarty, and Wil Traval were cast as Malcolm Ducasse, Hope Shlottman, and Will Simpson, respectively.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Ritter, Taylor, Darville, and Moss return for the second season. They are joined by J.R. Ramirez as Oscar Arocho, Terry Chen as Pryce Cheng, Leah Gibson as Inez Green, and Janet McTeer as Alisa Jones. Traval and Tennant also appear in the second season as guest stars. Ritter, Taylor, Moss, and Darville also return for the third season.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Stephanie Maslansky returned as the costume designer for "Jessica Jones" from "Daredevil", and was assisted on the first episode by Jenn Rogien, who crafted Jessica Jones' costume of leather jacket, faded jeans, and boots. Maslansky's fashion choices for each character were influenced by their comic incarnations, and she said, "You really have to study your history of the original characters and see how they dress, how they were originally drawn, how they evolved through the years in these comics. And what you might discover is that, as illustrated, they kind of do wear the same thing all the time." Maslansky also stated that "everyone has a very specific look, and you can vary within that look, but it's not over the top. It has to feel realistic and feel very grounded in this authentic reality we've created in Hell's Kitchen." On Jones' costume, Maslansky said she "considers her clothing to be an armor and a shield and something that helps her maintain a distance from other people and privacy. It keeps her from having to deal with the rest of humanity in a certain sort of way." At least 10 versions of Jones' jacket were made, which started as an Acne Studios leather motorcycle jacket that had any "bells and whistles and any additional superfluous design details" removed, while 20 pairs of jeans were used. Each piece was aged and distressed.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: The series' title sequence, created by Imaginary Forces, incorporates the jazz-style theme from composer Sean Callery mixed with artwork by David Mack, the cover artist for the original "Alias" comic, "taking [the viewer] around seedier, noir-esque corners of Hell's Kitchen, as if through Jessica's eyes."


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Arisu Kashiwagi, lead designer at Imaginary Forces for the title sequence, was "inspired by all the changing activity and vignettes within those rows of windows [for New York-style buildings] — the patterns of light, color, narratives, and graphic silhouettes. It is pretty amazing how much you can see and the number of windows out there with wide open shades ... I could understand our innate fascination with the rear window and that discomforting pleasure when catching a small sliver of a private act." She also looked to Edward Hopper's "Night Windows" and Gerhard Richter's paintings for reference. In order to differentiate the sequence from other painting-inspired ones, Kashiwagi chose to take "a more modern, abstract look while also embracing the spirit of David Mack's watercolor paintings from" "Alias". On the design concept, she added, "We based the concept off of Jessica's PTSD and alcoholism, her blurry, unreliable point of view, and translated that visually using paint strokes that smear and obfuscate the scenes ... the scenes would appear only in small sections of the frame, either blocked by a foreground element or contained inside of a silhouetted framing device." Michelle Dougherty, creative director on the project, looked to the opening sequence of Alfred Hitchcock's "Rear Window" to help create the "voyeuristic approach" as well as "using the city as a character" to highlight "the dark places [and] the grit" where Jones investigates.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Filming for the series takes place in New York City, including areas of Brooklyn and Long Island City that still look like the old Hell's Kitchen, Douglaston, Queens, as well as sound stage work. Manuel Billeter serves as director of photography for the series.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Visual effects for the series were completed by the New York studio Shade VFX, who also worked on "Daredevil", with Bryan Goodwin serving as visual effects supervisor.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: At the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International, Sean Callery revealed he was composing the music for the series. Callery did not begin composing the series' main theme until after reading two or three scripts, and did not see the opening graphics until after the second episode, at which point he had "a framework for a theme that [he] hoped would work". At this time, Callery said he started "fooling around" with ideas for the theme, and eventually settled on one that he felt had a "sneaky and fun-ness" quality, adding, Jessica Jones "has dry humor, a real edge to her. But there was something to this character that had a little whisker of playfulness in there, like a cat or something." After creating the theme, Callery began working on the rhythmic quality of it, eventually fully orchestrating his idea into what became the resulting opening theme. Regarding the electric guitar's entrance, Callery pointed out that it got "bigger there because as I looked at the graphics, the lights got a little more strobe-y. So that's when I decided the electric guitar might be a kind of neat add there so that the whole piece will arc a little more." A soundtrack album for the first season was released digitally on June 3, 2016. Jamie Forsyth also contributed to the music of the first season. A soundtrack album for the second season was released digitally on March 16, 2018.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: "Jessica Jones" is the second of the ordered Netflix series, after "Daredevil", and was followed by "Luke Cage" and "Marvel's Iron Fist", which led to the miniseries, "The Defenders". In November 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that, if the characters prove popular on Netflix, "It's quite possible that they could become feature films," which Sarandos echoed in July 2015. In August 2014, Vincent D'Onofrio, who played Wilson Fisk in "Daredevil", stated that after the "series stuff with Netflix", Marvel has "a bigger plan to branch out". In March 2015, Loeb spoke on the ability for the series to cross over with the MCU films and the ABC television series, saying, "It all exists in the same universe. As it is now, in the same way that our films started out as self-contained and then by the time we got to "The Avengers", it became more practical for Captain America to do a little crossover into "" and for Bruce Banner to appear at the end of "Iron Man 3". We have to earn that. The audience needs to understand who all of these characters are and what the world is before you then start co-mingling in terms of where it's going."


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: On specific crossovers with "Daredevil", which had completed its first season by the time "Jessica Jones" began casting, Loeb said "they're in the same area. In some cases they are in the same neighborhood. One of the things that is important to us is, when you enter the police station, it's the same police station. When you go to the hospital, you start to see the same people. [But] we don't want people suddenly going, 'Wait, is that Matt Murdock that's walking down the street?' Because that's going to feel odd, and in a weird way feel false." On existing in the MCU, specifically in the same world as the other Netflix series, Rosenberg said, ""Jessica Jones" is a very, very different show than "Daredevil". We exist in a cinematic universe, [and] the mythology of the universe is connected, but they look very different, tonally they're very different ... That was my one concern coming in: Am I going to have to fit into "Daredevil" or what's come before? And the answer is no."


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Disney Consumer Products created a small line of products to cater to a more adult audience, given the show's edgier tone. Paul Gitter, senior VP of Marvel Licensing for Disney Consumer Products explained that the focus would be more on teens and adults than very young people, with products at outlets like Hot Topic. Additionally, a Marvel Knights merchandise program was created to support the series, which creates new opportunities for individual product lines and collector focused products. Licensing partners wanted to pair up with Marvel, despite this not being a film project, given its previous successes.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: "Jessica Jones" was released on the streaming service Netflix, in all territories where it is available, in Ultra HD 4K and high dynamic range (HDR). The first season was enhanced to be available in HDR after its initial release by post-production vendor Deluxe. The episodes for each season were released simultaneously, as opposed to a serialized format, to encourage binge-watching, a format which has been successful for other Netflix original series. Despite being branded as a "Netflix Original", "Jessica Jones" was licensed to Netflix from Disney.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: "Jessica Jones" was removed from Netflix on March 1, 2022, along with the other Marvel Netflix series, due to Netflix's license for the series ending and Disney regaining the rights. Disney opted not to have Netflix pay a large licensing fee to retain the distribution rights for the series, and instead announced that all the series would be made available on Disney+ on March 16 in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, and in Disney+'s other markets by the end of 2022. In the United States, revised parental controls were introduced to the service to allow the more mature content of the series to be added, similarly to the controls that already exist for other regions that have the Star content hub.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: Prior to the series' cancellation, Netflix did not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their other original series. However, Karim Zreik, senior vice president of original programming at Marvel Television, provided some viewership demographics for "Jessica Jones" in August 2017, noting that the series has attracted a large number of female viewers. Also in the month, Netflix released viewing patterns for the Marvel Netflix series. The data, which came from Netflix's "1,300 'taste communities' around the world, where subscribers are grouped based on what they watch", showed that viewers would not watch the series in chronological order by release, rather starting with "Jessica Jones", then "Daredevil", "Luke Cage", and finally "Iron Fist". Todd Yellin, Netflix's vice president of product innovation, noted that audiences watch the series "in order of how they're interested in them and how they learn about them." Netflix's data also showed that a viewer watching "Jessica Jones" would most often then move on to "Daredevil", and vice versa, with Yellin figuring that "Jessica Jones" and "Luke Cage" would have paired up more, given that Cage was introduced on "Jessica Jones". The data also revealed that other "comedies and shows with strong women" such as "Friends", "Master of None", and "Orange Is the New Black" led viewers to starting "Jessica Jones". In October 2018, Crimson Hexagon, a consumer insights company, released data that examined the "social-media buzz" for the series to try to correlate it with potential viewership. The data showed that when the first season premiered in November 2015, the season had just under 300,000 Twitter and Instagram posts regarding it, and when the second season was released in March 2018, the posts had declined by half, to under 150,000.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: For its first season, the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 94% approval rating with an average rating of 8.2/10, based on 80 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Jessica Jones" builds a multifaceted drama around its engaging antihero, delivering what might be Marvel's strongest TV franchise to date." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 81 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "universal acclaim."


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: For season two, Rotten Tomatoes reported an 82% approval rating with an average rating of 7/10, based on 89 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "While "Jessica Jones" is a slower burn with less focus than its inaugural season, its enticing new character arc more fully details the most charismatic Defender." Metacritic assigned the season a score of 70 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: For season three, Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 73% with an average rating of 6.4/10, based on 40 reviews. The website's critical consensus states, "Even if it's not the most satisfying finale for an entire era of Marvel television, Jessica Jones' final chapter finishes strong by giving its complicated heroine the space to change – and Krysten Ritter one last chance to work her sarcastic magic." Metacritic gave a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In December 2015, IGN named "Jessica Jones" the best Netflix original programming series released to date. Seasons two and three were recognized with The ReFrame Stamp for hiring people of underrepresented gender identities, and of color.


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: In November 2015, an update for the mobile fighting game "" was released, featuring a six-part story quest involving Jessica Jones and Daredevil, along with a level based on Hell's Kitchen. Additionally, Jessica Jones was added to the role-playing game "".


title: Jessica Jones (TV series)

text: The series was canceled on February 18, 2019, ahead of the third-season premiere. Prior to its cancellation, Kevin A. Mayer, chairman of Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer and International, noted that, while it had not yet been discussed, it was a possibility that Disney+ could revive the other cancelled Marvel Netflix series. Hulu's senior vice president of originals Craig Erwich also said that the streaming service was open to reviving the former Netflix series.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The Cleveland Guardians are an American professional baseball team based in Cleveland. The Guardians compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central division. Since , they have played at Progressive Field. Since their establishment as a Major League franchise in 1901, the team has won 11 Central division titles, six American League pennants, and two World Series championships (in 1920 and 1948). The team's World Series championship drought since 1948 is the longest active among all 30 current Major League teams. The team's name references the "Guardians of Traffic", eight monolithic 1932 Art Deco sculptures by Henry Hering on the city's Hope Memorial Bridge, which is adjacent to Progressive Field. The team's mascot is named "Slider." The team's spring training facility is at Goodyear Ballpark in Goodyear, Arizona.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The franchise originated in 1894 as the Grand Rapids Rippers, a minor league team based in Grand Rapids, Michigan, that played in the Western League. The team relocated to Cleveland in 1900 and was called the Cleveland Lake Shores. The Western League itself was renamed the American League prior to the 1900 season while continuing its minor league status. When the American League declared itself a major league in 1901, Cleveland was one of its eight charter franchises. Originally called the Cleveland Bluebirds or Blues, the team was also unofficially called the Cleveland Bronchos in 1902. Beginning in 1903, the team was named the Cleveland Napoleons or Naps, after team captain Nap Lajoie.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Following Lajoie's departure after the 1914 season, club owner Charles Somers requested that baseball writers choose a new name. They chose the name Cleveland Indians, a revival of the nickname that fans gave to the Cleveland Spiders while Louis Sockalexis, a Native American, was playing for the team. That name stuck and remained in use for more than a century. Common nicknames for the Indians were the "Tribe" and the "Wahoos", the latter referencing their longtime logo, Chief Wahoo. After it came under criticism as part of the Native American mascot controversy, the team ceased using the name "Indians" following the 2021 season, and were renamed the "Guardians" for 2022.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: From August 24 to September 14, 2017, the team won 22 consecutive games, the longest winning streak in American League history, and the second longest winning streak in Major League Baseball history.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: ""In 1857 baseball games were a daily spectacle in Cleveland's Public Squares. City authorities tried to find an ordinance forbidding it, to the joy of the crowd, they were unsuccessful. – Harold Seymour""


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: From 1865 to 1868 Forest Citys was an amateur ball club. During the 1869 season, Cleveland was among several cities that established professional baseball teams following the success of the 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings, the first fully professional team. In the newspapers before and after 1870, the team was often called the Forest Citys, in the same generic way that the team from Chicago was sometimes called The Chicagos.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 1871 the Forest Citys joined the new National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NA), the first professional league. Ultimately, two of the league's western clubs went out of business during the first season and the Chicago Fire left that city's White Stockings impoverished, unable to field a team again until 1874. Cleveland was thus the NA's westernmost outpost in 1872, the year the club folded. Cleveland played its full schedule to July 19 followed by two games versus Boston in mid-August and disbanded at the end of the season.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 1876, the National League (NL) supplanted the NA as the major professional league. Cleveland was not among its charter members, but by 1879 the league was looking for new entries and the city gained an NL team. The Cleveland Forest Citys were recreated, but rebranded in 1882 as the Cleveland Blues, because the National League required distinct colors for that season. The Blues had mediocre records for six seasons and were ruined by a trade war with the Union Association (UA) in 1884, when its three best players (Fred Dunlap, Jack Glasscock, and Jim McCormick) jumped to the UA after being offered higher salaries. The Cleveland Blues merged with the St. Louis Maroons UA team in 1885.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Cleveland went without major league baseball for two seasons until gaining a team in the American Association (AA) in 1887. After the AA's Allegheny club jumped to the NL, Cleveland followed suit in 1889, as the AA began to crumble. The Cleveland ball club, named the Spiders (supposedly inspired by their "skinny and spindly" players) slowly became a power in the league. In 1891, the Spiders moved into League Park, which would serve as the home of Cleveland professional baseball for the next 55 years. Led by native Ohioan Cy Young, the Spiders became a contender in the mid-1890s, playing in the Temple Cup Series (that era's World Series) twice and winning it in 1895. The team began to fade after this success, and was dealt a severe blow under the ownership of the Robison brothers.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Prior to the season, Frank Robison, the Spiders' owner, bought the St. Louis Browns, thus owning two clubs at the same time. The Browns were renamed the "Perfectos", and restocked with Cleveland talent. Just weeks before the season opener, most of the better Spiders were transferred to St. Louis, including three future Hall of Famers: Cy Young, Jesse Burkett and Bobby Wallace.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team, as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and . The Spiders were left with essentially a minor league lineup, and began to lose games at a record pace. Drawing almost no fans at home, they ended up playing most of their season on the road, and became known as "The Wanderers." The team ended the season in 12th place, 84 games out of first place, with an all-time worst record of 20-134 (.130 winning percentage). Following the 1899 season, the National League disbanded four teams, including the Spiders franchise. The disastrous 1899 season would actually be a step toward a new future for Cleveland fans the next year.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The Cleveland Infants competed in the Players' League, which was well-attended in some cities, but club owners lacked the confidence to continue beyond the one season. The Cleveland Infants finished with 55 wins and 75 losses, playing their home games at Brotherhood Park.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The Grand Rapids Rippers were founded in Michigan in 1894 and were part of the Western League. In 1900 the team moved to Cleveland and was named the Cleveland Lake Shores. Around the same time Ban Johnson changed the name of his minor league (Western League) to the American League. In 1900 the American League was still considered a minor league. In 1901 the team was called the Cleveland Bluebirds or Blues when the American League broke with the National Agreement and declared itself a competing Major League. The Cleveland franchise was among its eight charter members, and is one of four teams that remain in its original city, along with Boston, Chicago, and Detroit.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The new team was owned by coal magnate Charles Somers and tailor Jack Kilfoyl. Somers, a wealthy industrialist and also co-owner of the Boston Americans, lent money to other team owners, including Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, to keep them and the new league afloat. Players didn't think the name "Bluebirds" was suitable for a baseball team. Writers frequently shortened it to Cleveland Blues due to the players' all-blue uniforms, but the players didn't like this unofficial name either. The players themselves tried to change the name to Cleveland Broncos in , but this name never caught on.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Cleveland suffered from financial problems in their first two seasons. This led Somers to seriously consider moving to either Pittsburgh or Cincinnati. Relief came in 1902 as a result of the conflict between the National and American Leagues. In 1901, Napoleon "Nap" Lajoie, the Philadelphia Phillies' star second baseman, jumped to the A's after his contract was capped at $2,400 per year—one of the highest-profile players to jump to the upstart AL. The Phillies subsequently filed an injunction to force Lajoie's return, which was granted by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. The injunction appeared to doom any hopes of an early settlement between the warring leagues. However, a lawyer discovered that the injunction was only enforceable in the state of Pennsylvania. Mack, partly to thank Somers for his past financial support, agreed to trade Lajoie to the then-moribund Blues, who offered $25,000 salary over three years. Due to the injunction, however, Lajoie had to sit out any games played against the A's in Philadelphia. Lajoie arrived in Cleveland on June 4 and was an immediate hit, drawing 10,000 fans to League Park. Soon afterward, he was named team captain, and in 1903 the team was called the Cleveland Napoleons or Naps after a newspaper conducted a write-in contest.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Lajoie was named manager in , and the team's fortunes improved somewhat. They finished half a game short of the pennant in 1908. However, the success did not last and Lajoie resigned during the 1909 season as manager but remained on as a player.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: After that, the team began to unravel, leading Kilfoyl to sell his share of the team to Somers. Cy Young, who returned to Cleveland in 1909, was ineffective for most of his three remaining years and Addie Joss died from tubercular meningitis prior to the 1911 season.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Despite a strong lineup anchored by the potent Lajoie and Shoeless Joe Jackson, poor pitching kept the team below third place for most of the next decade. One reporter referred to the team as the Napkins, "because they fold up so easily". The team hit bottom in 1914 and 1915, finishing in the cellar both years.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: 1915 brought significant changes to the team. Lajoie, nearly 40 years old, was no longer a top hitter in the league, batting only .258 in 1914. With Lajoie engaged in a feud with manager Joe Birmingham, the team sold Lajoie back to the A's.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: With Lajoie gone, the club needed a new name. Somers asked the local baseball writers to come up with a new name, and based on their input, the team was renamed the Cleveland Indians. The name referred to the nickname "Indians" that was applied to the Cleveland Spiders baseball club during the time when Louis Sockalexis, a Native American, played in Cleveland (1897–1899).


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: At the same time, Somers' business ventures began to fail, leaving him deeply in debt. With the Indians playing poorly, attendance and revenue suffered. Somers decided to trade Jackson midway through the 1915 season for two players and $31,500, one of the largest sums paid for a player at the time.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: By 1916, Somers was at the end of his tether, and sold the team to a syndicate headed by Chicago railroad contractor James C. "Jack" Dunn. Manager Lee Fohl, who had taken over in early 1915, acquired two minor league pitchers, Stan Coveleski and Jim Bagby and traded for center fielder Tris Speaker, who was engaged in a salary dispute with the Red Sox. All three would ultimately become key players in bringing a championship to Cleveland.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Speaker took over the reins as player-manager in , and led the team to a championship in 1920. On August 16, 1920, the Indians were playing the Yankees at the Polo Grounds in New York. Shortstop Ray Chapman, who often crowded the plate, was batting against Carl Mays, who had an unusual underhand delivery. It was also late in the afternoon and the infield was completely shaded with the center field area (the batters' background) bathed in sunlight. As well, at the time, "part of every pitcher's job was to dirty up a new ball the moment it was thrown onto the field. By turns, they smeared it with dirt, licorice, tobacco juice; it was deliberately scuffed, sandpapered, scarred, cut, even spiked. The result was a misshapen, earth-colored ball that traveled through the air erratically, tended to soften in the later innings, and as it came over the plate, was very hard to see."


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In any case, Chapman did not move reflexively when Mays' pitch came his way. The pitch hit Chapman in the head, fracturing his skull. Chapman died the next day, becoming the only player to sustain a fatal injury from a pitched ball. The Indians, who at the time were locked in a tight three-way pennant race with the Yankees and White Sox, were not slowed down by the death of their teammate. Rookie Joe Sewell hit .329 after replacing Chapman in the lineup.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In September 1920, the Black Sox Scandal came to a boil. With just a few games left in the season, and Cleveland and Chicago neck-and-neck for first place at 94–54 and 95–56 respectively, the Chicago owner suspended eight players. The White Sox lost two of three in their final series, while Cleveland won four and lost two in their final two series. Cleveland finished two games ahead of Chicago and three games ahead of the Yankees to win its first pennant, led by Speaker's .388 hitting, Jim Bagby's 30 victories and solid performances from Steve O'Neill and Stan Coveleski. Cleveland went on to defeat the Brooklyn Robins 5–2 in the World Series for their first title, winning four games in a row after the Robins took a 2–1 Series lead. The Series included three memorable "firsts", all of them in Game 5 at Cleveland, and all by the home team. In the first inning, right fielder Elmer Smith hit the first Series grand slam. In the fourth inning, Jim Bagby hit the first Series home run by a pitcher. In the top of the fifth inning, second baseman Bill Wambsganss executed the first (and only, so far) unassisted triple play in World Series history, in fact, the only Series triple play of any kind.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The team would not reach the heights of 1920 again for 28 years. Speaker and Coveleski were aging and the Yankees were rising with a new weapon: Babe Ruth and the home run. They managed two second-place finishes but spent much of the decade in the cellar. In 1927 Dunn's widow, Mrs. George Pross (Dunn had died in 1922), sold the team to a syndicate headed by Alva Bradley.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The Indians were a middling team by the 1930s, finishing third or fourth most years. brought Cleveland a new superstar in 17-year-old pitcher Bob Feller, who came from Iowa with a dominating fastball. That season, Feller set a record with 17 strikeouts in a single game and went on to lead the league in strikeouts from 1938 to 1941.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: On August 20, 1938, Indians catchers Hank Helf and Frank Pytlak set the "all-time altitude mark" by catching baseballs dropped from the Terminal Tower.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: By , Feller, along with Ken Keltner, Mel Harder and Lou Boudreau, led the Indians to within one game of the pennant. However, the team was wracked with dissension, with some players (including Feller and Mel Harder) going so far as to request that Bradley fire manager Ossie Vitt. Reporters lampooned them as the Cleveland Crybabies. Feller, who had pitched a no-hitter to open the season and won 27 games, lost the final game of the season to unknown pitcher Floyd Giebell of the Detroit Tigers. The Tigers won the pennant and Giebell never won another major league game.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Cleveland entered 1941 with a young team and a new manager; Roger Peckinpaugh had replaced the despised Vitt; but the team regressed, finishing in fourth. Cleveland would soon be depleted of two stars. Hal Trosky retired in 1941 due to migraine headaches and Bob Feller enlisted in the Navy two days after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. Starting third baseman Ken Keltner and outfielder Ray Mack were both drafted in 1945 taking two more starters out of the lineup.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In , Bill Veeck formed an investment group that purchased the Cleveland Indians from Bradley's group for a reported $1.6 million. Among the investors was Bob Hope, who had grown up in Cleveland, and former Tigers slugger, Hank Greenberg.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: A former owner of a minor league franchise in Milwaukee, Veeck brought to Cleveland a gift for promotion. At one point, Veeck hired rubber-faced Max Patkin, the "Clown Prince of Baseball" as a coach. Patkin's appearance in the coaching box was the sort of promotional stunt that delighted fans but infuriated the American League front office.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Recognizing that he had acquired a solid team, Veeck soon abandoned the aging, small and lightless League Park to take up full-time residence in massive Cleveland Municipal Stadium. The Indians had briefly moved from League Park to Municipal Stadium in mid-1932, but moved back to League Park due to complaints about the cavernous environment. From 1937 onward, however, the Indians began playing an increasing number of games at Municipal, until by 1940 they played most of their home slate there. League Park was mostly demolished in 1951, but has since been rebuilt as a recreational park.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Making the most of the cavernous stadium, Veeck had a portable center field fence installed, which he could move in or out depending on how the distance favored the Indians against their opponents in a given series. The fence moved as much as between series opponents. Following the 1947 season, the American League countered with a rule change that fixed the distance of an outfield wall for the duration of a season. The massive stadium did, however, permit the Indians to set the then-record for the largest crowd to see a Major League baseball game. On October 10, 1948, Game 5 of the World Series against the Boston Braves drew over 84,000. The record stood until the Los Angeles Dodgers drew a crowd in excess of 92,500 to watch Game 5 of the 1959 World Series at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum against the Chicago White Sox.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Under Veeck's leadership, one of Cleveland's most significant achievements was breaking the color barrier in the American League by signing Larry Doby, formerly a player for the Negro league's Newark Eagles in , 11 weeks after Jackie Robinson signed with the Dodgers. Similar to Robinson, Doby battled racism on and off the field but posted a .301 batting average in 1948, his first full season. A power-hitting center fielder, Doby led the American League twice in homers.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 1948, needing pitching for the stretch run of the pennant race, Veeck turned to the Negro leagues again and signed pitching great Satchel Paige amid much controversy. Barred from Major League Baseball during his prime, Veeck's signing of the aging star in 1948 was viewed by many as another publicity stunt. At an official age of 42, Paige became the oldest rookie in Major League baseball history, and the first black pitcher. Paige ended the year with a 6–1 record with a 2.48 ERA, 45 strikeouts and two shutouts.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In , veterans Boudreau, Keltner, and Joe Gordon had career offensive seasons, while newcomers Doby and Gene Bearden also had standout seasons. The team went down to the wire with the Boston Red Sox, winning a one-game playoff, the first in American League history, to go to the World Series. In the series, the Indians defeated the Boston Braves four games to two for their first championship in 28 years. Boudreau won the American League MVP Award.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The Indians appeared in a film the following year titled "The Kid From Cleveland", in which Veeck had an interest. The film portrayed the team helping out a "troubled teenaged fan" and featured many members of the Indians organization. However, filming during the season cost the players valuable rest days leading to fatigue towards the end of the season. That season, Cleveland again contended before falling to third place. On September 23, 1949, Bill Veeck and the Indians buried their 1948 pennant in center field the day after they were mathematically eliminated from the pennant race.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Later in 1949, Veeck's first wife (who had a half-stake in Veeck's share of the team) divorced him. With most of his money tied up in the Indians, Veeck was forced to sell the team to a syndicate headed by insurance magnate Ellis Ryan.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In , Al Rosen was an All Star for the second year in a row, was named "The Sporting News" Major League Player of the Year, and won the American League Most Valuable Player Award in a unanimous vote playing for the Indians after leading the AL in runs, home runs, RBIs (for the second year in a row), and slugging percentage, and coming in second by one point in batting average. Ryan was forced out in 1953 in favor of Myron Wilson, who in turn gave way to William Daley in . Despite this turnover in the ownership, a powerhouse team composed of Feller, Doby, Minnie Miñoso, Luke Easter, Bobby Ávila, Al Rosen, Early Wynn, Bob Lemon, and Mike Garcia continued to contend through the early 1950s. However, Cleveland only won a single pennant in the decade, in 1954, finishing second to the New York Yankees five times.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The winningest season in franchise history came in 1954, when the Indians finished the season with a record of 111–43 (.721). That mark set an American League record for wins that stood for 44 years until the Yankees won 114 games in 1998 (a 162-game regular season). The Indians' 1954 winning percentage of .721 is still an American League record. The Indians returned to the World Series to face the New York Giants. The team could not bring home the title, however, ultimately being upset by the Giants in a sweep. The series was notable for Willie Mays' over-the-shoulder catch off the bat of Vic Wertz in Game 1. Cleveland remained a talented team throughout the remainder of the decade, finishing in second place in 1959, George Strickland's last full year in the majors.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: From 1960 to 1993, the Indians managed one third-place finish (in 1968) and six fourth-place finishes (in 1960, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1990, and 1992) but spent the rest of the time at or near the bottom of the standings, including four seasons with over 100 losses (1971, 1985, 1987, 1991).


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The Indians hired general manager Frank Lane, known as "Trader" Lane, away from the St. Louis Cardinals in 1957. Lane over the years had gained a reputation as a GM who loved to make deals. With the White Sox, Lane had made over 100 trades involving over 400 players in seven years. In a short stint in St. Louis, he traded away Red Schoendienst and Harvey Haddix. Lane summed up his philosophy when he said that the only deals he regretted were the ones that he didn't make.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: One of Lane's early trades in Cleveland was to send Roger Maris to the Kansas City Athletics in the middle of 1958. Indians executive Hank Greenberg was not happy about the trade and neither was Maris, who said that he could not stand Lane. After Maris broke Babe Ruth's home run record, Lane defended himself by saying he still would have done the deal because Maris was unknown and he received good ballplayers in exchange.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: After the Maris trade, Lane acquired 25-year-old Norm Cash from the White Sox for Minnie Miñoso and then traded him to Detroit before he ever played a game for the Indians; Cash went on to hit over 350 home runs for the Tigers. The Indians received Steve Demeter in the deal, who had only five at-bats for Cleveland.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 1960, Lane made the trade that would define his tenure in Cleveland when he dealt slugging right fielder and fan favorite Rocky Colavito to the Detroit Tigers for Harvey Kuenn just before Opening Day in .


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: It was a blockbuster trade that swapped the AL home run co-champion (Colavito) for the AL batting champion (Kuenn). After the trade, however, Colavito hit over 30 home runs four times and made three All-Star teams for Detroit and Kansas City before returning to Cleveland in . Kuenn, on the other hand, played only one season for the Indians before departing for San Francisco in a trade for an aging Johnny Antonelli and Willie Kirkland. "Akron Beacon Journal" columnist Terry Pluto documented the decades of woe that followed the trade in his book "The Curse of Rocky Colavito". Despite being attached to the curse, Colavito said that he never placed a curse on the Indians but that the trade was prompted by a salary dispute with Lane.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Lane also engineered a unique trade of managers in mid-season 1960, sending Joe Gordon to the Tigers in exchange for Jimmy Dykes. Lane left the team in 1961, but ill-advised trades continued. In 1965, the Indians traded pitcher Tommy John, who would go on to win 288 games in his career, and 1966 Rookie of the Year Tommy Agee to the White Sox to get Colavito back.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Indians' pitchers also set numerous strikeout records. They led the league in K's every year from 1963 to 1968, and narrowly missed in 1969. The 1964 staff was the first to amass 1,100 strikeouts, and in 1968, they were the first to collect more strikeouts than hits allowed.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The 1970s were not much better, with the Indians trading away several future stars, including Graig Nettles, Dennis Eckersley, Buddy Bell and 1971 Rookie of the Year Chris Chambliss, for a number of players who made no impact.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Constant ownership changes did not help the Indians. In 1963, Daley's syndicate sold the team to a group headed by general manager Gabe Paul. Three years later, Paul sold the Indians to Vernon Stouffer, of the Stouffer's frozen-food empire. Prior to Stouffer's purchase, the team was rumored to be relocated due to poor attendance. Despite the potential for a financially strong owner, Stouffer had some non-baseball related financial setbacks and, consequently, the team was cash-poor. In order to solve some financial problems, Stouffer had made an agreement to play a minimum of 30 home games in New Orleans with a view to a possible move there. After rejecting an offer from George Steinbrenner and former Indian Al Rosen, Stouffer sold the team in 1972 to a group led by Cleveland Cavaliers and Cleveland Barons owner Nick Mileti. Steinbrenner went on to buy the New York Yankees in 1973.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Only five years later, Mileti's group sold the team for $11 million to a syndicate headed by trucking magnate Steve O'Neill and including former general manager and owner Gabe Paul. O'Neill's death in 1983 led to the team going on the market once more. O'Neill's nephew Patrick O'Neill did not find a buyer until real estate magnates Richard and David Jacobs purchased the team in 1986.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The team was unable to move out of the cellar, with losing seasons between 1969 and 1975. One highlight was the acquisition of Gaylord Perry in . The Indians traded fireballer "Sudden Sam" McDowell for Perry, who became the first Indian pitcher to win the Cy Young Award. In , Cleveland broke another color barrier with the hiring of Frank Robinson as Major League Baseball's first African American manager. Robinson served as player-manager and provided a franchise highlight when he hit a pinch-hit home run on Opening Day. But the high-profile signing of Wayne Garland, a 20-game winner in Baltimore, proved to be a disaster after Garland suffered from shoulder problems and went 28–48 over five years. The team failed to improve with Robinson as manager and he was fired in . In 1977, pitcher Dennis Eckersley threw a no-hitter against the California Angels. The next season, he was traded to the Boston Red Sox where he won 20 games in 1978 and another 17 in 1979.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The 1970s also featured the infamous Ten Cent Beer Night at Cleveland Municipal Stadium. The ill-conceived promotion at a 1974 game against the Texas Rangers ended in a riot by fans and a forfeit by the Indians.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: There were more bright spots in the 1980s. In May 1981, Len Barker threw a perfect game against the Toronto Blue Jays, joining Addie Joss as the only other Indian pitcher to do so. "Super Joe" Charboneau won the American League Rookie of the Year award. Unfortunately, Charboneau was out of baseball by 1983 after falling victim to back injuries and Barker, who was also hampered by injuries, never became a consistently dominant starting pitcher.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Eventually, the Indians traded Barker to the Atlanta Braves for Brett Butler and Brook Jacoby, who became mainstays of the team for the remainder of the decade. Butler and Jacoby were joined by Joe Carter, Mel Hall, Julio Franco and Cory Snyder, bringing new hope to fans in the late 1980s.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Cleveland's struggles over the 30-year span were highlighted in the 1989 film "Major League", which comically depicted a hapless Cleveland ball club going from worst to first by the end of the film.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Throughout the 1980s, the Indians' owners had pushed for a new stadium. Cleveland Stadium had been a symbol of the Indians' glory years in the 1940s and 1950s. However, during the lean years even crowds of 40,000 were swallowed up by the cavernous environment. The old stadium was not aging gracefully; chunks of concrete were falling off in sections and the old wooden pilings were petrifying. In 1984, a proposal for a $150 million domed stadium was defeated in a referendum 2–1.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Finally, in May 1990, Cuyahoga County voters passed an excise tax on sales of alcohol and cigarettes in the county. The tax proceeds were to be used for financing the construction of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex, which would include Jacobs Field for the Indians and Gund Arena for the Cleveland Cavaliers basketball team.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The team's fortunes started to turn in , ironically with a very unpopular trade. The team sent power-hitting outfielder Joe Carter to the San Diego Padres for two unproven players, Sandy Alomar Jr. and Carlos Baerga. Alomar made an immediate impact, not only being elected to the All-Star team but also winning Cleveland's fourth Rookie of the Year award and a Gold Glove. Baerga became a three-time All-Star with consistent offensive production.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Indians general manager John Hart made a number of moves that finally brought success to the team. In , he hired former Indian Mike Hargrove to manage and traded catcher Eddie Taubensee to the Houston Astros who, with a surplus of outfielders, were willing to part with Kenny Lofton. Lofton finished second in AL Rookie of the Year balloting with a .285 average and 66 stolen bases.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The Indians were named "Organization of the Year" by "Baseball America" in 1992, in response to the appearance of offensive bright spots and an improving farm system.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: The team suffered a tragedy during spring training of , when a boat carrying pitchers Steve Olin, Tim Crews, and Bob Ojeda crashed into a pier. Olin and Crews were killed, and Ojeda was seriously injured. (Ojeda missed most of the season, and retired the following year).


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: By the end of the 1993 season, the team was in transition, leaving Cleveland Stadium and fielding a talented nucleus of young players. Many of those players came from the Indians' new AAA farm team, the Charlotte Knights, who won the International League title that year.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Indians General Manager John Hart and team owner Richard Jacobs managed to turn the team's fortunes around. The Indians opened Jacobs Field in 1994 with the aim of improving on the prior season's sixth-place finish. The Indians were only one game behind the division-leading Chicago White Sox on August 12 when a players strike wiped out the rest of the season.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Having contended for the division in the aborted 1994 season, Cleveland sprinted to a 100–44 record (the season was shortened by 18 games due to player/owner negotiations) in 1995, winning its first-ever divisional title. Veterans Dennis Martínez, Orel Hershiser and Eddie Murray combined with a young core of players including Omar Vizquel, Albert Belle, Jim Thome, Manny Ramírez, Kenny Lofton and Charles Nagy to lead the league in team batting average as well as team ERA.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: After defeating the Boston Red Sox in the Division Series and the Seattle Mariners in the ALCS, Cleveland clinched the American League pennant and a World Series berth, for the first time since 1954. The World Series ended in disappointment, however: the Indians fell in six games to the Atlanta Braves.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Tickets for every Indians home game sold out several months before opening day in 1996. The Indians repeated as AL Central champions but lost to the wild card Baltimore Orioles in the Division Series.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 1997, Cleveland started slow but finished with an 86–75 record. Taking their third consecutive AL Central title, the Indians defeated the New York Yankees in the Division Series, 3–2. After defeating the Baltimore Orioles in the ALCS, Cleveland went on to face the Florida Marlins in the World Series that featured the coldest game in World Series history. With the series tied after Game 6, the Indians went into the ninth inning of Game Seven with a 2–1 lead, but closer José Mesa allowed the Marlins to tie the game. In the eleventh inning, Édgar Rentería drove in the winning run giving the Marlins their first championship. Cleveland became the first team to lose the World Series after carrying the lead into the ninth inning of the seventh game.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 1998, the Indians made the postseason for the fourth straight year. After defeating the wild-card Boston Red Sox 3–1 in the Division Series, Cleveland lost the 1998 ALCS in six games to the New York Yankees, who had come into the postseason with a then-AL record 114 wins in the regular season.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: For the 1999 season, Cleveland added relief pitcher Ricardo Rincón and second baseman Roberto Alomar, brother of catcher Sandy Alomar Jr., and won the Central Division title for the fifth consecutive year. The team scored 1,009 runs, becoming the first (and to date only) team since the 1950 Boston Red Sox to score more than 1,000 runs in a season. This time, Cleveland did not make it past the first round, losing the Division Series to the Red Sox, despite taking a 2–0 lead in the series. In game three, Indians starter Dave Burba went down with an injury in the 4th inning. Four pitchers, including presumed game four starter Jaret Wright, surrendered nine runs in relief. Without a long reliever or emergency starter on the playoff roster, Hargrove started both Bartolo Colón and Charles Nagy in games four and five on only three days rest. The Indians lost game four 23–7 and game five 12–8. Four days later, Hargrove was dismissed as manager.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 2000, the Indians had a 44–42 start, but caught fire after the All Star break and went 46–30 the rest of the way to finish 90–72. The team had one of the league's best offenses that year and a defense that yielded three gold gloves. However, they ended up five games behind the Chicago White Sox in the Central division and missed the wild card by one game to the Seattle Mariners. Mid-season trades brought Bob Wickman and Jake Westbrook to Cleveland. After the season, free-agent outfielder Manny Ramírez departed for the Boston Red Sox.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: In 2000, Larry Dolan bought the Indians for $320 million from Richard Jacobs, who, along with his late brother David, had paid $45 million for the club in 1986. The sale set a record at the time for the sale of a baseball franchise.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: 2001 saw a return to the postseason. After the departures of Ramírez and Sandy Alomar Jr., the Indians signed Ellis Burks and former MVP Juan González, who helped the team win the Central division with a 91–71 record. One of the highlights came on August 5, when the Indians completed the biggest comeback in MLB History. Cleveland rallied to close a 14–2 deficit in the seventh inning to defeat the Seattle Mariners 15–14 in 11 innings. The Mariners, who won an MLB record-tying 116 games that season, had a strong bullpen, and Indians manager Charlie Manuel had already pulled many of his starters with the game seemingly out of reach.


title: Cleveland Guardians

text: Seattle and Cleveland met in the first round of the postseason; however, the Mariners won the series 3–2. In the 2001–02 offseason, GM John Hart resigned and his assistant, Mark Shapiro, took the reins.