title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau in Concord, Massachusetts, into the "modest New England family" of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His father was of French Protestant descent. His paternal grandfather had been born on the UK crown dependency island of Jersey. His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led Harvard's 1766 student "Butter Rebellion", the first recorded student protest in the American colonies. David Henry was named after his recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college; he never petitioned to make a legal name change.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia Thoreau. None of the children married. Helen (1812–1849) died at age 37 years, from tuberculosis. John Jr. (1814–1842) died at age 27, of tetanus after cutting himself while shaving. Henry David (1817–1862) died at age 44, of tuberculosis. Sophia (1819–1876) survived him by 14 years, dying at age 56 years, of tuberculosis.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: He studied at Harvard College between 1833 and 1837. He lived in Hollis Hall and took courses in rhetoric, classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. He was a member of the Institute of 1770 (now the Hasty Pudding Club). According to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee (approximately ) for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college". He commented, "Let every sheep keep its own skin", a reference to the tradition of using sheepskin vellum for diplomas.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's birthplace still exists on Virginia Road in Concord. The house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust, a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: The traditional professions open to college graduates—law, the church, business, medicine—did not interest Thoreau, so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught at a school in Canton, Massachusetts, living for two years at an earlier version of today's Colonial Inn in Concord. His grandfather owned the earliest of the three buildings that were later combined. After he graduated in 1837, Thoreau joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer corporal punishment. He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a grammar school in Concord, in 1838. They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school closed when John became fatally ill from tetanus in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving. He died in Henry's arms.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson through a mutual friend. Emerson, who was 14 years his senior, took a paternal and at times patron-like interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including Ellery Channing, Margaret Fuller, Bronson Alcott, and Nathaniel Hawthorne and his son Julian Hawthorne, who was a boy at the time.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, "The Dial", and lobbied the editor, Margaret Fuller, to publish those writings. Thoreau's first essay published in "The Dial" was "Aulus Persius Flaccus", an essay on the Roman poet and satirist, in July 1840. It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson's suggestion. The first journal entry, on October 22, 1837, reads, "'What are you doing now?' he asked. 'Do you keep a journal?' So I make my first entry to-day."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed transcendentalism, a loose and eclectic idealist philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts", as Emerson wrote in "Nature" (1836).


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the Emerson house. There, from 1841 to 1844, he served as the children's tutor; he was also an editorial assistant, repairman and gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on Staten Island, and tutored the family's sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative Horace Greeley.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's pencil factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior graphite by using clay as the binder. This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in New Hampshire that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, had been first patented by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been Tantiusques, a mine operated by Native Americans in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the electrotyping process.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed of Walden Woods.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau felt a need to concentrate and work more on his writing. In 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you." Thus, on July 4, 1845, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in simple living, moving to a small house he had built on land owned by Emerson in a second growth forest around the shores of Walden Pond. The house was in "a pretty pasture and woodlot" of that Emerson had bought, from his family home. Whilst there, he wrote his only extended piece of literary criticism, "Thomas Carlyle and His Works".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local tax collector, Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent poll taxes. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the Mexican–American War and slavery, and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. The next day Thoreau was freed when someone, likely to have been his aunt, paid the tax, against his wishes. The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government", explaining his tax resistance at the Concord Lyceum. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26:


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay titled "Resistance to Civil Government" (also known as "Civil Disobedience"). It was published by Elizabeth Peabody in the "Aesthetic Papers" in May 1849. Thoreau had taken up a version of Percy Shelley's principle in the political poem "The Mask of Anarchy" (1819), which begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: At Walden Pond, Thoreau completed a first draft of "A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers", an elegy to his brother John, describing their trip to the White Mountains in 1839. Thoreau did not find a publisher for the book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense; fewer than 300 were sold. He self-published the book on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson's publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to Mount Katahdin in Maine, a journey later recorded in "Ktaadn", the first part of "The Maine Woods".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847. At Emerson's request, he immediately moved back to the Emerson house to help Emerson's wife, Lidian, manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe. Over several years, as he worked to pay off his debts, he continuously revised the manuscript of what he eventually published as "Walden, or Life in the Woods" in 1854, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of the four seasons to symbolize human development. Part memoir and part spiritual quest, "Walden" at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: The American poet Robert Frost wrote of Thoreau, "In one book ... he surpasses everything we have had in America."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: The American author John Updike said of the book, "A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau moved out of Emerson's house in July 1848 and stayed at a house on nearby Belknap Street. In 1850, he moved into a house at 255 Main Street, where he lived until his death.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In the summer of 1850, Thoreau and Channing journeyed from Boston to Montreal and Quebec City. These would be Thoreau's only travels outside the United States. It is as a result of this trip that he developed lectures that eventually became "A Yankee in Canada". He jested that all he got from this adventure "was a cold". In fact, this proved an opportunity to contrast American civic spirit and democratic values with a colony apparently ruled by illegitimate religious and military power. Whereas his own country had had its revolution, in Canada history had failed to turn.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with natural history and narratives of travel and expedition. He read avidly on botany and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired William Bartram and Charles Darwin's "Voyage of the Beagle". He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to "anticipate" the seasons of nature, in his word.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed observations on the natural history of the town, covering an area of , in his journal, a two-million-word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source of his late writings on natural history, such as "Autumnal Tints", "The Succession of Trees", and "Wild Apples", an essay lamenting the destruction of the local wild apple species.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: With the rise of environmental history and ecocriticism as academic disciplines, several new readings of Thoreau began to emerge, showing him to have been both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots. For instance, "The Succession of Forest Trees", shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through the dispersal of seeds by winds or animals. In this lecture, first presented to a cattle show in Concord, and considered his greatest contribution to ecology, Thoreau explained why one species of tree can grow in a place where a different tree did previously. He observed that squirrels often carry nuts far from the tree from which they fell to create stashes. These seeds are likely to germinate and grow should the squirrel die or abandon the stash. He credited the squirrel for performing a "great service ... in the economy of the universe."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: He traveled to Canada East once, Cape Cod four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, "A Yankee in Canada", "Cape Cod", and "The Maine Woods", in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to Philadelphia and New York City in 1854 and west across the Great Lakes region in 1861, when he visited Niagara Falls, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Mackinac Island. He was provincial in his own travels, but he read widely about travel in other lands. He devoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read Magellan and James Cook; the arctic explorers John Franklin, Alexander Mackenzie and William Parry; David Livingstone and Richard Francis Burton on Africa; Lewis and Clark; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literate travelers. Astonishing amounts of reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like a traveler".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: After John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown or damned him with faint praise. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a key speech, "A Plea for Captain John Brown", which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau's speech proved persuasive: the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the American Civil War entire armies of the North were literally singing Brown's praises. As a biographer of Brown put it, "If, as Alfred Kazin suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau contracted tuberculosis in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1860, following a late-night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rainstorm, he became ill with bronchitis. His health declined, with brief periods of remission, and he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly "The Maine Woods" and "Excursions", and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of "A Week" and "Walden". He wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded, "I did not know we had ever quarreled."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian". He died on May 6, 1862, at age 44. Amos Bronson Alcott planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, and Channing presented a hymn. Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at the funeral. Thoreau was buried in the Dunbar family plot; his remains and those of members of his immediate family were eventually moved to Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Concord, Massachusetts.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and canoeing, of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. He was himself a highly skilled canoeist; Nathaniel Hawthorne, after a ride with him, noted that "Mr. Thoreau managed the boat so perfectly, either with two paddles or with one, that it seemed instinct with his own will, and to require no physical effort to guide it."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in "Walden", "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the pastoral realm that integrates nature and culture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitrator between the wilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of humanity in North America. He decried the latter endlessly but felt that a teacher needs to be close to those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred "partially cultivated country". His idea of being "far in the recesses of the wilderness" of Maine was to "travel the logger's path and the Indian trail", but he also hiked on pristine land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" Roderick Nash wrote, "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Of alcohol, Thoreau wrote, "I would fain keep sober always. ... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor. ... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau never married and was childless. In 1840, when he was 23, he proposed to eighteen-year old Ellen Sewall, but she refused him, on the advice of her father.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's sexuality has long been the subject of speculation, including by his contemporaries. Critics have called him heterosexual, homosexual, or asexual. There is no evidence to suggest he had physical relations with anyone, man or woman. Some scholars have suggested that homoerotic sentiments run through his writings and concluded that he was homosexual. The elegy "Sympathy" was inspired by the eleven-year-old Edmund Sewall, who had just spent five days in the Thoreau household in 1839. One scholar has suggested that he wrote the poem to Edmund because he could not bring himself to write it to Edmund's sister Anna, and another that Thoreau's "emotional experiences with women are memorialized under a camouflage of masculine pronouns", but other scholars dismiss this. It has been argued that the long paean in "Walden" to the French-Canadian woodchopper Alek Therien, which includes allusions to Achilles and Patroclus, is an expression of conflicted desire. In some of Thoreau's writing there is the sense of a secret self. In 1840 he writes in his journal: "My friend is the apology for my life. In him are the spaces which my orbit traverses". Thoreau was strongly influenced by the moral reformers of his time, and this may have instilled anxiety and guilt over sexual desire.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was fervently against slavery and actively supported the abolitionist movement. He participated as a conductor in the Underground Railroad, delivered lectures that attacked the Fugitive Slave Law, and in opposition to the popular opinion of the time, supported radical abolitionist militia leader John Brown and his party. Two weeks after the ill-fated raid on Harpers Ferry and in the weeks leading up to Brown's execution, Thoreau delivered a speech to the citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, in which he compared the American government to Pontius Pilate and likened Brown's execution to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ:


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In "The Last Days of John Brown", Thoreau described the words and deeds of John Brown as noble and an example of heroism. In addition, he lamented the newspaper editors who dismissed Brown and his scheme as "crazy".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was a proponent of limited government and individualism. Although he was hopeful that mankind could potentially have, through self-betterment, the kind of government which "governs not at all", he distanced himself from contemporary "no-government men" (anarchists), writing: "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau deemed the evolution from absolute monarchy to limited monarchy to democracy as "a progress toward true respect for the individual" and theorized about further improvements "towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man". Echoing this belief, he went on to write: "There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: It is on this basis that Thoreau could so strongly inveigh against the British administration and Catholicism in "A Yankee in Canada". Despotic authority, Thoreau argued, had crushed the people's sense of ingenuity and enterprise; the Canadian "habitants" had been reduced, in his view, to a perpetual childlike state. Ignoring the recent rebellions, he argued that there would be no revolution in the St. Lawrence River valley.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Although Thoreau believed resistance to unjustly exercised authority could be both violent (exemplified in his support for John Brown) and nonviolent (his own example of tax resistance displayed in "Resistance to Civil Government"), he regarded pacifist nonresistance as temptation to passivity, writing: "Let not our Peace be proclaimed by the rust on our swords, or our inability to draw them from their scabbards; but let her at least have so much work on her hands as to keep those swords bright and sharp." Furthermore, in a formal lyceum debate in 1841, he debated the subject "Is it ever proper to offer forcible resistance?", arguing the affirmative.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Likewise, his condemnation of the Mexican–American War did not stem from pacifism, but rather because he considered Mexico "unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army" as a means to expand the slave territory.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was ambivalent towards industrialization and capitalism. On one hand he regarded commerce as "unexpectedly confident and serene, adventurous, and unwearied" and expressed admiration for its associated cosmopolitanism, writing:


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau also favored bioregionalism, the protection of animals and wild areas, free trade, and taxation for schools and highways. He disapproved of the subjugation of Native Americans, slavery, technological utopianism, consumerism, philistinism, mass entertainment, and frivolous applications of technology.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was influenced by Indian spiritual thought. In "Walden", there are many overt references to the sacred texts of India. For example, in the first chapter ("Economy"), he writes: "How much more admirable the Bhagvat-Geeta than all the ruins of the East!" "American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia" classes him as one of several figures who "took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world", also a characteristic of Hinduism.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was aware his Ganges imagery could have been factual. He wrote about ice harvesting at Walden Pond. And he knew that New England's ice merchants were shipping ice to foreign ports, including Calcutta.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Additionally, Thoreau followed various Hindu customs, including a diet largely consisting of rice ("It was fit that I should live on rice, mainly, who loved so well the philosophy of India."), flute playing (reminiscent of the favorite musical pastime of Krishna), and yoga.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau read contemporary works in the new science of biology, including the works of Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Darwin, and Asa Gray (Charles Darwin's staunchest American ally). Thoreau was deeply influenced by Humboldt, especially his work "Cosmos".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In 1859, Thoreau purchased and read Darwin's "On the Origin of Species". Unlike many natural historians at the time, including Louis Agassiz who publicly opposed Darwinism in favor of a static view of nature, Thoreau was immediately enthusiastic about the theory of evolution by natural selection and endorsed it, stating:


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's political writings had little impact during his lifetime, as "his contemporaries did not see him as a theorist or as a radical", viewing him instead as a naturalist. They either dismissed or ignored his political essays, including "Civil Disobedience". The only two complete books (as opposed to essays) published in his lifetime, "Walden" and "A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers" (1849), both dealt with nature, in which he "loved to wander". His obituary was lumped in with others rather than as a separate article in an 1862 yearbook. Critics and the public continued either to disdain or to ignore Thoreau for years, but the publication of extracts from his journal in the 1880's by his friend H.G.O. Blake, and of a definitive set of Thoreau's works by the Riverside Press between 1893 and 1906, led to the rise of what literary historian F. L. Pattee called a "Thoreau cult."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's writings went on to influence many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like Mohandas Gandhi, U.S. President John F. Kennedy, American civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr., U.S. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, and Russian author Leo Tolstoy all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau's work, particularly "Civil Disobedience", as did "right-wing theorist Frank Chodorov [who] devoted an entire issue of his monthly, "Analysis", to an appreciation of Thoreau".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau also influenced many artists and authors including Edward Abbey, Willa Cather, Marcel Proust, William Butler Yeats, Sinclair Lewis, Ernest Hemingway, Upton Sinclair, E. B. White, Lewis Mumford, Frank Lloyd Wright, Alexander Posey, and Gustav Stickley. Thoreau also influenced naturalists like John Burroughs, John Muir, E. O. Wilson, Edwin Way Teale, Joseph Wood Krutch, B. F. Skinner, David Brower, and Loren Eiseley, whom "Publishers Weekly" called "the modern Thoreau".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's friend William Ellery Channing published his first biography, "Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist", in 1873. English writer Henry Stephens Salt wrote a biography of Thoreau in 1890, which popularized Thoreau's ideas in Britain: George Bernard Shaw, Edward Carpenter, and Robert Blatchford were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt's advocacy. Mohandas Gandhi first read "Walden" in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in Johannesburg, South Africa. He first read "Civil Disobedience" "while he sat in a South African prison for the crime of nonviolently protesting discrimination against the Indian population in the Transvaal. The essay galvanized Gandhi, who wrote and published a synopsis of Thoreau's argument, calling its 'incisive logic ... unanswerable' and referring to Thoreau as 'one of the greatest and most moral men America has produced'." He told American reporter Webb Miller, "[Thoreau's] ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience', written about 80 years ago."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Martin Luther King Jr. noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of nonviolent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending Morehouse College. He wrote in his autobiography that it was,


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times. I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's "Walden" with him in his youth. In 1945 he wrote "Walden Two", a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau. Thoreau and his fellow Transcendentalists from Concord were a major inspiration of the composer Charles Ives. The 4th movement of the Concord Sonata for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character picture, and he also set Thoreau's words.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Actor Ron Thompson did a dramatic portrayal of Henry David Thoreau on the 1976 NBC television series "The Rebels".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's ideas have impacted and resonated with various strains in the anarchist movement, with Emma Goldman referring to him as "the greatest American anarchist". Green anarchism and anarcho-primitivism in particular have both derived inspiration and ecological points-of-view from the writings of Thoreau. John Zerzan included Thoreau's text "Excursions" (1863) in his edited compilation of works in the anarcho-primitivist tradition titled "Against civilization: Readings and reflections". Additionally, Murray Rothbard, the founder of anarcho-capitalism, has opined that Thoreau was one of the "great intellectual heroes" of his movement. Thoreau was also an important influence on late-19th-century anarchist naturism. Globally, Thoreau's concepts also held importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, and Portugal.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: For the 200th anniversary of his birth, publishers released several new editions of his work: a recreation of "Walden" 1902 edition with illustrations, a picture book with excerpts from "Walden", and an annotated collection of Thoreau's essays on slavery. The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp honoring Thoreau on May 23, 2017, in Concord, MA.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In 2017, "Walden, a Game" was released on itch.io. Created by Tracy Fullerton, it is an open world, first person videogame adaptation of Thoreau's "Walden". Players can build the protagonist's cabin, explore the environment, record flora and fauna, farm the land, visit Emerson's house and the town of Concord. At the end of each day players are invited to reflect on their journal which gradually fills up with reflections based on the player's journey and day-to-day experiences. The game also includes letters between Thoreau and his contemporaries, including Amos Bronson Alcott and Ralph Waldo Emerson. It also includes letters between his contemporaries to build a picture of Thoreau's reception as a writer and his connections in the literary and Transcendentalist scene in America at the time. The game was released for PlayStation 4 in 2018.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's work and career received little attention until 1865, when the "North American Review" published James Russell Lowell's review of various papers of Thoreau's that Emerson had collected and edited. Lowell's essay, "Letters to Various Persons", which Lowell republished as a chapter in his "My Study Windows", derided Thoreau as a humorless poseur trafficking in commonplaces, a sentimentalist lacking in imagination, a "Diogenes in his barrel," resentfully criticizing what he could not attain. Lowell's caustic analysis influenced Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson, who criticized Thoreau as a "skulker," saying "He did not wish virtue to go out of him among his fellow-men, but slunk into a corner to hoard it for himself."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Nathaniel Hawthorne had mixed feelings about Thoreau. He noted that "He is a keen and delicate observer of nature—a genuine observer—which, I suspect, is almost as rare a character as even an original poet; and Nature, in return for his love, seems to adopt him as her especial child, and shows him secrets which few others are allowed to witness." On the other hand, he also wrote that Thoreau "repudiated all regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In a similar vein, poet John Greenleaf Whittier detested what he deemed to be the "wicked" and "heathenish" message of "Walden", claiming that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a woodchuck and walk on four legs".


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: In response to such criticisms, English novelist George Eliot, writing for the "Westminster Review", characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded:


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau himself also responded to the criticism in a paragraph of his work "Walden" by illustrating the irrelevance of their inquiries:


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Recent criticism has accused Thoreau of hypocrisy, misanthropy, and being sanctimonious, based on his writings in "Walden", although this criticism has been perceived as highly selective.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Many of Thoreau's works were not published during his lifetime, including his journals and numerous unfinished manuscripts.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: A Game of Thrones is the first novel in "A Song of Ice and Fire", a series of fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin. It was first published on August 1, 1996. The novel won the 1997 Locus Award and was nominated for both the 1997 Nebula Award and the 1997 World Fantasy Award. The novella "Blood of the Dragon", comprising the Daenerys Targaryen chapters from the novel, won the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella. In January 2011, the novel became a "New York Times" Bestseller and reached No. 1 on the list in July 2011.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: In the novel, recounting events from various points of view, Martin introduces the plot-lines of the noble houses of Westeros, the Wall, and the Targaryens. The novel has inspired several spin-off works, including several games. It is also the namesake and basis for the first season of "Game of Thrones", an HBO television series that premiered in April 2011. A March 2013 paperback TV tie-in re-edition was also titled "Game of Thrones", excluding the indefinite article "A".


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Upon the death of Lord Jon Arryn, the principal advisor to King Robert Baratheon, Robert recruits his childhood friend Eddard "Ned" Stark, now Warden of the North, to replace Arryn as Hand of the King, and to betroth his daughter Sansa to Robert's son Joffrey. Ned accepts the position when he learns that Arryn's widow Lysa believes he was poisoned by Robert's wife Queen Cersei Lannister and her family. Shortly thereafter, Ned's son Bran discovers Cersei having sex with her twin brother Jaime Lannister, who throws Bran from the tower to conceal their affair, leaving him comatose and paralyzing his legs.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Ned leaves his castle Winterfell and departs for the capital city, King's Landing, bringing along his daughters Sansa and Arya. Upon arriving in King's Landing to take his post as Hand, Ned finds that Robert is an ineffective king whose only interests are hunting, drinking, and womanizing.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: At Winterfell, an assassin attempts to kill Bran while he is unconscious, and Ned's wife Catelyn travels to King's Landing to bring word to Ned. Catelyn's childhood friend, Petyr "Littlefinger" Baelish, implicates Tyrion Lannister, the dwarf brother of Cersei and Jaime, in the assassination attempt. On the road back to Winterfell, Catelyn encounters Tyrion by chance, arrests him, and takes him to the Vale, where her sister Lysa Arryn is regent, to stand trial for the attempt on Bran's life. In retaliation for Tyrion's abduction, his father Lord Tywin Lannister sends soldiers to raid the Riverlands, Catelyn's home region. Tyrion regains his freedom by recruiting a mercenary named Bronn to defend him in trial by combat.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Ned investigates Jon Arryn's death and eventually discovers that Robert's legal heirs, including Joffrey, are in fact Cersei's children by Jaime, and that Jon Arryn was killed to conceal his discovery of their incest. Ned offers Cersei a chance to flee before he informs Robert, but she uses this chance to arrange Robert's death in a hunting accident and install Joffrey on the throne. Ned prepares to send his daughters away from King's Landing and enlists Littlefinger's help to challenge Joffrey's claim; but Littlefinger betrays him, resulting in Ned's arrest. Arya escapes the castle, but Sansa is taken hostage by the Lannisters.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Ned's eldest son Robb marches his army south in response to his father's arrest, and in order to relieve the threat on the riverlands. To secure a strategically necessary bridge crossing, Catelyn negotiates a marital alliance between Robb and the notoriously unreliable House Frey. Robb defeats a Lannister army in the riverlands, capturing Jaime. Tywin sends Tyrion back to King's Landing to act as Hand of the King to Joffrey. When Ned is executed, Robb's followers declare the north's independence from the Seven Kingdoms, proclaiming Robb "King in the North".


title: A Game of Thrones

text: The prologue of the novel introduces the Wall: an ancient barrier of stone, ice, and magic, hundreds of feet high and hundreds of miles long, shielding the Seven Kingdoms from the northern wilderness. The Wall is defended by the Night's Watch: an order of warriors sworn to serve there for life, defending the realm from the fabled Others, an ancient and hostile inhuman race, as well as from the human "wildlings" who live north of the Wall.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Jon Snow, Ned's bastard son, is inspired by his uncle, Benjen Stark, to join the Night's Watch, but becomes disillusioned when he discovers that its primary function is as a penal colony. Jon unites his fellow recruits against their harsh instructor and protects the cowardly but good-natured and intelligent Samwell Tarly. Jon is appointed steward to the leader of the Watch, Lord Commander Jeor Mormont, making him a potential successor to Mormont. Benjen fails to return from an expedition north of the Wall. Six months later, the dead bodies of two men from his party are recovered; these re-animate as undead wights before being dispatched by Jon.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: When word of his father's execution reaches Jon, he attempts to join Robb against the Lannisters, but is persuaded to remain loyal to the Watch. Mormont then declares his intention to march north to find Benjen, dead or alive, and to investigate rumors of a "King-beyond-the-Wall" uniting the wildlings.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Across the sea to the east of Westeros live the exiled prince Viserys and princess Daenerys, children of the late "Mad King" Aerys Targaryen, who ruled Westeros before being overthrown by Robert Baratheon. Viserys betroths Daenerys to Khal Drogo, a warlord of the nomadic Dothraki people, in exchange for the use of Drogo's army to reclaim the throne of Westeros. Illyrio Mopatis, a wealthy merchant who has been supporting the penniless Targaryens, gives Daenerys three petrified dragon eggs as a wedding gift. Jorah Mormont, a knight exiled from Westeros, joins Viserys as an adviser. Initially terrified of her new husband and his people, Daenerys eventually embraces her role as Drogo's ""khaleesi"". Drogo, however, shows little interest in conquering Westeros, and an impatient Viserys tries to browbeat his sister into coercing Drogo. When Viserys publicly threatens Daenerys and her unborn child, Drogo executes him by pouring molten gold on his head.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: An assassin seeking King Robert's favor attempts to poison Daenerys, finally convincing Drogo to conquer Westeros. While sacking villages to fund the invasion of Westeros, Drogo is badly wounded, and Daenerys commands the captive folk healer Mirri Maz Duur to save him. The healer, angered by the Dothraki raids against her people, sacrifices Daenerys's unborn child to power the spell to save Drogo's life, which restores Drogo's physical health but leaves him in a persistent vegetative state.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: With Drogo completely incapacitated and unable to lead, much of the Dothraki army disperses. Daenerys smothers Drogo with a pillow and has Mirri tied to Drogo's funeral pyre. She places her three dragon eggs on the pyre and enters it herself. When the fire burns out, she emerges unharmed, with three newly hatched dragons. Awe-struck, Jorah and the remaining Dothraki swear allegiance to her.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Throughout the novel, characters are often faced with decisions that match one redeemable trait against another. "The Guardian" outlines characters who are frequently "forced to choose between their love for those close to them and the greater interests of honour, duty and the realm." In Westeros, Ned ultimately decides to venture south with Robert, leaving much of his family in Winterfell. At the Wall, Jon wrestles with the predicament of joining his half-brother Robb in rebellion or staying with his sworn brothers in the Night's Watch. Daenerys has issue with the Dothraki treatment of those they conquered in Essos. These conflicts characters encounter oftentimes reflect inconsistent decision making. Catelyn initially is overwhelmed by grief and does not leave Bran's bedside while he is comatose, ignoring her political responsibilities, choosing family over duty. But soon after, Catelyn leaves Bran and her family for Kings Landing to inform Ned of potential Lannister treason, effectively displaying a more duty fulfilling role. Family, duty, and honor play major roles in conflicts that arise in the story arc, and qualities traditionally categorized as noble oppose each other in resolution. Character decision conflicts and consequence analysis are particular to how Martin wants to portray fantasy.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Martin characteristically deviates from the traditional fantasy model and clear-cut lines of good versus evil. Martin reflects: "I think the battle between good and evil is fought largely within the individual human heart, by the decisions that we make. It's not like evil dresses up in black clothing and you know, they're really ugly". This viewpoint characterizes the book and is evident in the actions of several different families which frequently have conflicts with each other. The Starks' and Lannisters' conflict is a central component of the novel, and the reader receives points of view from both sides. Likewise, Daenerys' storyline develops around the Targaryen's upheaval in Westeros, in which the Starks played a significant role. Martin argues: Having multiple viewpoints is crucial to the grayness of the characters. You have to be able to see the struggle from both sides, because real human beings in a war have all these processes of self-justification, telling ourselves why what we're doing is the right thing.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Each chapter concentrates on the third-person limited point of view of a single character; the book presents the perspective of eight main characters. Additionally, a minor character provides the prologue. Chapter headings indicate the perspective.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: Martin acknowledges several authors who lent their time and expertise during the writing of the novel: Sage Walker, Martin Wright, Melinda Snodgrass, Carl Keim, Bruce Baugh, Tim O'Brien, Roger Zelazny, Jane Lindskold, and Laura Mixon.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: The HarperCollins/Voyager 1996 edition was the British first edition. Its official publication date was earlier than that of the US Bantam edition, but Bantam went to print several months earlier to hand out copies at the American Booksellers Association (ABA). The novel has been translated into many languages and published in multiple editions in hardcover, paperback, e-book, and audio book form. In different languages, the number of books may not be the same. In June 2000, Meisha Merlin published a limited edition of the book, fully illustrated by Jeffrey Jones.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: "A Game of Thrones" and the subsequent novels in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series have been adapted into an HBO television series, a comic book series, several card games, board games, video games, and other media.


title: A Game of Thrones

text: "A Game of Thrones" has received critical acclaim. Lauren K. Nathan of the Associated Press wrote that the book "grip[s] the reader from Page One" and is set in a "magnificent" fantasy world that is "mystical, but still believable." Steve Perry told readers of "The Oregonian" that the plot is "complex and fascinating" and the book is "rich and colorful" with "all the elements of a great fantasy novel". Writing in "The Washington Post", John H. Riskind commented that "many fans of sword-and-sorcery will enjoy the epic scope of this book" but felt that the book "suffers from one-dimensional characters and less than memorable imagery." Phyllis Eisenstein of the "Chicago Sun-Times" wrote that, although the book uses many generic fantasy tropes, Martin's approach is "so refreshingly human and intimate that it transcends them." She described it as "an absorbing combination of the mythic, the sweepingly historical, and the intensely personal." John Prior, writing in the "San Diego Union-Tribune", called Martin's writing "strong and imaginative, with plenty of Byzantine intrigue and dynastic struggle", and compared it to Robert Jordan's "Wheel of Time" books, "though much darker, with no comedy or romance to relieve the nastiness."


title: A Game of Thrones

text: On November 5, 2019, the "BBC News" listed "A Game of Thrones" on its list of the 100 most influential novels.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Javier Hernández Balcázar (; born 1 June 1988), commonly known by the nickname Chicharito (, Mexican Spanish: "little pea"), is a Mexican professional footballer who plays as a striker for Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy. He is known for his clinical finishing along with his pace and technical ability and is widely considered to be amongst the greatest Mexican players of all time.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández began his senior club career at age 18 in 2006, playing for Guadalajara, where he won the Primera División. In 2010, Hernández signed for Manchester United, becoming the club's first Mexican player. During his five years with United, he amassed over 150 appearances and scored 59 goals, winning two Premier League titles and reached the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final, as well as setting the then record for the fifth-best minutes-per-goal ratio (130.2) in league history. Hernández departed the club on loan to Real Madrid in 2014, and in 2015 he joined Bayer Leverkusen on a permanent deal. Two years later, Hernández returned to England and signed for West Ham United. In 2019, he signed for Sevilla before joining LA Galaxy the following year.


title: Javier Hernández

text: A Mexican international, Hernández is the country's all-time leading goalscorer. He made his debut for the national team in September 2009 in a friendly match against Colombia. He has represented Mexico at the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the Copa América Centenario, the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2018 FIFA World Cup. He was the 2011 Gold Cup's top scorer with seven goals and was named the most valuable player of the tournament.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco and first played in a recreation league when he was seven years old. Hernández lived in Morelia, Michoacán for over four years while his father, footballer Javier ""Chícharo"" Hernández, played for Monarcas Morelia. While living in Morelia, Hernández attended elementary school at the "Instituto Piaget" where he studied from third to sixth grade and played for the school's football team.


title: Javier Hernández

text: At the age of nine, Hernández joined C.D. Guadalajara and signed his first professional contract when he was 15. He was set to play in the 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship, but an injury sidelined him from the team that ultimately won the championship. Whilst playing football professionally, Hernández was also taking business administration classes at Universidad del Valle de Atemajac. Hernández has held both Hugo Sánchez and Rafael Márquez as his football idols growing up.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández began playing with C.D. Guadalajara's lower-division team, "Chivas" Coras in Tepic, Nayarit in the 2005–06 season. He made his debut for Guadalajara in the 2006 Apertura in a win over Club Necaxa at Estadio Jalisco. With the score at 3–0, Hernández came on as a substitute for Omar Bravo in the 82nd minute, before scoring the fourth goal of the game five minutes later. It was his only goal in seven appearances in 2006–07. He made a further six appearances in 2007–08 without scoring.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández made 10 appearances in the 2008 Apertura without scoring, but he scored four goals in 15 appearances in the 2009 Clausura. In the 2009 Apertura, Hernández finished as the joint-third top scorer, with 11 goals in 17 appearances. He started the 2010 Torneo Bicentenario with eight goals in five games. He finished as a joint-leader in the goalscoring chart for the 2010 Torneo Bicentenario, with 10 goals in 11 games despite missing five matches due to injury. He also won the tournament's best forward award.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Manchester United were first made aware of Hernández in October 2009; a scout went to Mexico that December and reported positively after watching a few games. Because of Hernández's age, the club originally planned to wait before making a move to sign him, but his potential involvement with the national team at the World Cup rushed the club into making a bid. United's chief scout, Jim Lawlor, was sent to Mexico for three weeks in February and March to watch Hernández and filed another positive report on him, before the club solicitor went over to Mexico to finalise the paperwork.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 8 April 2010, Hernández agreed a deal to sign for Manchester United for an undisclosed fee, subject to a work permit application. The previous day, Hernández had been present at Manchester United's Champions League quarter-final win over Bayern Munich at Old Trafford. The deal was conducted in complete secrecy; Hernández's agent was kept in the dark, as was his grandfather Tomás Balcázar, who thought Hernández was going on a trip to Atlanta in the United States. As part of the deal, United played a friendly against C.D. Guadalajara to open the Mexican club's new stadium on 30 July. On 27 May, the work permit was granted, allowing the transfer to be made official on 1 July.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández made his United debut on 28 July, coming on as a 63rd-minute substitute for Nani in the 2010 MLS All-Star Game at the NRG Stadium, Houston; he scored his first goal for the club 18 minutes later, lobbing the ball over Nick Rimando from just outside the area after a long through-ball from Darren Fletcher. Two days later, Hernández scored against Manchester United while playing in a friendly for his former club, C.D. Guadalajara, scoring the inaugural goal at their recently constructed stadium; he started the game in a Chivas jersey and scored the first goal after just eight minutes. He switched sides at half-time, but he was unable to prevent a 3–2 defeat for Manchester United. He scored for the third pre-season game in a row as he netted in a 7–1 victory over a League of Ireland XI at the newly built Aviva Stadium on 4 August.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández made his competitive debut on 8 August and scored his first goal in the process, netting United's second of a 3–1 victory over Chelsea in the 2010 FA Community Shield. He came on at the start of the second half and got on the end of a pass from Antonio Valencia before the Mexican's shot deflected off his own face and into the net. On 16 August, Hernández made his Premier League debut as he replaced Wayne Rooney in the 63rd minute of their 3–0 home victory over Newcastle United. He scored his first Champions League goal on 29 September, coming off the bench to score the only goal in an away win over Valencia. He scored his first league goal for United in a 2–2 home draw against West Bromwich Albion on 16 October. Eight days later he scored his first brace for the club, also his first away league goals, in a 2–1 away win over Stoke City. Two days on from this display, he came off the bench to score a last-minute winner, his first ever League Cup goal, in a 3–2 win over Wolves which sent them through to the quarter-finals where they were then knocked out by West Ham United. On 1 January 2011, he came off the bench to head the winning goal in a 2–1 away win over West Bromwich Albion. Hernández became the top scoring Mexican in Premier League history after opening the scoring in a 2–1 home victory over Stoke City on 4 January.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 25 January, Hernández scored the equalising goal of a 3–2 comeback away win over Blackpool. Four days later he scored his first FA Cup goal as he netted the winner in a 2–1 away victory over Southampton. Hernández netted twice in a 4–0 away win over Wigan on 26 February. Eight days later, he netted a late consolation goal in a 3–1 derby defeat away to Liverpool. Hernández netted twice in a 2–1 home win over Marseille on 15 March, sending United through to the quarter-finals of the Champions League. On 2 April, he scored the final goal against West Ham United as they came from two goals down to claim a 4–2 away win. On 8 April, Hernández was revealed as a contender for the PFA Young Player of the Year award alongside teammate Nani. Four days later, he opened the scoring in the 2–1 quarter-final win over Chelsea in the Champions League, with the game ending 3–1 on aggregate, sending United through to the semi-finals. He continued his goal scoring form on 23 April scoring the winning goal with a header in the 1–0 home win over Everton.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 8 May, Hernández scored the opening goal in a 2–1 home win over Chelsea after just 36 seconds to leave United one point away from winning the title. The goal against Chelsea made him the first player since Ruud van Nistelrooy in the 2001–02 season to score 20 goals for the club in his debut season. Hernández capped his debut season with Manchester United by winning the Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year award on 18 May which was voted for by the fans. On 28 May, Hernández played all 90 minutes in the 3–1 defeat to Barcelona in the Champions League Final. On 5 July 2011, the International Federation of Football History and Statistics named Hernández as the "World Goalgetter 2011", with 13 goals, ahead of other players such as Cristiano Ronaldo, Giuseppe Rossi, and Lionel Messi.


title: Javier Hernández

text: After participating in the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup with Mexico, Hernández returned to Manchester United to begin pre-season training in New York ahead of the 2011 MLS All-Star Game. On 26 July 2011, he was taken to the hospital after suffering a minor concussion after he was hit on the head with a ball during a training session; he was cleared the next day, but did not take part in the game.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 28 July 2011, it was reported that Rafael Ortega, the doctor at C.D. Guadalajara, informed Manchester United that Hernández was suffering from a pre-existing neurological condition. Ortega also explained that Hernández had suffered from "acute migraines and "headaches" as a teenager. He did not participate in any of United's pre-season matches, nor the 2011 FA Community Shield. He also missed United's opening game of the season against West Bromwich Albion.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández made his first appearance in the 2011–12 season on 22 August in a 3–0 win against Tottenham Hotspur, coming off the bench for Danny Welbeck in the 79th minute. He returned to the starting lineup on 10 September against Bolton Wanderers, scoring twice in a 5–0 victory. On 15 October 2011, Hernández came off the substitutes bench to net a crucial equaliser against Liverpool at Anfield in a 1–1 draw. In the 81st minute Hernández gambled on Danny Welbeck's flick on from a corner to steal in and head the equaliser.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández signed a new five-year contract on 24 October to tie him to Manchester United until 2016. The following day it was reported that Hernández made the longlist for that year's FIFA Ballon d'Or. Hernández scored his fourth league goal of the season and the winner against Everton at Goodison Park, in a 1–0 victory on 29 October. He then scored his fifth league goal of the season and the winner in United's next away game at Swansea City, a 1–0 win. Hernández scored again in the following game at home to Newcastle United, when Wayne Rooney's shot was blocked by a defender and ricocheted back off Hernández and into the net. He was then carried off the pitch early in United's next league game away at Aston Villa, appearing to go over on his ankle without a challenge from an opponent. After the match, manager Sir Alex Ferguson said Hernández had suffered ankle ligament damage and would be out for up to four weeks. On 18 December, Hernández made a surprise early return against Queens Park Rangers. He came on as a 63rd-minute substitute for Danny Welbeck in United's 2–0 victory at Loftus Road.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 31 January 2012, Hernández scored his first goal since November, and his seventh goal of the season in a 2–0 league win at Old Trafford against Stoke City, scoring the first of two penalties. Hernández continued his scoring form on 5 February at Stamford Bridge against Chelsea, scoring the third goal of a three-goal comeback draw, heading in a cross from Ryan Giggs. On 16 February, Hernández scored his first goal in the Europa League, in a 2–0 away win against Ajax in the round of 32. He scored again in the second leg at Old Trafford on 23 February, but this time in a 2–1 home defeat. However, United still won the tie 3–2 on aggregate. On 18 March, Hernández scored twice in a 5–0 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández began his third season with United on 2 September 2012, coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute for Danny Welbeck in a 3–2 win against Southampton. On 15 September, he was named in the starting eleven for the match against Wigan Athletic, playing all 90 minutes. Despite having a penalty saved in the fifth minute by Wigan goalkeeper Ali Al-Habsi, Hernández scored his first goal of the season, as well as assisting in teammate Nick Powell's goal in a 4–0 victory. On 23 October, Hernández netted a brace in a 3–2 comeback win against Braga in a Champions League group stage match after United had gone down 2–0 in the first half. Five days later, he scored the winner against nine-man Chelsea in a controversial 3–2 win after he was deemed to have been in an offside position when scoring the goal.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 10 November 2012, Hernández came on as a second-half substitute and scored two goals as United came from 2–0 down to beat Aston Villa 2–3 at Villa Park. At the end of the match, Hernández claimed the hat-trick, but replays showed that his shot for United's second goal was hit wide until turned into his own net by Villa defender Ron Vlaar. On 24 November, he scored his fifth league goal of the season in a 3–1 home win over Queens Park Rangers. On 26 December, Hernández scored United's fourth goal in the final minutes in a 4–3 win over Newcastle United at Old Trafford. He then began 2013 by scoring a brace against Wigan on 1 January, helping United to a 4–0 victory. On 26 January, Hernández would go on to score another brace, this time during an FA Cup match against Fulham which United won 4–1.


title: Javier Hernández

text: In another FA Cup match against Reading on 18 February, Hernández scored in the 72nd minute, giving United a 2–0 lead. His goal would end up being a deciding factor as United went on to win the game 2–1. Although he started in United's 2–0 Premier League victory against QPR on 23 February 2013, he did not score in the match and he didn't score again until 10 March in another FA Cup match against Chelsea which ended in a 2–2 draw. Hernández opened the scoring in manager Sir Alex Ferguson's final home game at Old Trafford against Swansea City. After a free kick was not cleared, he slotted in from six yards in the first half to put United 1–0 up, in a game they went on to win 2–1. Hernández scored United's last goal of the season and the final goal of the Ferguson era, when he tapped in a cross from close range in a 5–5 draw away at West Bromwich Albion on the final day.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández scored his first goal of the season under new manager David Moyes on 25 September 2013, netting the only goal of a home win over rivals Liverpool in the third round of the League Cup. On 26 October, with his first league goal of the campaign, he headed the winner as they came from behind to defeat Stoke 3–2 at Old Trafford. Three days later, he recorded a brace – starting with a penalty – in a 4–0 win against Norwich City in the next round of the League Cup. In the tournament's semi-finals, his goal from Adnan Januzaj's cross in the last minute of extra time forced a penalty shootout, which United lost to Sunderland.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 29 August 2015, it was reported that Manchester United manager Louis van Gaal had told Hernández he could leave the club before the closure of the transfer window. Although with one year of his contract still remaining, it was unclear with scale of transfer fee United would demand for him.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández played in what proved to be his final match for Manchester United on 22 August in a scoreless draw against Newcastle United at Old Trafford. He came on as a substitute in the 67th minute, replacing Adnan Januzaj. As he often came on as a substitute during his time with Manchester United, Hernández's minutes per goal ratio is among the most prolific in the history of the Premier League.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 1 September 2014, Hernández signed for Real Madrid on a season-long loan deal, with an option of a purchase at the end of the loan. He underwent a medical and signed the contract that same day.


title: Javier Hernández

text: He made his debut in the Madrid derby on 13 September, replacing Karim Benzema for the final 27 minutes as the team lost 2–1 at home to Atlético Madrid. On 19 September, Hernández came on as a 77th-minute substitute for Gareth Bale and scored his first two goals in an 8–2 away win against Deportivo de La Coruña.


title: Javier Hernández

text: He scored the winning goal on 22 April 2015 in the 1–0 win over Atlético Madrid, which sent Real Madrid into the semi-finals of the Champions League. Four days later, Hernández scored a brace in Madrid's 2–4 away win over Celta de Vigo.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 26 May, it was announced that Hernández would return to Manchester United following the end of his loan spell after Real Madrid decided not to make the loan move a permanent deal.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 31 August 2015, it was announced Hernández signed a three-year contract with Bundesliga club Bayer Leverkusen for an undisclosed fee, reportedly £7.3 million.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández made his Bundesliga debut as a 58th-minute substitute in the 1–0 defeat to Darmstadt 98 on 12 September. Four days later he scored his first goal in the Champions League group-stage match against BATE Borisov, scoring the third goal in the 4–1 victory. On 23 September, Hernández scored his first Bundesliga goal in Bayer's 1–0 victory over FSV Mainz, being also named Man of the Match. On 20 October, Hernández scored his first brace for Leverkusen in their 4–4 draw against Roma in the Champions League. He ended the Champions League group stage with five goals from six matches but Bayer failed to qualify for the knockout phase, finishing third in Group E and dropping into the Europa League.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández was named Bundesliga Player of the Month for November; a month in which he scored in a 2–1 loss at home to 1. FC Köln and twice in 3–1 win at Eintracht Frankfurt. On 12 December, Hernández scored his first hat-trick in Leverkusen's 5–0 win over Borussia Mönchengladbach, thus scoring 15 goals in his last 12 matches, and taking his tally to 17 goals in 20 matches. He would again be named Bundesliga Player of the Month for December.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 30 January 2016, in Bayer's second match after the winter break, Hernández scored twice in a 3–0 defeat of Hannover 96 to register his 20th and 21st goals of the season. Two days later, he was named for the third time Bundesliga Player of the Month.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández scored and provided an assist in Leverkusen's 2–1 win over SC Hauenstein in the first round of the DFB-Pokal on 21 August 2016. Two days later, it was reported that Hernández would miss Bayer's opening match of the season against Borussia Mönchengladbach after sustaining a broken hand. On 17 September, Hernández scored his first goal of the Bundesliga season at Eintracht Frankfurt, however he missed a chance to equalise late from the penalty spot in the 2–1 loss. The following week at FSV Mainz 05, Hernández collected a perfect hat-trick that included a stoppage time winner, the third hat trick of the Bundesliga season. He was later named Bundesliga Player of the Month for September.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 28 January 2017, Hernández scored Bayer Leverkusen's second goal in the 2–3 loss to Borussia Mönchengladbach, ending his eleven-match scoreless streak. On 21 February, following the match against Atlético Madrid, Hernández became the Mexican player with the most appearances in the Champions League with 47, surpassing Rafael Márquez's previous record of 46 appearances.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 24 July 2017, Hernández joined English club West Ham United for an undisclosed fee, reported to be around £16 million, signing a three-year contract. He was given the number 17 jersey. He made his debut for the West Ham on 13 August, playing all 90 minutes in the 4–0 defeat against his former club Manchester United at Old Trafford. The following week, Hernández scored his first two goals for West Ham in the 3–2 loss to Southampton.


title: Javier Hernández

text: In November, Hernández sustained a hamstring injury while on international duty with Mexico, and it was reported that he would be ruled out from activity for up to two weeks. Following the sacking of Slaven Bilić and the appointment of David Moyes as manager, there were fears Hernández would be excluded at West Ham as he was at Manchester United. In response, Moyes referred to him as a "top goalscorer," and "a brilliant finisher." During the winter transfer window there were reports Hernández would exit the club after only six months, being linked with a move to Turkish club Beşiktaş as well as a possible return to Manchester United. On 20 January 2018, he came off the bench to score the equalising goal for West Ham in their 1–1 league draw against AFC Bournemouth, scoring his first goal since October. Following the match Moyes praised Hernández's performance, saying "we needed him today." On 8 April, in a league match against Chelsea, he scored a 73rd-minute goal to make the score 1–1, marking the ninth time he had scored against the club.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 28 August 2018, Hernández scored West Ham's third goal in injury time of a 3–1 victory over AFC Wimbledon in the second round of the EFL Cup. In September, West Ham manager Manuel Pellegrini declared that Hernández was suffering from glandular fever, causing him to miss out various matches. He would recover and return to training in October. On 3 November, he scored his first Premier League goal of the season in West Ham's 4–2 victory over Burnley.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 22 February 2019, Hernández scored the equalising goal in West Ham's eventual 3–1 win over Fulham; on initial viewing, it looked like he had headed the ball in from a yard to score, however replays of the goal appeared to show the ball rebound off of Hernández's arm to put the ball into the net. It was also his 50th career Premier League goal, becoming the first Mexican to reach the milestone. He would get on the scoresheet again on 16 March, coming on as a second-half substitute and scoring twice—including the stoppage-time winner—to secure a 4–3 league victory over Huddersfield.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Prior to the start of the season, he was given the number 9 shirt. Hernández scored his first goal of the 2019–20 Premier League season on 17 August 2019 as West Ham drew 1–1 with Brighton at Falmer Stadium. On 30 August, Hernández handed in a transfer request to West Ham and flew to Spain to complete a medical ahead of a proposed €8 million move to Sevilla.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 2 September 2019, Hernández joined La Liga club Sevilla for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £7.3m, signing a three-year contract. He made his league debut on 15 September in an away match against Alavés, coming on as a 70th-minute substitute in Sevilla's 1–0 win. Four days later, in a Europa League group stage match against Azerbaijani side Qarabağ FK, Hernández scored a free kick, the first in his career, in his side's 3–0 victory. On 27 October, he scored his first goal in La Liga with Sevilla in a 2–0 victory against Getafe.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 21 January 2020, Hernández signed a three-year contract with Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy, and became the highest paid player in the league. He made his MLS debut on 29 February in a 1–1 draw against Houston Dynamo, captaining the team and playing the entirety of the match. On 13 July he scored his first goal for the club against Portland Timbers which ended in a 2–1 loss.


title: Javier Hernández

text: In the first game of his second season, playing against Inter Miami, he scored twice for a 3–2 victory. The following matchweek, he scored a hat-trick against New York Red Bulls for another 3–2 victory.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández was one of the 21 players called up to the under-20 side for the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Canada. He came on as a late substitute in the opening game against Gambia and scored the final goal in Mexico's 3–0 victory.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 30 September 2009, Hernández made his senior national team debut against Colombia, where he made an assist in a 2–1 loss. On 24 February 2010, Hernández scored two goals against Bolivia and had an assist for Braulio Luna's goal. On 3 March, Hernández scored a header against New Zealand, giving Mexico the lead in a 2–0 victory. On 17 March, Hernández scored his fourth international goal to give Mexico a 2–1 victory over North Korea. On 26 May, he scored a consolation header against the Netherlands in a 2–1 loss. On 30 May, Hernández scored yet again, netting twice in a 5–1 victory over Gambia.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 11 June, Hernández made his FIFA World Cup debut during the opening game of the 2010 tournament against South Africa in a 1–1 draw, coming on in the 73rd minute to replace Guillermo Franco. On 17 June, Hernández again came off the bench and this time scored his first ever World Cup goal, netting the first in a 2–0 victory over France by springing the offside trap, latching onto a through ball from Rafael Márquez, sidestepping Hugo Lloris and sidefooting into the net. By scoring he emulated his grandfather, Tomás Balcázar, who scored against France in the 1954 World Cup. He was elected as man of the match. It was also the 2,100th goal scored in all World Cup tournaments. On 27 June, Hernández made his first start at a World Cup and netted his second goal of the World Cup, by turning Martín Demichelis on the edge of the box before sending a left-foot shot into the roof of the net, in Mexico's 3–1 loss against Argentina in the round of 16. FIFA's statistical analysis showed that Hernández was the quickest player in World Cup 2010, reaching a top speed of 32.15 km/h.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández scored another goal in his first match for Mexico since the World Cup, in a friendly against world champions Spain on 11 August 2010. He scored after just 12 minutes of the match, but David Silva equalised for Spain in the last minute of play to claim a 1–1 draw. Hernández scored his and Mexico's first international goal of 2011 as he opened the scoring in a 2–0 win over Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 February. On 26 March, Hernández scored two goals in an international friendly against Paraguay. He first connected with a pass from Pablo Barrera in the sixth minute of the match, before scoring off a low cross in the 29th minute, three minutes after teammate Andrés Guardado had made the score 2–0. He exited to a standing ovation in the 65th minute.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 18 June 2011, Hernández scored the winner in a 2–1 win over Guatemala to send Mexico to the semi-finals. On 22 June 2011, he helped Mexico reach the Gold Cup Final after a 2–0 win over Honduras in extra-time, where he scored Mexico's second goal in the 99th minute. Hernández was the Gold Cup's top scorer with seven goals and was named the most valuable player of the tournament, in addition to helping his team to a 4–2 victory in the Final against the United States.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández was selected in Mexico's squad for the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup. On 16 June, he scored via penalty kick in the team's opening match, a 2–1 defeat to Italy at the Estádio do Maracanã. In the final group match, Hernández scored both goals as "El Tri" defeated Japan 2–1.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández scored five times for Mexico during qualification for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. On 23 June, Hernández scored Mexico's third goal against Croatia in their 3–1 victory at Arena Pernambuco to qualify the team for the round of 16.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 1 July 2015, Hernández sustained a broken collar bone during a friendly match against Honduras, ruling him out of the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup, which Mexico went on to win.


title: Javier Hernández

text: In October 2015, Hernández was called up for the CONCACAF Cup – a play-off match to determine CONCACAF's entry into the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup – against the United States. Mexico defeated the U.S. 3–2 after extra time at the Rose Bowl, with Hernández opening the score after ten minutes.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández was included in Mexico's 23-man squad that would participate in the Copa América Centenario tournament. On 5 June 2016, he played 83 minutes in the 3–1 victory over Uruguay, and scored the first goal in Mexico's 2–0 win over Jamaica. The goal took Hernández's tally to 45, one goal shy of tying Jared Borgetti's national team record.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 12 May 2017, Hernández was included in the national squad that would play in the FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia. On 27 May, Hernández became Mexico's all-time top goalscorer with 47 goals when he scored in a friendly against Croatia. In Mexico's Confederations Cup debut, he scored Mexico's first goal in an eventual 2–2 draw against Portugal on 18 June, scoring a low header from a Carlos Vela cross.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández scored three times for Mexico during qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. He was in the starting lineup in Mexico's first World Cup game against Germany at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and made an assist to Hirving Lozano to go on to win the match 1–0. In the second group game Hernández scored Mexico's second goal, his 50th international goal, in their 2–1 win over South Korea, and was named FIFA Man of the Match. With his goal, Hernández became the joint-highest scoring Mexican player at the World Cup with four goals, tied with Luis Hernández, and the third Mexican player to score in three World Cups. He went on to start in the final group stage match against Sweden, as well as in the round-of-16 loss to Brazil.


title: Javier Hernández

text: A clinical goalscorer, Hernández has been described as a "goal-poacher", due to a number of his goals being scored from close-range. His movement off the ball, pace, and ability to find space inside the box has also been praised. He has been described as one of the few players who seem capable of appearing behind a defender's back to knock in the ball from two yards, with his playing style being compared to that of German striker Miroslav Klose.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Rudi Völler, sporting director of Bayer Leverkusen, has praised Hernández for his keen positioning in front of goal, saying: "he certainly doesn't win every tackle but he has an incredible sense of where the ball will end up". Former Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson described Hernández as two-footed, very quick, in possession of a good spring, and a natural goalscorer. Ferguson also said Hernández's style reminds him of former United striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær – the so-called "baby-faced assassin" who scored the injury time winner against Bayern Munich in United's 1999 Champions League triumph. Hernández's former teammate Jesús Padilla described him as "amazing in the air" despite his height.


title: Javier Hernández

text: In a May 2016 interview with "Sports Illustrated", Hernández commented on his abilities inside the penalty area, describing the intuition he has in knowing where an impending cross will fall from a teammate and outsmarting opposing defenders. Former Mexico national team coach Juan Carlos Osorio described Hernández as having "a knack for the goal. Sometimes it seems like every rebound or every deflection goes into his path. Another thing is he doesn't dwell on a missed opportunity. He always looks forward to the next one. He has good ability in the air. He has good pace, and he makes those diagonal runs starting from the first defender in behind the second one. He also has the willingness to work defensively."


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández is the son of Javier Hernández Gutiérrez, who played for three clubs in Mexico and was a member of the Mexico squad at the 1986 FIFA World Cup. Hernández Gutiérrez quit his job as manager of Guadalajara's reserve side in order to watch Hernández play in the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. Hernández is also the grandson of Tomás Balcázar, who also played for Guadalajara and played for the national side in the 1954 FIFA World Cup.


title: Javier Hernández

text: On 26 May 2012, Hernández became the Mexican ambassador for UNICEF, making him the third Mexican to serve this position, following César Costa and Julieta Venegas in 2004 and 2009 respectively. As ambassador, he will participate in a number of activities to encourage children and teenagers to not abandon their education. He was commemorated in a news conference, where he said he felt "proud and committed".


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández is a devout Roman Catholic. He is well known for his pre-game ritual where he gets on his knees and prays which he performs before most games. On 27 June 2013, EA Sports announced that they had featured Hernández on the North American cover of "FIFA 14", alongside global cover star Lionel Messi.


title: Javier Hernández

text: In January 2019, Hernández and his ex-wife Sarah Kohan, an Australian model of Romanian descent and travel blogger, announced on Instagram that they were expecting their first child. On 16 June 2019, their son, Noah, was born. One year later on 5 October 2020, their daughter, Nala, was born.


title: Javier Hernández

text: Hernández is commonly known as "Chicharito", meaning "little pea" in Spanish, and wears the name on his shirt. This is due to his father, Javier Hernández Gutiérrez, being nicknamed "Chícharo" ("pea") because of his green eyes.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The 2018 FIA Formula One World Championship was the motor racing championship for Formula One cars and the 69th running of the Formula One World Championship. Formula One is recognised by the governing body of international motorsport, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), as the highest class of competition for open-wheel racing cars. Drivers and teams competed in twenty-one Grands Prix for the World Drivers' and World Constructors' championship titles.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The season was, for the second consecutive year, a title battle between Mercedes and Ferrari. The 2018 season saw two four-time World Champions, Lewis Hamilton and Sebastian Vettel, as the main Championship challengers. It was the first time in Formula One history, two quadruple world champions would be competing for a fifth title and the season was billed as the "Fight for Five" by journalists and fans. The championship lead ebbed and flowed between the two title contenders, the points lead swapping hands five times throughout the year. At the halfway point after the British Grand Prix, Vettel led the title battle by an eight points. Hamilton clinched his fifth World Drivers' Championship title at the 2018 Mexican Grand Prix, with the team securing its fifth consecutive World Constructors' Championship title at the following race. Ferrari driver Sebastian Vettel finished runner-up, 88 points behind Hamilton, with his teammate Kimi Räikkönen finishing third. In the Constructors' Championship, Mercedes finished 84 points ahead of Ferrari, with Red Bull Racing-TAG Heuer in third, 152 points behind Ferrari.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: In 2018, the championship saw the introduction of a new cockpit protection device, known as the "halo". The introduction of the halo was the first stage of a planned rollout that would see the device adopted in all FIA-sanctioned open wheel series by 2020.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The following teams and drivers participated in the 2018 FIA Formula One World Championship. All teams competed with tyres supplied by Pirelli.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Across the season six drivers served as third or free practice drivers for teams. Nicholas Latifi served as a free practice driver for Sahara Force India and Racing Point Force India. Lando Norris, Artem Markelov, Antonio Giovinazzi, Sean Gelael and Robert Kubica drove in free practice sessions for McLaren, Renault, Sauber, Scuderia Toro Rosso and Williams respectively.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: McLaren terminated their engine partnership with Honda and instead signed a three-year deal for power units supplied by Renault. The team cited Honda's repeated failure to supply a reliable and competitive power unit as the reason for ending the partnership.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Toro Rosso parted ways with Renault – allowing McLaren to finalise their agreement with Renault – and came to an agreement to use full-works Honda power units. As part of the deal, Red Bull Racing loaned Toro Rosso driver Carlos Sainz Jr. to Renault's works team.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Sauber renewed their partnership with Ferrari, upgrading to current-specification power units after using year-old power units in 2017 and also signed a sponsorship deal that saw Alfa Romeo become their title sponsor.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Force India were placed into administration on 27 July 2018, during the Hungarian Grand Prix weekend. After speculation of a purchase, any sale of the team in a short time-span was complicated by legal proceedings against certain shareholders and the need for debt settlement. A consortium led by Lawrence Stroll purchased the racing assets and operations of Force India through a company named Racing Point UK Ltd. The original team, known as "Sahara Force India", was then excluded from the Constructors' Championship on the grounds of their inability to participate in remaining races. This allowed a new team known as "Racing Point Force India" to apply for a late entry and start their participation in the championship from the Belgian Grand Prix. The team was required to keep "Force India" as part of their constructor name as their chassis had been homologated under the Force India name and Formula One sporting regulations required the constructor name to include the chassis name. The new team began with zero points in the Constructors' Championship, though their drivers retained the points they had scored in the Drivers' Championship. The other teams later agreed to allow the Racing Point Force India team to retain prize money accrued by Sahara Force India in the preceding years.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Toro Rosso signed 2016 GP2 Series champion Pierre Gasly and two-time World Endurance champion Brendon Hartley as their full-time drivers for 2018. Both Gasly and Hartley made their Formula One débuts with the team in the latter stages of the 2017 championship. Daniil Kvyat left the team and the Red Bull driver programme, securing a development role with Ferrari.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Charles Leclerc, the reigning Formula 2 champion, made his competitive début with Sauber. Leclerc, who had previously driven in Friday practice sessions in 2016 and 2017, was hired by the team to replace Pascal Wehrlein. Wehrlein was ultimately unable to secure a race seat and was instead enlisted as one of Mercedes's test and reserve drivers while racing full-time in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters series.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Williams driver Felipe Massa retired from Formula One at the end of the 2017 championship. Massa was replaced by former Renault test driver and SMP Racing driver Sergey Sirotkin, who made his competitive début with the team.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The French Grand Prix returned to the calendar for the first time since . The race has returned to the Circuit Paul Ricard, which last hosted the French Grand Prix in before the event moved to the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours. The race was scheduled to be run in June, with the Azerbaijan Grand Prix brought forward to April to accommodate the change and to avoid clashing with celebrations for the centenary of the Azerbaijan republic. The German Grand Prix also returned to the championship after a one-year absence, with the Hockenheimring hosting the race.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The Malaysian Grand Prix, which was part of the championship from to , was discontinued. The Russian Grand Prix was moved from April to September, filling the vacancy left by the Malaysian Grand Prix.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Following widespread criticism of the grid penalty system in 2017 that regularly saw multiple drivers start races outside their qualifying positions, the FIA introduced a revised set of regulations for 2018. In the event that a driver changes a power unit component, they are still subject to a five- or ten-place grid penalty depending on the component being changed; however, should they then replace a second component, they will be moved to the back of the starting grid. If multiple drivers are moved to the back of the grid, their starting positions are determined by the order that components were changed based on the most recent change made by each driver.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The rules governing starting procedures were changed for 2018, granting race stewards the power to issue penalties for improper race starts even if a driver's start does not trigger the automated detection system. The changes were introduced following two incidents during : at the Chinese Grand Prix, Sebastian Vettel positioned his car too far across his grid slot to be registered by the detection system; while at the Austrian Grand Prix, Valtteri Bottas's start was called into question for his reaction time despite the detection system recognising it as legal.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: In the event that a race is suspended due to a red flag, it would be restarted with a standing start. Drivers would return to the starting grid in the positions they held at the time of the suspension and the race director would repeat the race start procedure. If circuit conditions are suitable for racing but the race director deems a standing start inappropriate, the race would resume with a rolling start where the safety car returns to pit lane and drivers proceed around the circuit in single file until they are shown the green flag.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The FIA introduced tighter restrictions on racing licences issued to drivers taking part in free practice sessions. Candidate drivers are required to complete a minimum number of Formula 2 races or earn twenty-five superlicense points over a three-year period. The changes were introduced to address concerns about drivers who would not be able to meet the standards required to compete in Formula One having access to Formula One cars.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The schedule of a Grand Prix weekend was changed, with the start time of most European races pushed back by one hour in an attempt to accommodate a larger television audience. All races were scheduled to start at ten minutes past the hour so as to allow broadcasters the opportunity for pre-race coverage, especially in cases when their broadcast of the race starts on the hour.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Power unit suppliers are required to provide all teams using their engines with an identical specification of power units. The change was introduced to ensure parity after Mercedes's works team was observed to have access to additional engine performance settings that were not available to their customer teams.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The quantity of power unit components a driver may use during the season was reduced from four complete power units during the entire season in 2017 to a new system where each of the power unit components is considered separately. Therefore, in 2018, each driver is permitted to use up to three each of internal combustion engines (ICE), heat motor generator units (MGU-H), and turbochargers (TC); and two each of the kinetic motor generator units (MGU-K), energy stores (ES), and control electronics (CE).


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Restrictions against the practice of oil burning, where engine oils are burned as fuel to boost performance, were also introduced. The practice, which was first used in 2017 saw teams burning as much as 1.2 litres per one hundred kilometres. For the 2018 championship, this figure was revised down to a maximum of 0.6 litres per one hundred kilometres. The rules were further amended to restrict teams to using a single specification of oil, which must be declared before the race. These oils are subject to stricter definitions of what is considered "oil" in order to prevent teams from using exotic blends designed to boost performance. Teams are also required to inform the stewards of the mass of oil in each oil tank before the race.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Further changes to the technical regulations require the temperature of air in the plenum chamber – adjacent to the turbocharger – to be more than 10 °C above the ambient air temperature. This rule was introduced in a bid to limit the performance gains possible via charge air cooling. Active control valves, which electronically regulate the flow of fluids between power unit components, were also banned.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: The FIA banned the use of "shark fins", a carbon fibre extension to the engine cowling aimed at directing airflow over the rear wing. The use of "T-wings", a horizontal secondary wing mounted forward of and above the rear wing, was also banned.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Following a series of serious incidents in open-wheel racing – including the fatal accidents of Henry Surtees and Justin Wilson – in which drivers were struck in the head by tyres or debris, the FIA announced plans to introduce additional mandatory cockpit protection with 2018 given as the first year for its introduction. Several solutions were tested, with the final design subject to feedback from teams and drivers. Each design was created to deflect debris away from a driver's head without compromising their visibility or the ability of safety marshals to access the cockpit and extract a driver and their seat in the event of a serious accident or medical emergency, with a series of serious accidents – such as the fatal accidents of Jules Bianchi and Dan Wheldon – recreated to simulate the ability of devices to withstand a serious impact. The FIA ultimately settled on the "halo", a wishbone-shaped frame mounted above and around the driver's head and anchored to the monocoque forward of the cockpit. Seventeen accidents were examined as case studies, with the FIA concluding that the halo would have prevented injuries in fifteen of them. In the other two instances – most notably Jules Bianchi's fatal accident – the FIA concluded that although the halo would not have prevented driver injuries, it would not have contributed to or complicated the outcome of the accidents. Once introduced, the halo concept is scheduled to be applied to other FIA-sanctioned open-wheel racing categories including Formula 2, Formula 3 and Formula E, with 2020 earmarked as the deadline for all FIA-sanctioned open-wheel racing series to adopt the halo.


title: 2018 Formula One World Championship

text: Following criticisms over the aesthetic value of the device, the FIA revealed plans to allow teams some design freedom in the final version of the halo, with the teams permitted to attach a thin single-plane wing atop the halo to control airflow over the top of the car and into the airbox to assist with engine cooling. Where the test models of the halo had been attached to an existing monocoque structure, teams were required to incorporate the final build of the halo into the chassis design from its inception rather than attached once the design was completed. The minimum weight of the chassis was raised to , in order to accommodate the additional weight of the halo. The mandatory crash tests that each chassis must pass were adjusted to include a new static load test. In order to simulate a serious accident, a tyre was mounted to a hydraulic ram and fired at the crash structure; to pass the test, the chassis and the mounting points for the halo had to remain intact. In order to prevent teams from exploiting the halo for aerodynamic gain and potentially compromising its purpose, the FIA banned teams from developing their own devices and instead required them to purchase pre-fabricated models from approved suppliers. The technical regulations were updated mid-season to allow teams to mount rear view mirrors to the halo instead of affixing them to the bodywork. The changes were introduced in response to criticism that the halo obstructed the driver's view of the mirrors; however, halo-mounted designs were also criticised for allowing teams to exploit a loophole and introduce aerodynamic device, in the form of winglets above the mirrors, into an area where aerodynamic development was prohibited under the pretense of improving driver visibility, and the regulations were rewritten once more to ban the practice of mounting anything besides mirrors on the halo.