title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan released the Spanish album "90 Millas" on 18 September 2007. The album was produced by Emilio Estefan and Gaitan Bros (Gaitanes), and composed by Emilio Estefan, Gloria Estefan, Ricardo Gaitán and Alberto Gaitán. The title alludes to the distance between Miami and Cuba. The album peaked at No.1 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and was peaked at No. 25 on the Billboard 200 list, selling 25,000 units in its first week. In Spain, it debuted at No. 3 and was certified gold. The album won a Latin Grammy Award for Best Traditional Tropical Album and "Pintame de Colores" won the award for Best Tropical Song.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2008, Estefan appeared during the seventh season of "American Idol" for the special charity episode "Idol Gives Back". She performed her song "Get on Your Feet" along with Sheila E. The song was released at the American iTunes Store, and the video of the performance reached No. 20 of the store's Top 100 videos. Estefan became the headliner of the MGM Grand at Foxwoods Resort Casino's new venue. She then headed to Canada to perform at the Casino Rama. In August, she started her 90 Millas World Tour. Estefan played concerts in London, Rotterdam, Belfast and Aruba. Estefan performed several concerts in Spain, specifically Madrid, Barcelona, Zaragoza and Tenerife. Two of these concerts, in Las Ventas, Spain, and in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, were free to the public.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Back in the States, Estefan performed a special concert at the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel and Casino to raise funds for the Education of South Florida. Estefan was a headliner for Bette Midler's "Annual Hulaween Gala" along with other special guests such as Kathy Griffin and a costume contest judged by Michael Kors. The event benefited the New York Restoration Project.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: During the Thanksgiving season, Estefan appeared on Rosie O'Donnell's television special "Rosie Live" singing a duet with O'Donnell titled "Gonna Eat for Thanksgiving", an alternate version of "Gonna Eat for Christmas" from on O'Donnell's album "A Rosie Christmas". In 2009, Estefan announced plans for her "farewell tour" of Latin America and South America. The tour continued with a concert at Guadalajara in Mexico, as part of a program designed to improve tourism in Mexico, and a series of appearances at music festivals throughout Europe, including headlining at the Summer Pops Music Festival in Liverpool on 27 July 2009.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: The same year, Estefan opened the "In Performance at the White House: Fiesta Latina 2009" with "No Llores". Also, at the end, Estefan together with Jennifer Lopez, Thalía, Marc Anthony, José Feliciano, performed a rendition of her Spanish-language classic, "Mi Tierra".


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2009, the albums "Eyes of Innocence", "Primitive Love" and "Let It Loose" were re-released in Japan. Sony UK re-released several of Estefan's hit albums into mini LP CDs with the titles "Anything for You", "Cuts Both Ways" and "Into the Light". Lastly, US Sony released "Playlist: The Very Best of Gloria Estefan".


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan began 2010 with a charity single: she and her husband, producer Emilio Estefan, Jr., invited artists to record "Somos El Mundo", a Spanish-language version of Michael Jackson's song "We Are the World". The song, written by Estefan and approved by Quincy Jones, was recorded and premiered during "El Show de Cristina" on 1 March 2010. All of the proceed money went to Haitian relief.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: On 24 March 2010, Estefan led a march down Miami's Calle Ocho in support of Cuba's "Las Damas de Blanco" (Ladies in White). Later that year, Estefan took part in Broadway's "24 Hour Plays" in which actors, writers, and directors collaborate to produce and perform six one-act plays within 24 hours to benefit the Urban Arts Partnership. She performed alongside actors Elijah Wood, Diane Neal, and Alicia Witt in the play "I Think You'll Love This One", written by the 20-year-old winner of the Montblanc writers' project, Elizabeth Cruz Cortes.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In Spring 2011, Sony Music Europe released part 2 of the Original Album Classics comprising five classic albums: "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me", "Abriendo Puertas", "Destiny", "Gloria!", and "Alma Caribena" on mini-LP CDs.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: On 7 April 2011, Estefan made an unannounced appearance at the auditions for "The X Factor" in Miami, and gave encouragement to the 7,500 participants gathered outside the Bank United Center for auditions.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2011, Estefan was inducted into the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame along with Grammy and Emmy award winner Harry Connick Jr. Both singers performed at a special concert on 17 June 2011, with Thomas Wilkins as musical conductor. Proceeds from this event went to benefit the Los Angeles Philharmonic Institute's education programs.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan's dance-oriented album "Miss Little Havana" was released in the U.S. on 27 September 2011, with the physical CD available exclusively at Target. Estefan described the album as a project in the vein of her 1998 hit album "gloria!"; Collaborating with her on it were producers Pharrell Williams, Motiff, Emilio Estefan, and Drop Dead Beats.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: One song from the album, "Wepa", premiered on 31 May 2011, at AmericanAirlines Arena in a special music video of the song for the Miami Heat. The Heat video was released on YouTube on 1 June. The song went on sale for digital downloading at the iTunes Store on 24 July. Both "Wepa" and "Hotel Nacional" achieved No. 1 on "Billboard" Latin Songs and on Dance/Club Chart. In the fall of 2011, during an interview to promote "Miss Little Havana", Estefan expressed her views on gay rights and gay marriage and said that she was a strong supporter of both. When asked if she was a supporter of gay marriage, she replied: "Of course I am. I think everyone should be able to marry who they love, and it should just be." Estefan has also recorded a video for the It Gets Better campaign, an organization which aims to prevent homophobic bullying.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In November 2011, Estefan began hosting "Gloria Estefan's Latin Beat", a seven-part series for BBC Radio 2 in the United Kingdom that explores the history of Latin music.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan started a reality show called "" opposite Joe Jonas, Nelly and John Rich on the CW Network, where she and the other three mentors searched for the next big Atlantic Records recording artist. Unlike other music reality shows, the mentors selected the "candidates" for the show and trained them for a live performance, where they'd be voted for the best act of the day.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: This same year, Estefan appeared as a musical guest in Tony Bennett's compilation of duets with Latin-American musicians, "Viva Duets" with a rendition of the song, "Who Can I Turn To". Weeks later, she helped the American version of "Teleton", releasing the charity single "Por Un Mundo Mejor" along with Mexican singer Lucero, Dominican rapper El Cata, and Mexican pop band, Reik. A video for the song was shot, with them recording the song, which was marked as the official hymn for the foundation.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In May 2013, she performed another duet with the song "Think I'm in Love Again" as part of the albums "Duets" released by Paul Anka. That same month, in parts of Europe, Sony Music released a 2 CDs collection call "The Dutch Collections, "this compilation includes all of Gloria Estefan 32 hits including "Hot Summer Nights", never been released before on any of Estefan albums.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In September 2013, Estefan released "The Standards". The album features some collaborations with artists like Laura Pausini, Dave Koz and Joshua Bell, and a selection of songs from the Great American Songbook.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: The album reached No. 20 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart marking her first top 20 album on the chart since 1994's "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me". The first single from the album was "How Long Has This Been Going On?".


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In April 2014, Estefan and her husband were honored at the 2014 "Power of Love Event for Keep Memory Alive" in Las Vegas, where other musicians, including Ricky Martin and Rita Moreno offered the couple a tribute to their music. Estefan joined Carlos Santana on his new album "Corazon" in a song called "Besos de lejos". Estefan released "Soy Mujer", on Sony Latin on 23 June 2015. The album consists of Estefan's greatest Spanish-language hits.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan announced she was working on re-recording her music catalog with Brazilian rhythms and four new songs on an album titled "Brazil305". She released the first single for the album, "Cuando Hay Amor", on 12 June 2020.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In April 2020, Estefan released "Put on Your Mask", a parody of her 1989 song "Get on Your Feet", with the lyrics changed to reflect the importance of wearing face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In May 2020, Estefan wrote and released "We Needed Time" as a musical piece to reflect the feelings and emotions the world was experiencing around the COVID-19 global pandemic. The genesis of the song came from a late night conversation Estefan had with her son Nayib who exclaimed to her that although he wouldn't have asked for a pandemic, it had gifted him with precious time to spend with his wife and son. Taking this idea, Gloria penned the lyrics and composed the melody. The video for the song was shot in and around Estefan's property on Star Island, Miami by socially distanced cinematographers using drone cameras to capture the beautiful tranquility that the pandemic had created. The song was made available to download for free from Estefan's official website and on some streaming platforms.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: 2022 Estefans are bring out a new Christmas album tilted Estefan Family Christmas. Emilio and Gloria Estefan say the album include Gloria Estefan her daughter Emily and her grandson (Sasha) they are in the studio recording the album.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: A jukebox musical, "On Your Feet!", about the life of Gloria and Emilio Estefan premiered on Broadway 5 November 2015. The musical premiered at the Oriental Theater, Chicago, running from 17 June 2015 – 5 July 2015. Directed by Jerry Mitchell, the choreography is by Sergio Trujillo and the book by Alexander Dinelaris. The Chicago cast featured Ana Villafañe as Gloria and Josh Segarra as Emilio. The musical opened on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre on 5 October 2015 (preview shows) and 5 November 2015 (official release date).


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In June 2019 the show played at The Curve in Leicester, UK, before moving to the West End's London Coliseum In London for June–August 2019.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan has appeared in two live-action films, "Music of the Heart" (1999) and "" (2000). Estefan made a cameo appearance with her husband in "Marley & Me" (2008). Estefan starred in a made-for-TV movie on HBO in the remake of "Father of the Bride" with Andy Garcia. The film had a Latin/Cuban America twist, which premiered on 16 June 2022 on HBO Max.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan was cast to star as Connie Francis, a U.S. pop singer of the 1950s and early 1960s, in the biographical film "Who's Sorry Now?" According to "Parade" magazine (23 March 2008), filming supposedly began in late 2008. In an interview with www.allheadlinenews.com, Estefan stated that the film would be released in 2009. However, as of December 2009, the film was dropped as Connie Francis had irreconcilable differences with Estefan over the film's writer. Francis wanted to hire writer Robert L. Freedman, who had written the Emmy Award winning mini-series "". Estefan, according to Francis, refused to consider him and the project collaboration thus ended.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan appeared in the ABC television special "Elmopalooza" (which aired on 20 February 1998), in which she sang the song "Mambo, I, I, I". In April 2004, Estefan appeared on the Fox Broadcasting Company's program "American Idol" as a guest mentor for the contestants during Latin Week.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: After campaigning heavily for the part on her social media accounts, Estefan was invited to guest star on the Fox television series "Glee" as the mother of cheerleader Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera). She also appeared as a mentor for the CW Network reality series "".


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan played Mirtha, the baby sister and nemesis of Lydia Margarita del Carmen Inclán Maribona Leyte-Vidal de Riera, in the first episode of season 3 of the Netflix series "One Day at a Time".


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2020, Estefan began co-hosting "Red Table Talk: The Estefans", a spin-off of the Facebook Watch talk show "Red Table Talk" alonge her daughter Emily Estefan and niece Lili Estefan.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan voiced the character of Marta Sandoval, a legendary singer on the verge of retirement, in the animated film "Vivo". The film, which features songs by Lin-Manuel Miranda, was released in theaters and on Netflix in 2021.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan has written two children's books, "The Magically Mysterious Adventures of Noelle the Bulldog" (2005) and "Noelle's Treasure Tale" (2006). The latter book spent a week at No. 3 on the New York Times Bestseller list for children's books.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: She also collaborated on a cookbook with her husband entitled "Estefan Kitchen", which was published in 2008. It contains 60 traditional Cuban recipes.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Gloria and Emilio Estefan have owned several business establishments, including several Cuban-themed restaurants (Bongos Cuban Café; Larios on the Beach). The restaurants are located in Miami Beach, downtown Miami (part of the American Airlines Arena), at the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Hollywood, Florida, Walt Disney World's Disney Springs in Orlando, Florida, and in Miami International Airport. They also own two hotels, Costa d'Este in Vero Beach, which opened in 2008, and The Cardozo in Miami Beach.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In August 2019, the Estefans closed their restaurant Bongos Cuban Cafe that had been located at Disney Springs at Walt Disney World for 22 years. The business was re-imagined as Estefan's Kitchen which opened at the Sunset Walk at Margaritaville Resort Orlando in February 2020.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan was appointed to the board of directors for Univision Communications Inc. in 2007. The Estefans' estimated net worth has been reported variously as between $500 and $700 million.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In June 2009, Estefan and her husband became the first Hispanics to buy a minor ownership stake in an NFL team, the Miami Dolphins.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In December 2022, Estefan was a guest narrator at Disney's Candlelight Processional at Epcot, Walt Disney World.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan became romantically involved with the Miami Sound Machine's band leader, Emilio Estefan, in 1976. She later revealed, "he was my first and only boyfriend". They married on 2 September 1978, and have a son, Nayib (born 2 September 1980), and a daughter, Emily (born 5 December 1994). Emily was conceived after Gloria's devastating tour bus accident in 1990; doctors told her she wouldn't be able to have any more children. The family lives on Star Island.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan's daughter, Emily, is a recording artist and her son, Nayib, is an aspiring filmmaker and owner of the Nite Owl Theater in Miami. In June 2012, Estefan became a grandmother.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In addition to her three Grammy Awards, Estefan has received many other awards. In May 1993, she received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor, which is the highest award that can be given to a naturalized U.S. citizen. She has won the Hispanic Heritage Award, an MTV Video Music Award, and the 1993 National Music Foundation's Humanitarian of the Year award. She is the recipient of the American Music Award for Lifetime Achievement.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: She also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Her husband, Emilio, a world-renowned music impresario, received a star which is adjacent to his wife's on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2005.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan was awarded an honorary doctoral degree in music from the University of Miami in 1993. She was a member of the Board of Trustees of the University of Miami. In April 2014, Estefan was tapped into the Iron Arrow Honor Society, the University of Miami's highest honor society. In 2002, Barry University in Miami bestowed upon her an honorary law degree. She and her husband received honorary doctoral degrees in music from the Berklee College of Music in Boston in 2007. She delivered the commencement address to the 2007 graduating class.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2002, she received the Congressional Hispanic Caucus Institute Medallion of Excellence for Community Service. The singer was Musicares Person of the Year in 1994. She founded the "Gloria Estefan Foundation", which promotes education, health and cultural development. In 1997, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: She has been honored twice by the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In 1992, she served as a public member of the U.S. Delegation to the 47th Session of the United Nations' General Assembly Opening Plenary.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: Estefan received the Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year award at the Latin Grammy Awards in November 2008 in recognition of her twenty-five-year singing career. She is the first female singer to receive this award. She also received the Latin Grammy Award for Best Traditional Tropical Album for "90 Millas", and the Latin Grammy Award for Best Tropical Song for her single "Píntame De Colores". This established the first occasion for Estefan to ever win the Grammy Award for a song (either Latin or non-Latin). On 12 March 2009, Estefan was honored as a BMI Icon at the 16th annual BMI Latin Awards. Her catalog includes 22 BMI Latin and Pop Awards, along with 11 BMI Million-Air Awards.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In April 2010, Estefan and her husband received a star in the "Walk of Stars" in Las Vegas for their contribution to music industry. On 28 April 2011, at the Latin Billboard Awards, Estefan was honored with the Billboard Spirit of Hope Award for her philanthropic work for the second time, the first being in 1996.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2014, Estefan and her husband received a Caribbean American Mover and Shakers Lifetime Achievement Award, for their contributions to the Hispanic, and multicultural community. In November 2015, it was announced Estefan, along with her husband, would be awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama for her contributions to American music.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2017, Estefan was made an honorary member of Sigma Alpha Iota International Music Fraternity, a music Greek organization for women with over 115 years of supporting music in their universities, organization and the world. She was initiated at the Sigma Chi Chapter at University of Miami.


title: Gloria Estefan

text: In 2018, Estefan became the first Cuban-American to be named as one of the Kennedy Center Honors. On 14 March 2019, Estefan and her husband were awarded with the 2019 Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for Popular Song. They are the first married couple and first of Hispanic descent to receive the Gershwin Prize.


title: Heathers

text: Heathers is a 1989 American black comedy film written by Daniel Waters and directed by Michael Lehmann, in both of their respective film debuts. The film stars Winona Ryder, Christian Slater, Shannen Doherty, Lisanne Falk, Kim Walker, and Penelope Milford. Its plot portrays four teenage girls—three of whom are named Heather—in a clique at an Ohio high school, one of whose lives is disrupted by the arrival of a misanthrope intent on murdering the popular students and staging their deaths as suicides.


title: Heathers

text: Waters wrote "Heathers" as a spec script and originally wanted Stanley Kubrick to direct the film, out of admiration for Kubrick's own black comedy film "Dr. Strangelove". Waters intended for the film to contrast the more optimistic teen movies of the era, particularly those written by John Hughes, by presenting a cynical depiction of high school imbued with dark satire.


title: Heathers

text: "Heathers" was screened on October 24, 1988, at the MIFED film market in Milan, Italy, before premiering at the Sundance Film Festival in January 1989. New World Pictures theatrically released the film in the United States on March 31, 1989. It went on to win the Independent Spirit Award for Best First Feature, and for his screenplay, Waters received the Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay. It has since become popular as a cult film and is regarded in polls as one of the greatest coming-of-age films of all time. "Heathers" has since been adapted into a and a television series.


title: Heathers

text: At Westerburg High School in Sherwood, Ohio, Veronica Sawyer is part of a popular but feared clique, along with three other wealthy and beautiful girls with the same first name: Heather Duke, Heather McNamara and the school's ruthless queen bee, Heather Chandler. The four girls often play croquet in Veronica's backyard. Tired of the clique abusing its power, Veronica longs for her old life with her kinder but less popular friends. She becomes fascinated with Jason "J.D." Dean, a new student and rebellious outsider, after he pulls out a gun and fires blanks to scare football-player bullies Kurt Kelly and Ram Sweeney.


title: Heathers

text: Veronica attends a frat party with Chandler, where she refuses to have sex with one of the members (unlike Chandler, who was coerced to perform oral sex on one) and drunkenly vomits on Chandler. In retaliation, Chandler vows to destroy her reputation. Later that night, J.D. shows up by surprise at Veronica's house, and the two have sex outside. They express to each other their mutual hatred of Chandler's tyranny.


title: Heathers

text: The next morning, Veronica and J.D. break into Chandler's house, planning to get revenge by using a fake hangover cure to make Chandler vomit. J.D. pours drain cleaner into a mug, but Veronica dismisses him, thinking he is making a mean joke. She mixes orange juice and milk together instead. However, Veronica accidentally brings the wrong mug to Chandler's room; J.D. notices this but says nothing. He serves Chandler the drain cleaner, killing her. Veronica panics, and J.D. urges her to forge a dramatic suicide note in Chandler's handwriting. The school and community regard Chandler's apparent suicide as a tragic decision made by a troubled teenager, making her even more worshipped in death than in life. Meanwhile, Duke uses the attention surrounding Chandler's death to gain popularity, becoming the clique's new leader.


title: Heathers

text: After Chandler's funeral, McNamara convinces Veronica to go with her, Kurt, and Ram on a double date. J.D. finds the four teens that evening in a field, and Veronica leaves with him as Kurt passes out, while Ram rapes McNamara. The following day, the boys spread a false rumor about Veronica performing oral sex on them, ruining her reputation. J.D. proposes that he and Veronica lure the boys into the woods, shoot them with tranquilizers, and humiliate them by staging the scene to look like they were lovers participating in a suicide pact.


title: Heathers

text: In the forest, J.D. shoots Ram, but Veronica's shot misses Kurt, who runs away. J.D. chases Kurt back towards Veronica who, realizing that the bullets are in fact lethal, fatally shoots him in a panic. J.D. and Veronica are nearly caught by police, but they make out in a station wagon to pretend they were there all along and had nothing to do with it. At their funeral, the boys are made into martyrs to homophobia. Growing increasingly disturbed by J.D.'s behavior (behavior which may be influenced by his mother's suicide and his sociopathic wealthy father's abuse of people), Veronica breaks up with him.


title: Heathers

text: A little while after this, J.D. blackmails Duke into getting every student to sign a "petition" that, unbeknownst to her, is intended to act as a mass suicide note. He then gives her a red scrunchie that Chandler had worn, signifying her new power over the school. Meanwhile, Martha Dunnstock, a large girl who is a frequent target of bullying, pins a suicide note to her chest and walks into oncoming traffic. She survives but is badly injured and mocked by her peers for attempting to copy the popular kids. Later, McNamara calls a radio show to discuss her depression; Duke tells the entire school about the radio call the next day, and McNamara is bullied. McNamara attempts suicide by overdosing in the girls' bathroom, but Veronica intervenes.


title: Heathers

text: Veronica returns home, and her parents say that J.D. stopped by to tell them that he was worried she would attempt suicide. He leaves a note revealing he can successfully imitate her handwriting, and a Barbie doll hanging in her room. J.D. breaks into Veronica's house with a plan to kill Heather Duke, but the murder is revealed to be a dream sequence. Realizing that J.D. plans to kill her, she fakes her own suicide-by-hanging. J.D. finds her and, assuming she is dead, gives a monologue revealing his plan to blow up the school pep rally and make it look like a mass suicide.


title: Heathers

text: The next day, Veronica confronts J.D. in the boiler room as he plants dynamite. She shoots him, and his switchblade cuts the wires to the detonator. Veronica goes outside, and J.D. follows her with a bomb strapped to his chest. He offers a personal eulogy and detonates the bomb, killing himself. As students and faculty rush outside to see what happened, Veronica walks back inside, dirty and disheveled from the explosion. She approaches Duke, takes the red scrunchie, and asserts that Duke is no longer in charge. Veronica then invites Martha to spend prom night watching movies together, as Duke looks on.


title: Heathers

text: Daniel Waters began writing the screenplay in spring of 1986, while he was working at a video store. Waters wanted the film to be directed by Stanley Kubrick, not only out of admiration for him, but also from a perception that "Kubrick was the only person that could get away with a three-hour film". (The cafeteria scene near the start of "Heathers" was written as a homage to the barracks scene which opens Kubrick's "Full Metal Jacket".) After a number of failed attempts to get the script to Kubrick, Waters approached director Michael Lehmann, who he met through a mutual friend. Lehmann agreed to helm the film with producer Denise Di Novi.


title: Heathers

text: In the original version of the script, J.D. successfully blows up Westerburg High, and the final scene features a surreal prom gathering of all the students in heaven. Executives at New World Pictures agreed to finance the film, but they disliked the dark ending and insisted that it be changed.


title: Heathers

text: Some reviewers have discussed similarities between "Heathers" and "Massacre at Central High", a low-budget 1976 film. Daniel Waters has stated that he had not seen "Massacre at Central High" at the time he wrote "Heathers" but that he had read a review of it in a Danny Peary book about cult movies and that the earlier film may have been "rattling around somewhere in my subconscious".


title: Heathers

text: Many actors and actresses turned down the project because of its dark subject matter. Early choices for Veronica were Justine Bateman and Jennifer Connelly. Winona Ryder, who was 16 at the time of filming and badly wanted the part, begged Waters to cast her as Veronica, even offering to work for free. Waters at first did not think Ryder was pretty enough, and Ryder herself commented that "at the time, I didn't look that different from my character in "Beetlejuice". I was very pale. I had blue-black dyed hair. I went to Macy's at the Beverly Center and had them do a makeover on me." Ryder's agent was so opposed to her pursuing the role that she got down on her hands and knees to beg Ryder not to take it, warning her that it would ruin her career. Eventually, she was given the role. Brad Pitt read for the role of J.D. but he was rejected. Christian Slater reports throwing a "big tantrum" and tossing his script in the trash after assuming he'd bombed his audition. He was signed to play J.D. shortly after Ryder was cast, stating later that he channeled Jack Nicholson in the film.


title: Heathers

text: Heather Graham, then 17, was offered the part of Heather Chandler, but turned it down due to her parents' disapproval of the film. Kim Walker, who was dating Slater at the time, was offered the role instead. Lisanne Falk, 23 years old at the time, lied and said she was in her late teens during the audition. It was only after she was cast that she revealed her true age. Seventeen-year-old Shannen Doherty wanted the role of Veronica, but Ryder had been cast, so the producers asked her to audition for Heather Chandler. Doherty was more interested in playing Heather Duke, and ended up giving an "amazing" reading as Duke, which secured her the part. The producers wanted her to dye her hair blonde to match the other "Heathers", but Doherty refused, so they compromised on her having red hair.


title: Heathers

text: Principal photography took place over 33 days in February and March 1988, on a budget of $3 million. Although set in Ohio, filming was done entirely in Los Angeles. "Westerburg High School" is an amalgam of Corvallis High School (now Bridges Academy) in Studio City, Verdugo Hills High School in Tujunga, and John Adams Middle School in Santa Monica. The gymnasium scenes were shot at Verdugo Hills High, and the climactic scene on the stairs was filmed outside John Adams Middle School. The funeral scenes were filmed at Church of the Angels in Pasadena, California, a location used in other media including "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and "Just Married".


title: Heathers

text: Michael Lehmann has called Doherty "a bit of a handful" on set, in part because she objected to the swearing in the script and refused to say some of the more explicit lines. Falk stated that Doherty "didn't have much of a sense of humor, and she took herself a little seriously", and Di Novi said: "I don't think Shannen really got what "Heathers" was. And that worked for us. She made that character real." When the cast first viewed the movie, Doherty ran out crying because she realized the film was a dark comedy and not the drama she was expecting.


title: Heathers

text: The film uses two versions of the song "Que Sera, Sera", the first by singer Syd Straw and another over the end credits by Sly and the Family Stone. On the film's DVD commentary, Di Novi mentions that the filmmakers wanted to use the original Doris Day version of the song, but Day would not lend her name to any project using profanity.


title: Heathers

text: The song "Teenage Suicide (Don't Do It)" by the fictional band Big Fun was written and produced for the film by musician Don Dixon, and performed by the ad hoc group "Big Fun", which consisted of Dixon, Mitch Easter, Angie Carlson, and Marti Jones. The song is included on Dixon's 1992 greatest hits album "(If) I'm a Ham, Well You're a Sausage".


title: Heathers

text: The film's electronic score was composed and performed by David Newman, and a soundtrack CD was subsequently released.


title: Heathers

text: Heathers was screened at the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 1989, and was released to the U.S. public in March 1989, at which time New World Pictures was going bankrupt. The film was considered a flop when it was released, earning $177,247 in its opening weekend and ultimately grossing $1.1 million in the United States over five weeks.


title: Heathers

text: New World Video released "Heathers" on VHS and LaserDisc in 1989, and it developed a cult following after being unsuccessful at the box office. It was released again on LaserDisc on September 16, 1996, as a widescreen edition digitally transferred from Transatlantic Pictures' interpositive print under the supervision of cinematographer Francis Kenny. The sound was mastered from the magnetic sound elements. The film was then first released on DVD on March 30, 1999, in a barebones edition. In 2001, a multi-region special edition THX DVD was released from Anchor Bay Entertainment in Dolby Digital 5.1. The DVD was released in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe, and achieved high sales. Each release included a different front cover featuring Veronica, J.D., Chandler, Duke, and McNamara.


title: Heathers

text: In 2001, a limited edition DVD set of only 15,000 copies was released. The set contained an audio commentary with director Michael Lehmann, producer Denise Di Novi and writer Daniel Waters, as well as a 30-minute documentary titled "Swatch Dogs and Diet Cokeheads", featuring interviews with Ryder, Slater, Doherty, Falk, Lehmann, Waters, Di Novi, director of photography Francis Kenny, and editor Norman Hollyn. It also includes a theatrical trailer, screenplay excerpt, original ending, biographies, 10-page full-color fold-out with photos and liner notes, an 8-inch "Heathers Rules!" ruler, and a 48-page full-color yearbook style booklet with rare photos. The film was then re-released on Blu-ray by Image Entertainment in 2011 as a barebones edition, two years after Anchor Bay.


title: Heathers

text: In June 2018, Arrow Films reported that "Heathers" would be re-released on August 8, 2018, in cinemas and on September 10 on Blu-ray, in a new 4K restoration. On July 1, 2008, a new 20th anniversary special edition DVD set was released by Anchor Bay to coincide with the DVD of writer Waters' new film "Sex and Death 101". The DVD features a new documentary, "Return to Westerburg High". On November 18, 2008, Anchor Bay released a Blu-ray with all the special features from the 20th anniversary DVD and a soundtrack in Dolby TrueHD 5.1. On November 12, 2019, Image Entertainment released a 30th Anniversary steelbook edition on Blu-ray. This release did not utilize Arrow Films' 4K restoration and featured new and previous special features.


title: Heathers

text: Writing in April 1989 for the "Washington Post", journalist Desson Thomson wrote that it "may be the nastiest, cruelest fun you can have without actually having to study law or gird leather products. If movies were food, "Heathers" would be a cynic's chocolate binge." "Chicago Sun-Times" film critic Roger Ebert gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4 and wrote that "Heathers" "is a morbid comedy about peer pressure in high school, about teenage suicide and about the deadliness of cliques that not only exclude but also maim and kill." While conceding its ability to provoke thought and shock, Ebert questioned how the mixed sensibility as a dark murder comedy and "cynical morality play" led to difficulty in understanding its point of view, while remarking that, "Adulthood could be defined as the process of learning to be shocked by things that do not shock teenagers, but that is not a notion that has occurred to Lehmann."


title: Heathers

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 93% based on contemporary and retrospective reviews from 56 critics and an average rating of 7.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Dark, cynical, and subversive, "Heathers" gently applies a chainsaw to the conventions of the high school movie – changing the game for teen comedies to follow." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 72/100 based on 20 reviews by mainstream critics. Academics have likened "Heathers" to other films popular during the 1980s and early 1990s which characterized domestic youth narratives as part and parcel of the "culture war".


title: Heathers

text: Waters created a specific set of slang and style of speech for the film, wanting to ensure that the language in the film would have "timeless" quality instead of just reflecting teen slang at the time. Much of the language made its way into the popular vernacular. The film is among the most cited in the "Oxford English Dictionary".


title: Heathers

text: On June 2, 2009, "Entertainment Weekly" reported that Ryder had claimed that there would be a sequel to the film, titled "Heathers 2", with Slater coming back "as a kind of Obi-Wan character". However, Lehmann denied development of a sequel, saying, "Winona's been talking about this for years—she brings it up every once in a while and Dan Waters and I will joke about it, but as far as I know there's no script and no plans to do the sequel."


title: Heathers

text: In 2010, "Heathers" was adapted into a stage musical directed by Andy Fickman. Fickman also worked on the musical "Reefer Madness", a parody of the anti-cannabis movie of the same name which was turned into a feature film. "Heathers: The Musical", which opens with a number depicting Veronica's acceptance into the Heathers' clique, received several readings in workshops in Los Angeles and a three-show concert presentation at Joe's Pub in New York City on September 13–14, 2010. The cast of the Joe's Pub concert included Annaleigh Ashford as Veronica, Jenna Leigh Green as Heather Chandler, and Jeremy Jordan as J.D.


title: Heathers

text: The musical played at Off-Broadway's New World Stages with performances beginning March 15, 2014, and an opening night on March 31. The original cast of the Off-Broadway production included Barrett Wilbert Weed as Veronica Sawyer, Jessica Keenan Wynn as Heather Chandler, Ryan McCartan as JD, Alice Lee as Heather Duke, and Elle McLemore as Heather McNamara. It closed on August 4, 2014.


title: Heathers

text: An Off West End production of Heathers, directed by Andy Fickman, played at The Other Palace in London with performances between June 19 and August 4, 2018. Its cast included Carrie Hope Fletcher as Veronica Sawyer, Jodie Steele as Heather Chandler, Jamie Muscato as JD, T’Shan Williams as Heather Duke and Sophie Isaacs as Heather McNamara. It transferred to the West End in September 2018, playing in Theatre Royal Haymarket, London. A high school production of the musical is the focus of the "" episode of "Riverdale".


title: Heathers

text: In 2021 Heathers returned for a limited run at the Haymarket with Christina Bennington playing Veronica Sawyer and Jordan Luke Gage as JD. The three Heathers were played by Jodie Steele (Heather Chandler), Bobbi Little (Heather Duke) and Frances Mayli McCann (Heather McNamara). It then went on to play at The Other Palace until February 2022.


title: Heathers

text: In March 2016, TV Land ordered a pilot script for an anthology dark comedy series, set in the present day, with a very different Veronica Sawyer dealing with a very different but equally vicious group of Heathers. The series was written by Jason Micallef and Tom Rosenberg, and Gary Lucchesi was the executive producer In January 2017, the "Heathers" TV show was ordered to Series at TV Land. Shannen Doherty, the movie's Heather Duke, makes a cameo appearance in the pilot.


title: Heathers

text: In March 2017, it was reported that the series was moved to the then upcoming Paramount Network. Selma Blair has a recurring role in the series. A trailer for the rebooted series was released in August 2017. The series stars Grace Victoria Cox as Veronica Sawyer, James Scully as J.D., Melanie Field as Heather Chandler, Brendan Scannell as Heather Duke, Jasmine Mathews as Heather McNamara, Birgundi Baker as Lizzy, and Cameron Gellman as Kurt. The series was set to premiere on March 7, 2018, but on February 28, 2018, it was announced that the premiere would be delayed in light of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Enigma machine is a cipher device developed and used in the early- to mid-20th century to protect commercial, diplomatic, and military communication. It was employed extensively by Nazi Germany during World War II, in all branches of the German military. The Enigma machine was considered so secure that it was used to encipher the most top-secret messages.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Enigma has an electromechanical rotor mechanism that scrambles the 26 letters of the alphabet. In typical use, one person enters text on the Enigma's keyboard and another person writes down which of the 26 lights above the keyboard illuminated at each key press. If plain text is entered, the illuminated letters are the ciphertext. Entering ciphertext transforms it back into readable plaintext. The rotor mechanism changes the electrical connections between the keys and the lights with each keypress.


title: Enigma machine

text: The security of the system depends on machine settings that were generally changed daily, based on secret key lists distributed in advance, and on other settings that were changed for each message. The receiving station would have to know and use the exact settings employed by the transmitting station to successfully decrypt a message.


title: Enigma machine

text: While Nazi Germany introduced a series of improvements to the Enigma over the years, and these hampered decryption efforts, they did not prevent Poland from cracking the machine as early as December 1932 and reading messages prior to and into the war. Poland's sharing of her achievements enabled the western Allies to exploit Enigma-enciphered messages as a major source of intelligence. Many commentators say the flow of Ultra communications intelligence from the decrypting of Enigma, Lorenz, and other ciphers shortened the war substantially and may even have altered its outcome.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Enigma machine was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War I. This was unknown until 2003 when a paper by Karl de Leeuw was found that described in detail Scherbius' changes. The German firm Scherbius & Ritter, co-founded by Scherbius, patented ideas for a cipher machine in 1918 and began marketing the finished product under the brand name "Enigma" in 1923, initially targeted at commercial markets. Early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries, most notably Nazi Germany before and during World War II.


title: Enigma machine

text: Several different Enigma models were produced, but the German military models, having a plugboard, were the most complex. Japanese and Italian models were also in use. With its adoption (in slightly modified form) by the German Navy in 1926 and the German Army and Air Force soon after, the name "Enigma" became widely known in military circles. Pre-war German military planning emphasized fast, mobile forces and tactics, later known as blitzkrieg, which depend on radio communication for command and coordination. Since adversaries would likely intercept radio signals, messages had to be protected with secure encipherment. Compact and easily portable, the Enigma machine filled that need.


title: Enigma machine

text: Around December 1932 Marian Rejewski, a Polish mathematician and cryptologist at the Polish Cipher Bureau, used the theory of permutations, and flaws in the German military-message encipherment procedures, to break message keys of the plugboard Enigma machine. France's spy Hans-Thilo Schmidt obtained access to German cipher materials that included the daily keys used in September and October 1932. Those keys included the plugboard settings. The French passed the material to the Poles, and Rejewski used some of that material and the message traffic in September and October to solve for the unknown rotor wiring. Consequently the Polish mathematicians were able to build their own Enigma machines, dubbed "Enigma doubles". Rejewski was aided by fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, both of whom had been recruited with Rejewski from Poznań University, which had been selected for its students' knowledge of the German language, since that area was held by Germany prior to World War I. The Polish Cipher Bureau developed techniques to defeat the plugboard and find all components of the daily key, which enabled the Cipher Bureau to read German Enigma messages starting from January 1933.


title: Enigma machine

text: Over time, the German cryptographic procedures improved, and the Cipher Bureau developed techniques and designed mechanical devices to continue reading Enigma traffic. As part of that effort, the Poles exploited quirks of the rotors, compiled catalogues, built a cyclometer (invented by Rejewski) to help make a catalogue with 100,000 entries, invented and produced Zygalski sheets, and built the electromechanical cryptologic "bomba" (invented by Rejewski) to search for rotor settings. In 1938 the Poles had six "bomby" (plural of "bomba"), but when that year the Germans added two more rotors, ten times as many "bomby" would have been needed to read the traffic.


title: Enigma machine

text: On 26 and 27 July 1939, in Pyry, just south of Warsaw, the Poles initiated French and British military intelligence representatives into the Polish Enigma-decryption techniques and equipment, including Zygalski sheets and the cryptologic bomb, and promised each delegation a Polish-reconstructed Enigma (the devices were soon delivered).


title: Enigma machine

text: In September 1939, British Military Mission 4, which included Colin Gubbins and Vera Atkins, went to Poland, intending to evacuate cipher-breakers Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki, and Henryk Zygalski from the country. The cryptologists, however, had been evacuated by their own superiors into Romania, at the time a Polish-allied country. On the way, for security reasons, the Polish Cipher Bureau personnel had deliberately destroyed their records and equipment. From Romania they traveled on to France, where they resumed their cryptological work, collaborating by teletype with the British, who began work on decrypting German Enigma messages, using the Polish equipment and techniques.


title: Enigma machine

text: Gordon Welchman, who became head of Hut 6 at Bletchley Park, has written: "Hut 6 Ultra would never have gotten off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use." The Polish transfer of theory and technology at Pyry formed the crucial basis for the subsequent World War II British Enigma-decryption effort at Bletchley Park, where Welchman worked.


title: Enigma machine

text: During the war, British cryptologists decrypted a vast number of messages enciphered on Enigma. The intelligence gleaned from this source, codenamed "Ultra" by the British, was a substantial aid to the Allied war effort.


title: Enigma machine

text: Though Enigma had some cryptographic weaknesses, in practice it was German procedural flaws, operator mistakes, failure to systematically introduce changes in encipherment procedures, and Allied capture of key tables and hardware that, during the war, enabled Allied cryptologists to succeed.


title: Enigma machine

text: Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical subsystems. The mechanical subsystem consists of a keyboard; a set of rotating disks called "rotors" arranged adjacently along a spindle; one of various stepping components to turn at least one rotor with each key press, and a series of lamps, one for each letter. These design features are the reason that the Enigma machine was originally referred to as the rotor-based cipher machine during its intellectual inception in 1915.


title: Enigma machine

text: An electrical pathway is a route for current to travel. By manipulating this phenomenon the Enigma machine was able to scramble messages. The mechanical parts act by forming a varying electrical circuit. When a key is pressed, one or more rotors rotate on the spindle. On the sides of the rotors are a series of electrical contacts that, after rotation, line up with contacts on the other rotors or fixed wiring on either end of the spindle. When the rotors are properly aligned, each key on the keyboard is connected to a unique electrical pathway through the series of contacts and internal wiring. Current, typically from a battery, flows through the pressed key, into the newly configured set of circuits and back out again, ultimately lighting one display lamp, which shows the output letter. For example, when encrypting a message starting "ANX...", the operator would first press the "A" key, and the "Z" lamp might light, so "Z" would be the first letter of the ciphertext. The operator would next press "N", and then "X" in the same fashion, and so on.


title: Enigma machine

text: Current flows from the battery (1) through a depressed bi-directional keyboard switch (2) to the plugboard (3). Next, it passes through the (unused in this instance, so shown closed) plug "A" (3) via the entry wheel (4), through the wiring of the three (Wehrmacht Enigma) or four ("Kriegsmarine" M4 and "Abwehr" variants) installed rotors (5), and enters the reflector (6). The reflector returns the current, via an entirely different path, back through the rotors (5) and entry wheel (4), proceeding through plug "S" (7) connected with a cable (8) to plug "D", and another bi-directional switch (9) to light the appropriate lamp.


title: Enigma machine

text: The repeated changes of electrical path through an Enigma scrambler implement a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that provides Enigma's security. The diagram on the right shows how the electrical pathway changes with each key depression, which causes rotation of at least the right-hand rotor. Current passes into the set of rotors, into and back out of the reflector, and out through the rotors again. The greyed-out lines are other possible paths within each rotor; these are hard-wired from one side of each rotor to the other. The letter "A" encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to "G", and then to "C". This is because the right-hand rotor steps (rotates one position) on each key press, sending the signal on a completely different route. Eventually other rotors step with a key press.


title: Enigma machine

text: The rotors (alternatively "wheels" or "drums", "Walzen" in German) form the heart of an Enigma machine. Each rotor is a disc approximately in diameter made from Ebonite or Bakelite with 26 brass, spring-loaded, electrical contact pins arranged in a circle on one face, with the other face housing 26 corresponding electrical contacts in the form of circular plates. The pins and contacts represent the alphabet — typically the 26 letters A–Z, as will be assumed for the rest of this description. When the rotors are mounted side by side on the spindle, the pins of one rotor rest against the plate contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection. Inside the body of the rotor, 26 wires connect each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern. Most of the rotors are identified by Roman numerals, and each issued copy of rotor I, for instance, is wired identically to all others. The same is true for the special thin beta and gamma rotors used in the M4 naval variant.


title: Enigma machine

text: By itself, a rotor performs only a very simple type of encryption, a simple substitution cipher. For example, the pin corresponding to the letter "E" might be wired to the contact for letter "T" on the opposite face, and so on. Enigma's security comes from using several rotors in series (usually three or four) and the regular stepping movement of the rotors, thus implementing a polyalphabetic substitution cipher.


title: Enigma machine

text: Each rotor can be set to one of 26 possible starting positions when placed in an Enigma machine. After insertion, a rotor can be turned to the correct position by hand, using the grooved finger-wheel which protrudes from the internal Enigma cover when closed. In order for the operator to know the rotor's position, each has an "alphabet tyre" (or letter ring) attached to the outside of the rotor disc, with 26 characters (typically letters); one of these is visible through the window for that slot in the cover, thus indicating the rotational position of the rotor. In early models, the alphabet ring was fixed to the rotor disc. A later improvement was the ability to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the rotor disc. The position of the ring was known as the "Ringstellung" ("ring setting"), and that setting was a part of the initial setup needed prior to an operating session. In modern terms it was a part of the initialization vector.


title: Enigma machine

text: Each rotor contains one or more notches that control rotor stepping. In the military variants, the notches are located on the alphabet ring.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Army and Air Force Enigmas were used with several rotors, initially three. On 15 December 1938, this changed to five, from which three were chosen for a given session. Rotors were marked with Roman numerals to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single notches located at different points on the alphabet ring. This variation was probably intended as a security measure, but ultimately allowed the Polish Clock Method and British Banburismus attacks.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Naval version of the "Wehrmacht" Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services: At first six, then seven, and finally eight. The additional rotors were marked VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches, resulting in more frequent turnover. The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) machine accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version. This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner one and by adding a thin fourth rotor. That fourth rotor was one of two types, "Beta" or "Gamma", and never stepped, but could be manually set to any of 26 positions. One of the 26 made the machine perform identically to the three-rotor machine.


title: Enigma machine

text: To avoid merely implementing a simple (solvable) substitution cipher, every key press caused one or more rotors to step by one twenty-sixth of a full rotation, before the electrical connections were made. This changed the substitution alphabet used for encryption, ensuring that the cryptographic substitution was different at each new rotor position, producing a more formidable polyalphabetic substitution cipher. The stepping mechanism varied slightly from model to model. The right-hand rotor stepped once with each keystroke, and other rotors stepped less frequently.


title: Enigma machine

text: The advancement of a rotor other than the left-hand one was called a "turnover" by the British. This was achieved by a ratchet and pawl mechanism. Each rotor had a ratchet with 26 teeth and every time a key was pressed, the set of spring-loaded pawls moved forward in unison, trying to engage with a ratchet. The alphabet ring of the rotor to the right normally prevented this. As this ring rotated with its rotor, a notch machined into it would eventually align itself with the pawl, allowing it to engage with the ratchet, and advance the rotor on its left. The right-hand pawl, having no rotor and ring to its right, stepped its rotor with every key depression. For a single-notch rotor in the right-hand position, the middle rotor stepped once for every 26 steps of the right-hand rotor. Similarly for rotors two and three. For a two-notch rotor, the rotor to its left would turn over twice for each rotation.


title: Enigma machine

text: The first five rotors to be introduced (I–V) contained one notch each, while the additional naval rotors VI, VII and VIII each had two notches. The position of the notch on each rotor was determined by the letter ring which could be adjusted in relation to the core containing the interconnections. The points on the rings at which they caused the next wheel to move were as follows.


title: Enigma machine

text: The design also included a feature known as "double-stepping". This occurred when each pawl aligned with both the ratchet of its rotor and the rotating notched ring of the neighbouring rotor. If a pawl engaged with a ratchet through alignment with a notch, as it moved forward it pushed against both the ratchet and the notch, advancing both rotors. In a three-rotor machine, double-stepping affected rotor two only. If, in moving forward, the ratchet of rotor three was engaged, rotor two would move again on the subsequent keystroke, resulting in two consecutive steps. Rotor two also pushes rotor one forward after 26 steps, but since rotor one moves forward with every keystroke anyway, there is no double-stepping. This double-stepping caused the rotors to deviate from odometer-style regular motion.


title: Enigma machine

text: With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine had a period of 26×25×26 = 16,900 (not 26×26×26, because of double-stepping). Historically, messages were limited to a few hundred letters, and so there was no chance of repeating any combined rotor position during a single session, denying cryptanalysts valuable clues.


title: Enigma machine

text: To make room for the Naval fourth rotors, the reflector was made much thinner. The fourth rotor fitted into the space made available. No other changes were made, which eased the changeover. Since there were only three pawls, the fourth rotor never stepped, but could be manually set into one of 26 possible positions.


title: Enigma machine

text: A device that was designed, but not implemented before the war's end, was the "Lückenfüllerwalze" (gap-fill wheel) that implemented irregular stepping. It allowed field configuration of notches in all 26 positions. If the number of notches was a relative prime of 26 and the number of notches were different for each wheel, the stepping would be more unpredictable. Like the Umkehrwalze-D it also allowed the internal wiring to be reconfigured.


title: Enigma machine

text: The current entry wheel ("Eintrittswalze" in German), or entry stator, connects the plugboard to the rotor assembly. If the plugboard is not present, the entry wheel instead connects the keyboard and lampboard to the rotor assembly. While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to security, it proved an obstacle to Rejewski's progress during his study of the rotor wirings. The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on a QWERTZ keyboard: "Q"→"A", "W"→"B", "E"→"C" and so on. The military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: "A"→"A", "B"→"B", "C"→"C", and so on. It took inspired guesswork for Rejewski to penetrate the modification.


title: Enigma machine

text: With the exception of models "A" and "B", the last rotor came before a 'reflector' (German: "Umkehrwalze", meaning 'reversal rotor'), a patented feature unique to Enigma among the period's various rotor machines. The reflector connected outputs of the last rotor in pairs, redirecting current back through the rotors by a different route. The reflector ensured that Enigma would be self-reciprocal; thus, with two identically configured machines, a message could be encrypted on one and decrypted on the other, without the need for a bulky mechanism to switch between encryption and decryption modes. The reflector allowed a more compact design, but it also gave Enigma the property that no letter ever encrypted to itself. This was a severe cryptological flaw that was subsequently exploited by codebreakers.


title: Enigma machine

text: In Model 'C', the reflector could be inserted in one of two different positions. In Model 'D', the reflector could be set in 26 possible positions, although it did not move during encryption. In the "Abwehr" Enigma, the reflector stepped during encryption in a manner similar to the other wheels.


title: Enigma machine

text: In the German Army and Air Force Enigma, the reflector was fixed and did not rotate; there were four versions. The original version was marked 'A', and was replaced by "Umkehrwalze B" on 1 November 1937. A third version, "Umkehrwalze C" was used briefly in 1940, possibly by mistake, and was solved by Hut 6. The fourth version, first observed on 2 January 1944, had a rewireable reflector, called "Umkehrwalze D", nick-named Uncle Dick by the British, allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings.


title: Enigma machine

text: The plugboard ("Steckerbrett" in German) permitted variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid). It was introduced on German Army versions in 1928, and was soon adopted by the "Reichsmarine" (German Navy). The plugboard contributed more cryptographic strength than an extra rotor, as it had 150 trillion possible settings (see below). Enigma without a plugboard (known as "unsteckered Enigma") could be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques were generally defeated by the plugboard, driving Allied cryptanalysts to develop special machines to solve it.


title: Enigma machine

text: A cable placed onto the plugboard connected letters in pairs; for example, "E" and "Q" might be a steckered pair. The effect was to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit. For example, when an operator pressed "E", the signal was diverted to "Q" before entering the rotors. Up to 13 steckered pairs might be used at one time, although only 10 were normally used.


title: Enigma machine

text: Current flowed from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeded to the entry-rotor or "Eintrittswalze". Each letter on the plugboard had two jacks. Inserting a plug disconnected the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter. The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable was inserted into another letter's jacks, thus switching the connections of the two letters.


title: Enigma machine

text: Some M4 Enigmas used the "Schreibmax", a small printer that could print the 26 letters on a narrow paper ribbon. This eliminated the need for a second operator to read the lamps and transcribe the letters. The "Schreibmax" was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel. To install the printer, the lamp cover and light bulbs had to be removed. It improved both convenience and operational security; the printer could be installed remotely such that the signal officer operating the machine no longer had to see the decrypted plaintext.


title: Enigma machine

text: Another accessory was the remote lamp panel "Fernlesegerät". For machines equipped with the extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel. A lamp panel version could be connected afterwards, but that required, as with the "Schreibmax", that the lamp panel and light bulbs be removed. The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted plaintext without the operator seeing it.


title: Enigma machine

text: In 1944, the "Luftwaffe" introduced a plugboard switch, called the "Uhr" (clock), a small box containing a switch with 40 positions. It replaced the standard plugs. After connecting the plugs, as determined in the daily key sheet, the operator turned the switch into one of the 40 positions, each producing a different combination of plug wiring. Most of these plug connections were, unlike the default plugs, not pair-wise. In one switch position, the "Uhr" did not swap letters, but simply emulated the 13 stecker wires with plugs.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Enigma transformation for each letter can be specified mathematically as a product of permutations. Assuming a three-rotor German Army/Air Force Enigma, let denote the plugboard transformation, denote that of the reflector, and , , denote those of the left, middle and right rotors respectively. Then the encryption can be expressed as


title: Enigma machine

text: After each key press, the rotors turn, changing the transformation. For example, if the right-hand rotor is rotated positions, the transformation becomes


title: Enigma machine

text: where is the cyclic permutation mapping A to B, B to C, and so forth. Similarly, the middle and left-hand rotors can be represented as and rotations of and . The encryption transformation can then be described as


title: Enigma machine

text: Combining three rotors from a set of five, each of the 3 rotor settings with 26 positions, and the plugboard with ten pairs of letters connected, the military Enigma has 158,962,555,217,826,360,000 different settings (nearly 159 quintillion or about 67 bits).


title: Enigma machine

text: A German Enigma operator would be given a plaintext message to encrypt. After setting up his machine, he would type the message on the Enigma keyboard. For each letter pressed, one lamp lit indicating a different letter according to a pseudo-random substitution determined by the electrical pathways inside the machine. The letter indicated by the lamp would be recorded, typically by a second operator, as the cyphertext letter. The action of pressing a key also moved one or more rotors so that the next key press used a different electrical pathway, and thus a different substitution would occur even if the same plaintext letter were entered again. For each key press there was rotation of at least the right hand rotor and less often the other two, resulting in a different substitution alphabet being used for every letter in the message. This process continued until the message was completed. The cyphertext recorded by the second operator would then be transmitted, usually by radio in Morse code, to an operator of another Enigma machine. This operator would type in the cyphertext and — as long as all the settings of the deciphering machine were identical to those of the enciphering machine — for every key press the reverse substitution would occur and the plaintext message would emerge.


title: Enigma machine

text: In use, the Enigma required a list of daily key settings and auxiliary documents. In German military practice, communications were divided into separate networks, each using different settings. These communication nets were termed "keys" at Bletchley Park, and were assigned code names, such as "Red", "Chaffinch", and "Shark". Each unit operating in a network was given the same settings list for its Enigma, valid for a period of time. The procedures for German Naval Enigma were more elaborate and more secure than those in other services and employed auxiliary codebooks. Navy codebooks were printed in red, water-soluble ink on pink paper so that they could easily be destroyed if they were endangered or if the vessel was sunk.


title: Enigma machine

text: An Enigma machine's setting (its cryptographic key in modern terms; "Schlüssel" in German) specified each operator-adjustable aspect of the machine:


title: Enigma machine

text: For a message to be correctly encrypted and decrypted, both sender and receiver had to configure their Enigma in the same way; rotor selection and order, ring positions, plugboard connections and starting rotor positions must be identical. Except for the starting positions, these settings were established beforehand, distributed in key lists and changed daily. For example, the settings for the 18th day of the month in the German Luftwaffe Enigma key list number 649 (see image) were as follows:


title: Enigma machine

text: Enigma was designed to be secure even if the rotor wiring was known to an opponent, although in practice considerable effort protected the wiring configuration. If the wiring is secret, the total number of possible configurations has been calculated to be around (approximately 380 bits); with known wiring and other operational constraints, this is reduced to around (76 bits). Because of the large number of possibilities, users of Enigma were confident of its security; it was not then feasible for an adversary to even begin to try a brute-force attack.


title: Enigma machine

text: Most of the key was kept constant for a set time period, typically a day. A different initial rotor position was used for each message, a concept similar to an initialisation vector in modern cryptography. The reason is that encrypting many messages with identical or near-identical settings (termed in cryptanalysis as being "in depth"), would enable an attack using a statistical procedure such as Friedman's Index of coincidence. The starting position for the rotors was transmitted just before the ciphertext, usually after having been enciphered. The exact method used was termed the "indicator procedure". Design weakness and operator sloppiness in these indicator procedures were two of the main weaknesses that made cracking Enigma possible.


title: Enigma machine

text: One of the earliest "indicator procedures" for the Enigma was cryptographically flawed and allowed Polish cryptanalysts to make the initial breaks into the plugboard Enigma. The procedure had the operator set his machine in accordance with the secret settings that all operators on the net shared. The settings included an initial position for the rotors (the "Grundstellung"), say, "AOH". The operator turned his rotors until "AOH" was visible through the rotor windows. At that point, the operator chose his own arbitrary starting position for the message he would send. An operator might select "EIN", and that became the "message setting" for that encryption session. The operator then typed "EIN" into the machine twice, this producing the encrypted indicator, for example "XHTLOA". This was then transmitted, at which point the operator would turn the rotors to his message settings, "EIN" in this example, and then type the plaintext of the message.


title: Enigma machine

text: At the receiving end, the operator set the machine to the initial settings ("AOH") and typed in the first six letters of the message ("XHTLOA"). In this example, "EINEIN" emerged on the lamps, so the operator would learn the "message setting" that the sender used to encrypt this message. The receiving operator would set his rotors to "EIN", type in the rest of the ciphertext, and get the deciphered message.


title: Enigma machine

text: This indicator scheme had two weaknesses. First, the use of a global initial position ("Grundstellung") meant all message keys used the same polyalphabetic substitution. In later indicator procedures, the operator selected his initial position for encrypting the indicator and sent that initial position in the clear. The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was a serious security flaw. The message setting was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character. These security flaws enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break into the pre-war Enigma system as early as 1932. The early indicator procedure was subsequently described by German cryptanalysts as the "faulty indicator technique".


title: Enigma machine

text: During World War II, codebooks were only used each day to set up the rotors, their ring settings and the plugboard. For each message, the operator selected a random start position, let's say "WZA", and a random message key, perhaps "SXT". He moved the rotors to the "WZA" start position and encoded the message key "SXT". Assume the result was "UHL". He then set up the message key, "SXT", as the start position and encrypted the message. Next, he transmitted the start position, "WZA", the encoded message key, "UHL", and then the ciphertext. The receiver set up the start position according to the first trigram, "WZA", and decoded the second trigram, "UHL", to obtain the "SXT" message setting. Next, he used this "SXT" message setting as the start position to decrypt the message. This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message settings.


title: Enigma machine

text: This procedure was used by "Wehrmacht" and "Luftwaffe" only. The "Kriegsmarine" procedures on sending messages with the Enigma were far more complex and elaborate. Prior to encryption the message was encoded using the "Kurzsignalheft" code book. The "Kurzsignalheft" contained tables to convert sentences into four-letter groups. A great many choices were included, for example, logistic matters such as refuelling and rendezvous with supply ships, positions and grid lists, harbour names, countries, weapons, weather conditions, enemy positions and ships, date and time tables. Another codebook contained the "Kenngruppen" and "Spruchschlüssel": the key identification and message key.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Army Enigma machine used only the 26 alphabet characters. Punctuation was replaced with rare character combinations. A space was omitted or replaced with an X. The X was generally used as full-stop.


title: Enigma machine

text: Some punctuation marks were different in other parts of the armed forces. The "Wehrmacht" replaced a comma with ZZ and the question mark with FRAGE or FRAQ.


title: Enigma machine

text: The "Kriegsmarine" replaced the comma with Y and the question mark with UD. The combination CH, as in ""Acht"" (eight) or ""Richtung"" (direction), was replaced with Q (AQT, RIQTUNG). Two, three and four zeros were replaced with CENTA, MILLE and MYRIA.


title: Enigma machine

text: The "Kriegsmarine", using the four rotor Enigma, had four-character groups. Frequently used names or words were varied as much as possible. Words like "Minensuchboot" (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT, MMMBOOT or MMM354. To make cryptanalysis harder, messages were limited to 250 characters. Longer messages were divided into several parts, each using a different message key.


title: Enigma machine

text: The character substitutions by the Enigma machine as a whole can be expressed as a string of letters with each position occupied by the character that will replace the character at the corresponding position in the alphabet. For example, a given machine configuration that enciphered A to L, B to U, C to S, ..., and Z to J could be represented compactly as


title: Enigma machine

text: and the enciphering of a particular character by that configuration could be represented by highlighting the enciphered character as in


title: Enigma machine

text: Since the operation of an Enigma machine enciphering a message is a series of such configurations, each associated with a single character being enciphered, a sequence of such representations can be used to represent the operation of the machine as it enciphers a message. For example, the process of enciphering the first sentence of the main body of the famous "Dönitz message" to


title: Enigma machine

text: where the letters following each mapping are the letters that appear at the windows at that stage (the only state changes visible to the operator) and the numbers show the underlying physical position of each rotor.


title: Enigma machine

text: The character mappings for a given configuration of the machine are in turn the result of a series of such mappings applied by each pass through a component of the machine: the enciphering of a character resulting from the application of a given component's mapping serves as the input to the mapping of the subsequent component. For example, the 4th step in the enciphering above can be expanded to show each of these stages using the same representation of mappings and highlighting for the enciphered character:


title: Enigma machine

text: Here the enciphering begins trivially with the first "mapping" representing the keyboard (which has no effect), followed by the plugboard, configured as AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW which has no effect on 'G', followed by the VIII rotor in the 03 position, which maps G to A, then the VI rotor in the 17 position, which maps A to N, ..., and finally the plugboard again, which maps B to F, producing the overall mapping indicated at the final step: G to F.


title: Enigma machine

text: Note that this model has 4 rotors (lines 1 through 4) and that the reflector (line R) also permutes (garbles) letters.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Enigma family included multiple designs. The earliest were commercial models dating from the early 1920s. Starting in the mid-1920s, the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of security-related changes. Various nations either adopted or adapted the design for their own cipher machines.


title: Enigma machine

text: An estimated 40,000 Enigma machines were constructed. After the end of World War II, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to developing countries.


title: Enigma machine

text: On 23 February 1918, Arthur Scherbius applied for a patent for a ciphering machine that used rotors. Scherbius and E. Richard Ritter founded the firm of Scherbius & Ritter. They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither agency was interested. Scherbius & Ritter then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the "Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft" (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors.


title: Enigma machine

text: Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine, "Enigma Handelsmaschine", which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1924. The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a typewriter. It measured 65×45×38 cm and weighed about .


title: Enigma machine

text: This was also a model with a type writer. There where a number of problems associated with the printer and the construction was not stable until 1926. Both early versions of Enigma lacked the reflector and had to be switched between chiffering and dechiffering.


title: Enigma machine

text: The reflector, suggested by Scherbius' colleague Willi Korn, was introduced with the glow lamp version.


title: Enigma machine

text: The machine was also known as the military Enigma. It had two rotors and a manually rotatable reflector. The typewriter was omitted and glow lamps were used for output. The operation was somewhat different from later models. Before the next key pressure, the operator had to press a button to advance the right rotor one step.


title: Enigma machine

text: Enigma "model B" was introduced late in 1924, and was of a similar construction. While bearing the Enigma name, both models "A" and "B" were quite unlike later versions: They differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector. This model of Enigma machine was referred to as the Glowlamp Enigma or "Glühlampenmaschine" since it produced its output on a lamp panel rather than paper. This method of output was much more reliable and cost effective. Hence this machine was 1/8th the price of its predecessor.


title: Enigma machine

text: "Model C" was the third model of the so-called ″glowlamp Enigmas″ (after A and B) and it again lacked a typewriter.


title: Enigma machine

text: The "Enigma C" quickly gave way to "Enigma D" (1927). This version was widely used, with shipments to Sweden, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, Spain, United States and Poland. In 1927 Hugh Foss at the British Government Code and Cypher School was able to show that commercial Enigma machines could be broken, provided suitable cribs were available. Soon, the Enigma D would pioneer the use of a standard keyboard layout to be used in German computing. This "QWERTZ" layout is very similar to the American QWERTY keyboard format used in many languages.


title: Enigma machine

text: Other countries used Enigma machines. The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as "Navy Cipher D". The Spanish also used commercial Enigma machines during their Civil War. British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard. Enigma machines were also used by diplomatic services.


title: Enigma machine

text: There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the "Enigma H", called "Enigma II" by the "Reichswehr". In 1933 the Polish Cipher Bureau detected that it was in use for high-level military communication, but it was soon withdrawn, as it was unreliable and jammed frequently.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Swiss used a version of Enigma called "Model K" or "Swiss K" for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to commercial Enigma D. The machine's code was cracked by Poland, France, the United Kingdom and the United States; the latter code-named it INDIGO. An "Enigma T" model, code-named "Tirpitz", was used by Japan.


title: Enigma machine

text: The various services of the Wehrmacht used various Enigma versions, and replaced them frequently, sometimes with ones adapted from other services. Enigma seldom carried high-level strategic messages, which when not urgent went by courier, and when urgent went by other cryptographic systems including the Geheimschreiber.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Reichsmarine was the first military branch to adopt Enigma. This version, named "Funkschlüssel C" ("Radio cipher C"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926.


title: Enigma machine

text: The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters — A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü — that were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZUI ordering. The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter "X" wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted. Three rotors were chosen from a set of five and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ. The machine was revised slightly in July 1933.


title: Enigma machine

text: By 15 July 1928, the German Army ("Reichswehr") had introduced their own exclusive version of the Enigma machine, the "Enigma G".


title: Enigma machine

text: The "Abwehr" used the "Enigma G" (the "Abwehr" Enigma). This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors. This model was equipped with a counter that incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the "counter machine" or the "Zählwerk" Enigma.


title: Enigma machine

text: Enigma machine G was modified to the "Enigma I" by June 1930. Enigma I is also known as the "Wehrmacht", or "Services" Enigma, and was used extensively by German military services and other government organisations (such as the railways) before and during World War II.


title: Enigma machine

text: The major difference between "Enigma I" (German Army version from 1930), and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing cryptographic strength.


title: Enigma machine

text: Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings. The machine measured and weighed around .


title: Enigma machine

text: By 1930, the Reichswehr had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications. The Reichsmarine eventually agreed and in 1934 brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated "Funkschlüssel" ' or "M3". While the Army used only three rotors at that time, the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five.


title: Enigma machine

text: In December 1938, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five. In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight.


title: Enigma machine

text: A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called "M4" (the network was known as "Triton", or "Shark" to the Allies). The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor.


title: Enigma machine

text: The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s. Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown. Enigmas are on public display in museums around the world, and several are in the hands of private collectors and computer history enthusiasts.


title: Enigma machine

text: The "Deutsches Museum" in Munich has both the three- and four-rotor German military variants, as well as several civilian versions. Enigma machines are exhibited at the National Codes Centre in Bletchley Park, the Government Communications Headquarters, the Science Museum in London, Discovery Park of America in Tennessee, the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, the Swedish Army Museum ("Armémuseum") in Stockholm, the Military Museum of A Coruña in Spain, the Nordland Red Cross War Memorial Museum in Narvik, Norway, The Artillery, Engineers and Signals Museum in Hämeenlinna, Finland the Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, in Skanderborg Bunkerne at Skanderborg, Denmark, and at the Australian War Memorial and in the foyer of the Australian Signals Directorate, both in Canberra, Australia. The Jozef Pilsudski Institute in London exhibited a rare Polish Enigma double assembled in France in 1940. In 2020, thanks to the support of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, it became the property of the Polish History Museum.


title: Enigma machine

text: In the United States, Enigma machines can be seen at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, and at the National Security Agency's National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, where visitors can try their hand at enciphering and deciphering messages. Two machines that were acquired after the capture of during World War II are on display alongside the submarine at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. A three-rotor Enigma is on display at Discovery Park of America in Union City, Tennessee. A four-rotor device is on display in the ANZUS Corridor of the Pentagon on the second floor, A ring, between corridors 8 and 9. This machine is on loan from Australia. The United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs has a machine on display in the Computer Science Department. There is also a machine located at The National WWII Museum in New Orleans. The International Museum of World War II near Boston has seven Enigma machines on display, including a U-Boat four-rotor model, one of three surviving examples of an Enigma machine with a printer, one of fewer than ten surviving ten-rotor code machines, an example blown up by a retreating German Army unit, and two three-rotor Enigmas that visitors can operate to encode and decode messages. Computer Museum of America in Roswell, Georgia has a three-rotor model with two additional rotors. The machine is fully restored and CMoA has the original paperwork for the purchase on 7 March 1936 by the German Army. The National Museum of Computing also contains surviving Enigma machines in Bletchley, England.


title: Enigma machine

text: In Canada, a Swiss Army issue Enigma-K, is in Calgary, Alberta. It is on permanent display at the Naval Museum of Alberta inside the Military Museums of Calgary. A four-rotor Enigma machine is on display at the Military Communications and Electronics Museum at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Kingston in Kingston, Ontario.


title: Enigma machine

text: Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices have in recent years ranged from US$40,000 to US$547,500 in 2017. Replicas are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues.


title: Enigma machine

text: A rare "Abwehr" Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on 1 April 2000. In September, a man identifying himself as "The Master" sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatening to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid. In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom, but the stated deadline passed with no word from the blackmailer. Shortly afterward, the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, missing three rotors.


title: Enigma machine

text: In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning "The Sunday Times" to arrange the return of the missing parts. The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley Park after the incident. In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison and served three months.


title: Enigma machine

text: In October 2008, the Spanish daily newspaper "El País" reported that 28 Enigma machines had been discovered by chance in an attic of Army headquarters in Madrid. These four-rotor commercial machines had helped Franco's Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War, because, though the British cryptologist Alfred Dilwyn Knox in 1937 broke the cipher generated by Franco's Enigma machines, this was not disclosed to the Republicans, who failed to break the cipher. The Nationalist government continued using its 50 Enigmas into the 1950s. Some machines have gone on display in Spanish military museums, including one at the National Museum of Science and Technology (MUNCYT) in La Coruña and one at the Spanish Army Museum. Two have been given to Britain's GCHQ.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Bulgarian military used Enigma machines with a Cyrillic keyboard; one is on display in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia.


title: Enigma machine

text: On 3 December 2020, German divers working on behalf of the World Wide Fund for Nature discovered a destroyed Enigma machine in Flensburg Firth (part of the Baltic Sea) which is believed to be from a scuttled U-Boat. This Enigma machine will be restored by and be the property of the Archaeology Museum of Schleswig Holstein.


title: Enigma machine

text: The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, spinning off other rotor machines. Once the British discovered Enigma's principle of operation, they created the Typex rotor cipher, which the Germans believed to be unsolvable. Typex was originally derived from the Enigma patents; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine. The British paid no royalties for the use of the patents. to protect secrecy. In the United States, cryptologist William Friedman designed the M-325 machine, starting in 1936, that is logically similar.


title: Enigma machine

text: Machines like the SIGABA, NEMA, Typex, and so forth, are deliberately not considered to be Enigma derivatives as their internal ciphering functions are not mathematically identical to the Enigma transform.


title: Enigma machine

text: A unique rotor machine called Cryptograph was constructed in 2002 by Netherlands-based Tatjana van Vark. This device makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation to be used; each rotor contains 509 parts.


title: AirDrop

text: AirDrop is a proprietary wireless ad hoc service in Apple Inc.'s iOS and macOS operating systems, introduced in Mac OS X Lion (Mac OS X 10.7) and iOS 7, which can transfer files among supported Macintosh computers and iOS devices by means of close-range wireless communication. This communication takes place over Apple Wireless Direct Link 'Action Frames' and 'Data Frames' using generated link-local IPv6 addresses instead of the Wi-Fi chip's fixed MAC address.


title: AirDrop

text: Prior to OS X Yosemite (OS X 10.10), and under OS X Lion, Mountain Lion, and Mavericks (OS X 10.7–10.9, respectively) the AirDrop protocol in macOS was different from the AirDrop protocol of iOS, and the two were therefore not interoperable. OS X Yosemite and later support the iOS AirDrop protocol, which is used for transfers between a Mac and an iOS device as well as between two 2012 or newer Mac computers, and which uses both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. Legacy mode for the old AirDrop protocol (which only uses Wi-Fi) between a 2012 or older Mac computer (or a computer running OS X Lion through OS X Mavericks) and another Mac computer was also available until macOS Mojave.


title: AirDrop

text: On iOS 7 and later, AirDrop can be accessed by either tapping on Settings > General > AirDrop, or via the Control Center. Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are automatically switched on when AirDrop is enabled as they are both utilized.


title: AirDrop

text: If an application implements AirDrop support, it is available through the share button. AirDrop is subject to a number of restrictions on iOS, such as the inability to share music or videos from the native apps.


title: AirDrop

text: On Macs running OS X 10.7 and greater, AirDrop is available in the Finder window sidebar. On Macs running OS X 10.8.1 or later, it can also be accessed through the menu option Go → AirDrop or by pressing ++.


title: AirDrop

text: Wi-FiAirDrop selected in a Finder window sidebar to be able to transfer files. Furthermore, files are not automatically accepted;


title: AirDrop

text: AirDrop can be enabled unofficially on iPad (3rd generation). Although not supported by default, AirDrop can be enabled by jailbreaking the device and installing "AirDrop Enabler 7.0+" from Cydia. This procedure is not supported or recommended by Apple, as engaging in jailbreaking can cause software instability, and can introduce a conduit to install viruses.


title: AirDrop

text: To transfer files between a Mac and an iPhone, iPad or iPod touch, the following minimum requirements have to be met: All iOS devices with AirDrop are supported with iOS 8 or later:


title: AirDrop

text: Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have to be turned on for both Mac and iOS devices. (Both devices are not required to be connected to the same Wi-Fi network.)


title: AirDrop

text: AirDrop uses TLS encryption over a direct Apple-created peer-to-peer Wi-Fi connection for transferring files. The Wi-Fi radios of the source and target devices communicate directly without using an Internet connection or Wi-Fi Access Point.


title: AirDrop

text: The technical details of AirDrop and the proprietary peer-to-peer Wi-Fi protocol called "Apple Wireless Direct Link (AWDL)" have been reverse engineered and the resulting open source implementations published as "OWL"


title: AirDrop

text: During the initial handshake devices exchange full SHA-256 hashes of users' phone numbers and email addresses, which might be used by attackers to infer the phone numbers and in some cases email addresses themselves.


title: AirDrop

text: Following the 2022 Beijing Sitong Bridge protest, users in China used AirDrop to distribute similar protest posters and slogans. Apple reportedly limited the AirDrop function in China just weeks before 2022 COVID-19 protests in China.


title: AirDrop

text: There have been numerous reported cases where iOS device users with AirDrop privacy set to "Everyone" have received unwanted files from nearby strangers; the phenomenon has been termed "cyber-flashing." As of iOS 16.1.1, Apple has silently replaced the "Everyone" mode with "Everyone for 10 minutes" for users in China, which automatically reverts back to contacts only after time elapses. After it was discovered, Apple stated that this feature was intended to reduce unsolicited content, and would become available worldwide in a future update. It did not comment upon the timing of the change or why it is initially limited to China, with reports suggesting that the limitation was implemented due to the Sitong Bridge protest.


title: AirDrop

text: In March 2022 a flight between Seattle and Orlando was detained on the runway at Orlando International Airport until police decided a hijack threat was "not credible" – a 10-year-old child onboard the plane AirDropped a threat to another passenger, who alerted the crew.


title: AirDrop

text: In May 2022, an AnadoluJet flight between Israel and Turkey was deboarded after Israeli users used AirDrop to share pictures of a Turkish airline crash, leading to at least one injury to a passenger. After a search of the luggage, the flight was reboarded and resumed its trip some hours later.


title: AirDrop

text: In June 2022, a man on a Southwest flight reportedly AirDropped a sexually explicit photo to all passengers — leading to police waiting to escort him off the plane upon his arrival.


title: AirDrop

text: In July 2022, an 18-year-old Spanish man flying from Rome to Alicante, airdropped some pictures of skulls and a generic menace in Aramaic to some of the passengers, before take off. As the crew was informed and the captain asked for police intervention, the flight left with a two hour delay and the young man was charged with procuring an alarm.


title: AirDrop

text: In late August 2022, a man on an airplane that was taxiing for take off AirDropped nude photos of himself to others on the Southwest Airlines flight from Houston to Cabo San Lucas. When a passenger reported this to the flight crew, the pilot announced that if this didn't stop he would return to the gate, which would ruin their vacations and the activity stopped.


title: Indian Institutes of Technology

text: The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) are central government owned public technical institutes located across India. They are under the ownership of the Ministry of Education of the Government of India. They are governed by the Institutes of Technology Act, 1961, declaring them as Institutes of National Importance and laying down their powers, duties, and framework for governance as the country's premier institutions in the field of technology. The act currently lists twenty-three IITs. Each IIT has autonomy and is linked to others through a common council called the IIT Council, which oversees their administration. The Minister of Education of India is the ex officio Chairperson of the IIT Council.


title: Indian Institutes of Technology

text: The history of the IIT system nearly dates back to 1946 when Sir Jogendra Singh of the Viceroy's Executive Council set up a committee whose task was to consider the creation of "Higher Technical Institutions" for post-war industrial development in India. The 22-member committee, headed by Nalini Ranjan Sarkar, recommended the establishment of these institutions in various parts of India, along the lines of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), with affiliated secondary institutions.