title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: Prince Jefri was accused of misappropriating state funds to pay for his own personal investments, bought through BIA and Amedeo companies and removed from his position as head of BIA. In February 2000, the Bruneian government attempted to obtain a freezing order on Prince Jefri's overseas assets, which led to him countersuing in New York. Following protracted negotiations a settlement agreement was signed by the Prince in May 2000, the terms of which were never made public. However, Prince Jefri claimed assurances were made to him by the sultan with regards to keeping certain properties to maintain his lifestyle, which BIA denied. In accordance with the settlement agreement signed in 2000, the prince began to return his assets to the state, including more than 500 properties, both in Brunei and abroad, about 2500 cars, 100 paintings, five boats, and nine aircraft. In 2001 ten thousand lots of Prince Jefri's possessions went to auction.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: However, the BIA alleged that the Prince failed to uphold the agreement by failing to disclose all his accounts, and allowing money to be taken from frozen accounts, and restarted legal proceedings to gain full control of the Prince's assets. After a number of appeals, this finally reached the Privy Council in London, which can serve as Brunei's highest court of appeal as a result of Brunei's former protectorate status. The Privy Council rejected Prince Jefri's evidence, describing his contention that the agreement allowed for him to retain a number of properties as "simply incredible", and ruled in favour of the Government of Brunei and the BIA; consequently the Prince's appeal was dismissed and he was ordered to return the rest of his assets to Brunei. The decision of the Privy Council did not end the litigation between Prince Jefri and the BIA. The BIA re-opened proceedings in Malaysia and the Cayman Islands, resulting in the BIA gaining control over the Hotel Bel-Air in Los Angeles and The New York Palace Hotel in Manhattan.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: The BIA also re-opened collateral litigation in the High Court of England and Wales. After winning before the Privy Council, the BIA asked the court to determine whether Prince Jefri should be held in contempt of court for allegedly making misstatements in his listing of assets. The contempt proceeding was scheduled for a hearing in June 2008, but the Prince did not attend, instead going to Paris. Judge Peter Smith did not rule on whether Prince Jefri was in contempt, but did issue a warrant for his arrest. As of November 2010, the warrant still appears to be in place, meaning the Prince will be arrested if he enters the UK.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: As of October, 2009, Prince Jefri appears to have been allowed back to Brunei. He is not back in any official government role but retains all his royal titles and decorations and remains in the royal protocol order. He is seen at major national functions like the national teachers day celebrations, the sultan's birthday and at the National Day Celebrations. His most recent appearance was at The Legco (Legislative Council) opening ceremony in March 2012.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: As Prime Minister, Bolkiah has spearheaded legislation that would introduce the death penalty for homosexuality and adultery, by stoning, effective from 3 April 2019. This sparked international protests. The policy resulted in calls for boycotts of numerous companies owned by the Brunei Royal Family, notably the Dorchester Collection, a group of well-known hotels owned by the sultan in the US and Europe.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: The sultan, via his Brunei Investment Agency (BIA) owning the Dorchester Collection hotels, raised concern abroad in April 2014 by implementing the Sharia law penal code that includes death by stoning, the severing of limbs, and flogging for crimes in Brunei such as abortions, adultery, and same-sex sexual acts. None are exempted from the Sharia law regardless of the classes they are in and the laws only apply within Brunei's border. When the sultan made this announcement, George Clooney, Elton John, and Ellen DeGeneres called again for a boycott of all hotels associated with him.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: In protest, a United States national LGBT advocacy organization, the Gill Action Fund, canceled its reservation to hold a conference of major donors at the Beverly Hills Hotel and demanded a refund of its deposit. The hotel management responded by issuing a statement asserting that it does not discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation. Fashion designers Brian Atwood and Peter Som subsequently called for wider protests, urging the fashion industry to boycott all of the hotels owned by the Dorchester Collection.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: In January 2013, the Royal College of General Practitioners designated the sultan the first Companion of the college for services to healthcare in Brunei and abroad. In April 2019, the RCGP withdrew this honour in light of new LGBT laws supported by the sultan which are not in concert with the organisation's values.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: Due to the international condemnation of the legislation, Bolkiah announced that he would extend a moratorium on capital punishment for homosexuality and ratify the United Nations Convention Against Torture.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: The sultan once owned one of the largest private car collections in the world with about 2,500 cars which his brother Jefri Bolkiah bought for himself, the sultan and other members of the royal family to entertain their car passion. The car collection and Prince Jefri's other indulgences cost billions of US dollars, and ultimately landed him in trouble and the royal family in financial crisis. The car collection was left abandoned; most of the non-garaged cars were beyond saving, the rest were auctioned.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: The sultan married his first cousin and first wife, Princess Pengiran Anak Saleha, who later became the "Raja Isteri" (Queen). His former second wife, Mariam Abdul Aziz (the former "Pengiran Isteri"), was a former flight attendant for the national carrier, Royal Brunei Airlines. He divorced her in 2003, stripping her of all her royal titles. In August 2005, her place was taken by a former Malaysian TV3 presenter, Azrinaz Mazhar Hakim, who is 33 years younger than the sultan. They divorced in 2010, and as with Mariam Abdul Aziz, the sultan stripped her of all titles, honours, and monthly allowance.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah is the current "Pengiran Muda Mahkota" ("crown prince") and the sultan's heir, as the eldest son of the sultan and "Raja Isteri Pengiran Anak" Saleha. As of 2012, Hassanal Bolkiah has five sons and seven daughters with his three wives. As of 2020, he also has 18 grandchildren.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: English:<br>"His Majesty Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu’izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Haji Omar ‘Ali Saifuddien Sa’adul Khairi Waddien, Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam."


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text:
Malay:
(Rumi): ""Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu’izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Haji Omar ‘Ali Saifuddien Sa’adul Khairi Waddien, Sultan dan Yang Di-Pertuan Negara Brunei Darussalam.""
(Jawi):


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: The sultan received an honorary doctorate at the Moscow State University for International Relations (MGIMO), 2005. He previously held an Honorary Doctor of Law degree from the University of Oxford, England, which was returned on 6 May 2019 following a letter from the University (but not revoked), and an Honorary Doctor of Letters degree from the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, which was revoked on 17 April 2019. He received an Honorary Doctorate from the Chulalongkorn University of Thailand. In 2003, he received an Honorary Doctorate Degree in Humanities and Culture from Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM), Yogyakarta, Indonesia. On 27 January 2005, he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws by the National University of Singapore. On 14 April 2011, he was conferred the Honorary Doctorate of Law by King's College London. The scroll for the honorary doctorate was presented by Lord Duoro, the chairman of the Council of King's College London. This honorary doctorate was rescinded in 2019 by the Fellowships and Hororary Degrees Committee at King's College London upon recommendation of the Chairman of King's College Council, The Rt Hon the Lord Geidt, in light of the sultan's willingness to inflict death by stoning and other penalties upon homosexuals in Brunei. He was awarded with an honorary doctorate in philosophy and humanities on 21 April 2011 from Universitas Indonesia. On 23 March 2019, he was conferred the Honorary Doctorate Islamic Leadership from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: The sultan holds an honorary commission in the Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom as an Air Chief Marshal. He is also an Honorary Admiral of the Royal Navy and Honorary General of the British Army, a title given to him by Queen Elizabeth II when he took the salute at the passing out parade of the 2001 summer term at Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, the Royal Navy's officer-training school in the United Kingdom. He has an English residence at Binfield Manor in Berkshire.


title: Hassanal Bolkiah

text: In April 2008, he was made an honorary member of the Indonesian Satgas Atbara Special Operations Unit. He holds the rank of Honorary Colonel Commandant of Pakistan's Special Service Group (SSG), awarded to him during his visit to the Pakistan Army's SSG headquarters at Cherat with effect from 3 Apr 2005. He possesses red beret and paratrooper wings of the Black Hawk paratroopers, presented to him by the Indian Army during his state visit to India.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React (also known as React.js or ReactJS) is a free and open-source front-end JavaScript library for building user interfaces based on UI components. It is maintained by Meta (formerly Facebook) and a community of individual developers and companies.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React can be used as a base in the development of single-page, mobile, or server-rendered applications with frameworks like Next.js. However, React is only concerned with state management and rendering that state to the DOM, so creating React applications usually requires the use of additional libraries for routing, as well as certain client-side functionality.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: The codice_1 function is a React component that displays the famous introductory <nowiki>"</nowiki>Hello, world".


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React adheres to the declarative programming paradigm. Developers design views for each state of an application, and React updates and renders components when data changes. This is in contrast with imperative programming.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React code is made of entities called components. These components are reusable and must be formed in the SRC folder following the Pascal Case as its naming convention (capitalize camelCase). Components can be rendered to a particular element in the DOM using the React DOM library. When rendering a component, one can pass the values between components through "props":


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: In the above example, the codice_2 property with the value "Gulshan" has been passed from the codice_3 component to the codice_4 component.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Also the codice_5 section is wrapped in a tag because there is a limitation in the codice_5 function, it can only return a single value. So all JSX elements and components are bound into a single tag.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: The two primary ways of declaring components in React are through function components and class-based components. <DIV> <DIV>


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Function components are declared with a function that then returns some JSX. From React 16.8 version and above, Functional component can use state using Hooks.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: On February 16, 2019, React 16.8 was released to the public. The release introduced React Hooks. Hooks are functions that let developers "hook into" React state and lifecycle features from function components. Hooks do not work inside classes — they let you use React without classes.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React provides a few built-in hooks like codice_7, codice_8, codice_9 , codice_10 and codice_11. Others are documented in the Hooks API Reference. codice_7 and codice_11, which are the most commonly used, are for controlling state and side effects respectively.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: There are rules of hooks which describe the characteristic code pattern that hooks rely on. It is the modern way to handle state with React.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Although these rules can't be enforced at runtime, code analysis tools such as linters can be configured to detect many mistakes during development. The rules apply to both usage of hooks and the implementation of custom hooks, which may call other hooks.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Where class components are all about the use of classes and the lifecycle methods, functional components have hooks to deal with state management and other problems which arise when writing code in React.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Another notable feature is the use of a virtual Document Object Model, or virtual DOM. React creates an in-memory data-structure cache, computes the resulting differences, and then updates the browser's displayed DOM efficiently. This process is called reconciliation. This allows the programmer to write code as if the entire page is rendered on each change, while the React libraries only render subcomponents that actually change. This selective rendering provides a major performance boost. It saves the effort of recalculating the CSS style, layout for the page and rendering for the entire page.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Lifecycle methods for class-based components use a form of hooking that allows the execution of code at set points during a component's lifetime.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: JSX, or JavaScript Syntax Extension, is an extension to the JavaScript language syntax. Similar in appearance to HTML, JSX provides a way to structure component rendering using syntax familiar to many developers. React components are typically written using JSX, although they do not have to be (components may also be written in pure JavaScript). JSX is similar to another extension syntax created by Facebook for PHP called XHP.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: The basic architecture of React applies beyond rendering HTML in the browser. For example, Facebook has dynamic charts that render to codice_19 tags, and Netflix and PayPal use universal loading to render identical HTML on both the server and client.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React does not attempt to provide a complete "application library". It is designed specifically for building user interfaces and therefore does not include many of the tools some developers might consider necessary to build an application. This allows the choice of whichever libraries the developer prefers to accomplish tasks such as performing network access or local data storage. Common patterns of usage have emerged as the library matures.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: To support React's concept of unidirectional data flow (which might be contrasted with AngularJS's bidirectional flow), the Flux architecture was developed as an alternative to the popular model–view–controller architecture. Flux features "actions" which are sent through a central "dispatcher" to a "store", and changes to the store are propagated back to the view. When used with React, this propagation is accomplished through component properties. Since its conception, Flux has been superseded by libraries such as Redux and MobX.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: A React component under the Flux architecture should not directly modify any props passed to it, but should be passed callback functions that create "actions" which are sent by the dispatcher to modify the store. The action is an object whose responsibility is to describe what has taken place: for example, an action describing one user "following" another might contain a user id, a target user id, and the type codice_20. The stores, which can be thought of as models, can alter themselves in response to actions received from the dispatcher.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: This pattern is sometimes expressed as "properties flow down, actions flow up". Many implementations of Flux have been created since its inception, perhaps the most well-known being Redux, which features a single store, often called a single source of truth.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Project status can be tracked via the core team discussion forum. However, major changes to React go through the Future of React repository issues and pull requests. This enables the React community to provide feedback on new potential features, experimental APIs and JavaScript syntax improvements.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React was created by Jordan Walke, a software engineer at Meta, who released an early prototype of React called "FaxJS". He was influenced by XHP, an HTML component library for PHP. It was first deployed on Facebook's News Feed in 2011 and later on Instagram in 2012. It was open-sourced at JSConf US in May 2013.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: React Native, which enables native Android, iOS, and UWP development with React, was announced at Facebook's React Conf in February 2015 and open-sourced in March 2015.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: On April 18, 2017, Facebook announced React Fiber, a new set of internal algorithms for rendering, as opposed to React's old rendering algorithm, Stack. React Fiber was to become the foundation of any future improvements and feature development of the React library. The actual syntax for programming with React does not change; only the way that the syntax is executed has changed. React's old rendering system, Stack, was developed at a time when the focus of the system on dynamic change was not understood. Stack was slow to draw complex animation, for example, trying to accomplish all of it in one chunk. Fiber breaks down animation into segments that can be spread out over multiple frames. Likewise, the structure of a page can be broken into segments that may be maintained and updated separately. JavaScript functions and virtual DOM objects are called "fibers", and each can be operated and updated separately, allowing for smoother on-screen rendering.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: On August 10, 2020, the React team announced the first release candidate for React v17.0, notable as the first major release without major changes to the React developer-facing API.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: On March 29, 2022, React 18 was released which introduced a new concurrent renderer, automatic batching and support for server side rendering with Suspense.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: The initial public release of React in May 2013 used the Apache License 2.0. In October 2014, React 0.12.0 replaced this with the 3-clause BSD license and added a separate PATENTS text file that permits usage of any Facebook patents related to the software:The license granted hereunder will terminate, automatically and without notice, for anyone that makes any claim (including by filing any lawsuit, assertion or other action) alleging (a) direct, indirect, or contributory infringement or inducement to infringe any patent: (i) by Facebook or any of its subsidiaries or affiliates, whether or not such claim is related to the Software, (ii) by any party if such claim arises in whole or in part from any software, product or service of Facebook or any of its subsidiaries or affiliates, whether or not such claim is related to the Software, or (iii) by any party relating to the Software; or (b) that any right in any patent claim of Facebook is invalid or unenforceable.This unconventional clause caused some controversy and debate in the React user community, because it could be interpreted to empower Facebook to revoke the license in many scenarios, for example, if Facebook sues the licensee prompting them to take "other action" by publishing the action on a blog or elsewhere. Many expressed concerns that Facebook could unfairly exploit the termination clause or that integrating React into a product might complicate a startup company's future acquisition.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: Based on community feedback, Facebook updated the patent grant in April 2015 to be less ambiguous and more permissive:


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: The license granted hereunder will terminate, automatically and without notice, if you (or any of your subsidiaries, corporate affiliates or agents) initiate directly or indirectly, or take a direct financial interest in, any Patent Assertion: (i) against Facebook or any of its subsidiaries or corporate affiliates, (ii) against any party if such Patent Assertion arises in whole or in part from any software, technology, product or service of Facebook or any of its subsidiaries or corporate affiliates, or (iii) against any party relating to the Software. [...] A "Patent Assertion" is any lawsuit or other action alleging direct, indirect, or contributory infringement or inducement to infringe any patent, including a cross-claim or counterclaim.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: The Apache Software Foundation considered this licensing arrangement to be incompatible with its licensing policies, as it "passes along risk to downstream consumers of our software imbalanced in favor of the licensor, not the licensee, thereby violating our Apache legal policy of being a universal donor", and "are not a subset of those found in the [Apache License 2.0], and they cannot be sublicensed as [Apache License 2.0]". In August 2017, Facebook dismissed the Apache Foundation's downstream concerns and refused to reconsider their license. The following month, WordPress decided to switch its Gutenberg and Calypso projects away from React.


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: On September 23, 2017, Facebook announced that the following week, it would re-license Flow, Jest, React, and Immutable.js under a standard MIT License; the company stated that React was "the foundation of a broad ecosystem of open source software for the web", and that they did not want to "hold back forward progress for nontechnical reasons".


title: React (JavaScript library)

text: On September 26, 2017, React 16.0.0 was released with the MIT license. The MIT license change has also been backported to the 15.x release line with React 15.6.2.


title: Ty Burrell

text: Tyler Gerald Burrell (born August 22, 1967) is an American actor and comedian. Burrell is best known for his role as Phil Dunphy on the ABC sitcom "Modern Family", for which he won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 2011 and 2014 (from eight consecutive nominations) and five Screen Actors Guild Awards: one for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series in 2013 and four consecutive awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series, shared with the cast from 2011 to 2014.


title: Ty Burrell

text: Burrell has had several roles in Broadway shows such as "Macbeth" and off-Broadway plays such as "Burn This". He also had starring roles on the television series "Out of Practice" and "Back to You". He has appeared in films such as "Evolution", "Black Hawk Down", "Dawn of the Dead", "Muppets Most Wanted", and as Doc Samson in "The Incredible Hulk". He has also voiced characters in the animated films "Mr. Peabody & Sherman", "Finding Dory", and "Storks".


title: Ty Burrell

text: Tyler Gerald Burrell was born in Grants Pass, Oregon, on August 22, 1967, the son of teacher Sheri Rose (née Hauck) and family therapist Gary Gerald Burrell (1940–1989). He has a younger brother, Duncan. He is mostly of English and German descent, though he discovered via "Finding Your Roots" that he is also of African descent through his four times great-grandmother, a formerly enslaved girl from Tennessee who became a homesteader in Oregon. He grew up in Applegate, Oregon, near the California border. He attended Hidden Valley High School in Grants Pass, where he played football and was a lineman for the Hidden Valley Mustangs.


title: Ty Burrell

text: While attending college at the University of Oregon, Burrell became a member of the Sigma Chi Fraternity and worked as a bartender at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival. He later attended Southern Oregon University in Ashland, graduating with a bachelor's degree in theatre arts in 1993. (Fifteen years later, in 2008, he was the school's commencement speaker.)


title: Ty Burrell

text: Continuing his education at Penn State University, he earned an MFA and was a member of the Theatre 100 Company along with Keegan-Michael Key. In 1999, Burrell worked as a festival actor at the Utah Shakespeare Festival. He has also stated that for a period of time in graduate school, he lived out of his van to save money.


title: Ty Burrell

text: Burrell's first credited film roles were 2001's "Evolution" and "Black Hawk Down". He subsequently appeared in the 2004 remake of "Dawn of the Dead", and in several stage roles (like 2000's Broadway production of "Macbeth", and the off-Broadway plays "Corners", "The Blue Demon", "Burn This", and "Show People").


title: Ty Burrell

text: He was a co writer and actor in the original production of the offbeat comedy "The Red Herring O' Happiness" directed by Russell Dyball. Burrell's stage work also includes writing and working in the off Broadway play "Babble" with his brother, Duncan. He has also made an appearance as a New Jersey prosecutor in "".


title: Ty Burrell

text: After that, Burrell was cast as Oliver Barnes, a shallow but well meaning plastic surgeon, on the CBS sitcom "Out of Practice" (2005–06), also created by screenwriter Christopher Lloyd. The show was canceled in May 2006, with eight episodes remaining unaired in the United States. After the show's cancellation, he played Allan Arbus in the film "Fur: An Imaginary Portrait of Diane Arbus". In the same year, he also appeared in "Friends with Money" and "The Darwin Awards".


title: Ty Burrell

text: In 2007, he had a small role in the film "" as the curator of the White House followed by a starring role in the sitcom "Back to You" on Fox later that same year. On the show, created by Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd, Burrell played a field reporter (alongside Kelsey Grammer and Patricia Heaton). The show was canceled in 2008.


title: Ty Burrell

text: In the 2008 Marvel film adaptation of the comic "The Incredible Hulk" Burrell played Leonard Samson (without superpowers) who had a short relationship with Betty Ross.


title: Ty Burrell

text: He had a large role as realtor Phil Dunphy in the acclaimed ABC situation comedy "Modern Family" which is also created by Christopher Lloyd and Steve Levitan. For his performance, he received eight consecutive Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (2010–2017), winning the award twice in 2011 and 2014.


title: Ty Burrell

text: He also received nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series for his role, sharing the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series with his co stars. He was the recipient of the individual SAG award in 2014, defeating Alec Baldwin, who had previously won the award seven years in a row.


title: Ty Burrell

text: In November 2014, Burrell signed an overall deal with 20th Century Fox Television to develop his own comedy projects. In July 2020, his overall deal with 20th Century Fox continued with the establishment of his own production company, Desert Whale Productions.


title: Ty Burrell

text: His web series "Boondoggle", loosely based on Burrell's own life, debuted in June 2016 on ABC.com and ABCd. He was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Actor in a Short Form Comedy or Drama Series in July 2017.


title: Ty Burrell

text: Burrell owns The Eating Establishment, a restaurant in Park City, Utah, as well as two bars in Salt Lake City called Bar X and Beer Bar, located next to each other with interconnecting doors.


title: Ty Burrell

text: When the COVID-19 pandemic shut down Salt Lake City's bars and restaurants in March 2020, Burrell and his wife used $100,000 of their own money to create Tip Your Server, a crowd-sourced online fund to help out-of-work wait staff in Utah, where they had previously kept their main residence.


title: Ty Burrell

text: Burrell married his girlfriend Holly on August 18, 2000. They resided in New York City until moving to Salt Lake City in 2008. They still own a two-bedroom apartment in New York's Astoria neighborhood, which they rent out. At one point, they relocated to Southern California for Burrell's work on "Modern Family". In March 2010, Burrell said that they had adopted a baby girl and another girl two years later.


title: Ty Burrell

text: Burrell is a self-described lifelong fan of the Oregon Ducks, Portland Trail Blazers, New York Mets, and St. Louis Rams (now known as the Los Angeles Rams after their relocation to California).


title: Donda 2

text: Donda 2 is the eleventh studio album by American rapper Kanye West. Although unfinished, it was exclusively released on the Stem Player, with four songs made available on February 23, 2022, and additional songs later included in updates, the first of which were added the following day. West began the recording and production of the album in early January 2022, continuing into the next month. It was preceded by the singles "Eazy" and "City of Gods", released in January and February 2022, respectively; both of them charted inside the top 50 of the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Donda 2

text: West held "Kanye West: Donda Experience Performance", an accompanying performance, showcasing songs from the first iteration, at LoanDepot Park on February 22, 2022, selling out 47 IMAX theaters across the United States. The "V2.22.22 Miami" version of the album received mixed reviews from music critics, who criticized its subject matter, song structures, and lack of identifiable concept. Some were more negative towards West's vocals, though a few critics complimented certain elements of the production. Because of its exclusive Stem Player release, the album was heavily pirated in February 2022 with emulators of the device shared online, and "Billboard" deemed the album ineligible for its albums charts citing precedented "bundling" rules; the album did not debut on other record charts of the world either.


title: Donda 2

text: In an interview with "Complex" on January 3, 2022, Victor Victor Worldwide CEO Steven Victor exclusively told the website that West had begun working on a sequel to his tenth studio album "Donda" (2021), entitled "Donda 2". Victor later told the magazine that it is "coming sooner than you think", explaining: "The procession is starting and it's not stopping." On January 27, 2022, West captioned an Instagram photo of his childhood home in flames with a date of February 22 along with the title "Donda 2", also mentioning fellow rapper Future will serve the role of executive producer. He had worked with Future in the past, featuring on his single "I Won" (2014). Most publications took this as an announcement of the album's release date, though it went unreleased on the date. Producer BoogzDaBeast revealed that even though hundreds of songs were recorded during the sessions for the first "Donda" album, the tracks recorded for "Donda 2" were all new songs made after the announcement of the "Donda 2" listening event.


title: Donda 2

text: Producer Digital Nas revealed that for "Donda 2", West instructed him to make the songs sound "more monk-like" and to "simplify the tracks", and if they are "not able to be played at a funeral, childbirth, graduation, a wedding", then inclusion on the album is not appropriate. In late January 2022, the producer stated that singer Marilyn Manson was recording for "Donda 2" daily in the studio. Marilyn Manson had previously contributed to "Donda" and for the sequel, Digital Nas opened up that West does not want the singer to "play rap beats", desiring for him "to play what he makes" and then West would work on parts of his work. Digital Nas compared the creative process to that of West's sixth studio album "Yeezus" (2013), also saying that some of the producers who contributed to the album were working on "Donda 2".


title: Donda 2

text: On February 17, 2022, West announced that "Donda 2" will not be available on any commercial streaming services and will be exclusive to his Stem Player audio device, priced at , which was previously released with "Donda". He explained that his motive is how artists "get just 12% of the money the industry makes" when their music is available on the platforms, calling for a time for freedom from "this oppressive system". According to West, he made around $2.2 million from purchases of the Stem Player within 24 hours of the announcement, having sold over 8,000 copies. However, West making the album only available on the device led to criticism from his fans. As a result of the rapper's decision, Apple reportedly pulled their $2 million sponsorship deal with him, as they were scheduled to stream the accompanying concert. In a series of Instagram posts, West declared that he had turned down a $100 million deal with the company. The first batch of songs that were played at the Miami listening event on February 22, 2022–which were added to the device on February 24–contained half-mumbled reference tracks and incomplete songs; West continued finishing the album during February. The co-inventor of the Stem Player tweeted that official "Donda 2" songs are available and always updated via the device, adding that "anywhere else, you're not getting the vision or the latest versions", insinuating that West plans to update the album as he had done previously with "The Life of Pablo" and "Donda" in 2016 and 2021, respectively.


title: Donda 2

text: "Donda 2" is a hip hop album. The album was described in multiple reviews as seeming unfinished, with Alphonse Pierre, writing for "Pitchfork", viewing it as a "undercooked" album posing as an "ever-changing art piece" that may remain incomplete. A production style that incorporates "see-sawing synth patterns" was observed by "The Guardian" journalist Alexis Petridis in his review of the album, who also commented that there is a lack of focus, seeing certain songs as resembling demos. According to "HipHopDX" writer Matthew Ritchie, large stretches of the production demonstrate West's "attention to detail" that creates a background for songs.


title: Donda 2

text: West delves into relationship problems between himself and Kim Kardashian on "Donda 2", particularly discussing their divorce. Thematically, this topic drew comparisons to West's fourth studio album "808s & Heartbreak" (2008) from numerous writers. He goes into detail about the divorce, focusing on his many emotions and insecurities. West directs insults towards comedian Pete Davidson, who became Kardashian's new partner. West also addresses his family's concerns, disregarding them. The rapper conveys a bitter and self-pitying style, seeking the sympathy of others, while showing a lack of both happiness and empathy.


title: Donda 2

text: The album's opening track, "True Love", contains a drum break shared with West's 2010 single "Runaway" that samples "The Basement" by Pete Rock & CL Smooth. A posthumous feature from rapper XXXTentacion is included at the beginning, singing about lost love. On the track, West laments the childcare arrangements brought about in the wake of his divorce. West also references XXXTentacion's son Geykume during the second chorus, as he reminds both his and the late rapper's children of their respective fathers' love for them. "Broken Road" is a ballad featuring rapper Don Toliver, in which West delivers introspection and declares his freedom. "Get Lost" sees West singing a cappella with Auto-Tune heavily applied to his voice, recalling varying memories of his marriage to Kardashian. "Too Easy" features electronic elements and contains a mantra by West, who uses the vocal technique as he champions self love. The rapper references his then-budding relationship with actress Julia Fox on "Flowers" and alludes to both his birthday gift for her and his Valentine's Day present for his ex-wife Kim Kardashian. On June 29, 2022, West was sued by Marshall Jefferson for allegedly sampling his song "Move Your Body" without permission in "Flowers". West angrily threatens to fight Davidson on the noisy and aggressive track "Security", proclaiming that he "ain't got enough security for this".


title: Donda 2

text: "We Did It Kid" includes guest vocals from Baby Keem, and the Migos and features lyrics about friendship over a brass trap beat. "Pablo" is an energetic track with a fast-moving beat and a hook from fellow rapper Travis Scott, while Future also contributes a verse. "Louie Bags" is a tribute to designer Virgil Abloh, a friend of West's. West states on the minimally-produced electronic-backed track that he stopped buying Abloh's Louis Vuitton bags after his death in 2021. The track ends with a verse performed by Jack Harlow. "Happy" opens with a verse from Future, preceding three verses from West, who conveys his sadness as he repeatedly pleads: "Do I look happy to you?" "Sci Fi" features lush orchestral production and begins with a monologue from Kardashian's 2021 appearance on "Saturday Night Live", in which she applauds West's achievements. Lyrically, West tells the story of their divorce. "Selfish" is a minimal ballad that posthumously features XXXTentacion, with West analyzing how his flaws led to the divorce. "Lord Lift Me Up" has an orchestral style and consists solely of vocals from Vory. "City of Gods" is a Brooklyn drill styled track serves as an ode to New York City from West, fellow rapper Fivio Foreign, and singer Alicia Keys. "First Time in a Long Time" embraces new beginnings and features a guest verse from Soulja Boy. On West and fellow rapper the Game's collaboration "Eazy", the former disses Davidson, threatening to "beat [his] ass."


title: Donda 2

text: The song "Mr. Miyagi", featuring Future and Playboi Carti, was played at the "Donda 2" listening event, but has yet to be officially released. It leaked online in November 2022.


title: Donda 2

text: On January 15, 2022, "Eazy" was made available as a Spotify exclusive, one day before it was released as the first single from "Donda 2". The song entered the US "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 49, alongside peaking at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart. A music video for "Eazy" was released on March 3, 2022, featuring West kidnapping a clay-version of Davidson that he goes on to bury. On February 11, "City of Gods" was released as the second single from the album. The song charted at number 46 on the Hot 100, while it reached number 58 on the UK Singles Chart. On May 27, 2022, the song "True Love" got an official release on streaming services. It was also included on XXXTentacion's "Look At Me: The Album". The song peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 upon its debut at number 22, and on the Hot Hip-Hop/R&B chart at number 5. On March 8, 2022, alongside an update to the Stem Player website that allowed users who'd purchased the Stem Player to stream songs from "Donda 2" without having to connect their Stem Player devices to their computers (thereby allowing music to be streamed from the site like a traditional music streaming service), the songs "Pablo" and "Security" were made available to stream for all (even those without a Stem Player), likely as additional singles for "Donda 2", with these versions having updated mixes. These free versions of both songs were later taken down from the site, with the only streamable versions of the songs remaining the ones that could be streamed with the rest of the album.


title: Donda 2

text: A total of 22 songs were announced via a track list for "Donda 2" posted by West to his Instagram account on February 18, 2022. On February 23, four songs, entitled "Security", "Pablo", "Broken Road", and "We Did It Kid", were released to owners of the Stem Player via the player's website. Another 12 songs were added the following day as part of an update labeled "V2.22.22 Miami". However, one of the 12 additional songs released, entitled "Keep It Burning", was removed from the Stem Player website and replaced with a stadium version of "True Love", which was then later replaced with "Eazy". A finished version of the song "Keep It Burning" would instead later be released on Future's album, "I Never Liked You".


title: Donda 2

text: "Donda 2" leaked online shortly after release and was heavily pirated. The album was one of the most pirated albums on 1337x and the Pirate Bay in February 2022. It also led to the piracy of the Stem Player website, since the song stems and remixing tools were available on emulators. "Donda 2" is not eligible to enter any "Billboard" charts per the rules on releases sold with merchandise, as it is exclusive to the Stem Player service. During his performance at Rolling Loud music festival in July 2022, Digital Nas suggested that a finished version of the album would be released later that year.


title: Donda 2

text: On February 7, 2022, a private listening party was held for "Donda 2" at Nobu Malibu, where Travis Scott and fellow rappers Offset, French Montana, Yung Lean, and Drake, as well as model Kendall Jenner, were in attendance. Six days later, West announced a public concert entitled "Kanye West: Donda Experience Performance" for the album at LoanDepot Park in Miami on February 22. Tickets for the concert were first made available on February 14, 2022, six days before ones for IMAX presentations went on sale. On February 21, 2022, it was announced that the concert would be live-streamed in IMAX theaters across 15 cities in the United States at 9p.m. ET. In response to popular demand, IMAX subsequently expanded the live-stream to 60 theaters across the US for the one-night only event on February 22. Simultaneously with the screening, the event was live-streamed on YouTube and West's Stem Player service. It sold out 47 of the 60 theaters, grossing around $313,582 for IMAX. The performance was set to begin at 8p.m. ET, though started nearly 3 hours late at 10:45 p.m. West was joined by numerous guests, such as Marilyn Manson and DaBaby–both of whom appeared at the first listening event for "Donda"–as well as Fivio Foreign, Keys, and Jack Harlow. Celebrities in attendance included French Montana, Elon Musk, and Diddy. West experienced multiple microphone problems and audio glitches while performing, to which he reacted during a performance of "Jail pt 2" by throwing his microphone on the floor. The rapper later revealed to Sasha A. Berg and Esther Coco Berg that he had been made "to write the word 'performance'" in the event's title, despite intending the event as a work of performance art. His frustration with this reduction of the event's concept led alongside other reactions to him throwing the microphone he was given, saying he began questioning why he was performing.


title: Donda 2

text: The ""V2.22.22 Miami"" version of "Donda 2" was met with mixed reviews with critics describing the album as unfinished and lazy compared to West's previous releases.


title: Donda 2

text: Jeff Ihaza of "Rolling Stone" called the album a "confounding" project that is brought down by West's fixation on "controlling one's narrative", deriding the lyrical content, guest appearances, and the lack of a clear concept, despite praising certain vocals. "Slate"s Jack Hamilton wrote off its "aimless" song structures and "fake-deep" lyricism, also feeling let down by the "half-hearted" production that has its best-inspired moments "drowned in a sea of repetitive, spaced-out bloat". Ludovic Hunter-Tilney, writing in the "Financial Times", found "Donda 2" "repetitious and lacklustre", disclosing "serious deficiencies" in West's creativity, but picked "Security" as a highlight. Reviewing the album for "The Guardian", Alexis Petridis disapproved of its lack of thematic focus, unfinished production and the lyrical content for its "tedious barbs at his estranged wife", but admitted some portions briefly showed "the authentically brilliant producer" West is capable of being.


title: Donda 2

text: "The Daily Telegraph" critic Neil McCormick regarded "Donda 2" as the weakest album of West's career, seeing West assume a "sullen, self-pitying and bitter" persona—"vindictive sniping and whiney self-pity". McCormick criticized the album's song structures and repetitive rhymes, as well as the auto-tuned vocals, even though he liked some of the accompanying beats. Underscoring its "sluggish" energy and "undermining" production, Steven Loftin from "The Line of Best Fit" felt the album is "nothing particularly revelatory", discussing the expected, repetitive themes, though moderately gave credit to the production. "Pitchfork" Alphonse Pierre defined "Donda 2" as a "crudely unfinished dump of songs" camouflaged by the Stem Player's technological spectacle. He described the songs as "lackluster" and "undercooked", displaying "a cool moment or two" but mostly amorphous.


title: Donda 2

text: Few reviews were marginally favorable. Alexandra Pauly of "Highsnobiety" wrote lukewarm comments, describing the album as a divorce record that "boasts all the hallmarks" of an artist experiencing "post-nuptial proceedings". Pauly was dissatisfied with how "Donda 2" lacks the sincerity exuded by other divorce albums, saying it "reeks of [the] ego" that appeals to West's fan base. Ritchie of "HipHopDX" opined that West's hyper-focus on his current drama has resulted in "Donda 2", "a double-edged sword"—musically cohesive but with underdeveloped ideas.


title: Donda 2

text: "Donda 2" was not eligible for entry on the "Billboard" charts, such as the "Billboard" 200, since "it is not available apart from the purchase of one of [West's] $200-plus Stem Player devices." "Billboard" asserted on March 4, 2022, that attaching a new album to a physical device counts as "bundling"—a practice the organization deemed invalid in 2020 and implemented a rule to disregard such tactics from being counted as record sales. West celebrated the album's expulsion from the charts via his Instagram account, writing "Big win for the kid. We can no longer be counted or judged. We make my own systems. We set our own value aaaand "[sic]" yesterday's price is not todays price baaaaabeeeee "[sic]" !!!!!". "Variety" journalist Chris Willman reported that West has sold 39,500 Stem Players as of February 18, 2022, according to the rapper's claims. Willman noted that the player has been available since October 2021.


title: Donda 2

text: Track listing according to Stem Player API. Credits for "True Love", "City of Gods" and "Eazy" are adapted from Tidal.


title: Fantasy

text: Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy literature and drama. From the twentieth century, it has expanded further into various media, including film, television, graphic novels, manga, animations and video games.


title: Fantasy

text: Fantasy is distinguished from the genres of science fiction and horror by the respective absence of scientific or macabre themes, although these genres overlap. In popular culture, the fantasy genre predominantly features settings that emulate Earth, but with a sense of otherness. In its broadest sense, however, fantasy consists of works by many writers, artists, filmmakers, and musicians from ancient myths and legends to many recent and popular works.


title: Fantasy

text: Most fantasy uses magic or other supernatural elements as a main plot element, theme, or setting. Magic, magic practitioners (sorcerers, witches and so on) and magical creatures are common in many of these worlds.


title: Fantasy

text: An identifying trait of fantasy is the author's use of narrative elements that do not have to rely on history or nature to be coherent. This differs from realistic fiction in that realistic fiction has to attend to the history and natural laws of reality, where fantasy does not. In writing fantasy the author uses worldbuilding to create characters, situations, and settings that may not be possible in reality.


title: Fantasy

text: Many fantasy authors use real-world folklore and mythology as inspiration; and although another defining characteristic of the fantasy genre is the inclusion of supernatural elements, such as magic, this does not have to be the case.


title: Fantasy

text: Fantasy has often been compared to science fiction and horror because they are the major categories of speculative fiction. Fantasy is distinguished from science fiction by the plausibility of the narrative elements. A science fiction narrative is unlikely, though seemingly possible through logical scientific or technological extrapolation, where fantasy narratives do not need to be scientifically possible. Authors have to rely on the readers' suspension of disbelief, an acceptance of the unbelievable or impossible for the sake of enjoyment, in order to write effective fantasies. Despite both genres' heavy reliance on the supernatural, fantasy and horror are distinguishable from one another. Horror primarily evokes fear through the protagonists' weaknesses or inability to deal with the antagonists.


title: Fantasy

text: Elements of the supernatural and the fantastic were a part of literature from its beginning. Fantasy elements occur throughout ancient religious texts such as the "Epic of Gilgamesh". The ancient Babylonian creation epic, the "Enûma Eliš", in which the god Marduk slays the goddess Tiamat, contains the theme of a cosmic battle between good and evil, which is characteristic of the modern fantasy genre. Genres of romantic and fantasy literature existed in ancient Egypt. "The Tales of the Court of King Khufu", which is preserved in the Westcar Papyrus and was probably written in the middle of the second half of the eighteenth century BC, preserves a mixture of stories with elements of historical fiction, fantasy, and satire. Egyptian funerary texts preserve mythological tales, the most significant of which are the myths of Osiris and his son Horus.


title: Fantasy

text: Myth with fantastic elements intended for adults were a major genre of ancient Greek literature. The comedies of Aristophanes are filled with fantastic elements, particularly his play "The Birds", in which an Athenian man builds a city in the clouds with the birds and challenges Zeus's authority. Ovid's "Metamorphoses" and Apuleius's "The Golden Ass" are both works that influenced the development of the fantasy genre by taking mythic elements and weaving them into personal accounts. Both works involve complex narratives in which humans beings are transformed into animals or inanimate objects. Platonic teachings and early Christian theology are major influences on the modern fantasy genre. Plato used allegories to convey many of his teachings, and early Christian writers interpreted both the Old and New Testaments as employing parables to relay spiritual truths. This ability to find meaning in a story that is not literally true became the foundation that allowed the modern fantasy genre to develop.


title: Fantasy

text: The most well known fiction from the Islamic world is "One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights)", which is a compilation of many ancient and medieval folk tales. Various characters from this epic have become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. Hindu mythology was an evolution of the earlier Vedic mythology and had many more fantastical stories and characters, particularly in the Indian epics. The "Panchatantra" ("Fables of Bidpai"), for example, used various animal fables and magical tales to illustrate the central Indian principles of political science. Chinese traditions have been particularly influential in the vein of fantasy known as Chinoiserie, including such writers as Ernest Bramah and Barry Hughart.


title: Fantasy

text: "Beowulf" is among the best known of the Old English tales in the English speaking world, and has had deep influence on the fantasy genre; several fantasy works have retold the tale, such as John Gardner's "Grendel". Norse mythology, as found in the Elder Edda and the Younger Edda, includes such figures as Odin and his fellow Aesir, and dwarves, elves, dragons, and giants. These elements have been directly imported into various fantasy works. The separate folklore of Ireland, Wales, and Scotland has sometimes been used indiscriminately for "Celtic" fantasy, sometimes with great effect; other writers have specified the use of a single source. The Welsh tradition has been particularly influential, due to its connection to King Arthur and its collection in a single work, the epic Mabinogion.


title: Fantasy

text: There are many works where the boundary between fantasy and other works is not clear; the question of whether the writers believed in the possibilities of the marvels in "A Midsummer Night's Dream" or "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" makes it difficult to distinguish when fantasy, in its modern sense, first began.


title: Fantasy

text: Although pre-dated by John Ruskin's "The King of the Golden River" (1841), the history of modern fantasy literature is usually said to begin with George MacDonald, the Scottish author of such novels as "The Princess and the Goblin" and "Phantastes" (1858), the latter of which is widely considered to be the first fantasy novel ever written for adults. MacDonald was a major influence on both J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. The other major fantasy author of this era was William Morris, an English poet who wrote several novels in the latter part of the century, including "The Well at the World's End".


title: Fantasy

text: Despite MacDonald's future influence with "At the Back of the North Wind" (1871), Morris's popularity with his contemporaries, and H. G. Wells's "The Wonderful Visit" (1895), it was not until the 20th century that fantasy fiction began to reach a large audience. Lord Dunsany established the genre's popularity in both the novel and the short story form. H. Rider Haggard, Rudyard Kipling, and Edgar Rice Burroughs began to write fantasy at this time. These authors, along with Abraham Merritt, established what was known as the "lost world" subgenre, which was the most popular form of fantasy in the early decades of the 20th century, although several classic children's fantasies, such as "Peter Pan" and "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", were also published around this time.


title: Fantasy

text: Juvenile fantasy was considered more acceptable than fantasy intended for adults, with the effect that writers who wished to write fantasy had to fit their work into forms aimed at children. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote fantasy in "A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys", intended for children, although works for adults only verged on fantasy. For many years, this and successes such as "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" (1865), created the circular effect that all fantasy works, even the later "The Lord of the Rings", were therefore classified as children's literature.


title: Fantasy

text: Political and social trends can affect a society's reception towards fantasy. In the early 20th century, the New Culture Movement's enthusiasm for Westernization and science in China compelled them to condemn the fantastical shenmo genre of traditional Chinese literature. The spells and magical creatures of these novels were viewed as superstitious and backward, products of a feudal society hindering the modernization of China. Stories of the supernatural continued to be denounced once the Communists rose to power, and mainland China experienced a revival in fantasy only after the Cultural Revolution had ended.


title: Fantasy

text: Fantasy became a genre of pulp magazines published in the West. In 1923, the first all-fantasy fiction magazine, "Weird Tales", was published. Many other similar magazines eventually followed, including "The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction"; when it was founded in 1949, the pulp magazine format was at the height of its popularity, and the magazine was instrumental in bringing fantasy fiction to a wide audience in both the U.S. and Britain. Such magazines were also instrumental in the rise of science fiction, and it was at this time the two genres began to be associated with each other.


title: Fantasy

text: By 1950, "sword and sorcery" fiction had begun to find a wide audience, with the success of Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian and Fritz Leiber's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories. However, it was the advent of high fantasy, and most of all J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings", which reached new heights of popularity in the late 1960s, that allowed fantasy to truly enter the mainstream. Several other series, such as C. S. Lewis's "Chronicles of Narnia" and Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea books, helped cement the genre's popularity.


title: Fantasy

text: The popularity of the fantasy genre has continued to increase in the 21st century, as evidenced by the best-selling status of J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, Robert Jordan's "The Wheel of Time" series, George R. R. Martin's "Song of Ice and Fire" series, Steven Erikson's Malazan Book of the Fallen sweeping epic, Brandon Sanderson's "The Stormlight Archive" series and "Mistborn" series, and A. Sapkowski's "The Witcher" saga.


title: Fantasy

text: Several fantasy film adaptations have achieved blockbuster status, most notably "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, and the "Harry Potter" films, two of the highest-grossing film series in cinematic history. Meanwhile, David Benioff and D. B. Weiss would go on to produce the television drama series "Game of Thrones" for HBO, based on the book series by George R. R. Martin, which has gone on to achieve unprecedented success for the fantasy genre on television.


title: Fantasy

text: Fantasy role-playing games cross several different media. "Dungeons & Dragons" was the first tabletop role-playing game and remains the most successful and influential. According to a 1999 survey in the United States, 6% of 12- to 35-year-olds have played role-playing games. Of those who play regularly, two thirds play "D&D". Products branded "Dungeons & Dragons" made up over fifty percent of the RPG products sold in 2005.


title: Fantasy

text: The science fantasy role-playing game series "Final Fantasy" has been an icon of the role-playing video game genre ( it was still among the top ten best-selling video game franchises). The first collectible card game, "", has a fantasy theme and is similarly dominant in the industry.


title: Fantasy

text: Fantasy encompasses numerous subgenres characterized by particular themes or settings, or by an overlap with other literary genres or forms of speculative fiction. They include the following:


title: Fantasy

text: In her 2008 book "Rhetorics of Fantasy", Farah Mendlesohn proposes the following taxonomy of fantasy, as "determined by the means by which the fantastic enters the narrated world", while noting that there are fantasies that fit none of the patterns:


title: Fantasy

text: Professionals such as publishers, editors, authors, artists, and scholars within the fantasy genre get together yearly at the World Fantasy Convention. The World Fantasy Awards are presented at the convention. The first WFC was held in 1975 and it has occurred every year since. The convention is held at a different city each year.


title: Fantasy

text: Additionally, many science fiction conventions, such as Florida's FX Show and MegaCon, cater to fantasy and horror fans. Anime conventions, such as Ohayocon or Anime Expo frequently feature showings of fantasy, science fantasy, and dark fantasy series and films, such as "Majutsushi Orphen" (fantasy), "Sailor Moon" (urban fantasy), "Berserk" (dark fantasy), and "Spirited Away" (fantasy). Many science fiction/fantasy and anime conventions also strongly feature or cater to one or more of the several subcultures within the main subcultures, including the cosplay subculture (in which people make or wear costumes based on existing or self-created characters, sometimes also acting out skits or plays as well), the fan fiction subculture, and the fan video or AMV subculture, as well as the large internet subculture devoted to reading and writing prose fiction or doujinshi in or related to those genres.


title: Fantasy

text: According to 2013 statistics by the fantasy publisher Tor Books, men outnumber women by 67% to 33% among writers of historical, epic or high fantasy. But among writers of urban fantasy or paranormal romance, 57% are women and 43% are men.


title: Fantasy

text: Fantasy is studied in a number of disciplines including English and other language studies, cultural studies, comparative literature, history and medieval studies. For example, Tzvetan Todorov argues that the fantastic is a liminal space. Other work makes political, historical and literary connections between medievalism and popular culture.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X (Roman numeral "X" pronounced "ten", also known as iPhone 10) is a smartphone designed, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. It is part of the 11th generation of the iPhone. Available for pre-order from October 27, 2017, it was released on November 3, 2017. The naming of the iPhone X (skipping the iPhone 9) is to mark the 10th anniversary of the iPhone.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X used a glass and stainless-steel form factor and "bezel-less" design, shrinking the bezels while not having a "chin", unlike many Android phones. It was the first iPhone to use an OLED screen. The home button's fingerprint sensor was replaced with a new type of authentication called Face ID, which used sensors to scan the user's face to unlock the device. This face-recognition capability also enabled emojis to be animated following the user's expression (Animoji). With a bezel-less design, iPhone user interaction changed significantly, using gestures to navigate the operating system rather than the home button used in all previous iPhones. At the time of its November 2017 launch, its price tag of US$999 also made it the most expensive iPhone ever, with even higher prices internationally due to additional local sales and import taxes.


title: IPhone X

text: Along with the iPhone 6S, its Plus variant, and the first-generation iPhone SE, the iPhone X was discontinued on September 12, 2018, following the announcement of the iPhone XS, iPhone XS Max and iPhone XR devices.


title: IPhone X

text: On November 22, 2018, Apple reportedly resumed production of the iPhone X due to weak sales of its successors. The iPhone X remains discontinued.


title: IPhone X

text: The history behind the iPhone X was in development for five years, starting as far back as 2012. Rumors of a drastic iPhone redesign began circulating around the time of iPhone 7 announcement in the third quarter of 2016, and intensified when a HomePod firmware leak in July 2017 suggested that Apple would shortly release a phone with a nearly bezel-less design, lack of a physical home button, facial recognition, and other new features. A near-final development version of the iOS 11 operating system was also leaked in September 2017, confirming the new design and features.


title: IPhone X

text: On August 31, 2017, Apple invited journalists to a September 12 press event, the first public event held at the Steve Jobs Theater on the company's new Apple Park campus in Cupertino, California. The iPhone X was unveiled during that keynote. Its US$999 starting price was the most expensive iPhone launch price ever at the time. The price is even higher in international markets due to currency fluctuations, import fees and sales taxes. An instrumental version of the song "Keep On Lovin’" by "MagnusTheMagnus" was used in the reveal of the device, and the song "Best Friend" by Sofi Tukker was featured in the introductory film and ads.


title: IPhone X

text: An unlocked version of the phone was made available for purchase in the United States on December 5, 2017.


title: IPhone X

text: In April 2018, the Federal Communications Commission divulged images of an unreleased gold-colored iPhone X model. As opposed to the space gray and silver color options that the iPhone X ships with, it was divulged that there were initial plans to release a gold option for the device. However, it was put on hold due to production issues.


title: IPhone X

text: Apple released a revised B model for the iPhone X that fixed NFC issues for users in Japan, China, and the United States.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X has a 5.85 inch (marketed as 5.8 inch) OLED color-accurate screen that supports DCI-P3 wide color gamut, sRGB, and high dynamic range, and has a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1.


title: IPhone X

text: The Super Retina display has the True Tone technology found on the iPad Pro, which uses ambient light sensors to adapt the display's white balance to the surrounding ambient light.


title: IPhone X

text: Although the iPhone X does not feature the same "ProMotion" technology used in the displays of the second-generation iPad Pro, where the display delivers a refresh rate of 120 Hz, it does sample touch input at 120 Hz.


title: IPhone X

text: OLED screen technology has a known negative trend of "burn-in" effects, in which particular elements consistently on the screen for long periods of time leave a faint trace even after new images appear. Apple acknowledged that its OLED screens were not excluded from this issue, writing in a support document that "This is also expected behavior".


title: IPhone X

text: Greg Joswiak, Apple's vice president of product marketing, told "Tom's Guide" that the OLED panels Apple used in the iPhone X had been engineered to avoid the over-saturation of colors that using OLED panels typically results in, having made color adjustments and subpixel-level refinements for crisp lines and round corners. For out-of-warranty servicing for damages not relating to manufacturing defects, screen repairs of iPhone X cost US$279, while other damage repairs cost US$549.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X has two color options; silver and space gray. The sides of the phone are composed of surgical-grade stainless steel to improve durability, and the front and back are made of glass. The design is intended to be IP67 water and dust resistant.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X contains Apple's A11 Bionic system-on-chip, also used in the iPhone 8 and 8 Plus, which is a six-core processor with two cores optimized for performance (25% faster than the A10 Fusion processor), along with four cores optimized for efficiency (70% faster than the previous generation). It also features the first Apple-designed graphics processing unit and a Neural Engine, which powers an artificial intelligence accelerator.


title: IPhone X

text: Face ID replaces the Touch ID authentication system. The facial recognition sensor consists of two parts: a "Romeo" module that projects more than 30,000 infrared dots onto the user's face, and a "Juliet" module that reads the pattern. The pattern is sent to the Secure Enclave in the A11 Bionic chip to confirm a match with the phone owner's face. By default, the system will not work with eyes closed, in an effort to prevent unauthorized access but this requirement can be disabled in settings.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X has two cameras on the rear. One is a 12-megapixel wide-angle camera with f/1.8 aperture, with support for face detection, high dynamic range and optical image stabilization. It is capable of capturing 4K video at 24, 30 or 60 frames per second, or 1080p video at 30, 60, 120 or 240 frames per second. A secondary, telephoto lens features 2× optical zoom and 10× digital zoom with an aperture of f/2.4 and optical image stabilization. A Portrait Mode is capable of producing photos with specific depth-of-field and lighting effects. It also has a quad-LED True Tone flash with 2× better light uniformity. Still photos with 6.5 megapixels (3412×1920) can be captured during video recording. iOS 12/13 for the iPhone 12 did not include Smart HDR or Night Mode, which were kept exclusive to the new iPhone XS/iPhone 11. However, third-party apps brought similar features.


title: IPhone X

text: On the front of the phone, a 7-megapixel True Depth camera has an f/2.2 aperture, and features face detection and HDR. It can capture 1080p video at 30 frames per second, 720p video at 240 frames per second, and exclusively allows for the use of Animoji; animated emojis placed on top of the user's face that intelligently react to the user's facial expressions.


title: IPhone X

text: Criticism has been aimed at video footage being recorded with mono audio (only one audio channel), and at a low bit rate of 96 kbit/s, while earlier mobile phones by competing vendors have been recording with stereo audio (two audio channels for spatiality) and higher bit rates, such as the Samsung Galaxy S3 and Sony Xperia S, both unveiled in 2012.


title: IPhone X

text: iPhone X also supports Qi-standard wireless charging. In tests conducted by "MacRumors", the iPhone X's charging speeds varies significantly depending on what types of cables, powerbanks, adapters, or wireless chargers are used.


title: IPhone X

text: Due to its different screen layout, iOS developers are required to update their apps to make full use of the additional screen real estate. Such changes include rounded corners, sensor "notch" at the top of the screen, and an indicator area at the bottom for accessing the home screen. Apple published a "Human Interface Guidelines" document to explain areas of focus, and discouraged developers from attempting to mask or call special attention to any of the new changes. Additionally, text within the app needs to be configured to properly reference Face ID rather than Touch ID where the authentication technology is used on iPhone X. In anticipation of the release of the phone, most major apps were quickly updated to support the new changes brought by iPhone X, though the required changes did cause delayed app updates for some major apps.


title: IPhone X

text: The traditional home button, found on all previous devices in the iPhone lineup, has been removed entirely, replaced by touch-based gestures. To wake up the device, users can tap the display or use the side button; to access the home screen, users must swipe up from the bottom of the display; and to access the multitasking window, users must swipe up similarly to the method of accessing the home screen, but stop while the finger is in the middle of the screen, causing an app carousel to appear.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X originally shipped with iOS 11 at launch. It received iOS 12 on September 17, 2018, and is compatible with iOS 13 which was released on September 19, 2019. It received iOS 14 on September 16, 2020, and iOS 15 on September 20, 2021. On September 12, 2022, it became compatible withiOS 16.


title: IPhone X

text: The iPhone X received positive reviews. Its display and build quality were strongly praised, and the camera also scored positively on tests. However, the sensor housing "notch" at the top of the screen and the introduction of an all-new authentication method were polarizing for critics and consumers. The notch was heavily mocked by users on social media, although app developers responded either neutrally or positively to the changes it brought to the user experience in their apps and games. Face ID facial recognition was praised for its simple setup, but criticized for requiring direct eyes on the screen, though that option can be disabled within the system preferences.


title: IPhone X

text: iPhone X's rear camera received an overall rating of 97 from DxOMark, a camera testing company, short of the highest score of 99, awarded to Samsung's Galaxy S9+ smartphone. Google's Pixel 2 received a rating of 98. Consumer Reports, a non-profit, independent organization aiming to write impartial reviews of consumer products, ranked iPhone X below iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus, as well as below Samsung's Galaxy S8, S8+ and Note 8, due to less durability and shorter battery life, although it praised the X's camera as "the highest-rated smartphone camera" it had ever tested.


title: IPhone X

text: Chris Velazco of "Engadget" praised the display, writing that, in his experience, the sensor "notch" goes from being "weird at first" to not being noticeable due to action in videos usually happening in the center. The build quality was given particular acclaim, being called "a beautifully made device" with the construction that "seamlessly" connects the front and back glass with the stainless-steel frame. Velazco noted that the new gesture-based interaction takes time to get used to, particularly the Control Center being moved from the bottom to the top right of the display. The camera, processor performance, and battery life were also given positive thoughts.


title: IPhone X

text: Nilay Patel of "The Verge" also praised the display, calling it "polished and tight" and "bright and colorful". He criticized the repeated lack of a headphone jack, the device's fragility despite Apple's claims of durability, and the sensor notch, calling it "ugly". Patel highlighted the fact that apps required updates to fit the new screen, writing that not all popular apps had received updates by the time of the review, resulting in some apps with "huge black borders" resembling iPhone 8. He especially criticized the positioning of the sensor notch while holding the phone in landscape mode, causing the notch to go "from being a somewhat forgettable element in the top status bar to a giant interruption on the side of the screen". The cameras were given positive feedback for maintaining detail in low-light. Patel particularly praised Animoji, calling it "probably the single best feature on the iPhone X", writing that "they just work, and they work incredibly well". Finally, he wrote that Face ID was the whole foundation of iPhone X, and stated that it "generally works great", though acknowledging the occasional misstep, in which users must "actively move the phone closer to your face to compensate". He specifically criticized the limited range of Face ID, with authentication only working when holding the phone 25–50 centimeters away from the face.


title: IPhone X

text: The cost of repairing an iPhone is also very large compared to its predecessors. If the iPhone X is damaged by user damage (not a manufacturing defect), screen repairs cost US$279, and other repairs like replacing iPhone X batteries are more expensive.


title: IPhone X

text: In a heavily negative review, Dennis Green of "Business Insider" significantly criticized the impossible one-handed use of iPhone X, writing that the new gestures to use the phone, such as swiping from the top down to access notifications and the Control Center, did not work when using the phone with only one hand due to not being able to reach the top. His review sparked outrage among Twitter users, many of whom used condescending tones, which Green reasoned as "I don't know whether the anger was directed toward me out of loyalty to Apple or to justify their own choice to spend $1,000 on a phone. It was obvious that much of the criticism came from people who had never used the phone".


title: IPhone X

text: "Macworld"s Roman Loyola praised the Face ID authentication system, writing that the setup process was "easy" and that its system integration was "more seamless" than the Touch ID fingerprint authentication of the past. That said, Loyola did note the "half-second" slower unlocking time than Touch ID as well as needing to look directly at the screen, making it impossible to unlock with the phone next to the user on a desk.


title: IPhone X

text: Face ID has raised concerns regarding the possibility of law enforcement accessing an individual's phone by pointing the device at the user's face. United States Senator Al Franken asked Apple to provide more information on the security and privacy of Face ID a day after the announcement, with Apple responding by highlighting the recent publication of a security white paper and knowledge base detailing answers.


title: IPhone X

text: Inconsistent results have been shown when testing Face ID on identical twins, with some tests showing the system managing to separate the two, while other tests have failed.


title: IPhone X

text: However, despite Apple's promise of increased security of Face ID compared to the Touch ID fingerprint authentication system, there have been multiple media reports indicating otherwise. "The Verge" noted that courts in the United States have granted different Fifth Amendment rights in the United States Constitution to biometric unlocking systems as opposed to keycodes. Keycodes are considered "testimonial" evidence based on the contents of users' thoughts, whereas fingerprints are considered physical evidence, with some suspects having been ordered to unlock their phones via fingerprint. Many attempts to break through Face ID with sophisticated masks have been attempted, though all have failed. A week after iPhone X was released, Vietnamese security firm Bkav announced in a blog post that it had successfully created a $150 mask that tricked Face ID, though "WIRED" noted that Bkav's technique was more of a "proof-of-concept" rather than active exploitation risk, with the technique requiring a detailed measurement or digital scan of the iPhone owner's face, putting the real risk of danger only to targets of espionage and world leaders.


title: IPhone X

text: Additionally, "Reuters" reported in early November 2017 that Apple would share certain facial data on users with third-party app developers for more precise selfie filters and for fictional game characters to mirror real-world user facial expressions. Although developers are required to seek customer permission, are not allowed to sell the data to others nor create profiles on users nor use the data for advertising, and are limited to a more "rough map" rather than full capabilities, they still get access to over 50 kinds of facial expressions. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the Center for Democracy and Technology raised privacy questions about Apple's enforcement of the privacy restrictions connected to third-party access, with Apple maintaining that its App Store review processes were effective safeguards. The "rough map" of facial data third-parties can access is also not enough to unlock the device, according to "Reuters". However, the overall idea of letting developers access sensitive facial information was still not satisfactorily handled, according to Jay Stanley, a senior policy analyst with the ACLU, with Stanley telling "Reuters" that "the privacy issues around of the use of very sophisticated facial recognition technology for unlocking the phone have been overblown. ... The real privacy issues have to do with the access by third-party developers".


title: IPhone X

text: Much of the debate about the iPhone X has revolved around the design of the sensor housing, dubbed "notch" by the media, at the top of the display. "The Outline" described it as "a visually disgusting element", and "The Verge" posted a report focusing on public criticism and people mocking Apple's "odd design choice", but not every reviewer was equally negative in their opinions. Third-party iOS developers interviewed by "Ars Technica" said that, despite the work of restructuring design elements in their apps, the notch did not cause any problems, with some even arguing that the notch was a good push to simplify their designs. Just two weeks after iPhone X's release, Apple approved a "notch remover" app through the App Store, that places black bars across the top of the home screen to make the notch visually disappear. The approval was done despite the company's user interface guidelines discouraging developers from specifically masking the design. iPhone X was not the first device with a notch; both the Essential Phone and Sharp Aquos S2 were announced before it and had a display notch, albeit much smaller, but the iPhone X arguably popularized it.


title: IPhone X

text: In November 2017, early adopters of the new phone reported that they were experiencing activation issues on certain cellular carriers, most notably AT&T. AT&T announced within hours that the issue had been fixed on their end, and a spokesperson for the Verizon carrier told the media none of its customers were affected despite some reports of problems.


title: IPhone X

text: In November 2017, iPhone X users reported on Reddit that the device's screen would become unresponsive after experiencing rapid temperature drops. Apple released the iOS 11.1.2 update on November 16, 2017, fixing the issue.


title: IPhone X

text: Forbes contributor Gordon Kelly reported in March 2018 that over 1,000 users experienced problems using camera flash in cold weather, with the problem being fixed in a later software update.


title: IPhone X

text: Apple has been engaged in a legal battle with Qualcomm over allegedly anti-competitive practices and has been dual-sourcing cellular modem chips to reduce reliance on the semiconductor manufacturer. Starting with iPhone 7 in 2016, Apple has used about half Qualcomm modem chips and half Intel. Professional measurement tests performed by wireless signal testing firm "Cellular Insights" indicated that, as in the previous-gen iPhone 7, Qualcomm's chips outperform Intel's in LTE download speeds, up to 67% faster in very weak signal conditions, resulting in some sources recommending the purchase of an unlocked iPhone X or one bought through cellular carrier Verizon, in order to get the models featuring the faster Qualcomm modem. Additionally, "CNET" reported in September 2017 that the new iPhone models, including X, 8 and 8 Plus, do not have the ability to connect to the next-generation of wireless LTE data connection, despite 10 new Android devices, including flagships from main smartphone competitor Samsung, all having the capability to do so. While Apple's new smartphones have support for "LTE Advanced", with a theoretical peak speed of 500 megabits per second, the Android models have the ability to connect to "Gigabit LTE", allowing theoretical speeds up to 1 gigabit per second, doubling Apple's speed.


title: IPhone X

text: After releasing the iPhone X in Japan and China, customers experienced issues related to the phone's NFC while trying to access public transit smart card readers. In April 2018, Apple released a revision to the iPhone X, that included a vastly improved NFC chip. This solved the problem of NFC reader errors in most cases. Previously around 1 out of 3 NFC attempts would fail after initial reports. This issue also affected users in America.


title: IPhone X

text: Apple has determined an issue with certain iPhone X devices where the display wouldn't respond to the user's touch, due to a component that might fail on the display module. Apple stated that they will repair the affected devices free of charge, so long as the device is under 3 years old.


title: Indian people

text: Indians or Indian people are the citizens and nationals of India. In 2022, the population of India stood at over 1.4 billion people, making it the world's second-most populous country, containing 17.7 percent of the global population. In addition to the Indian population, the Indian overseas diaspora also boasts large numbers, particularly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and the Western world. While the demonym "Indian" applies to people originating from the present-day Republic of India, it was also formerly used as the identifying term for people originating from Pakistan and Bangladesh during British colonial era until 1947.


title: Indian people

text: Particularly in North America, the terms "Asian Indian" and "East Indian" are sometimes used to differentiate Indians from the indigenous peoples of the Americas; although the misidentification of indigenous Americans as Indians occurred during the European colonization of the Americas, the term "Indian" is still used as an identifier for indigenous populations in North America and the Caribbean, but very rarely now and are called indigenous, Amerindian, and specifically First Nations in Canada, and Native American in the United States, including in official discourse and in law.


title: Indian people

text: The name "Bhārata" has been used as a self-ascribed name by people of the Indian subcontinent and the Republic of India since 1949. The designation ""Bhārata"" appears in the official Sanskrit name of the country, "Bhārata Gaṇarājya". The name is derived from the ancient Vedic and Puranas, which refer to the land that comprises India as ""Bhārata varṣam"" and uses this term to distinguish it from other "varṣa"s or continents. The "Bhāratas" were a vedic tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings. India is named after legendary Emperor Bharata who was a descendant of the Bhāratas tribe, scion of Kuru Dynasty who unified the Indian Subcontinent under one realm.


title: Indian people

text: In early Vedic literature, the term "Āryāvarta" (Sanskrit: आर्यावर्त) was in popular use before "Bhārata". The Manusmṛti (2.22) gives the name "Āryāvarta" to "the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern (Bay of Bengal) to the Western Sea (Arabian Sea)".


title: Indian people

text: While the word Indian and India is derived from Greek ("Indía"), via Latin "India". "Indía" in Koine Greek denoted the region beyond the Indus () river, since Herodotus (5th century BC) , "hē Indikē chōrē"; "the Indian land", , "Indos", "an Indian", from Old Persian "Hinduš" and medieval term Hindustani. The name is derived ultimately from "Sindhu", the Sanskrit name of the river Indus, but also meaning "river" generically.


title: Indian people

text: The "history of India" includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the blending of the Indus Valley civilization and Indo-Aryan culture into the Vedic Civilization; the development of Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions; the rise of sixteen oligarchic republics known as Mahajanapadas; the rise of the Śramaṇa movement; the birth of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th century BCE, and the onset of a succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more than two millennia throughout various geographic areas of the subcontinent, including the growth of Muslim dynasties during the Medieval period intertwined with Hindu powers; the advent of European traders resulting in the establishment of British India; and the subsequent independence movement that led to the Partition of India and the creation of the Republic of India.


title: Indian people

text: The Indian people established during the ancient and medieval periods to the early eighteenth century some of the greatest empires and dynasties in South Asian history like the Maurya Empire, Satavahana dynasty, Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Chalukya Empire, Chola Empire, Karkota Empire, Pala Empire, Vijayanagara Empire, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire, Maratha Empire and Sikh Empire. The first great empire of the Indian people was the Maurya Empire having Patliputra(currently Patna, Bihar) as its capital, conquered the major part of South Asia in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC during the reign of the Indian Emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka alongside their senior advisor, Acharya Chanakya, the world's pioneer of the fields of political science and economics. The next great ancient empire of the Indian people was the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and Hinduism and Buddhism spread to much of Asia, while the Chola Empire in the south had flourishing maritime trade links with the Roman Empire during this period. The ancient Indian mathematicians Aryabhata, Bhāskara I and Brahmagupta invented the concept of zero and the Hindu–Arabic numeral system decimal system during this period. During this period Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia.


title: Indian people

text: During the early medieval period the great Rashtrakuta dynasty governed most of the Indian subcontinent from the 8th to 10th centuries and the Indian Emperor Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was described by the Arab traveller Sulaiman as one of the four great kings of the world. The medieval south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra lived in the Rashtrakuta dynasty and was the first Indian mathematician who separated astrology from mathematics and who wrote the earliest Indian text entirely devoted to mathematics. The greatest maritime empire of the medieval Indians was the Chola dynasty. Under the great Indian Emperors Rajaraja Chola I and his successor Rajendra Chola I the Chola dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia. The power of the Chola empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.


title: Indian people

text: During the late medieval period the great Vijayanagara Empire ruled most of southern India from the 14th to 16th centuries and reached its peak during the reign of the south Indian Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya The medieval Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics flourished during this period under such well known south Indian mathematicians as Madhava (c. 1340–1425), who made important contributions to Trigonometry and Calculus, and Nilakhanta (c. 1444–1545), who postulated on the orbitals of planets.


title: Indian people

text: The Mughal Empire consolidated much of the Indian sub-continent under a single realm. Under the Mughals, India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture, greatly influencing Indian society. The Mughal Empire balanced and pacified local societies through new administrative practices and had diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, the Pathans, the Jats and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.


title: Indian people

text: The Marathas and Sikhs emerged in the 17th century and established the Maratha Empire and Sikh Empire, which became the dominant powers in India in the 18th century. The Maratha Empire is credited to a large extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the north and Bengal and the Andaman Islands in the east.


title: Indian people

text: The decline of Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire from the late 18th century to the mid-19th century lead to large areas of India being annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire and witnessed a period of rapid development of infrastructure, economic decline and major famines. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for Indian independence movement was launched, the Indian subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.


title: Indian people

text: India is one of the world's oldest civilisations. The Indian culture, often labelled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years old. Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions. They have been credited with shaping much of Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music. Greater India was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture, administration and writing system from India to other parts of Asia through the Silk Road by the travellers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the Common Era. To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains. During medieval period, Islam played a significant role in shaping Indian cultural heritage. Over the centuries, there has been significant integration of Hindus, Jains, and Sikhs with Muslims across India.


title: Indian people

text: India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectively known as Indian religions. Indian religions, also known as Dharmic religions, are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 1 billion followers altogether, and possibly as many as 1.5 or 1.6 billion followers. Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the country by the law and by custom; the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a fundamental right.


title: Indian people

text: Atheism and agnosticism have a long history in India and flourished within Śramaṇa movement. The "Cārvāka" school originated in India around the 6th century BCE and is one of the earliest form of materialistic and atheistic movement in ancient India. Sramana, Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvika and some schools of Hinduism like Samkhya consider atheism to be valid and reject the concept of creator deity, ritualism and supernaturalism. India has produced some notable atheist politicians and social reformers.


title: Indian people

text: Although approximately 80% of the citizens of India are Hindus, the country has a substantial population of Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and adherents of tribal faiths. Zoroastrianism and Judaism each has several thousands of Indian adherents, and also have an ancient history in India. India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism and Baháʼí Faith in the world, even though these two religions are not native to India. Many other world religions also have a relationship with Indian spirituality, such as the Baháʼí Faith which recognises Buddha and Krishna as manifestations of the God Almighty. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, atheism and agnostics also have visible influence along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other people. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.


title: Indian people

text: Traditionally, Indian society is grouped according to their caste. It is a system in which social stratification within various social sections defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups are often termed "jāti" or castes. Within a "jāti", there exists exogamous groups known as gotras, the lineage or clan of an individuals. Caste barriers have mostly broken down in cities but still exists in some form in rural areas.


title: Indian people

text: Most Indian states are majority Hindu. However, Kashmir and Lakshadweep are majority Muslim; Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya are majority Christian and Punjab is majority Sikh. Although participants in the Indian census may choose to not declare their religion, there is no mechanism for a person to indicate that he/she does not adhere to any religion. Due to this limitation in the Indian census process, the data for persons not affiliated with any religion may not be accurate. India contains the majority of the world's Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, Zoroastrians and Baháʼí. Christianity is widespread in Northeast India, parts of southern India, particularly in Kerala and among various populations of Central India. Muslims are the largest religious minority. India is also home to the third-largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia and Pakistan.


title: Indian people

text: Historically, India had a prevailing tradition of the "joint family system" or "undivided family". Joint family system is an extended family arrangement prevalent throughout the Indian subcontinent, particularly in India. The family is headed by a patriarch, the oldest male, who makes decisions on economic and social matters on behalf of the entire family. The patriarch's wife generally exerts control over the household, minor religious practices and often wields considerable influence in domestic matters. A patrilineal joint family consists of an older man and his wife, his sons and unmarried daughters, his sons' wives and children. Family income flows into a common pool, from which resources are drawn to meet the needs of all members, which are regulated by the heads of the family. However, with modernisation and economic development, India has witnessed a break up of traditional joint family into more nuclear families and the traditional joint family in India accounted for a small percent of Indian households.