title: The King's Affection

text: On the other side, Tae Yoo-na of "Hankyung" found the development sloppy, characters awkward, and casting wrong, arguing that Park Eun-bin's physique and height were too small compared to Rowoon's, preventing her from expressing the dignity of a crown prince. Stephen McCarty of the "South China Morning Post" noted that the series could have cut some bloodshed without losing narrative strength.


title: The King's Affection

text: According to Nielsen Korea, "The King's Affection" debuted in South Korea with a national average share of 6.2%. Episode 6 scored the lowest ratings for the series, with a national average share of 5.5% and 4.8% in the Seoul metropolitan area, but after the conclusion of "Lovers of the Red Sky", one of the competing programs of the evening, episode 7 recorded the best ratings for the drama, which reached a share of 10% with episode 13 and ended with 12,1%.


title: The King's Affection

text: In the span of two weeks, "The King's Affection" entered the top 10 of Netflix's most viewed programs globally and the top 5 in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Following the release of episodes 9 and 10 on November 10, it ranked eighth globally, and first among the most viewed Korean programs for three consecutive days, while on November 23 it was fourth in Netflix's Global Top 10 (Non-English), with 15.64 million hours watched.


title: Migos

text: Migos () is an American hip hop trio from Lawrenceville, Georgia, founded in 2008. The group was originally composed of Southern rappers Quavo, Takeoff, and Offset. Quavo is from Athens, Georgia; Offset and Takeoff were born and raised in Lawrenceville, Georgia. They are managed by Coach K, the former manager of Gucci Mane and Jeezy, and frequently collaborated with producers such as DJ Durel, Murda Beatz, Zaytoven, and Buddah Bless. Recognized for their contribution to trap music in the 2010s, "Billboard" stated that the group "influenced pop culture and the entire English language by bringing their North Atlanta roots to the mainstream".


title: Migos

text: Migos released their commercial debut single "Versace" in 2013, taken from their mixtape "Y.R.N. (Young Rich Niggas)". They released several more singles, including "Fight Night" (2014), "Look at My Dab" (2015), and their four "Billboard" Hot 100 top 10 entries "Bad and Boujee" (featuring Lil Uzi Vert) (2016), peaking at number 1, "MotorSport" (with Nicki Minaj and Cardi B) (2017), peaking at number 1, "Stir Fry" (2018), peaking at number 8, and "Walk It Talk It" (featuring Drake) (2018), peaking at number 1, and even “T-Shirt” from their second album called Culture in 2017.


title: Migos

text: Migos released their debut album "Yung Rich Nation" in July 2015, through Quality Control Music and 300 Entertainment. In 2016, the group portrayed fictionalized versions of themselves in the first season of the Donald Glover comedy-drama television series "Atlanta". Their second album, "Culture", was released in January 2017 also through both record labels, and debuted atop the US "Billboard" 200 chart. The group signed a deal with Motown and Capitol Records in February 2017, and put out the album "Culture II" in January 2018, giving the group their second number 1 album in the United States. In 2021, the trio released their long-awaited fourth album "Culture III", the final installment in their "Culture" trilogy.


title: Migos

text: The trio were raised together by Quavo's mother Edna Marshall, in the suburbs of the neighboring town city of Lawrenceville, Georgia. They grew up listening to Outkast, Gucci Mane, Hot Boys, Lil Wayne, and Master P.


title: Migos

text: Migos was formed in 2008, by Quavo (born Quavious Keyate Marshall), Takeoff (born Kirshnik Khari Ball), and Offset (born Kiari Kendrell Cephus), and they originally called themselves the Polo Club. The name 'Migos' is a take on 'Three Amigos'. The three members are directly related and were raised together; Takeoff was Quavo's nephew, and Offset is Quavo's cousin. The three of them grew up together in suburban Atlanta, approximately 30 minutes northeast of Downtown in Gwinnett County. "I ain't going to sit here like, 'My neighborhood was hard, and I had to get out there and grind.' We made it hard for ourselves. We chose to stay on the streets", Quavo said. The group released their first full-length project, a mixtape titled "Juug Season", on August 25, 2011. They followed with the mixtape "No Label" on June 1, 2012. Assisted by Tucker Toenjes and Mitchell Thomas.


title: Migos

text: In 2013, Migos released their breakout single "Versace". The single was produced by Zaytoven and peaked at number 99 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. Later that year, Canadian rapper Drake brought the single more recognition when he remixed the song, adding a verse, which he would later perform at the 2013 iHeartRadio Music Festival. On June 13, Migos released their mixtape "Y.R.N. (Young Rich Niggas)", which features the lead single "Versace", to critical acclaim. Brandon Soderberg of "Spin" gave it 8 out of 10 stars, commenting that it "is a super-cut of Dirty South vibes" and compared the three members to Gucci Mane, Soulja Boy, and Future.


title: Migos

text: On June 15, 2013, the group performed at rap radio station Hot 107.9's Birthday Bash. In October 2013, the group was featured in "XXL"'s section "Show & Prove". "Versace" was placed in multiple year-end lists of 2013, including number three on "XXL"s "The 25 Best Songs of 2013", number four on "Complex"'s "The 50 Best Songs of 2013", number five on "SPIN"'s "50 Best Songs of 2013", number 38 on Pitchfork's "The Top 100 Tracks of 2013" and number 69 on "Rolling Stone"s "The 100 Best Songs of 2013". "Y.R.N. (Young Rich Niggas)" was named the 27th-best album of 2013 and sixth-best hip-hop album of 2013 by "SPIN".


title: Migos

text: On February 25, 2014, Migos released the sequel to their second mixtape, titled "No Label 2". The tape was downloaded over 100,000 times in the first week of its release and was certified gold on mixtape sharing site DatPiff. "No Label 2" was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. "Consequence of Sound" described it as "the perfect mix of raucous party tunes and triumphant rap anthems for your next BBQ or block party" and "Exclaim!" commented that it "is packed with potential hits". "Vibe" also praised the production on the tape, calling it "extensive and impressive".


title: Migos

text: On March 14, 2014, it was revealed by Migos' mixtape "Y.R.N. 2", that the project had turned out to be a full-fledged album. The trio were aiming to have at least 20 songs on the album. In June 2014, it was revealed that Migos had signed a deal to 300 Entertainment, which is distributed by Atlantic Records. In June 2014, their single "Fight Night" was featured on "XXL"s "25 Best Songs of 2014 so far" list. It peaked at number 69 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Following the release of their mixtape, "Rich Nigga Timeline", which was released on November 5, 2014, "Rolling Stone" voted it the 7th-best rap album of 2014.


title: Migos

text: On February 5, 2015, Migos released the first single from the album, titled "One Time". On March 23, 2015, the group released a music video for the single, as a part of a cross-promotion with the YouTube Music Awards. The single peaked at number 34 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. After a slight delay, because of the Georgia Southern University incident (which led to Offset's incarceration), Migos' debut album, "Yung Rich Nation" (originally titled "Y.R.N.: Tha Album"), was released on July 31, 2015, featuring guest appearances from Chris Brown and Young Thug. "Yung Rich Nation" received generally positive reviews from music critics. In its first week, the album sold 15,000 copies and came in at number 3 on the Top Rap Albums Charts.


title: Migos

text: During this time, it was revealed that the group had already completed their second studio album. Referring to this album's release, in an interview with DJ Whoo Kid, Takeoff said, "its all about timing". Migos stated that the track "Fantastic", featuring Lil Wayne, would be included on the album. In addition, they confirmed they would also like to collaborate with rapper Nas. In September 2015, Migos went independent. They left 300 Entertainment as they felt that Quality Control Music could manage them alone and this would also increase their revenue stream. Under 300 Entertainment, they made approximately US$30,000–40,000 per show; however, through Quality Control they made upwards of US$60,000.


title: Migos

text: On September 17, 2015, Migos released a new mixtape titled "Back to the Bando". Although fellow member Offset was still incarcerated, Migos continued to release music. The first song off the mixtape, "Look at My Dab", was released on September 6. It was officially released as a single through iTunes on October 30. The song gained worldwide attention, due to Migos and other celebrities, like Odell Beckham Jr. and Cam Newton, doing the signature dance move called "dabbing". On October 22, 2015, Migos and Rich the Kid released "Streets on Lock 4". Migos were originally supposed to release the collaboration mixtape with Young Thug titled "MigoThuggin" in late 2016 but shelved it. Their follow up mixtape to YRN, "Young Rich Niggas 2", was released on January 18.


title: Migos

text: On September 7, 2016, Kanye West announced that he had signed Migos to a management deal with his GOOD Music imprint, but in January 2017 the group stated that they are not affiliated with West's label. On October 28, 2016, Migos released the first single of their new album "Culture". The single was titled "Bad and Boujee". The song was produced by Metro Boomin and features vocals from fellow American rapper Lil Uzi Vert. The music video for the single was released on October 31. The single went on to top the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Migos' first number one single in the US.


title: Migos

text: Their second album, "Culture", was released on January 27, 2017. In April, Migos were featured on Katy Perry's song "Bon Appétit" from her fifth studio album, "Witness". On May 30, Migos (branded by Quality Control) released "Too Hotty" which is featured on the compilation album, "", released on December 19, 2017. The single was officially released on streaming services on August 24, 2017. The music video was released on August 25. On June 16, the Migos (alongside Lil Yachty) were featured on the Steve Aoki song "Night Call". On October 27, Migos officially released "MotorSport", the lead single off their third studio album "Culture II", along with Cardi B and Nicki Minaj. The second single, "Stir Fry", was released on the official Migos YouTube channel, on December 20, 2017. Produced by Pharrell Williams, the song was later used for the 2018 NBA All-Star Weekend.


title: Migos

text: A promotional single, titled "Supastars", was released on January 22, 2018. It was produced by Honorable C.N.O.T.E., Buddah Bless, and Quavo; it was co-produced by DJ Durel. On January 26, 2018, "Culture II" was released. The album contains twenty-four tracks, featuring production from Metro Boomin, Dun Deal, Murda Beatz, Travis Scott, Zaytoven and others. In October 2018, Quavo stated that "Culture III" would be released in early 2019. The album was then delayed and rescheduled for release in early 2020. However, the album was pushed back again, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Quavo spoke to "Billboard" in March 2020, and announced the group's decision to hold off on the release of "Culture III", explaining it was largely due to their inability to properly roll out the album once social distancing rules went into effect in most states in the US. While on Lil Wayne's Young Money Radio show on Apple Music, on May 22, 2020, Migos announced they would change the title from "Culture III" to another title. However, this was reverted on May 17, 2021, when the group announced via Instagram that "Culture III" would be released June 11 of the same year under its original name.


title: Migos

text: In 2022, the group was rumored to have broken up after Quavo’s ex-girlfriend Saweetie had reportedly slept with Offset. Quavo alluded to the rift in the song "Messy" and in an interview where he insinuated Offset’s lack of loyalty. In October 2022, Quavo and Takeoff subsequently released an album without Offset titled "Only Built for Infinity Links". On November 1, 2022, Takeoff was shot and killed while with Quavo and others were at a Houston bowling alley. The shooting occurred around 2:34 a.m. local time at the 810 Billiards and Bowling Houston. A majority of the hip hop community reached out through social media to send their love and condolences to Takeoffs death.


title: Migos

text: In 2013, Offset was incarcerated in Georgia's DeKalb County Jail for violating his probation that he had received due to felony convictions for burglary and theft.


title: Migos

text: On April 18, 2015, Migos were scheduled to headline Georgia Southern University's spring concert at Hanner Fieldhouse in Statesboro, Georgia. The show started at 7:00 pm EDT with local opening acts; however, the group took the stage nearly an hour and a half later than their scheduled 9:00 pm set time. Although their performance contract stipulated a minimum 45-minute set length, the group performed for less than 30 minutes before leaving the stage. The University Police Department, the Statesboro Police Department and the Bulloch County Sheriff's Office, who were present at the concert as security detail, detected a strong scent of marijuana from the group's vans, and the drivers were questioned by law enforcement. Upon further investigation, the rap trio and 12 members of their entourage were arrested for possession of marijuana and another Schedule II controlled substance, possession of firearms within a school safety zone, possession of firearms during the commission of a crime, and possession of firearms by convicted felons.


title: Migos

text: While university officials had been aware of Migos' reputation, the group was allowed to perform, as it had received the most votes among the seven bands and artists up for consideration for the spring concert in a student poll, and student fees and ticket sales had been used to pay for the concert. According to the performance contract, the group were to be paid $30,000 with their promoter Big House Collective receiving an additional $3,000. University officials initially sought to put Migos in breach of contract due to the group's late arrival, shortened performance, and possession of contraband on university property; however, the university ultimately paid half of the agreed-upon fees.


title: Migos

text: On April 20, 2015, Takeoff, Quavo, and six members of their entourage were released on bond by the Bulloch County District Attorney's Office while Offset and six others remained in custody without bond. As a result of their arrests, on April 28, 2015, Migos postponed their Yung Rich Nation Tour until July.


title: Migos

text: On May 2, 2015, Offset, while in custody, was charged with battery and inciting a riot within a penal facility after attacking another inmate, causing severe injury. In a bond hearing before Bulloch County Superior Court Judge John R. Turner on May 8, 2015, Offset was formally denied bond based on his prior criminal record as well as the jail fight. During the hearing, two members of Migos' entourage were also denied bonds while four others were granted bonds and were barred from returning to Bulloch County as a condition of their release. Also, Judge Turner directed the four who were released not to make contact with anyone involved in the case. Offset's attorney argued that the rap trio were unfairly profiled by law enforcement and that officers had failed to prove ownership of the firearms and illicit drugs found within the two vans; however, the prosecution responded that law enforcement were present at the concert for the safety of the students and public at-large due to Migos' history of violence. Upon hearing the decision, Offset shouted obscenities as he was escorted out of the courtroom.


title: Migos

text: After eight months in custody, Offset was released on December 4, 2015, after accepting an Alford plea deal. The plea deal dropped the gun, drug, and gang-related charges in exchange for pleading guilty to inciting a riot within a penal facility; paying a $1,000 fine; serving five years' probation; and banishment from Bulloch, Effingham, Jenkins, and Screven Counties. Takeoff, facing misdemeanor marijuana charges, also accepted a plea deal and was sentenced with 12 months' probation. Quavo pleaded no contest to misdemeanor marijuana charges and received a 12-month sentence, which was suspended based on payment of fines.


title: Migos

text: On March 17, 2016, Offset was arrested for driving with a suspended license in Atlanta but was released the next day without having charges filed against him. Offset has since claimed his license was never suspended and the police detained him without probable cause.


title: Migos

text: On July 7, 2017, Takeoff was asked to leave a flight from Atlanta to Des Moines, Iowa, after he refused to move his bag from the floor to an overhead storage bin prior to takeoff.


title: Migos

text: In March 2018, the Washington Avenue Armory in Albany, New York sued the group for allegedly inciting a riot at the venue in 2015, when six people were stabbed. A concertgoer who suffered facial injuries also sued the band and the venue.


title: Poppers

text: Popper is a slang term given broadly to drugs of the chemical class called alkyl nitrites that are inhaled. Most widely sold products include the original isoamyl nitrite or isopentyl nitrite, and isopropyl nitrite. Isobutyl nitrite is also widely used but is banned in the European Union. In some countries, poppers are labeled or packaged as room deodorizers, leather polish, nail polish remover, or videotape head cleaner to evade anti-drug laws.


title: Poppers

text: Popper use has a relaxation effect on involuntary smooth muscles, such as those in the throat and anus. It is used for practical purposes to facilitate anal sex by increasing blood flow and relaxing sphincter muscles. The drug is also used for recreational drug purposes, typically for the "high" or "rush" that the drug can create, and to enhance sexual pleasure in general.


title: Poppers

text: Poppers were part of club culture from the mid-1970s disco scene and returned to popularity in the 1980s and 1990s rave scene.


title: Poppers

text: The French chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard synthesized amyl nitrite in 1844. Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, a Scottish physician born in the year of amyl nitrite's first synthesis, documented its clinical use to treat angina pectoris in 1867 when patients experiencing chest pains would experience complete relief after inhalation. Brunton was inspired by earlier work with the same agent, performed by Arthur Gamgee and Benjamin Ward Richardson. Brunton reasoned that the angina sufferer's pain and discomfort could be reduced by administering amyl nitrite—to dilate the coronary arteries of patients, thus improving blood flow to the heart muscle.


title: Poppers

text: Amyl nitrites were originally enclosed in a glass mesh called "pearls". The usual administration of these pearls was done by crushing them between the fingers, followed by a popping sound. This administration process seems to be the origin of the slang term "poppers". It was then administered by direct inhalation of the vapours or inhalation through silk that covered the capsule. Brunton found that amyl nitrites had effects of dilating blood vessels and flushing of the face. Butyl nitrites were also documented around the late 1890s by Brunton and despite being found to have generally the same effects as amyl nitrites, they were never used as a clinical alternative to amyl nitrates. Brunton also found that propyl nitrites had the same effects as well.


title: Poppers

text: Although amyl nitrite is known for its practical therapeutic applications, the first documented case of recreational use was in 1964. The poppers "craze" began in the early 1970s in the gay male community in bars, discothèques and bathhouses. It was packaged and sold pharmaceutically in fragile glass ampoules wrapped in cloth sleeves which, when crushed or "popped" in the fingers, released the amyl nitrite for inhalation, hence the colloquialism "poppers". The term extended to the drug in any form as well as to other drugs with similar effects, e.g. butyl nitrite which is packaged under a variety of trade names in small bottles.


title: Poppers

text: In the late 1970s "Time" magazine and "The Wall Street Journal" reported that popper use among gay men began as a way to enhance sexual pleasure, but "quickly spread to avant-garde heterosexuals". A series of interviews conducted in the late 1970s revealed a wide spectrum of users.


title: Poppers

text: Poppers contain a class of chemicals called alkyl nitrites. To the extent that poppers products contain alkyl nitrites, the following applies.


title: Poppers

text: The following table summarizes alkyl nitrite chemical and physical properties, including chemical structure:


title: Poppers

text: Poppers come in liquid form, but this liquid is not directly consumed. When the bottle is opened, the vapors are inhaled, rather than the liquid. This is typically done through the nasal cavities, commonly directly from the bottle (avoiding touching the bottle to the skin) or with the help of small inhalators.


title: Poppers

text: Inhaling nitrites produces a fast-acting, shortlived and non-specific relaxation of smooth muscles (along with the sphincter muscles of the anus and the vagina). Blood vessels are surrounded by smooth musculature, which directly influences blood pressure by increasing or decreasing its inward pressure on the blood vessels. With relaxation of the smooth muscles, the 'inward' pressure on the blood vessels decreases and they dilate, resulting in hypotension and an immediate (compensatory) increase in heart rate (reflex tachycardia). Vasodilation may cause giddiness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting and flushing, and may produce a sensation of heat and excitement. Maximum vasodilatory effect is usually reached within 30 seconds, with (secondary) physiological effects lasting for 5 to 10 minutes .


title: Poppers

text: Alkyl nitrites interact with other vasodilators, such as sildenafil (Viagra), vardenafil (Levitra), and tadalafil (Cialis), to cause a serious decrease in blood pressure, which can cause strokes, and low blood pressure leading to people fainting. Side effects of popper abuse include tachycardia, headaches, migraines, dizziness and fainting.


title: Poppers

text: The "Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy" reports insignificant hazard associated with inhalation of alkyl nitrites, and British governmental guidance on the relative harmfulness of alkyl nitrites places them among the less harmful of recreational drugs.


title: Poppers

text: Swallowing poppers (rather than inhaling the vapour) may cause cyanosis, methemoglobinemia, unconsciousness, coma, and complications leading to death. Accidental aspiration of amyl or butyl nitrites may cause lipoid pneumonia.


title: Poppers

text: Isopropyl nitrite poppers may be a cause of maculopathy (eye damage), as reported in France and the United Kingdom. Some studies have concluded that there may be increased risk for at least temporary retinal damage with habitual popper use in certain users; in a letter to the "New England Journal of Medicine", an ophthalmologist described four cases in which recreational users of isopropyl nitrite poppers suffered temporary changes in vision. Foveal (center-of-gaze) damage has also been described, in six habitual users of isopropyl nitrite poppers. Furthermore, in June 2014, optometrists and ophthalmologists reported having noticed an increase in vision loss in chronic popper users in the United Kingdom associated with isopropyl nitrite (substitute for isobutyl nitrite which was banned in 2007). In November 2014, it was observed maculopathy is a rare complication of isopropyl nitrite abuse. A full recovery of visual acuity in longterm abuse could be demonstrated after drug abstinence. Studies have shown that poppers users who have HIV and/or use Sildenafil in combination with poppers are at an increased risk of developing poppers‐associated maculopathy.


title: Poppers

text: Isobutyl nitrite is known to cause methemoglobinemia. Severe methemoglobinemia may be treated with methylene blue.


title: Poppers

text: Early in the AIDS crisis, widespread use of poppers among AIDS patients led to the later disproved hypothesis that poppers contributed to the development of Kaposi's sarcoma, a rare form of cancer that occurs in AIDS patients. Modest, short-term reductions in immune function were observed in animal studies.


title: Poppers

text: Amyl nitrites were part of some kits used to treat cyanide poisoning, containing amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite, and sodium thiosulfate. The nitrites were administered to produce methemoglobin and induce vasodilation. Amyl nitrites were discontinued in 2012 in standard cyanide kits. Cyanide kits now use hydroxocobalamin.


title: Poppers

text: Poppers are legal in Australia, and from 2020, poppers can be purchased as a schedule 3 substance from pharmacies, or a schedule 4 substance with a prescription.


title: Poppers

text: In June 2018, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) motioned to reschedule alkyl nitrites to be in the same category as heroin and cocaine (). This was met by criticism from the LGBTQI community for being discriminatory and further evidence was demanded and further consultation sought.


title: Poppers

text: In October 2018, the Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations (AFAO) pointed out the lack of quality evidence provided by the TGA to justify the rescheduling and that use of amyl nitrites has been stable over the past decade with very little evidence of harm and has been in use by a high proportion of gay men over a long period.


title: Poppers

text: A final decision was pushed back from 29 November 2018 to late January or early February 2019 for further consultation with the public.


title: Poppers

text: As of March 2019, two public meetings have taken place in Sydney and Melbourne with The Kirby Institute and the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society (ARCSHS). Along with 70 written public proposals, there was significant opposition to alkyl nitrites rescheduling. Banning alkyl nitrites was not considered acceptable as their use was said to help reduce harms such as anal injury and blood-borne disease transmission during anal sex.


title: Poppers

text: Since 2007, reformulated poppers containing isopropyl nitrite are sold in the EU; isobutyl nitrite is prohibited.


title: Poppers

text: In France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers. In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs. After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the Council of State on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.


title: Poppers

text: The possession in Germany, Austria and Switzerland is not subject to any regulations regarding anesthetic drugs and is therefore legal; however, the purchase, sale or trade of amyl nitrite without permission violates the drug laws of the corresponding countries. Occasionally, poppers were seized from sex shops, when sold there illegally.


title: Poppers

text: Poppers are sold in nightclubs, bars, sex shops, drug paraphernalia head shops, over the Internet and in markets. It is illegal under Medicines Act 1968 to sell them advertised for human consumption. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs noted in 2011 that poppers, rather than being psychoactive substance or 'legal high', "appear to fall within the scope of The Intoxicating Substances (Supply) Act 1985". The Psychoactive Substances Act 2016, scheduled to be enacted 1 April 2016, was initially claimed to impose a blanket ban on the production, import and distribution of all poppers. On 20 January 2016 a motion to exempt poppers (alkyl nitrites) from this legislation was defeated. This was opposed by Conservative MP Ben Howlett. Howlett's fellow Conservative MP Crispin Blunt declared that he has used and currently uses poppers. Manufacturers expressed concern over loss of business and potential unemployment. In March 2016, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs stated that, because alkyl nitrites do not directly stimulate or depress the central nervous system, poppers do not fall within the scope of the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016.


title: Poppers

text: Amyl nitrite was originally marketed as a prescription drug in 1937. It remained so until 1960, when the Food and Drug Administration removed the prescription requirement due to its safety record. This requirement was reinstated in 1969, after observing an increase in recreational use. There was a huge increase in the number of brands for butyl nitrites after the FDA put in the prescription requirement again in 1969.


title: Poppers

text: Butyl nitrites were outlawed in 1988 by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988. This prompted distributors to sell other alkyl nitrites not yet banned, like isopropyl nitrites. In 1990, isopropyl nitrites and other nitrites not yet banned were outlawed by the Crime Control Act of 1990. Both of these laws include an exception for "commercial purpose", defined as any use other than for the production of consumer products containing volatile alkyl nitrites meant for inhaling or otherwise introducing volatile alkyl nitrites into the human body for euphoric or physical effects.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Linda Lovelace (born Linda Susan Boreman; January 10, 1949 – April 22, 2002) was an American pornographic actress who became famous for her performance in the 1972 hardcore film "Deep Throat". Although the film was an enormous success, Boreman later said that her abusive husband, Chuck Traynor, had threatened and coerced her into participation. In her autobiography "Ordeal", she described what went on behind the scenes. She later became a born-again Christian and a spokeswoman for the anti-pornography movement.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Boreman was born January 10, 1949, in The Bronx, New York City, New York, into a working-class family. She described her upbringing in an unhappy family, as the daughter of John Boreman, a police officer who was seldom home, and Dorothy Boreman (née Tragney), a waitress who was harsh, unloving, and domineering. She attended private Catholic schools, including Saint John the Baptist (Yonkers, New York) and Maria Regina High School. Linda was nicknamed "Miss Holy Holy" in high school because she kept her dates at a safe distance to avoid sexual activity. When Boreman was 16, her family moved to Davie, Florida, after her father retired from the New York City Police Department.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: At the age of 20, she gave birth to her first child born out-of-wedlock, whom her mother tricked her into putting up for adoption. Shortly afterwards, she returned to New York City to live and go to computer school. There, she was involved in an automobile accident, sustaining injuries that were serious enough to require her to undergo a blood transfusion. The transfused blood had not been properly screened for hepatitis contamination, which caused her to need a liver transplant 18 years later.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: While recovering at the home of her parents, Boreman became involved with Chuck Traynor. According to Boreman, Traynor was charming and attentive at first, then became violent and abusive. She said he forced her to move to New York, where he became her manager, pimp, and husband.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Allegedly coerced by Traynor, Boreman was soon performing as Linda Lovelace in hardcore "loops", short 8 mm silent films made for peep shows.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Boreman starred in a 1969 bestiality film titled "Dogarama" (also known as "Dog Fucker)". She later denied having appeared in the film until several of the original loops proved otherwise. In 2013, Larry Revene, the cameraman who actually shot the film, spoke about it for the first time, during which he asserted that Boreman was a willing participant and that no coercion took place. Porn star Eric Edwards, who was present for the shoot, has similarly claimed there was no obvious coercion going on and that Boreman appeared to be a cooperative performer.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 1972, Boreman starred in "Deep Throat", in which she performed deep-throating. The film achieved surprising and unprecedented popularity among mainstream audiences and even a review in "The New York Times". It played several times daily for over ten years at theaters in the Pussycat Theater chain, where Boreman did promotions, including leaving her hand and footprints in the concrete sidewalk outside the Hollywood Pussycat. The movie later became one of the first, and highest-grossing, X-rated videotape releases. "Deep Throat" grossed over $600 million, however Boreman was paid only $1250, which was later confiscated by her husband Traynor.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In December 1973, Boreman made her theater debut in "Pajama Tops" at the Locust Theatre in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The production suffered disappointing box office performance, which led it to close early, and Boreman's performance was panned.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 1974, Boreman starred in the R-rated sequel, "Deep Throat II", which was not as well received as the original had been; one critic, writing in "Variety", described it as "the shoddiest of exploitation film traditions, a depressing fast buck attempt to milk a naïve public."


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 1975, Boreman left Traynor for David Winters, the producer of her 1976 film "Linda Lovelace for President", which co-starred Micky Dolenz. The film showed her on the campaign trail following a cross-country bus route mapped out in the shape of a penis. However, her career as an actress failed to flourish, and her film appearances add up to five hours of screen time. In her 1980 autobiography "Ordeal", Lovelace maintained that those films used leftover footage from "Deep Throat;" however, she frequently contradicted this statement. She also posed for "Playboy", "Bachelor", and "Esquire" between 1973 and 1974.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: During the mid-1970s, she took to smoking large quantities of marijuana combined with painkillers, and after her second marriage and the birth of her two children, she left the pornographic film business.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 1974, she published two "pro-porn" autobiographies, "Inside Linda Lovelace" and "The Intimate Diary of Linda Lovelace".


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 1976, she was chosen to play the title role in the erotic movie "Forever Emmanuelle" (also known as "Laure"). However, according to the producer Ovidio G. Assonitis, Lovelace was "very much on drugs" at the time. She had already signed for the part when she avowed that "God had changed [her] life", refused to do any nudity, and even objected to a statue of the Venus de Milo on the set because of its exposed breasts. She was replaced by French actress Annie Belle.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In January 1977, she briefly returned to theater acting in a Las Vegas production of "My Daughter's Rated X", but the show closed early and her acting performance was criticized.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In her suit to divorce Traynor, she said that he forced her into pornography at gunpoint and that in "Deep Throat" bruises from his beatings can be seen on her legs. She said that her husband "would force her to do these things by pointing a rifle at her head." Boreman said in her autobiography that her marriage had been plagued by violence, rape, forced prostitution and private pornography. She wrote in "Ordeal":


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Boreman's accusations provoked mixed responses. Traynor admitted to striking Lovelace but said it was part of a voluntary sex game. In Legs McNeil's and Jennifer Osborne's 2005 book "The Other Hollywood", several witnesses, including "Deep Throat" director Gerard Damiano, state that Traynor beat Boreman behind closed doors, but they also question her credibility. Eric Edwards, Boreman's co-star in the bestiality films and other loops that featured her urinating on her sex partners, similarly discounts her credibility. According to Edwards, Boreman was a sexual "super freak" who had no boundaries and was a pathological liar. Adult-film actress Gloria Leonard was quoted as saying, "This was a woman who never took responsibility for her own [...] choices made; but instead blamed everything that happened to her in her life on porn." Corroboration for Lovelace's claims came from Andrea True, Lovelace's co-star in "Deep Throat 2", who, on a commentary DVD track of the documentary "Inside Deep Throat", stated that Traynor was a sadist and was disliked by the "Deep Throat 2" cast. Andrea Dworkin stated that the results of polygraph tests administered to Boreman support her assertions. Moreover, psychiatrist Judith Lewis Herman notes that many details in Lovelace's memoir "Ordeal" are consistent with a diagnosis of Complex PTSD, such as Lovelace's description of a fragmented personality in the aftermath of alleged abuse. Because of the circumstances of her upbringing, however, it had ceased to be clear whether the abuse came from Traynor or from Boreman's parents.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Eric Danville, a journalist who covered the porn industry for nearly 20 years and wrote "The Complete Linda Lovelace" in 2001, said Boreman never changed her version of events that had occurred 30 years earlier with Traynor. When Danville told Boreman of his book proposal, he said she was overcome with emotion and saddened he had uncovered the bestiality film, which she had initially denied making and later maintained she had been forced to star in at gunpoint.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Boreman maintained that she received no money for "Deep Throat" and that the $1,250 payment for her appearance was taken by Traynor.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 1976, Boreman married Larry Marchiano, a cable installer who later owned a drywall business. They had two children, Dominic (born 1977) and Lindsay (born 1980). They lived in Center Moriches, a small town on Long Island. Boreman was then going through the liver transplant that her injuries from the automobile accident had necessitated, owing to the poorly screened blood she received in the transfusions. For a while, marriage and particularly motherhood brought her some stability and happiness. However, Marchiano's business went bankrupt in 1990, and the family moved to Colorado.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In "The Other Hollywood", Boreman painted a largely unflattering picture of Marchiano, claiming he drank to excess, verbally abused her children, and was occasionally violent with her. Their divorce in 1996 was civil, and the two remained in contact with each other for the remainder of her life.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: With the publication of "Ordeal" in 1980, Boreman joined the anti-pornography movement. At a press conference announcing "Ordeal", she leveled many of the above-noted accusations against Traynor in public for the first time. She was joined by supporters Andrea Dworkin, Catharine MacKinnon, Gloria Steinem, and members of Women Against Pornography. Boreman spoke out against pornography, stating that she had been abused and coerced. She spoke before feminist groups, at colleges, and at government hearings on pornography.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 1986, Boreman published "Out of Bondage", a memoir focusing on her life after 1974. She testified before the 1986 Attorney General's Commission on Pornography, also called the "Meese Commission", in New York City, stating, "When you see the movie "Deep Throat", you are watching me being raped. It is a crime that movie is still showing; there was a gun to my head the entire time." Following Boreman's testimony for the Meese Commission, she gave lectures on college campuses, decrying what she described as callous and exploitative practices in the pornography industry.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Boreman had contracted hepatitis from the blood transfusion she received after her 1970 car accident and underwent a liver transplant in 1987. In 2001, she was featured on "E! True Hollywood Story" and did a lingerie pictorial as Linda Lovelace for the magazine "Leg Show".


title: Linda Lovelace

text: On April 3, 2002, Boreman was involved in another automobile accident. This was more serious than the 1970 accident that had injured her. She suffered massive trauma and internal injuries. On April 22, 2002, she was taken off life support and died in Denver, Colorado, at the age of 53. Marchiano and their two children were present when she died. Boreman was interred at Parker Cemetery in Parker, Colorado.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: The computer processing coordination system Linda was named after Linda Lovelace. This name choice was inspired by the programming language Ada, which was named after computer pioneer Ada Lovelace.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Boreman's participation in "Deep Throat" was among the topics explored in the 2005 documentary "Inside Deep Throat".


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Indie pop singer and songwriter Marc with a C released a 2008 album titled "Linda Lovelace for President", which contained a song of the same name.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: The country songwriter and singer David Allan Coe wrote a song called "Linda Lovelace" which is featured on his 1978 album "Nothing Sacred". The same song appears on his 1990 album "18 X-Rated Hits" under the title "I Made Linda Lovelace Gag".


title: Linda Lovelace

text: In 2008, "", based on two of Boreman's four autobiographies, debuted at the Hayworth Theatre in Los Angeles. The score and libretto were written by Anna Waronker of the 1990s rock group That Dog, and Charlotte Caffey of the 1980s group the Go-Go's.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Lovelace is one of the main characters of the 2010 stage play "The Deep Throat Sex Scandal" by David Bertolino. The play follows the life and early career of Harry Reems as he enters the pornography industry, eventually filming "Deep Throat" and its resultant infamy and obscenity trial in Memphis, Tennessee, and Lovelace is a central figure. In July 2013, an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign to make a film version of the play raised over $25,000.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: As of 2011, two biographical films on Boreman were scheduled to begin production. One, titled "Lovelace", went into general release on August 9, 2013, with Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman directing, Amanda Seyfried as Lovelace, and Peter Sarsgaard as Chuck Traynor. "Lovelace" received a limited release in 2013, but ultimately, despite drawing many positive reviews, it was a box-office failure. The other, titled "Inferno: A Linda Lovelace Story", starring Malin Åkerman, was to be directed by Matthew Wilder and produced by Chris Hanley and was scheduled to begin filming in early 2011. Due to a lack of financing it never went into production.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Tina Yothers, who was a child actress on "Family Ties", was cast as Lovelace in "Lovelace: The Musical".


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles I or Karl I (, ; 17 August 18871 April 1922) was Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary (as Charles IV, ), King of Croatia, King of Bohemia (as Charles III, ), and the last of the monarchs belonging to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule over Austria-Hungary. The son of Archduke Otto of Austria and Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony, Charles became heir presumptive of Emperor Franz Joseph when his uncle Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in 1914. In 1911, he married Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma. He is venerated in the Catholic Church, having been beatified by Pope John Paul II on 3 October 2004, and is known to the Catholic Church as Blessed Karl of Austria.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles succeeded to the thrones in November 1916 following the death of his grand-uncle, Franz Joseph. He began secret negotiations with the Allies, hoping to peacefully end the First World War but was unsuccessful. Despite Charles's efforts to preserve the empire by returning it to federalism and by championing Austro-Slavism, Austria-Hungary hurtled into disintegration: Czechoslovakia and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs were proclaimed, and Hungary broke monarchic ties to Austria by the end of October 1918. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918, Charles "renounced participation" in state affairs, but did not abdicate. The Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed the following day, and in April 1919 the Austrian Parliament formally dethroned the Habsburgs and banished Charles from the German-Austrian Republic for life.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles spent the early part of his exile in Switzerland. He spent the remaining years of his life attempting to restore the monarchy. He made two attempts to reclaim the Hungarian throne in 1921; but failed due to the opposition of Hungary's Calvinist regent Admiral Miklós Horthy. Charles was exiled for a second time to the Portuguese island of Madeira, where he soon fell ill and died of respiratory failure in 1922.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles was born on 17 August 1887, in the Castle of Persenbeug, in Lower Austria. His parents were Archduke Otto Franz of Austria and Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony. At the time, his grand-uncle Franz Joseph reigned as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Upon the death of Crown Prince Rudolph in 1889, the Emperor's brother, Archduke Karl Ludwig, Charles’ grandfather, was next in line to the Austro-Hungarian throne. However, his death in 1896 from typhoid made his eldest son, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the new heir presumptive.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Archduke Charles was reared a devout Catholic. He spent his early years wherever his father's regiment happened to be stationed; later on, he lived in Vienna and Reichenau an der Rax. He was privately educated, but, contrary to the custom ruling in the imperial family, he attended a public gymnasium (the Schottengymnasium) for the sake of demonstrations in scientific subjects. On the conclusion of his studies at the gymnasium, he entered the army, spending the years from 1906 to 1908 as an officer chiefly in Prague, where he studied Law and Political Science concurrently with his military duties.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: In 1907, he was declared of age, and Prince Zdenko von Lobkowitz was appointed as his chamberlain. During the next few years, he carried out his military duties in various Bohemian garrison towns. Charles's relations with his grand-uncle were not intimate, and those with his uncle Franz Ferdinand were not cordial, with the differences between their wives increasing the existing tension between them. For these reasons, Charles, up to the time of the assassination of his uncle in 1914, obtained no insight into affairs of state, but led the life of a prince not destined for a high political position.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: In 1911, Charles married Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma. They had met as children but did not see one another for almost ten years, as each pursued their education. In 1909, his dragoon regiment was stationed at Brandýs nad Labem in Bohemia, from where he visited his aunt at Franzensbad.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: It was during one of these visits that Charles and Zita became reacquainted. Due to Franz Ferdinand's morganatic marriage in 1900, his children were excluded from the succession. As a result, the Emperor pressured Charles to marry. Zita not only shared Charles's devout Catholicism, but also an impeccable royal lineage. Zita later recalled:


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Archduke Charles traveled to Villa Pianore, the Italian winter residence of Zita's parents, and asked for her hand; on 13 June 1911, their engagement was announced at the Austrian court. Charles and Zita were married at the Bourbon-Parma castle of Schwarzau in Austria on 21 October 1911. Charles's grand-uncle, the 81-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph, attended the wedding. He was relieved to see the second-in-line to the throne in a suitable marriage, and was in good spirits, even leading the toast at the wedding breakfast. Archduchess Zita soon conceived a son, and Otto was born 20 November 1912. Seven more children followed in the next decade.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles (his father having died in 1906) became heir presumptive after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (his uncle) in Sarajevo in 1914, the event which precipitated World War I. Only at this time did the old Emperor take steps to initiate the heir-presumptive to his crown in affairs of state. But the outbreak of World War I interfered with this political education. Charles spent his time during the first phase of the war at headquarters at Teschen, but exercised no military influence.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles then became a "Feldmarschall" (Field Marshal) in the Austro-Hungarian Army. In the spring of 1916, in connection with the offensive against Italy, he was entrusted with the command of the XX. Corps, whose affections the heir-presumptive to the throne won by his affability and friendliness. The offensive, after a successful start, soon came to a standstill. Shortly afterwards, Charles went to the eastern front as commander of an army operating against the Russians and Romanians.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles succeeded to the thrones on 21 November 1916 upon the death of his grand-uncle, Emperor Franz Joseph. On 2 December 1916, he assumed the title of Supreme Commander of the Austro-Hungarian Army, succeeding Archduke Friedrich. His coronation as King of Hungary occurred on 30 December. In 1917, Charles secretly entered into peace negotiations with the Third French Republic. He employed his brother-in-law, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, an officer in the Belgian Army, as intermediary. However, the Allies insisted on Austrian recognition of Italian claims to territory and Charles refused, so no progress was made. Foreign minister Graf Czernin was only interested in negotiating a general peace which would include Germany; Charles himself went much further in suggesting his willingness to make a separate peace. When news of the overture leaked in April 1918, Charles denied involvement until French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau published letters signed by him. This led to Czernin's resignation, forcing Austria-Hungary to give Berlin full control of its armed forces, factories, and railways.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The Austro-Hungarian Empire was wracked by inner turmoil in the final years of the war, with escalating tension between ethnic groups. As part of his Fourteen Points, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson demanded that the Empire allow for autonomy and self-determination of its peoples. In response, Charles agreed to reconvene the Imperial Parliament and allow for the creation of a confederation with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the ethnic groups fought for full autonomy as separate nations, as they were now determined to become independent from Vienna at the earliest possible moment.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The new foreign minister Baron Istvan Burián asked for an armistice on 14 October based on the Fourteen Points, and two days later Charles issued a proclamation that radically changed the nature of the Austrian state. The Poles were granted full independence with the purpose of joining their ethnic brethren in Russia and Germany in what was to become the Second Polish Republic. The rest of the Austrian lands were transformed into a federal union composed of four parts: German, Czech, South Slav, and Ukrainian. Each of the four parts was to be governed by a federal council, and Trieste was to have a special status. However, U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied four days later that the Allies were committed to the political independence of the Czechs, Slovaks and South Slavs, and that autonomy inside the Empire was no longer enough. In fact, a Czechoslovak provisional government had joined the Allies on 14 October, and the South Slav national council declared an independent South Slav state on 29 October 1918.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: From the beginning of his reign, Charles l favored the creation of a third Croatian political entity in the Empire, in addition to Austria and Hungary. In his Croatian coronation oath in 1916, he recognized the union of the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia with Rijeka and during his short reign supported trialist suggestions from the Croatian Sabor and Ban; however, the suggestions were always vetoed by the Hungarian Parliament, which did not want to share power with other nations. After Emperor Charles's manifesto of 14 October 1918 was rejected by the declaration of the National Council in Zagreb. President of the Croatian pro-monarchy political party Pure Party of Rights Dr. , with other parliament members and generals went to visit the emperor on 21 October 1918 in Bad Ischl, where the emperor agreed and signed the trialist manifesto under the proposed terms set by the delegation, on the condition that the Hungarian part does the same since he swore an oath on the integrity of the Hungarian crown. The delegation went the next day to Budapest where it presented the manifesto to Hungarian officials and Council of Ministers who signed the manifesto and released the king from his oath, creating a third Croatian political entity (Zvonimir's kingdom). After the signing, two parades were held in Zagreb, one for the ending of the K.u.K. monarchy, which was held in front of the Croatian National Theater, and another one for saving the trialist monarchy. The last vote for the support of the trialist reorganization of the empire was, however, too late. On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Sabor (parliament) ended the union and all ties with Hungary and Austria, proclaimed the unification of all Croatian lands and entered the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The curiosity is that no act of Sabor dethroned King Charles IV, nor did it acknowledge the entering in a state union with Serbia, which is today mentioned in the preamble of the Constitution of Croatia.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The Lansing note effectively ended any efforts to keep the Empire together. One by one, the nationalities proclaimed their independence; even before the note the national councils had been acting more like provisional governments. Charles's political future became uncertain. On 31 October, Hungary officially ended the personal union between Austria and Hungary. Nothing remained of Charles's realm except the predominantly German-speaking Danubian and Alpine provinces, and he was challenged even there by the German Austrian State Council. His last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch, advised him that he was in an impossible situation, and his best course was to temporarily give up his right to exercise sovereign power.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: On the day of the Armistice of 11 November 1918, Charles issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognized the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the state and "relinquish[ed] every participation in the administration of the State." He also released his officials from their oath of loyalty to him. On the same day, the Imperial Family left Schönbrunn Palace and moved to , east of Vienna. On 13 November, following a visit with Hungarian magnates, Charles issued a similar proclamation—the Eckartsau Proclamation—for Hungary.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Although it has widely been cited as an "abdication", the word itself was never used in either proclamation. Indeed, he deliberately avoided using the word "abdication" in the hope that the people of either Austria or Hungary would vote to recall him. Privately, Charles left no doubt that he believed himself to be the rightful emperor. He wrote to Friedrich Gustav Piffl, the Archbishop of Vienna:


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Instead, on 12 November, the day after he issued his proclamation, the independent Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed, followed by the proclamation of the First Hungarian Republic on 16 November. An uneasy truce-like situation ensued and persisted until 23 to 24 March 1919, when Charles left for Switzerland, escorted by the commander of the small British guard detachment at Eckartsau, Lieutenant Colonel Edward Lisle Strutt.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: As the imperial train left Austria on 24 March, Charles issued another proclamation in which he confirmed his claim of sovereignty, declaring that:


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The newly established republican government of Austria was not aware of this "Manifesto of Feldkirch" at this time—it had been dispatched only to King Alfonso XIII of Spain and to Pope Benedict XV through diplomatic channels—and politicians in power were irritated by the Emperor's departure without explicit abdication.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The Austrian Parliament responded on 3 April with the Habsburg Law, which dethroned and banished the Habsburgs. Charles was barred from ever returning to Austria. Other male Habsburgs could only return if they renounced all intentions of reclaiming the defunct throne and accepted the status of ordinary citizens. Another law passed on the same day abolished all nobility in Austria. In Switzerland, Charles and his family briefly took residence at Castle Wartegg near Rorschach at Lake Constance, and later moved to Château de Prangins at Lake Geneva on 20 May.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Following the restoration of the Kingdom of Hungary, encouraged by Hungarian royalists ("legitimists"), Charles sought twice in 1921 to reclaim the throne of Hungary, but failed largely because Hungary's regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy (the last commander of the Imperial and Royal Navy), refused to support Charles's restoration. Horthy's action was declared "treasonous" by royalists. Critics suggest that Horthy's actions were more firmly grounded in political reality than those of Charles and his supporters. Indeed, neighbouring countries had threatened to invade Hungary if Charles tried to regain the throne. Later in 1921, the Hungarian parliament formally nullified the Pragmatic Sanction, an act that effectively dethroned the Habsburgs in Hungary.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: After the second failed attempt at restoration in Hungary, Charles and his pregnant wife Zita were arrested and quarantined at Tihany Abbey. Determined to prevent a third restoration attempt, the Council of Allied Powers decided on his exile. On 1 November 1921 they were transported down the Danube aboard the gunboat HMS "Glowworm", across the Black Sea on the cruiser , and on 19 November 1921 they arrived at their final exile, the isolated, heavily guarded Portuguese island of Madeira.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The couple and their children, who joined them on 2 February 1922, lived first at Funchal at the Villa Vittoria, next to Reid's Hotel, and later moved to a modest residence in Quinta do Monte.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Charles never left Madeira. On 9 March 1922 he caught a cold in town, which developed into bronchitis and progressed to severe pneumonia. Having suffered two heart attacks, he died of respiratory failure on 1 April, in the presence of his wife (who was pregnant with their eighth child) and nine-year-old former Crown Prince Otto, remaining conscious almost until his last moments. His last words to his wife were "I love you so much." He was 34 years old. His remains except for his heart are still on the island, resting in state in a chapel devoted to the Emperor in the Portuguese Church of Our Lady of the Mount, in spite of several attempts to move them to the Habsburg Crypt in Vienna. His heart and the heart of his wife are entombed in Muri Abbey, Switzerland.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Historians have been mixed in their evaluations of Charles and his reign. In the interwar period, he was celebrated in Austria as a military hero. When Nazi Germany took over it made his memory into that of a traitor. For decades after 1945, both popular and academic interest practically disappeared, but attention has slowly returned.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Helmut Rumpler, the head of the Habsburg commission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, described Charles as "a dilettante, far too weak for the challenges facing him, out of his depth, and not really a politician." Others have seen Charles as a brave and honourable figure who tried to stop the war in which his Empire was drowning. The English Neo-Jacobite writer, Herbert Vivian, wrote: Karl was a great leader, a Prince of peace, who wanted to save the world from a year of war; a statesman with ideas to save his people from the complicated problems of his Empire; a King who loved his people, a fearless man, a noble soul, distinguished, a saint from whose grave blessings come. Anatole France, the French novelist, stated:


title: Charles I of Austria

text: This war without end is criminal. What is abominable is that they do not want to end it. No, they do not want. Do not try to tell me that there was no way to end it. Emperor Charles offered peace; he is the only decent man to have appeared in this war, and he was not listened to. There was, through him, a chance that could have been seized... Clemenceau called the emperor a "rotten conscience," it's ignoble. Emperor Charles sincerely wanted peace, and therefore was despised by the whole world. [...] A king of France, yes a king, would have had pity on our poor, exhausted, bloodlet nation. However democracy is without a heart and without entrails. When serving the powers of money, it is pitiless and inhuman.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Paul von Hindenburg, the German commander in chief, commented in his memoirs:He tried to compensate for the evaporation of the ethical power which emperor Franz Joseph had represented by offering völkisch reconciliation. Even as he dealt with elements who were sworn to the goal of destroying his empire he believed that his acts of political grace would affect their conscience. These attempts were totally futile; those people had long ago lined up with our common enemies, and were far from being deterred.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Catholic Church leaders have praised Charles for putting his Christian faith first in making political decisions, and for his role as a peacemaker during the war, especially after 1917.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The "cause" or campaign for his canonization began in 1949. In 1954, the cause was opened and Charles was declared "servant of God", the first step in the process. At the beginning of the cause for canonization in 1972 his tomb was opened and his body was discovered to be incorrupt.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: On 14 April 2003, the Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints, in the presence of Pope John Paul II, promulgated Charles of Austria's "heroic virtues". Charles thereby acquired the title "venerable". On 21 December 2003, the Congregation certified, on the basis of three expert medical opinions, that a miracle in 1960 occurred through the intercession of Charles. The miracle attributed to Charles was the scientifically inexplicable healing of a Brazilian nun with debilitating varicose veins; she was able to get out of bed after she prayed for his beatification.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: Pope John Paul II declared Charles "Blessed" in a beatification ceremony in St. Peter's Square on 3 October 2004. The Pope also declared 21 October, the date of Charles's marriage in 1911 to Princess Zita, to be Charles's feast day. At the ceremony, the Pope stated:


title: Charles I of Austria

text: The main points of Pope Benedict XV's peace plan were: (1) the moral force of right ... be substituted for the material force of arms, (2) there must be simultaneous and reciprocal diminution of armaments, (3) a mechanism for international arbitration must be established, (4) true liberty and common rights over the sea should exist, (5) there should be a renunciation of war indemnities, (6) occupied territories should be evacuated, and (7) there should be an examination of rival claims. The best outcome to the war, according to Pope Benedict XV, was an immediate restoration of the status quo without reparations or any form of forced demands. Although the plan seemed unattainable due to the severity of the war thus far, it appealed to Charles, perhaps as a way to fulfill and preserve his role as Catholic Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary. The beatification nevertheless raised controversy over Charles's alleged authorisation of the Austro-Hungarian Army's use of poison gas during World War I.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: From the beginning, Emperor Charles conceived of his office as a holy service to his people. His chief concern was to follow the Christian vocation to holiness also in his political actions. For this reason, his thoughts turned to social assistance.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: On 31 January 2008, after a 16-month investigation, a Church tribunal recognized a second miracle attributed to Charles I. A "devout Baptist" from Orlando, Florida was allegedly cured after several recent converts to Roman Catholicism in Louisiana prayed for Charles's intercession.


title: Charles I of Austria

text: In 2011, the League of Prayers for the promotion of Charles's cause set up a website, and Cardinal Christoph Schönborn of Vienna has sponsored the cause. One of Charles's granddaughters, Princess Maria-Anna Galitzine, has been a prominent figure in the campaign for sainthood.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam, sold under the brand names Klonopin and Rivotril, is a medication used to prevent and treat seizures, panic disorder, anxiety disorders, and the movement disorder known as akathisia. It is a tranquilizer of the benzodiazepine class. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative, hypnotic, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It is typically taken by mouth. Effects begin within one hour and last between six and twelve hours.


title: Clonazepam

text: Common side effects include sleepiness, poor coordination, and agitation. Long-term use may result in tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms if stopped abruptly. Dependence occurs in one-third of people who take clonazepam for longer than four weeks. There is an increased risk of suicide, particularly in people who are already depressed. If used during pregnancy it may result in harm to the fetus. Clonazepam binds to GABA receptors, thus increasing the effect of the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA).


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam was patented in 1960 and went on sale in 1975 in the United States from Roche. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 44th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 14million prescriptions. In many areas of the world it is commonly used as a recreational drug.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam is prescribed for short term management of epilepsy, anxiety, and panic disorder with or without agoraphobia.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam, like other benzodiazepines, while being a first-line treatment for acute seizures, is not suitable for the long-term treatment of seizures due to the development of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam has been found effective in treating epilepsy in children, and the inhibition of seizure activity seemed to be achieved at low plasma levels of clonazepam. As a result, clonazepam is sometimes used for certain rare childhood epilepsies; however, it has been found to be ineffective in the control of infantile spasms. Clonazepam is mainly prescribed for the acute management of epilepsies. Clonazepam has been found to be effective in the acute control of non-convulsive status epilepticus; however, the benefits tended to be transient in many people, and the addition of phenytoin for lasting control was required in these patients.


title: Clonazepam

text: It is also approved for treatment of typical and atypical absences (seizures), infantile myoclonic, myoclonic, and akinetic seizures. A subgroup of people with treatment resistant epilepsy may benefit from long-term use of clonazepam; the benzodiazepine clorazepate may be an alternative due to its slow onset of tolerance.


title: Clonazepam

text: The effectiveness of clonazepam in the short-term treatment of panic disorder has been demonstrated in controlled clinical trials. Some long-term trials have suggested a benefit of clonazepam for up to three years without the development of tolerance but these trials were not placebo-controlled. Clonazepam is also effective in the management of acute mania.


title: Clonazepam

text: Restless legs syndrome can be treated using clonazepam as a third-line treatment option as the use of clonazepam is still investigational. Bruxism also responds to clonazepam in the short-term. Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder responds well to low doses of clonazepam.


title: Clonazepam

text: In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam, like other benzodiazepines, may impair a person's ability to drive or operate machinery. The central nervous system depressing effects of the drug can be intensified by alcohol consumption, and therefore alcohol should be avoided while taking this medication. Benzodiazepines have been shown to cause dependence. Patients dependent on clonazepam should be slowly titrated off under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional to reduce the intensity of withdrawal or rebound symptoms.


title: Clonazepam

text: Benzodiazepines such as clonazepam can be very effective in controlling status epilepticus, but, when used for longer periods of time, some potentially serious side-effects may develop, such as interference with cognitive functions and behavior. Many individuals treated on a long-term basis develop a dependence. Physiological dependence was demonstrated by flumazenil-precipitated withdrawal. Use of alcohol or other CNS depressants while taking clonazepam greatly intensifies the effects (and side effects) of the drug.


title: Clonazepam

text: Like all benzodiazepines, clonazepam is a GABA-positive allosteric modulator. One-third of individuals treated with benzodiazepines for longer than four weeks develop a dependence on the drug and experience a withdrawal syndrome upon dose reduction. High dosage and long-term use increase the risk and severity of dependence and withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal seizures and psychosis can occur in severe cases of withdrawal, and anxiety and insomnia can occur in less severe cases of withdrawal. A gradual reduction in dosage reduces the severity of the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Due to the risks of tolerance and withdrawal seizures, clonazepam is generally not recommended for the long-term management of epilepsies. Increasing the dose can overcome the effects of tolerance, but tolerance to the higher dose may occur and adverse effects may intensify. The mechanism of tolerance includes receptor desensitization, down regulation, receptor decoupling, and alterations in subunit composition and in gene transcription coding.


title: Clonazepam

text: Tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of clonazepam occurs in both animals and humans. In humans, tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of clonazepam occurs frequently. Chronic use of benzodiazepines can lead to the development of tolerance with a decrease of benzodiazepine binding sites. The degree of tolerance is more pronounced with clonazepam than with chlordiazepoxide. In general, short-term therapy is more effective than long-term therapy with clonazepam for the treatment of epilepsy. Many studies have found that tolerance develops to the anticonvulsant properties of clonazepam with chronic use, which limits its long-term effectiveness as an anticonvulsant.


title: Clonazepam

text: Abrupt or over-rapid withdrawal from clonazepam may result in the development of the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, causing psychosis characterised by dysphoric manifestations, irritability, aggressiveness, anxiety, and hallucinations. Sudden withdrawal may also induce the potentially life-threatening condition, status epilepticus. Anti-epileptic drugs, benzodiazepines such as clonazepam in particular, should be reduced in dose slowly and gradually when discontinuing the drug to mitigate withdrawal effects. Carbamazepine has been tested in the treatment of clonazepam withdrawal but was found to be ineffective in preventing clonazepam withdrawal-induced status epilepticus from occurring.


title: Clonazepam

text: Coma can be cyclic, with the individual alternating from a comatose state to a hyper-alert state of consciousness, which occurred in a four-year-old boy who overdosed on clonazepam. The combination of clonazepam and certain barbiturates (for example, amobarbital), at prescribed doses has resulted in a synergistic potentiation of the effects of each drug, leading to serious respiratory depression.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam and 7-aminoclonazepam may be quantified in plasma, serum, or whole blood in order to monitor compliance in those receiving the drug therapeutically. Results from such tests can be used to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage. Both the parent drug and 7-aminoclonazepam are unstable in biofluids, and therefore specimens should be preserved with sodium fluoride, stored at the lowest possible temperature and analyzed quickly to minimize losses.


title: Clonazepam

text: The elderly metabolize benzodiazepines more slowly than younger people and are also more sensitive to the effects of benzodiazepines, even at similar blood plasma levels. Doses for the elderly are recommended to be about half of that given to younger adults and are to be administered for no longer than two weeks. Long-acting benzodiazepines such as clonazepam are not generally recommended for the elderly due to the risk of drug accumulation.


title: Clonazepam

text: The elderly are especially susceptible to increased risk of harm from motor impairments and drug accumulation side effects. Benzodiazepines also require special precaution if used by individuals that may be pregnant, alcohol- or drug-dependent, or may have comorbid psychiatric disorders. Clonazepam is generally not recommended for use in elderly people for insomnia due to its high potency relative to other benzodiazepines.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam is not recommended for use in those under 18. Use in very young children may be especially hazardous. Of anticonvulsant drugs, behavioural disturbances occur most frequently with clonazepam and phenobarbital.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam is not recommended for patients with chronic schizophrenia. A 1982 double-blinded, placebo-controlled study found clonazepam increases violent behavior in individuals with chronic schizophrenia.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam decreases the levels of carbamazepine, and, likewise, clonazepam's level is reduced by carbamazepine. Azole antifungals, such as ketoconazole, may inhibit the metabolism of clonazepam. Clonazepam may affect levels of phenytoin (diphenylhydantoin). In turn, Phenytoin may lower clonazepam plasma levels by increasing the speed of clonazepam clearance by approximately 50% and decreasing its half-life by 31%.


title: Clonazepam

text: Combined use of clonazepam with certain antidepressants, anticonvulsants (such as phenobarbital, phenytoin, and carbamazepine), sedative antihistamines, opiates, and antipsychotics, nonbenzodiazepines (such as zolpidem), and alcohol may result in enhanced sedative effects.


title: Clonazepam

text: There is some medical evidence of various malformations (for example, cardiac or facial deformations when used in early pregnancy); however, the data is not conclusive. The data are also inconclusive on whether benzodiazepines such as clonazepam cause developmental deficits or decreases in IQ in the developing fetus when taken by the mother during pregnancy. Clonazepam, when used late in pregnancy, may result in the development of a severe benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome in the neonate. Withdrawal symptoms from benzodiazepines in the neonate may include hypotonia, apnoeic spells, cyanosis, and impaired metabolic responses to cold stress.


title: Clonazepam

text: The safety profile of clonazepam during pregnancy is less clear than that of other benzodiazepines, and if benzodiazepines are indicated during pregnancy, chlordiazepoxide and diazepam may be a safer choice. The use of clonazepam during pregnancy should only occur if the clinical benefits are believed to outweigh the clinical risks to the fetus. Caution is also required if clonazepam is used during breastfeeding. Possible adverse effects of use of benzodiazepines such as clonazepam during pregnancy include: miscarriage, malformation, intrauterine growth retardation, functional deficits, carcinogenesis, and mutagenesis. Neonatal withdrawal syndrome associated with benzodiazepines include hypertonia, hyperreflexia, restlessness, irritability, abnormal sleep patterns, inconsolable crying, tremors, or jerking of the extremities, bradycardia, cyanosis, suckling difficulties, apnea, risk of aspiration of feeds, diarrhea and vomiting, and growth retardation. This syndrome can develop between three days to three weeks after birth and can have a duration of up to several months. The pathway by which clonazepam is metabolized is usually impaired in newborns. If clonazepam is used during pregnancy or breastfeeding, it is recommended that serum levels of clonazepam are monitored and that signs of central nervous system depression and apnea are also checked for. In many cases, non-pharmacological treatments, such as relaxation therapy, psychotherapy, and avoidance of caffeine, can be an effective and safer alternative to the use of benzodiazepines for anxiety in pregnant women.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam enhances the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the central nervous system to give its anticonvulsant, skeletal muscle relaxant, and anxiolytic effects. It acts by binding to the benzodiazepine site of the GABA receptors, which enhances the electric effect of GABA binding on neurons, resulting in an increased influx of chloride ions into the neurons. This further results in an inhibition of synaptic transmission across the central nervous system.


title: Clonazepam

text: Benzodiazepines do not have any effect on the levels of GABA in the brain. Clonazepam has no effect on GABA levels and has no effect on gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase. Clonazepam does, however, affect glutamate decarboxylase activity. It differs from other anticonvulsant drugs it was compared to in a study.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam's primary mechanism of action is the modulation of GABA function in the brain, by the benzodiazepine receptor, located on GABA receptors, which, in turn, leads to enhanced GABAergic inhibition of neuronal firing. Benzodiazepines do not replace GABA, but instead enhance the effect of GABA at the GABA receptor by increasing the opening frequency of chloride ion channels, which leads to an increase in GABA's inhibitory effects and resultant central nervous system depression. In addition, clonazepam decreases the utilization of 5-HT (serotonin) by neurons and has been shown to bind tightly to central-type benzodiazepine receptors. Because clonazepam is effective in low milligram doses (0.5 mg clonazepam = 10 mg diazepam), it is said to be among the class of "highly potent" benzodiazepines. The anticonvulsant properties of benzodiazepines are due to the enhancement of synaptic GABA responses, and the inhibition of sustained, high-frequency repetitive firing.


title: Clonazepam

text: Benzodiazepines, including clonazepam, bind to mouse glial cell membranes with high affinity. Clonazepam decreases release of acetylcholine in the feline brain and decreases prolactin release in rats. Benzodiazepines inhibit cold-induced thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as TSH or thyrotropin) release. Benzodiazepines act via micromolar benzodiazepine binding sites as Ca channel blockers and significantly inhibit depolarization-sensitive calcium uptake in experimentation on rat brain cell components. This has been conjectured as a mechanism for high-dose effects on seizures in the study.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam is a 2'-chlorinated derivative of nitrazepam, which increases its potency due to electron-attracting effect of the halogen in the ortho-position.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam is lipid-soluble, rapidly crosses the blood–brain barrier, and penetrates the placenta. It is extensively metabolised into pharmacologically inactive metabolites, with only 2% of the unchanged drug excreted in the urine. Clonazepam is metabolized extensively via nitroreduction by cytochrome P450 enzymes, including CYP3A4. Erythromycin, clarithromycin, ritonavir, itraconazole, ketoconazole, nefazodone, cimetidine, and grapefruit juice are inhibitors of CYP3A4 and can affect the metabolism of benzodiazepines. It has an elimination half-life of 19–60 hours. Peak blood concentrations of 6.5–13.5 ng/mL were usually reached within 1–2 hours following a single 2 mg oral dose of micronized clonazepam in healthy adults. In some individuals, however, peak blood concentrations were reached at 4–8 hours.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam passes rapidly into the central nervous system, with levels in the brain corresponding with levels of unbound clonazepam in the blood serum. Clonazepam plasma levels are very unreliable amongst patients. Plasma levels of clonazepam can vary as much as tenfold between different patients.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam has plasma protein binding of 85%. Clonazepam passes through the blood–brain barrier easily, with blood and brain levels corresponding equally with each other. The metabolites of clonazepam include 7-aminoclonazepam, 7-acetaminoclonazepam and 3-hydroxy clonazepam. These metabolites are excreted by the kidney.


title: Clonazepam

text: A 2006 US government study of hospital emergency department (ED) visits found that sedative-hypnotics were the most frequently implicated pharmaceutical drug in visits, with benzodiazepines accounting for the majority of these. Clonazepam was the second most frequently implicated benzodiazepine in ED visits. Alcohol alone was responsible for over twice as many ED visits as clonazepam in the same study. The study examined the number of times the non-medical use of certain drugs was implicated in an ED visit. The criteria for non-medical use in this study were purposefully broad, and include, for example, drug abuse, accidental or intentional overdose, or adverse reactions resulting from legitimate use of the medication.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam was approved in the United States as a generic drug in 1997 and is now manufactured and marketed by several companies.


title: Clonazepam

text: Clonazepam is available as tablets and orally disintegrating tablets (wafers) an oral solution (drops), and as a solution for injection or intravenous infusion.


title: Clonazepam

text: It is marketed under the trade name Rivotril by Roche in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, China, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Peru, Pakistan, Romania, Serbia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Turkey, and the United States; Emcloz, Linotril, Lonazep and Clonotril in India and other parts of Europe; under the name Riklona in Indonesia and Malaysia; and under the trade name Klonopin by Roche in the United States. Other names, such as Antelepsin, Clonoten, Ravotril, Rivotril, Iktorivil, Clonex (Israel), Paxam, Petril, Naze, Zilepam and Kriadex, are used throughout the world.


title: Marketing

text: Marketing is the process of exploring, creating, and delivering value to meet the needs of a target market in terms of goods and services; potentially including selection of a target audience; selection of certain attributes or themes to emphasize in advertising; operation of advertising campaigns; attendance at trade shows and public events; design of products and packaging attractive to buyers; defining the terms of sale, such as price, discounts, warranty, and return policy; product placement in media or with people believed to influence the buying habits of others; agreements with retailers, wholesale distributors, or resellers; and attempts to create awareness of, loyalty to, and positive feelings about a brand. Marketing is typically done by the seller, typically a retailer or manufacturer. Sometimes tasks are contracted to a dedicated marketing firm or advertising agency. More rarely, a trade association or government agency (such as the Agricultural Marketing Service) advertises on behalf of an entire industry or locality, often a specific type of food (e.g. Got Milk?), food from a specific area, or a city or region as a tourism destination.


title: Marketing

text: It is one of the primary components of business management and commerce. Marketers can direct their product to other businesses (B2B marketing) or directly to consumers (B2C marketing). Regardless of who is being marketed to, several factors apply, including the perspective the marketers will use. Known as market orientations, they determine how marketers approach the planning stage of marketing.


title: Marketing

text: The marketing mix, which outlines the specifics of the product and how it will be sold, is affected by the environment surrounding the product, the results of marketing research and market research, and the characteristics of the product's target market. Once these factors are determined, marketers must then decide what methods of promoting the product, including use of coupons and other price inducements.


title: Marketing

text: The term "marketing", what is commonly known as attracting customers, incorporates knowledge gained by studying the management of exchange relationships and is the business process of identifying, anticipating and satisfying customers' needs and wants.


title: Marketing

text: Marketing is currently defined by the American Marketing Association (AMA) as "the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large". However, the definition of marketing has evolved over the years. The AMA reviews this definition and its definition for "marketing research" every three years. The interests of "society at large" were added into the definition in 2008. The development of the definition may be seen by comparing the 2008 definition with the AMA's 1935 version: "Marketing is the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods, and services from producers to consumers". The newer definition highlights the increased prominence of other stakeholders in the new conception of marketing.


title: Marketing

text: Recent definitions of marketing place more emphasis on the consumer relationship, as opposed to a pure exchange process. For instance, prolific marketing author and educator, Philip Kotler has evolved his definition of marketing. In 1980, he defined marketing as "satisfying needs and wants through an exchange process", and in 2018 defined it as "the process by which companies engage customers, build strong customer relationships, and create customer value in order to capture value from customers in return". A related definition, from the sales process engineering perspective, defines marketing as "a set of processes that are interconnected and interdependent with other functions of a business aimed at achieving customer interest and satisfaction".


title: Marketing

text: Besides, customers some definitions of marketing highlight marketing's ability to produce value to shareholders of the firm as well. In this context, marketing can be defined as "the management process that seeks to maximise returns to shareholders by developing relationships with valued customers and creating a competitive advantage". For instance, the Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing from a customer-centric perspective, focusing on "the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably".


title: Marketing

text: In the past, marketing practice tended to be seen as a creative industry, which included advertising, distribution and selling, and even today many parts of the marketing process (e.g. product design, art director, brand management, advertising, inbound marketing, copywriting etc.) involve the use of the creative arts. However, because marketing makes extensive use of social sciences, psychology, sociology, mathematics, economics, anthropology and neuroscience, the profession is now widely recognized as a science. Marketing science has developed a concrete process that can be followed to create a marketing plan.


title: Marketing

text: The "marketing concept" proposes that to complete its organizational objectives, an organization should anticipate the needs and wants of potential consumers and satisfy them more effectively than its competitors. This concept originated from Adam Smith's book "The Wealth of Nations" but would not become widely used until nearly 200 years later. Marketing and Marketing Concepts are directly related.


title: Marketing

text: Given the centrality of customer needs, and wants in marketing, a rich understanding of these concepts is essential:


title: Marketing

text: Marketing research, conducted for the purpose of new product development or product improvement, is often concerned with identifying the consumer's "unmet needs." Customer needs are central to market segmentation which is concerned with dividing markets into distinct groups of buyers on the basis of "distinct needs, characteristics, or behaviors who might require separate products or marketing mixes." Needs-based segmentation (also known as "benefit segmentation") "places the customers' desires at the forefront of how a company designs and markets products or services." Although needs-based segmentation is difficult to do in practice, it has been proved to be one of the most effective ways to segment a market. In addition, a great deal of advertising and promotion is designed to show how a given product's benefits meet the customer's needs, wants or expectations in a unique way.


title: Marketing

text: The two major segments of marketing are business-to-business (B2B) marketing and business-to-consumer (B2C) marketing.


title: Marketing

text: B2B (business-to-business) marketing refers to any marketing strategy or content that is geared towards a business or organization. Any company that sells products or services to other businesses or organizations (vs. consumers) typically uses B2B marketing strategies.


title: Marketing

text: Business-to-consumer marketing, or B2C marketing, refers to the tactics and strategies in which a company promotes its products and services to individual people.


title: Marketing

text: Traditionally, this could refer to individuals shopping for personal products in a broad sense. More recently the term B2C refers to the online selling of consumer products.


title: Marketing

text: Consumer-to-business marketing or C2B marketing is a business model where the end consumers create products and services which are consumed by businesses and organizations. It is diametrically opposed to the popular concept of B2C or Business- to- Consumer where the companies make goods and services available to the end consumers. In this type of business model, businesses profit from consumers' willingness to name their own price or contribute data or marketing to the company, while consumers benefit from flexibility, direct payment, or free or reduced-price products and services. One of the major benefit of this type of business model is that it offers a company a competitive advantage in the market.


title: Marketing

text: Customer to customer marketing or C2C marketing represents a market environment where one customer purchases goods from another customer using a third-party business or platform to facilitate the transaction. C2C companies are a new type of model that has emerged with e-commerce technology and the sharing economy.


title: Marketing

text: The different goals of B2B and B2C marketing lead to differences in the B2B and B2C markets. The main differences in these markets are demand, purchasing volume, number of customers, customer concentration, distribution, buying nature, buying influences, negotiations, reciprocity, leasing and promotional methods.


title: Marketing

text: A marketing orientation has been defined as a "philosophy of business management." or "a corporate state of mind" or as an "organizational culture" Although scholars continue to debate the precise nature of specific concepts that inform marketing practice, the most commonly cited orientations are as follows:


title: Marketing

text: A marketing mix is a foundational tool used to guide decision making in marketing. The marketing mix represents the basic tools that marketers can use to bring their products or services to the market. They are the foundation of managerial marketing and the marketing plan typically devotes a section to the marketing mix.


title: Marketing

text: The traditional marketing mix refers to four broad levels of marketing decision, namely: "product", "price", "promotion", and "place".


title: Marketing

text: One of the limitations of the 4Ps approach is its emphasis on an inside-out view. An "inside-out" approach is the traditional planning approach where the organization identifies its desired goals and objectives, which are often based around what has always been done. Marketing's task then becomes one of "selling" the organization's products and messages to the "outside" or external stakeholders. In contrast, an "outside-in" approach first seeks to understand the needs and wants of the consumer.


title: Marketing

text: From a model-building perspective, the 4 Ps has attracted a number of criticisms. Well-designed models should exhibit clearly defined categories that are mutually exclusive, with no overlap. Yet, the 4 Ps model has extensive overlapping problems. Several authors stress the hybrid nature of the fourth P, mentioning the presence of two important dimensions, "communication" (general and informative communications such as public relations and corporate communications) and "promotion" (persuasive communications such as advertising and direct selling). Certain marketing activities, such as personal selling, may be classified as either "promotion" or as part of the place (i.e., distribution) element. Some pricing tactics, such as promotional pricing, can be classified as price variables or promotional variables and, therefore, also exhibit some overlap.


title: Marketing

text: Other important criticisms include that the marketing mix lacks a strategic framework and is, therefore, unfit to be a planning instrument, particularly when uncontrollable, external elements are an important aspect of the marketing environment.


title: Marketing

text: To overcome the deficiencies of the 4P model, some authors have suggested extensions or modifications to the original model. Extensions of the four P's are often included in cases such as services marketing where unique characteristics (i.e. intangibility, perishability, heterogeneity and the inseparability of production and consumption) warrant additional consideration factors. Other extensions have been found necessary for retail marketing, industrial marketing, and internet marketing


title: Marketing

text: include "people", "process", and "physical evidence" and are often applied in the case of services marketing Other extensions have been found necessary in retail marketing, industrial marketing and internet marketing.


title: Marketing

text: In response to environmental and technological changes in marketing, as well as criticisms towards the 4Ps approach, the 4Cs has emerged as a modern marketing mix model.


title: Marketing

text: The consumer refers to the person or group that will acquire the product. This aspect of the model focuses on fulfilling the wants or needs of the consumer.


title: Marketing

text: Cost refers to what is exchanged in return for the product. Cost mainly consists of the monetary value of the product. Cost also refers to anything else the consumer must sacrifice to attain the product, such as time or money spent on transportation to acquire the product.


title: Marketing

text: Like "Place" in the 4Ps model, convenience refers to where the product will be sold. This, however, not only refers to physical stores but also whether the product is available in person or online. The convenience aspect emphasizes making it as easy as possible for the consumer to attain the product, thus making them more likely to do so.


title: Marketing

text: Like "Promotion" in the 4Ps model, communication refers to how consumers find out about a product. Unlike promotion, communication not only refers to the one-way communication of advertising, but also the two-way communication available through social media.