title: Spartacus

text: According to Plutarch, Spartacus made a bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily, where he intended to incite a slave revolt and gather reinforcements. However, he was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebels. Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape, but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily, and their efforts were abandoned. Spartacus's forces then retreated toward Rhegium. Crassus's legions followed and upon arrival built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium, despite harassing raids from the rebels. The rebels were now under siege and cut off from their supplies.


title: Spartacus

text: At this time, the legions of Pompey returned from Hispania and were ordered by the Senate to head south to aid Crassus. Crassus feared that Pompey's involvement would deprive him of credit for defeating Spartacus himself. Hearing of Pompey's involvement, Spartacus tried to make a truce with Crassus. When Crassus refused, Spartacus and his army broke through the Roman fortifications and headed to Brundusium with Crassus's legions in pursuit.


title: Spartacus

text: When the legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels separated from the main army, discipline among Spartacus's forces broke down as small groups independently attacked the oncoming legions. Spartacus now turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on the legions in a last stand, in which the rebels were routed completely, with the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield.


title: Spartacus

text: The final battle that saw the assumed defeat of Spartacus in 71 BC took place on the present territory of Senerchia on the right bank of the river Sele in the area that includes the border with Oliveto Citra up to those of Calabritto, near the village of Quaglietta, in the High Sele Valley, which at that time was part of Lucania. In this area, since 1899, there have been finds of armour and swords of the Roman era.


title: Spartacus

text: Plutarch, Appian and Florus all claim that Spartacus died during the battle, but Appian also reports that his body was never found. Six thousand survivors of the revolt captured by the legions of Crassus were crucified, lining the Appian Way from Rome to Capua.


title: Spartacus

text: Classical historians were divided as to the motives of Spartacus. None of Spartacus's actions overtly suggest that he aimed at reforming Roman society or abolishing slavery.


title: Spartacus

text: Plutarch writes that Spartacus wished to escape north into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes. If escaping the Italian peninsula was indeed his goal, it is not clear why Spartacus turned south after defeating the legions commanded by the consuls Lucius Publicola and Gnaeus Clodianus, which left his force a clear passage over the Alps.


title: Spartacus

text: Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself. Appian also states that he later abandoned that goal, which might have been no more than a reflection of Roman fears.


title: Spartacus

text: Based on the events in late 73 BC and early 72 BC, which suggest independently operating groups of escaped slaves and a statement by Plutarch, it appears that some of the escaped slaves preferred to plunder Italy, rather than escape over the Alps.


title: Spartacus

text: Toussaint Louverture, a leader of the slave revolt that led to the independence of Haiti, has been called the "Black Spartacus".


title: Spartacus

text: Adam Weishaupt, founder of the Bavarian Illuminati, often referred to himself as Spartacus within written correspondences.


title: Spartacus

text: In modern times, Spartacus became an icon for communists and socialists. Karl Marx listed Spartacus as one of his heroes and described him as "the most splendid fellow in the whole of ancient history" and a "great general, noble character, real representative of the ancient proletariat". Spartacus has been a great inspiration to left-wing revolutionaries, most notably the German Spartacus League (1915–18), a forerunner of the Communist Party of Germany. A January 1919 uprising by communists in Germany was called the Spartacist uprising. Spartacus Books, one of the longest running collectively-run leftist book stores in North America, is also named in his honour. The village of Spartak, in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine, is also named after Spartacus.


title: Spartacus

text: Several sports clubs around the world, in particular the former Soviet and the Communist bloc, were named after the Roman gladiator.


title: Spartacus

text: Spartacus's name was also used in athletics in the Soviet Union and communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Spartakiad was a Soviet bloc version of the Olympic games. This name was also used for the mass gymnastics exhibition held every five years in Czechoslovakia. The mascot for the Ottawa Senators, Spartacat, is also named after him.


title: 2021–22 Serie A

text: The 2021–22 Serie A (known as the Serie A TIM for sponsorship reasons) was the 120th season of top-tier Italian football, the 90th in a round-robin tournament, and the 12th since its organization under an own league committee, the Lega Serie A. Inter Milan were the defending champions.


title: 2021–22 Serie A

text: On 22 May 2022, following victory in their final match against Sassuolo, AC Milan were crowned champions for the first time since the 2010–11 season, earning a nineteenth overall title.


title: 2021–22 Serie A

text: Twenty teams competed in the league—the top seventeen teams from the previous season and three teams promoted from the Serie B.


title: 2021–22 Serie A

text: Crotone, Benevento (both relegated after only one year in the top flight) and Parma (relegated after three years in the top flight) were relegated to the 2021–22 Serie B.


title: 2021–22 Serie A

text: On 4 May 2021, Empoli secured promotion to Serie A after a two-year absence. Six days later, Salernitana officially confirmed a return to the top flight after 22 years of absence. The final team to be promoted were Venezia, who defeated Cittadella on 27 May in the final of the promotion play-offs, returning to the top flight after a nineteen-year absence.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The Hippocratic Oath is an oath of ethics historically taken by physicians. It is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. In its original form, it requires a new physician to swear, by a number of healing gods, to uphold specific ethical standards. The oath is the earliest expression of medical ethics in the Western world, establishing several principles of medical ethics which remain of paramount significance today. These include the principles of medical confidentiality and non-maleficence. As the seminal articulation of certain principles that continue to guide and inform medical practice, the ancient text is of more than historic and symbolic value. It is enshrined in the legal statutes of various jurisdictions, such that violations of the oath may carry criminal or other liability beyond the oath's symbolic nature.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The original oath was written in Ionic Greek, between the fifth and third centuries BC. Although it is traditionally attributed to the Greek doctor Hippocrates and it is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus, some modern scholars do not regard it as having been written by Hippocrates himself.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The oldest partial fragments of the oath date to circa AD 275. The oldest extant version dates to roughly the 10th–11th century, held in the Vatican Library. A commonly cited version, dated to 1595, appears in Koine Greek with a Latin translation. In this translation, the author translates "πεσσὸν" to the Latin "fœtum."


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The Hippocratic Oath, in Greek, from the 1923 Loeb edition, and then followed by the English translation:


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I swear by Apollo Healer, by Asclepius, by Hygieia, by Panacea, and by all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will carry out, according to my ability and judgment, this oath and this indenture.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: To hold my teacher in this art equal to my own parents; to make him partner in my livelihood; when he is in need of money to share mine with him; to consider his family as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they want to learn it, without fee or indenture; to impart precept, oral instruction, and all other instruction to my own sons, the sons of my teacher, and to indentured pupils who have taken the Healer’s oath, but to nobody else.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will use those dietary regimens which will benefit my patients according to my greatest ability and judgment, and I will do no harm or injustice to them. Neither will I administer a poison to anybody when asked to do so, nor will I suggest such a course. Similarly I will not give to a woman a pessary to cause abortion. But I will keep pure and holy both my life and my art. I will not use the knife, not even, verily, on sufferers from stone, but I will give place to such as are craftsmen therein.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: Into whatsoever houses I enter, I will enter to help the sick, and I will abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm, especially from abusing the bodies of man or woman, bond or free. And whatsoever I shall see or hear in the course of my profession, as well as outside my profession in my intercourse with men, if it be what should not be published abroad, I will never divulge, holding such things to be holy secrets.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: Now if I carry out this oath, and break it not, may I gain for ever reputation among all men for my life and for my art; but if I break it and forswear myself, may the opposite befall me. – Translation by W.H.S. Jones.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: It is often said that the exact phrase "First do no harm" () is a part of the original Hippocratic oath. Although the phrase does not appear in the AD 245 version of the oath, similar intentions are vowed by, "I will abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm". The phrase "primum non nocere" is believed to date from the 17th century.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: Another equivalent phrase is found in Epidemics, Book I, of the Hippocratic school: "Practice two things in your dealings with disease: either help or do not harm the patient". The exact phrase is believed to have originated with the 19th-century English surgeon Thomas Inman.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The oath is arguably the best known text of the Hippocratic Corpus, although most modern scholars do not attribute it to Hippocrates himself, estimating it to have been written in the fourth or fifth century BC. Alternatively, classical scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written by the Pythagoreans, an idea that others questioned for lack of evidence for a school of Pythagorean medicine. While Pythagorean philosophy displays a correlation to the Oath's values, the proposal of a direct relationship has been mostly discredited in more recent studies.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: Its general ethical principles are also found in other works of the Corpus: the Physician mentions the obligation to keep the 'holy things' of medicine within the medical community (i.e. not to divulge secrets); it also mentions the special position of the doctor with regard to his patients, especially women and girls. However, several aspects of the oath contradict patterns of practice established elsewhere in the Corpus. Most notable is its ban on the use of the knife, even for small procedures such as lithotomy, even though other works in the Corpus provide guidance on performing surgical procedures.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: Providing poisonous drugs would certainly have been viewed as immoral by contemporary physicians if it resulted in murder. However, the absolute ban described in the oath also forbids euthanasia. Several accounts of ancient physicians willingly assisting suicides have survived. Multiple explanations for the prohibition of euthanasia in the oath have been proposed: it is possible that not all physicians swore the oath, or that the oath was seeking to prevent widely held concerns that physicians could be employed as political assassins.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The interpreted AD 275 fragment of the oath contains a prohibition of abortion that is in contradiction to original Hippocratic text "On the Nature of the Child", which contains a description of an abortion, without any implication that it was morally wrong, and descriptions of abortifacient medications are numerous in the ancient medical literature. The oath’s stance on abortion was unclear even in the ancient world where physicians debated whether the specification of pessaries was a ban on simply pessaries, or a blanket ban on all abortion methods. Scribonius Largus was adamant in AD 43 (the earliest surviving reference to the oath) that it precluded abortion. In the 1st or 2nd century AD work "Gynaecology", Soranus of Ephesus wrote that one party of medical practitioners followed the Oath and banished all abortifacients, while the other party—to which he belonged—was willing to prescribe abortions, but only for the sake of the mother's health. William Henry Samuel Jones states that "abortion…though doctors are forbidden to cause it, was possibly not condemned in all cases". He believed that the oath prohibited abortions, though not under all circumstances. John M. Riddle argues that because Hippocrates specified pessaries, he only meant pessaries and therefore it was acceptable for a Hippocratic doctor to perform abortions using oral drugs, violent means, a disruption of daily routine or eating habits, and more. Other scholars, most notably Ludwig Edelstein, believe that the author intended to prohibit any and all abortions. Olivia De Brabandere writes that regardless of the author’s original intention, the vague and polyvalent nature of the relevant line has allowed both professionals and non-professionals to interpret and use the oath in. While many Christian versions of the Hippocratic Oath, particularly from the middle-ages, explicitly prohibited abortion, the prohibition is often omitted from many oaths taken in US medical schools today, though it remains controversial.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The oath stands out among comparable ancient texts on medical ethics and professionalism through its heavily religious tone, a factor which makes attributing its authorship to Hippocrates particularly difficult. Phrases such as 'but I will keep pure and holy both my life and my art' suggest a deep, almost monastic devotion to the art of medicine. He who keeps to the oath is promised 'reputation among all men for my life and for my art'. This contrasts heavily with Galenic writings on professional ethics, which employ a far more pragmatic approach, where good practice is defined as effective practice, without reference to deities.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The oath's importance among the medical community is nonetheless attested by its appearance on the tombstones of physicians, and by the fourth century AD it had come to stand for the medical profession.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The oath continued to be in use in the Byzantine Christian world with its references to pagan deities replaced by a Christian preamble, as in the 12th-century manuscript pictured in the shape of a cross.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: The Hippocratic Oath has been eclipsed as a document of professional ethics by more extensive, regularly updated ethical codes issued by national medical associations, such as the AMA Code of Medical Ethics (first adopted in 1847), and the British General Medical Council's "Good Medical Practice". These documents provide a comprehensive overview of the obligations and professional behaviour of a doctor to their patients and wider society. Doctors who violate these codes may be subjected to disciplinary proceedings, including the loss of their license to practice medicine. Nonetheless, the length of these documents has made their distillations into shorter oaths an attractive proposition. In light of this fact, several updates to the oath have been offered in modern times, some facetious.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: In the United States, the majority of osteopathic medical schools use the Osteopathic Oath in place of or in addition to the Hippocratic Oath. The Osteopathic Oath was first used in 1938, and the current version has been in use since 1954.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: One of the most significant revisions was first drafted in 1948 by the World Medical Association (WMA), called the Declaration of Geneva. "During the post World War II and immediately after its foundation, the WMA showed concern over the state of medical ethics in general and over the world. The WMA took up the responsibility for setting ethical guidelines for the world's physicians. It noted that in those years the custom of medical schools to administer an oath to its doctors upon graduation or receiving a license to practice medicine had fallen into disuse or become a mere formality". In Nazi Germany, medical students did not take the Hippocratic Oath, although they knew the ethic of "nil nocere"—do no harm.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: In the 1960s, the Hippocratic Oath was changed to require "utmost respect for human life from its beginning", making it a more secular obligation, not to be taken in the presence of any gods, but before only other people. When the oath was rewritten in 1964 by Louis Lasagna, Academic Dean of the School of Medicine at Tufts University, the prayer was omitted, and that version has been widely accepted and is still in use today by many US medical schools:


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will respect the hard-won scientific gains of those physicians in whose steps I walk, and gladly share such knowledge as is mine with those who are to follow.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will apply, for the benefit of the sick, all measures [that] are required, avoiding those twin traps of overtreatment and therapeutic nihilism.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will remember that there is art to medicine as well as science, and that warmth, sympathy, and understanding may outweigh the surgeon's knife or the chemist's drug.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will not be ashamed to say "I know not", nor will I fail to call in my colleagues when the skills of another are needed for a patient's recovery.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will respect the privacy of my patients, for their problems are not disclosed to me that the world may know. Most especially must I tread with care in matters of life and death. If it is given me to save a life, all thanks. But it may also be within my power to take a life; this awesome responsibility must be faced with great humbleness and awareness of my own frailty. Above all, I must not play at God.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will remember that I do not treat a fever chart, a cancerous growth, but a sick human being, whose illness may affect the person's family and economic stability. My responsibility includes these related problems, if I am to care adequately for the sick.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: I will remember that I remain a member of society, with special obligations to all my fellow human beings, those sound of mind and body as well as the infirm.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: If I do not violate this oath, may I enjoy life and art, respected while I live and remembered with affection thereafter. May I always act so as to preserve the finest traditions of my calling and may I long experience the joy of healing those who seek my help.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: In a 1989 survey of 126 US medical schools, only three of them reported use of the original oath, while thirty-three used the Declaration of Geneva, sixty-seven used a modified Hippocratic Oath, four used the Oath of Maimonides, one used a covenant, eight used another oath, one used an unknown oath, and two did not use any kind of oath. Seven medical schools did not reply to the survey.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: In a 2000 survey of US medical schools, all of the then extant medical schools administered some type of profession oath. Among schools of modern medicine, sixty-two of 122 used the Hippocratic Oath, or a modified version of it. The other sixty schools used the original or modified Declaration of Geneva, Oath of Maimonides, or an oath authored by students and or faculty. All nineteen osteopathic schools used the Osteopathic Oath.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: In France, it is common for new medical graduates to sign a written oath.<ref name="Letters, BMJ 8/8/1994"></ref>


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: In 1995, Sir Joseph Rotblat, in his acceptance speech for the Nobel Peace Prize, suggested a Hippocratic Oath for Scientists.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: In 2007 US citizen Rafiq Abdus Sabir was convicted for making a pledge to Al Qaeda thus agreeing to provide medical aid to wounded terrorists.


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: As of 2018 all US medical school graduates made some form of public oath but none used the original Hippocratic Oath. A modified form or an oath unique to that school is often used. A review of 18 of these oaths was criticized for their wide variability: "Consistency would help society see that physicians are members of a profession that’s committed to a shared set of essential ethical values.”


title: Hippocratic Oath

text: There is no direct punishment for breaking the Hippocratic Oath, although an arguable equivalent in modern times is medical malpractice, which carries a wide range of punishments, from legal action to civil penalties. In the United States, several major judicial decisions have made reference to the classical Hippocratic Oath, either upholding or dismissing its bounds for medical ethics: "Roe v. Wade", "Washington v. Harper", "Compassion in Dying v. State of Washington" (1996), and "Thorburn v. Department of Corrections" (1998). In antiquity, the punishment for breaking the Hippocratic oath could range from a penalty to losing the right to practice medicine. In 2022, a college in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu saw a batch of medical students undertaking a Sanskrit Oath by the name of ancient sage physician "Maharishi Charak" instead of the Hippocratic oath. The state government subsequently dismissed the Dean of the Madurai medical college for this act.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Collateral is a 2004 American neo-noir action thriller film directed and produced by Michael Mann from a script by Stuart Beattie and starring Tom Cruise and Jamie Foxx. The supporting cast includes Jada Pinkett Smith, Mark Ruffalo, Peter Berg, Javier Bardem, and Bruce McGill. The film follows Max Durocher, a Los Angeles cab driver, and his customer, Vincent. When offered a high fare for driving to several locations, Max agrees but soon finds himself taken hostage by Vincent who turns out to be a hitman on a contract killing spree.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Screenwriter Beattie first conceived the idea for the film when taking a taxicab home from Sydney airport. Beattie shared the idea with producer Julie Richardson, who showed it to director Frank Darabont. The film was pitched to HBO but was declined. It was purchased by DreamWorks but would not see development for three years. Before the trio of Mann, Cruise and Foxx joined the film, Mimi Leder, Janusz Kamiński and Fernando Meirelles were each considered as director, and Russell Crowe and Adam Sandler were in talks to star as Vincent and Max, respectively. Filming primarily took place throughout Los Angeles, and was the first feature film to be shot with a Viper FilmStream High-Definition Camera. The musical score was composed by James Newton Howard, with additional songs from Audioslave and Paul Oakenfold.


title: Collateral (film)

text: "Collateral" was released in the United States on August 6, 2004, and grossed over $220 million worldwide. The film received critical acclaim in particular for the performances of Cruise and Foxx, Mann's direction and the editing, although the overall pacing and second half of the film received a mixed reception. "Collateral" was chosen by the National Board of Review as one of the top ten films of 2004. At the 77th Academy Awards, Foxx received a nomination for Best Supporting Actor; while film editors Jim Miller and Paul Rubell were nominated for Best Film Editing.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Max Durocher is a meticulous Los Angeles cab driver trying to earn enough to start his own limousine business. One of the evening's fares is federal prosecutor Annie Farrell, who works for the U.S. Attorney for the Central District of California. On the drive to her office, they strike up a conversation and Annie gives Max her business card.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Max's next fare is Vincent. Vincent tells Max that he is in Los Angeles for one night to complete a real estate deal, and offers Max $600 to drive him to several locations. Initially reluctant to violate regulations, Max eventually agrees. As Max waits at the first stop, a corpse falls onto his car. Vincent reveals himself to be a hitman and the body is one of five targets. He forces Max to hide the body in the trunk and continue driving. LAPD undercover narcotics detective Ray Fanning arrives at the building where Vincent made the kill, and reveals the victim was a police informant.


title: Collateral (film)

text: At the second stop, Vincent restrains Max's hands to the steering wheel. Max asks a group of young men for help, but two of them rob him and seize Vincent's briefcase. Vincent kills them both and retrieves the briefcase. Fanning arrives at the hospital morgue to see the bodies of criminal lawyer Sylvester Clark, Vincent's second target, and the two dead thieves, and realizes that this is the work of a hitman.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Vincent orders Max to drive to a jazz club. At the club, Vincent engages the owner Daniel in conversation. Vincent then reveals Daniel to have been his third target, as Daniel is set to testify against Vincent's client. Max pleads with Vincent to let Daniel go, causing Vincent to offer a compromise, betting Daniel cannot answer a question about Miles Davis. Daniel seemingly gives a correct answer, but Vincent unexpectedly shoots Daniel in the head, dissatisfied with his answer. He then reveals the correct answer.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Learning of Max's nightly visits to the hospital to see his mother, Vincent insists that Max proceed with the visit, where they inadvertently encounter Fanning in the hospital elevator but remain anonymous to each other. At the hospital, Ida is dismissive of her son's efforts but acts warmly around Vincent. She proudly tells Vincent that Max has his own limousine company, revealing Max has been lying to her for her approval.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Overwhelmed, Max leaves, steals Vincent's briefcase, and hurls it onto a freeway where it is destroyed by a passing truck. With the information on his last two targets destroyed, Vincent coerces Max to meet drug lord Felix Reyes-Torrena to re-obtain the information. Max, posing as Vincent, acquires the information but Reyes-Torrena orders his men to kill "Vincent" if he does not complete the job.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Max heads with Vincent to a nightclub, seeking the next target, Peter Lim. Fanning, while seeking a connection between the three victims, visits FBI agent Frank Pedrosa. Pedrosa identifies the victims as witnesses in a federal grand jury indicting Reyes-Torrena the following day. Pedrosa thinks that Max is the hitman, based on FBI surveillance of Max entering and leaving Reyes-Torrena's bar, and orders the FBI agents to protect Lim. At the nightclub, Vincent kills Reyes-Torrena's hitmen, Lim, and his bodyguards. Fanning rescues Max and smuggles him outside, but Vincent fatally shoots Fanning and coerces Max back into the cab.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Following their getaway, Max confronts Vincent about his nihilistic beliefs, and they trade insults just before Max deliberately crashes the cab. Vincent escapes, but a police officer tries to arrest Max after seeing the corpse in the trunk. Max notices Vincent's open laptop, revealing that his final target is Annie. Max overpowers the police officer with Vincent's gun and rushes toward Annie's office building.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Stealing a bystander's phone, Max calls Annie to warn her. Max reveals details about Vincent's previous victims, urging her to call 911. Vincent, who has armed himself with a gun from a security guard, corners Annie but is shot and wounded by Max, who escapes with Annie on foot. Vincent pursues the pair onto a metro rail train. Cornered on the train, Max engages Vincent in a sudden shootout. Vincent, fatally wounded, slumps into a seat. Max and Annie get off at the next station, as a deceased Vincent continues riding alone on the train.


title: Collateral (film)

text: When he was 17 years old, Australian writer Stuart Beattie took a cab home from Sydney airport and had the idea of a homicidal maniac sitting in the back of a cab with the driver nonchalantly conversing with him, trusting his passenger implicitly. Beattie drafted his idea into a two-page treatment titled "The Last Domino", then later began writing the screenplay. The original story centered around an African-American female cop who witnesses a hit, and the romance between the cab driver and his then librarian girlfriend. The final film has limited resemblance to the original treatment. Beattie was waiting tables when he came in to contact with Julie Richardson, whom he had met on a UCLA Screenwriting Extension course. Richardson had become a producer and was searching for projects for Frank Darabont, Rob Fried and Chuck Russell's company, Edge City, which was created to make low budget genre movies for HBO. Beattie later pitched her his idea of "The Last Domino." Richardson pitched the idea to Darabont, who brought the team in for a meeting, including Beattie, and set up the project under Edge City. After two drafts, HBO passed on the project. At a general meeting at DreamWorks with executive Marc Haimes, Beattie mentioned the script. Haimes immediately contacted Richardson, read the script overnight, and DreamWorks put in an offer the following day. Early drafts of "Collateral"s script set the film in New York City. However, later revisions of the script moved the film's setting to Los Angeles. Darabont, Fried and Russell would remain on as executive producers.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Mimi Leder and cinematographer Janusz Kamiński were attached to the project at one point as the director. Brazilian filmmaker Fernando Meirelles had initially agreed to direct, but eventually decided to exit as the production would require him to relocate to Los Angeles for eight months. Meirelles described his vision for the film as being that of a comedy, and looked at telling it in a way similar to Martin Scorsese's "After Hours". Upon Russell Crowe expressing interest in playing the role of Vincent, development on the film moved forward. Crowe got his "The Insider" director Michael Mann involved, but after constant delays, Crowe departed the project. Mann then approached Tom Cruise with the idea of him playing Vincent and Adam Sandler in the role of Max. Sandler later dropped out due to scheduling conflicts with "Spanglish" and was replaced by Jamie Foxx. Beattie wanted the studio to cast Robert De Niro as Max (once again making him a taxi driver, though the exact opposite of Travis Bickle). However, the studio refused, insisting on a younger actor for the role. Cuba Gooding Jr. revealed in a 2018 interview he had turned down a part in the film due to concerns he would be miscast. Mann's reasons for casting Foxx, with whom he worked with on "Ali", was that he held a similar quality in his performances to Cruise. "I saw that [quality of Tom’s] in Jamie on "In Living Color" — his characters were so vivid. That’s why I went after him for [cornerman] Bundini Brown in "Ali". Jamie starts with mimicry, but then he talks about ”putting it into the database,” so he can access a character once he's got it down". To prepare for his role, Cruise worked covertly as a FedEx deliveryman. Mann stated the goal was for Cruise to not be recognized.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Jada Pinkett Smith, cast in the role of Annie, spent time with an attorney to inform her performance. Val Kilmer was originally cast in the film as Detective Fanning, but exited to star in Oliver Stone's "Alexander", resulting in Mark Ruffalo taking on the role instead. In a similar situation, Dennis Farina, initially cast as Agent Pedrosa, had to exit due to scheduling conflicts with the television series "Law & Order", and was recast with Bruce McGill. Javier Bardem was cast in what was described as "a small role" at the time. Jason Statham made a small appearance in a role credited as "Airport Man". Louis Leterrier, co-director of the 2002 action film "The Transporter", interpreted Statham's scene as a portrayal of his "Transporter" character Frank Martin.


title: Collateral (film)

text: After three weeks of filming, cinematographer Paul Cameron left the project due to creative differences with Mann. Dion Beebe was brought on to replace Cameron. Mann chose to use the Viper FilmStream High-Definition Camera to film many of "Collateral" scenes, the first such use in a major motion picture. Mann had previously used the format for portions of "Ali" and his CBS drama "Robbery Homicide Division" and would later employ the same camera for the filming of "Miami Vice". The sequence in the nightclub was shot in 35 mm.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Filming took place throughout Los Angeles, with Los Angeles International Airport and Koreatown used for setpieces, and filming was also done in Pico Rivera, California. For filming of the cab crash scene, it was Foxx driving the vehicle, with Cruise in the backseat.


title: Collateral (film)

text: James Newton Howard composed the score for the film, with additional music by Antônio Pinto. The "Collateral" soundtrack was released on August 3, 2004, by Hip-O Records, one notable omission from the soundtrack release is Tom Rothrock's "LAX" which plays as several parties head to the nightclub. Howard estimated that only half of the music he composed was used in the final cut of the film.


title: Collateral (film)

text: The film opened on August 6, 2004, in 3,188 theaters in the United States and Canada and grossed approximately $24.7 million on its opening weekend, ranking number one at the box office. It remained in theaters for 14 weeks and eventually grossed $101,005,703 in the U.S. and Canada. In other countries, it grossed $119,920,992 for a worldwide $220,926,695.


title: Collateral (film)

text: "Collateral" received positive reviews. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 86% based on 237 reviews, with an average rating of 7.50/10. The critical consensus states that "Driven by director Michael Mann's trademark visuals and a lean, villainous performance from Tom Cruise, "Collateral" is a stylish and compelling noir thriller." On Metacritic, the film had an average score of 71 out of 100, based on 41 reviews.


title: Collateral (film)

text: Stephen Hunter of "The Washington Post" praised the film and Cruise's performance. He summarized the film as "the best kind of genre filmmaking: It plays by the rules, obeys the traditions and is both familiar and fresh at once". Roger Ebert praised the performances of Cruise and Foxx, calling Foxx's work a "revelation". In addition to praising the performances of Cruise, Pinkett Smith, Mark Ruffalo and Javier Bardem, Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote of Foxx's performance: "Foxx can act. He's up to the role's demands, conveying fear, confusion and frustration, but more important the exhaustion and recklessness that can easily follow when someone's been scared for so long". Desson Thomson gave similar praise to Foxx, finding the actor "quietly pries the movie from Cruise's big-marquee fingers". David Ansen of "Newsweek" praised the film, although he criticized its third act as "generic and farfetched". Placing the film on his best of the year list, Richard Schickel of "Time" magazine praised the acting in addition to Mann's direction and Beattie's screenplay, despite finding logical inconsistencies in the plot and that it "does not have quite enough completely compelling incidents to sustain its considerable length".


title: Collateral (film)

text: In a mixed review, Marrit Ingman of the "Austin Chronicle" gave positive remarks to Mann's film-making, but stated "There’s not much substance lurking beneath all the style, though the plot digresses into several awkward scenes intended to flesh out the characters". David Edelstein of "Slate" magazine highlighted Foxx's performance as "terrific" and was favorable to the film's first act, but derided the rest of the film. "It’s too bad that halfway through, "Collateral" turns into a series of loud, chaotic, over-the-top action set pieces in which the existentialist Mann proves he’s lousy at action". Edelstein also criticized the performance of Cruise, referring to his performance as "robotic". Stephanie Zacharek of "Salon" magazine criticized Cruise's performance, finding that "Cruise's dignity rings stiff and false". Zacharek did praise the performance of Foxx, stating "Foxx inhabits his character so comfortably that he renders meaningless Vincent's babble about the tough, real world. Max is the one who lives in the real world, which is ultimately the point of the movie -- but it takes the picture a very long time to reach a conclusion that's evident from the start to any attuned viewer".


title: Collateral (film)

text: Richard Roeper placed "Collateral" as his 10th favorite film of 2004. The film was voted as the 9th best film set in Los Angeles in the last 25 years by a group of "Los Angeles Times" writers and editors with two criteria: "The movie had to communicate some inherent truth about the L.A. experience, and only one film per director was allowed on the list".


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as ginkgo or gingko ( ), also known as the maidenhair tree, is a species of tree native to China. It is the last living species in the order Ginkgoales, which first appeared over 290 million years ago. Fossils very similar to the living species, belonging to the genus "Ginkgo", extend back to the Middle Jurassic approximately 170 million years ago. The tree was cultivated early in human history and remains commonly planted.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgo leaf extract is commonly used as a dietary supplement, but there is no scientific evidence that it supports human health or is effective against any disease.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The genus name is regarded as a misspelling of the Japanese pronunciation "gin kyo" for the kanji 銀杏 meaning "silver apricot", which is found in Chinese herbology literature such as (Daily Use Materia Medica) (1329) and "Compendium of Materia Medica" published in 1578.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Despite its spelling, which is due to a complicated etymology including a transcription error, "ginkgo" is usually pronounced , which has given rise to the common alternative spelling "gingko". The spelling pronunciation is also documented in some dictionaries.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Engelbert Kaempfer first introduced the spelling "ginkgo" in his book "Amoenitatum Exoticarum". It is considered that he may have misspelled "Ginkyo" as "Ginkgo". This misspelling was included by Carl Linnaeus in his book "Mantissa plantarum II" and has become the name of the tree's genus.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgos are large trees, normally reaching a height of , with some specimens in China being over . The tree has an angular crown and long, somewhat erratic branches, and is usually deep-rooted and resistant to wind and snow damage. Young trees are often tall and slender, and sparsely branched; the crown becomes broader as the tree ages. A combination of resistance to disease, insect-resistant wood, and the ability to form aerial roots and sprouts makes ginkgos durable, with some specimens claimed to be more than 2,500 years old.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The leaves are unique among seed plants, being fan-shaped with veins radiating out into the leaf blade, sometimes bifurcating (splitting), but never anastomosing to form a network. Two veins enter the leaf blade at the base and fork repeatedly in two; this is known as dichotomous venation. The leaves are usually , but sometimes up to long. The old common name, "maidenhair tree", derives from the leaves resembling pinnae of the maidenhair fern, "Adiantum capillus-veneris". Ginkgos are prized for their autumn foliage, which is a deep saffron yellow.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Leaves of long shoots are usually notched or lobed, but only from the outer surface, between the veins. They are borne both on the more rapidly growing branch tips, where they are alternate and spaced out, and also on the short, stubby spur shoots, where they are clustered at the tips. Leaves are green both on the top and bottom and have stomata on both sides. During autumn, the leaves turn a bright yellow and then fall, sometimes within a short space of time (one to 15 days).


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgo branches grow in length by growth of shoots with regularly spaced leaves, as seen on most trees. From the axils of these leaves, "spur shoots" (also known as short shoots) develop on second-year growth. Short shoots have very short internodes (so they may grow only one or two centimeters in several years) and their leaves are usually unlobed. They are short and knobby, and are arranged regularly on the branches except on first-year growth. Because of the short internodes, leaves appear to be clustered at the tips of short shoots, and reproductive structures are formed only on them (see pictures below – seeds and leaves are visible on short shoots). In ginkgos, as in other plants that possess them, short shoots allow the formation of new leaves in the older parts of the crown. After a number of years, a short shoot may change into a long (ordinary) shoot, or vice versa.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgo prefers full sun and grows best in environments that are well-watered and well-drained. The species shows a preference for disturbed sites; in the "semiwild" stands at Tianmu Mountains, many specimens are found along stream banks, rocky slopes, and cliff edges. Accordingly, ginkgo retains a prodigious capacity for vegetative growth. It is capable of sprouting from embedded buds near the base of the trunk (lignotubers, or basal chichi) in response to disturbances, such as soil erosion. Old individuals are also capable of producing aerial roots on the undersides of large branches in response to disturbances such as crown damage; these roots can lead to successful clonal reproduction upon contacting the soil. These strategies are evidently important in the persistence of ginkgo; in a survey of the "semiwild" stands remaining in Tianmushan, 40% of the specimens surveyed were multi-stemmed, and few saplings were present.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: "Ginkgo biloba" is dioecious, with separate sexes, some trees being female and others being male. Male plants produce small pollen cones with sporophylls, each bearing two microsporangia spirally arranged around a central axis.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Female plants do not produce cones. Two ovules are formed at the end of a stalk, and after wind pollination, one or both develop into seeds. The seed is 1.5–2 cm long. Its fleshy outer layer (the sarcotesta) is light yellow-brown, soft, and fruit-like. It is attractive in appearance, but contains butyric acid (also known as butanoic acid) and smells like rancid butter or vomit when fallen. Beneath the sarcotesta is the hard sclerotesta (the "shell" of the seed) and a papery endotesta, with the nucellus surrounding the female gametophyte at the center.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs via motile sperm, as in cycads, ferns, mosses, and algae. The sperm are large (about 70–90 micrometres) and are similar to the sperm of cycads, which are slightly larger. "Ginkgo" sperm were first discovered by the Japanese botanist Sakugoro Hirase in 1896. The sperm have a complex multi-layered structure, which is a continuous belt of basal bodies that form the base of several thousand flagella which actually have a cilia-like motion. The flagella/cilia apparatus pulls the body of the sperm forwards. The sperm have only a tiny distance to travel to the archegonia, of which there are usually two or three. Two sperm are produced, one of which successfully fertilizes the ovule. Fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs just before or after they fall in early autumn. Embryos may develop in the seeds before or after they drop from the tree.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Chinese scientists published a draft genome of "Ginkgo biloba" in 2016. The tree has a large genome of 10.6 billion DNA nucleobase "letters" (the human genome has three billion) and about 41,840 predicted genes which enable a considerable number of antibacterial and chemical defense mechanisms. 76.58% of the assembled sequence turned out to be repetitive sequences.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: In 2020, a study in China of ginkgo trees up to 667 years old showed little effects of aging, finding that the trees continued to grow with age and displayed no genetic evidence of senescence, and continued to make phytochemicals indefinitely.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Extracts of ginkgo leaves contain phenolic acids, proanthocyanidins, flavonoid glycosides, such as myricetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, and quercetin, and the terpene trilactones ginkgolides and bilobalides. The leaves also contain unique ginkgo biflavones, alkylphenols, and polyprenols.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The older Chinese name for this plant is 銀果, meaning "silver fruit", pronounced "yínguǒ" in Mandarin or "Ngan-gwo" in Cantonese. The current commonly used names are 白果 (), meaning "white fruit", and (), meaning "silver apricot". The name 銀杏 was borrowed in Japanese イチョウ () or ぎんなん () and Korean 은행 (), when the tree was introduced from China.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Carl Linnaeus described the species in 1771, the specific epithet "biloba" derived from the Latin "bis", "twice" and "loba", "lobed", referring to the shape of the leaves. Two names for the species recognise the botanist Richard Salisbury, a placement by Nelson as "Pterophyllus salisburiensis" and the earlier "Salisburia adiantifolia" proposed by James Edward Smith. The epithet of the latter may have been intended to denote a characteristic resembling "Adiantum", the genus of maidenhair ferns.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The scientific name "Ginkgo" is the result of a spelling error that occurred three centuries ago. "Kanji" typically have multiple pronunciations in Japanese, and the characters 銀杏 used for "ginnan" can also be pronounced "ginkyō". Engelbert Kaempfer, the first Westerner to investigate the species in 1690, wrote down this pronunciation in the notes that he later used for the "Amoenitates Exoticae" (1712) with the "awkward" spelling "ginkgo". This appears to be a simple error of Kaempfer; taking his spelling of other Japanese words containing the syllable "kyō" into account, a more precise romanization following his writing habits would have been "ginkio" or "ginkjo". Linnaeus, who relied on Kaempfer when dealing with Japanese plants, adopted the spelling given in Kaempfer's "Flora Japonica" ("Amoenitates Exoticae", p. 811). Kaempfer's drawing can be found in Hori's article.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The relationship of ginkgo to other plant groups remains uncertain. It has been placed loosely in the divisions Spermatophyta and Pinophyta, but no consensus has been reached. Since its seeds are not protected by an ovary wall, it can morphologically be considered a gymnosperm. The apricot-like structures produced by female ginkgo trees are technically not fruits, but are seeds that have a shell consisting of a soft and fleshy section (the sarcotesta), and a hard section (the sclerotesta). The sarcotesta has a strong smell that most people find unpleasant.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The ginkgo is classified in its own division, the Ginkgophyta, comprising the single class Ginkgoopsida, order Ginkgoales, family Ginkgoaceae, genus "Ginkgo" and is the only extant species within this group. It is one of the best-known examples of a living fossil, because Ginkgoales other than "G. biloba" are not known from the fossil record after the Pliocene.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: "Ginkgo biloba" is a living fossil, with fossils recognisably related to modern ginkgo from the early Permian (Cisuralian), with likely oldest record being that of "Trichopitys" from the earliest Permian (Asselian) of France, over 290 million years old. The closest living relatives of the clade are the cycads, which share with the extant "G. biloba" the characteristic of motile sperm.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Such plants with leaves that have more than four veins per segment have customarily been assigned to the taxon "Ginkgo", while the taxon "Baiera" is used to classify those with fewer than four veins per segment. "Sphenobaiera" has been used for plants with a broadly wedge-shaped leaf that lacks a distinct leaf stem.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Fossils attributable to the genus "Ginkgo" first appeared in the Middle Jurassic. The genus "Ginkgo" diversified and spread throughout Laurasia during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The Ginkgophyta declined in diversity as the Cretaceous progressed, and by the Paleocene, "Ginkgo adiantoides" was the only "Ginkgo" species left in the Northern Hemisphere, while a markedly different (and poorly documented) form persisted in the Southern Hemisphere. Along with that of ferns, cycads, and cycadeoids, the species diversity in the genus "Ginkgo" drops through the Cretaceous, at the same time the flowering plants were on the rise; this supports the hypothesis that, over time, flowering plants with better adaptations to disturbance displaced "Ginkgo" and its associates.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: At the end of the Pliocene, "Ginkgo" fossils disappeared from the fossil record everywhere except in a small area of central China, where the modern species survived.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: It is doubtful whether the Northern Hemisphere fossil species of "Ginkgo" can be reliably distinguished. Given the slow pace of evolution and morphological similarity between members of the genus, there may have been only one or two species existing in the Northern Hemisphere through the entirety of the Cenozoic: present-day "G. biloba" (including "G. adiantoides") and "G. gardneri" from the Paleocene of Scotland.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: At least morphologically, "G. gardneri" and the Southern Hemisphere species are the only known post-Jurassic taxa that can be unequivocally recognised. The remainder may have been ecotypes or subspecies. The implications would be that "G. biloba" had occurred over an extremely wide range, had remarkable genetic flexibility and, though evolving genetically, never showed much speciation.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: While it may seem improbable that a single species may exist as a contiguous entity for many millions of years, many of the ginkgo's life-history parameters fit: Extreme longevity; slow reproduction rate; (in Cenozoic and later times) a wide, apparently contiguous, but steadily contracting distribution; and (as far as can be demonstrated from the fossil record) extreme ecological conservatism (restriction to disturbed streamside environments).


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Given the slow rate of evolution of the genus, "Ginkgo" possibly represents a pre-angiosperm strategy for survival in disturbed streamside environments. "Ginkgo" evolved in an era before flowering plants, when ferns, cycads, and cycadeoids dominated disturbed streamside environments, forming low, open, shrubby canopies. "Ginkgo" large seeds and habit of "bolting" – growing to a height of 10 meters before elongating its side branches – may be adaptations to such an environment.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Modern-day "G. biloba" grows best in environments that are well-watered and drained, and the extremely similar fossil "Ginkgo" favored similar environments: The sediment record at the majority of fossil "Ginkgo" localities indicates it grew primarily in disturbed environments, such as along streams. "Ginkgo", therefore, presents an "ecological paradox" because while it possesses some favorable traits for living in disturbed environments (clonal reproduction) many of its other life-history traits are the opposite of those exhibited by modern plants that thrive in disturbed settings (slow growth, large seed size, late reproductive maturity).


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Although "Ginkgo biloba" and other species of the genus were once widespread throughout the world, its range shrank and by two million years ago, it was restricted to a small area of China.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: For centuries, it was thought to be extinct in the wild, but is now known to grow in at least two small areas in Zhejiang province in eastern China, in the Tianmushan Reserve. However, high genetic uniformity exists among ginkgo trees from these areas, arguing against a natural origin of these populations and suggesting the ginkgo trees in these areas may have been planted and preserved by Chinese monks over a period of about 1,000 years. This study demonstrates a greater genetic diversity in Southwestern China populations, supporting glacial refugia in mountains surrounding eastern Tibetan Plateau, where several old-growth candidates for wild populations have been reported. Whether native ginkgo populations still exist has not been demonstrated unequivocally, but there is genetic evidence that these Southwestern populations may be wild, as well as evidence that the largest and oldest "Ginkgo biloba" trees may be older than surrounding human settlements.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Where it occurs in the wild, it is found infrequently in deciduous forests and valleys on acidic loess (i.e. fine, silty soil) with good drainage. The soil it inhabits is typically in the pH range of 5.0 to 5.5.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgo has long been cultivated in China. It is common in the southern third of the country. Some planted trees at temples are believed to be over 1,500 years old. The first record of Europeans encountering it is in 1690 in Japanese temple gardens, where the tree was seen by the German botanist Engelbert Kaempfer. Because of its status in Buddhism and Confucianism, the ginkgo is also widely planted in Korea and in Japan since the 14th century; in both areas, some naturalization has occurred, with ginkgos seeding into natural forests. Ginkgo has been commonly cultivated in North America for over 200 years and in Europe for close to 300, but during that time, it has never become significantly naturalized.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Many intentionally planted ginkgos are male cultivars grafted onto plants propagated from seed, because the male trees will not produce the malodorous seeds. The popular cultivar 'Autumn Gold' is a clone of a male plant.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The disadvantage of male "Ginkgo biloba" trees is that they are highly allergenic. They have an OPALS (Ogren Plant Allergy Scale) rating of 7 (out of 10), whereas female trees, which can produce no pollen, have an OPALS allergy scale rating of 2.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Female cultivars include 'Liberty Splendor', 'Santa Cruz', and 'Golden Girl', the latter so named because of the striking yellow color of its leaves in the fall; all female cultivars release zero pollen.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Many cultivars are listed in the literature in the UK, of which the compact 'Troll' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgos adapt well to the urban environment, tolerating pollution and confined soil spaces. They rarely have disease problems, even in urban conditions, and are attacked by few insects.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgos are popular subjects for growing as miniature landscapes known as "penjing" and "bonsai"; they can be kept artificially small and tended over centuries. The trees are easy to propagate from seed.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Extreme examples of the ginkgo's tenacity may be seen in Hiroshima, Japan, where six trees growing between from the 1945 atom bomb explosion were among the few living organisms in the area to survive the blast. Although almost all other plants (and animals) in the area were killed, the ginkgos, though charred, survived and were soon healthy again, among other "hibakujumoku" (trees that survived the blast).


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The six trees are still alive: They are marked with signs at temple (planted in 1850), Shukkei-en (planted about 1740), Jōsei-ji (planted 1900), at the former site of Senda Elementary School near Miyukibashi, at the Myōjōin temple, and an Edo period-cutting at Anraku-ji temple.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The ginkgo tree that stood next to Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū's stone stairway approximately from the Shinto shrine's foundation in 1063, and which appears in almost every old depiction of the shrine, was blown down on 10 March 2010. The remaining roots of the tree later sprouted vigorously. The shrine is in the city of Kamakura, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The tree was nicknamed "kakure-ichō" (hiding ginkgo), derived from an Edo period legend in which Minamoto no Sanetomo is assassinated on 13 February 1219 by his nephew, Kugyō, who had been hiding behind the tree.　In fact ginkgos arrived from China in the 14th century, and a 1990 tree-ring measurement indicated the tree's age to be about 500 years.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The wood of "Ginkgo biloba" is used to make furniture, chessboards, carving, and casks for making saké; the wood is fire-resistant and slow to decay.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The nut-like gametophytes inside the seeds are particularly esteemed in Asia, and are a traditional Chinese food. Ginkgo nuts are used in "congee", and are often served at special occasions such as weddings and the Chinese New Year (as part of the vegetarian dish called Buddha's delight). Japanese cooks add ginkgo seeds (called "ginnan") to dishes such as "chawanmushi", and cooked seeds are often eaten along with other dishes.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: When eaten in large quantities or over a long period, the gametophyte (meat) of the seed may cause poisoning by ginkgotoxin (4'-O-methylpyridoxine, MPN), as found in a few case reports. A heat-stable compound not destroyed by cooking, MPN may cause convulsions, which were alleviated by treatment with pyridoxine phosphate (vitamin B6), according to limited studies.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Some people are sensitive to the chemicals in the sarcotesta, the outer fleshy coating. These people should handle the seeds with care when preparing the seeds for consumption, wearing disposable gloves. The symptoms are allergic contact dermatitis, or blisters similar to that caused by contact with poison ivy.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Although extracts of "Ginkgo biloba" leaf are often marketed as cognitive enhancers, there was no evidence for effects on memory or attention in healthy people.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Systematic reviews have shown there is no evidence for effectiveness of ginkgo in treating high blood pressure, menopause-related cognitive decline, tinnitus, post-stroke recovery, or altitude sickness. There is weak preliminary evidence for ginkgo affecting dementia and tardive dyskinesia symptoms in people with schizophrenia.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Side effects of using ginkgo supplements may include increased risk of bleeding, gastrointestinal discomfort, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, dizziness, heart palpitations, and restlessness. Although use of standardized "Ginkgo biloba" leaf extracts in moderate amounts appears to be safe, excessive use may have undesirable effects, especially in terms of drug interactions. The dosing of anticoagulants, such as warfarin or antiplatelet medication, may be adversely affected by using ginkgo supplements.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: According to a systemic review, the effects of ginkgo on pregnant women may include increased bleeding time, and there is inadequate information about safety during lactation.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgo pollen may produce allergic reactions. "Ginkgo biloba" leaves and sarcotesta contain ginkgolic acids which are highly allergenic long-chain alkylphenols, such as bilobol or adipostatin A (bilobol is a substance related to anacardic acid from cashew nut shells and urushiols present in poison ivy and other "Toxicodendron" spp.) Individuals with a history of strong allergic reactions to poison ivy, mangoes, cashews and other alkylphenol-producing plants are more likely to experience an allergic reaction when consuming non-standardized ginkgo-containing preparations. The level of these allergens in standardized pharmaceutical preparations from "Ginkgo biloba" was restricted to 5 ppm by the Commission E of the former Federal German Health Authority. Overconsumption of seeds from "Ginkgo biloba" can deplete vitamin B.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: Ginkgo has been used in traditional Chinese medicine since at least the 11th century C.E. Ginkgo seeds, leaves, and nuts have traditionally been used to treat various ailments, such as dementia, asthma, bronchitis, and kidney and bladder disorders. However, there is no conclusive evidence that ginkgo is useful for any of these conditions.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The European Medicines Agency Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products concluded that medicines containing ginkgo leaf can be used for treating mild age-related dementia and mild peripheral vascular disease in adults after serious conditions have been excluded by a physician.


title: Ginkgo biloba

text: The ginkgo leaf is the symbol of the Urasenke school of Japanese tea ceremony. The tree is the official tree of the Japanese capital of Tokyo, and the symbol of Tokyo is a ginkgo leaf. Since 1948, the badge of Tokyo University has been two ginkgo leaves (designed by Shoichi Hoshino), which became the university logo in 2004 with a redesign. The logo of Osaka University has been a simplified ginkgo leaf since 1991 when designer Ikko Tanaka created it for the university's sixtieth anniversary.


title: Nice

text: Nice ( , ; Niçard: , classical norm, or , nonstandard, ; ; ; ; ) is the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly 1 million on an area of . Located on the French Riviera, the southeastern coast of France on the Mediterranean Sea, at the foot of the French Alps, Nice is the second-largest French city on the Mediterranean coast and second-largest city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region after Marseille. Nice is approximately from the principality of Monaco and from the French–Italian border. Nice's airport serves as a gateway to the region.


title: Nice

text: The city is nicknamed ( in Niçard), meaning 'Nice the Beautiful', which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of today's Nice contains Terra Amata, an archaeological site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire 380,000 years ago. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it , "Nikaia", after Nike, the goddess of victory. Through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength. From 1388 it was a dominion of Savoy, then became part of the French First Republic between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, until its re-annexation by France in 1860.


title: Nice

text: The natural environment of the Nice area and its mild Mediterranean climate came to the attention of the English upper classes in the second half of the 18th century, when an increasing number of aristocratic families took to spending their winters there. In 1931, following its refurbishment the city's main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais ("Walkway of the English"), was inaugurated by Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught; it owes its name to visitors to the resort. These included Queen Victoria along with her son Edward VII who spent winters there, as well as Henry Cavendish, born in Nice, who discovered hydrogen.


title: Nice

text: The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to notable painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the city's museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse and Musée des Beaux-Arts. International writers have also been attracted and inspired by the city. Frank Harris wrote several books including his autobiography "My Life and Loves" in Nice. Friedrich Nietzsche spent six consecutive winters in Nice, and wrote "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" here. Additionally, Russian writer Anton Chekhov completed his play "Three Sisters" while living in Nice.


title: Nice

text: Nice's appeal extended to the Russian upper classes. Prince Nicholas Alexandrovich, heir apparent to Imperial Russia, died in Nice and was a patron of the Russian Orthodox Cemetery, Nice where Princess Catherine Dolgorukova, morganatic wife of the Tsar Alexander II of Russia, is buried. Also buried there are General Dmitry Shcherbachev and General Nikolai Yudenich, leaders of the anti-Communist White Movement.


title: Nice

text: Those interred at the Cimetière du Château include celebrated jeweler Alfred Van Cleef, Emil Jellinek-Mercedes, founder of the Mercedes car company, film director Louis Feuillade, poet Agathe-Sophie Sasserno, dancer Carolina Otero, "Asterix" comics creator René Goscinny, "The Phantom of the Opera" author Gaston Leroux, French prime minister Léon Gambetta, and the first president of the International Court of Justice José Gustavo Guerrero.


title: Nice

text: Because of its historical importance as a winter resort town for the European aristocracy and the resulting mix of cultures found in the city, UNESCO proclaimed Nice a World Heritage Site in 2021. The city has the second largest hotel capacity in the country, and it is one of its most visited cities, receiving 4 million tourists every year. It also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the historical capital city of the County of Nice (, Niçard: ).


title: Nice

text: The first known hominid settlements in the Nice area date back about 400,000 years (homo erectus); the "Terra Amata" archeological site shows one of the earliest uses of fire, construction of houses, as well as flint findings dated to around 230,000 years ago. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by colonists from the Greek city of Phocaea in western Anatolia. It was given the name of "Níkaia" () in honour of a victory over the neighbouring Ligurians (people from the northwest of Italy, probably the Vediantii kingdom); Nike () was the Greek goddess of victory. The city soon became one of the busiest trading ports on the Ligurian coast; but it had an important rival in the Roman town of Cemenelum, which continued to exist as a separate city until the time of the Lombard invasions. The ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice.


title: Nice

text: In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens; but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, and for most of the 10th century remained masters of the surrounding country.


title: Nice

text: During the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, and both the King of France and the Holy Roman Emperor endeavoured to subjugate it; but in spite of this it maintained its municipal liberties. During the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa.


title: Nice

text: The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town. The landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill. Another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the port area was also defended by walls. Under Monoprix in Place de Garibaldi are excavated remains of a well-defended city gate on the main road from Turin.


title: Nice

text: In 1388, the commune placed itself under the protection of the Counts of Savoy. Nice participated – directly or indirectly – in the history of Savoy until 1860.


title: Nice

text: The maritime strength of Nice now rapidly increased until it was able to cope with the Barbary pirates; the fortifications were largely extended and the roads to the city improved. In 1561 Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy abolished the use of Latin as an administrative language and established the Italian language as the official language of government affairs in Nice.


title: Nice

text: During the struggle between Francis I and Charles V great damage was caused by the passage of the armies invading Provence; pestilence and famine raged in the city for several years. In 1538, in the nearby town of Villeneuve-Loubet, through the mediation of Pope Paul III, the two monarchs concluded a ten years' truce.


title: Nice

text: In 1543, Nice was attacked by the united Franco-Ottoman forces of Francis I and Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, in the Siege of Nice; though the inhabitants repulsed the assault which followed the terrible bombardment, they were ultimately compelled to surrender, and Barbarossa was allowed to pillage the city and to carry off 2,500 captives. Pestilence appeared again in 1550 and 1580.


title: Nice

text: In 1600, Nice was briefly taken by the Duke of Guise. By opening the ports of the county to all nations, and proclaiming full freedom of trade (1626), the commerce of the city was given great stimulus, the noble families taking part in its mercantile enterprises.


title: Nice

text: Captured by Nicolas Catinat in 1691, Nice was restored to Savoy in 1696; but it was again besieged by the French in 1705, and in the following year its citadel and ramparts were demolished.


title: Nice

text: The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) once more gave the city back to the Duke of Savoy, who was on that same occasion recognised as King of Sicily. In the peaceful years which followed, the "new town" was built. From 1744 until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the French and Spaniards were again in possession.


title: Nice

text: In 1775 the king, who in 1718 had swapped his sovereignty of Sicily for the Kingdom of Sardinia, destroyed all that remained of the ancient liberties of the commune. Conquered in 1792 by the armies of the First French Republic, the County of Nice continued to be part of France until 1814; but after that date it reverted to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.


title: Nice

text: After the Treaty of Turin was signed in 1860 between the Sardinian king and Napoleon III as a consequence of the Plombières Agreement, the county was again and definitively ceded to France as a territorial reward for French assistance in the Second Italian War of Independence against Austria, which saw Lombardy united with Piedmont-Sardinia. The cession was ratified by a regional referendum: over 25,000 electors out of a total of 30,700 were in favour of the attachment to France. This event caused the Niçard exodus, that was the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy. Savoy was also transferred to the French crown by similar means. Giuseppe Garibaldi, born in Nice, opposed the cession to France, arguing that the ballot was rigged by the French.


title: Nice

text: Many Italians from Nizza then moved to the Ligurian towns of Ventimiglia, Bordighera and Ospedaletti, giving rise to a local branch of the movement of the Italian irredentists which considered the re-acquisition of Nice to be one of their nationalist goals.


title: Nice

text: In 1900, the Tramway de Nice electrified its horse-drawn streetcars and spread its network to the entire "département" from Menton to Cagnes-sur-Mer. By the 1930s more bus connections were added in the area. In the 1930s, Nice hosted international car racing in the Formula Libre (predecessor to Formula One) on the so-called Circuit Nice. The circuit started along the waterfront just south of the Jardin Albert I, then headed westward along the Promenade des Anglais followed by a hairpin turn at the Hotel Negresco to come back eastward and around the Jardin Albert I before heading again east along the beach on the Quai des Etats-Unis.


title: Nice

text: As war broke out in September 1939, Nice became a city of refuge for many displaced foreigners, notably Jews fleeing the Nazi progression into Eastern Europe. From Nice many sought further shelter in the French colonies, Morocco and North and South America. After July 1940 and the establishment of the Vichy Regime, antisemitic aggressions accelerated the exodus, starting in July 1941 and continuing through 1942. On 26 August 1942, 655 Jews of foreign origin were rounded up by the Laval government and interned in the Auvare barracks. Of these, 560 were deported to Drancy internment camp on 31 August 1942. Due to the activity of the Jewish banker Angelo Donati and of the Capuchin friar Père Marie-Benoît the local authorities hindered the application of anti-Jewish Vichy laws.


title: Nice

text: The first "résistants" to the new regime were a group of High School seniors of the Lycée de Nice, now , in September 1940, later arrested and executed in 1944 near Castellane. The first public demonstrations occurred on 14 July 1942 when several hundred protesters took to the streets along the Avenue de la Victoire and in the Place Masséna. In November 1942 German troops moved into most of unoccupied France, but Italian troops moved into a smaller zone including Nice. A certain ambivalence remained among the population, many of whom were recent immigrants of Italian ancestry. However, the resistance gained momentum after the Italian surrender in 1943 when the German army occupied the former Italian zone. Reprisals intensified between December 1943 and July 1944, when many partisans were tortured and executed by the local Gestapo and the French Milice. American paratroopers entered the city on 30 August 1944 and Nice was finally liberated. The consequences of the war were heavy: the population decreased by 15% and economic life was totally disrupted.


title: Nice

text: In the second half of the 20th century, Nice enjoyed an economic boom primarily driven by tourism and construction. Two men dominated this period: Jean Médecin, mayor for 33 years from 1928 to 1943 and from 1947 to 1965, and his son Jacques, mayor for 24 years from 1966 to 1990. Under their leadership, there was extensive urban renewal, including many new constructions. These included the convention centre, theatres, new thoroughfares and expressways. The arrival of the Pieds-Noirs, refugees from Algeria after 1962 independence, also gave the city a boost and somewhat changed the make-up of its population and traditional views. By the late 1980s, rumors of political corruption in the city government surfaced; and eventually formal accusations against Jacques Médecin forced him to flee France in 1990. Later arrested in Uruguay in 1993, he was extradited back to France in 1994, convicted of several counts of corruption and associated crimes and sentenced to imprisonment.


title: Nice

text: On 16 October 1979, a landslide and an undersea slide caused two tsunamis that hit the western coast of Nice; these events killed between 8 and 23 people.


title: Nice

text: In February 2001, European leaders met in Nice to negotiate and sign what is now the Treaty of Nice, amending the institutions of the European Union.


title: Nice

text: In 2003, local Chief Prosecutor Éric de Montgolfier alleged that some judicial cases involving local personalities had been suspiciously derailed by the local judiciary, which he suspected of having unhealthy contacts through Masonic lodges with the defendants. A controversial official report stated later that Montgolfier had made unwarranted accusations.


title: Nice

text: On 14 July 2016, a truck was deliberately driven into a crowd of people by Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel on the Promenade des Anglais. The crowd was watching a fireworks display in celebration of Bastille Day. A total of 87 people were killed, including the perpetrator, who was shot dead by police. Another 434 were injured, with 52 in critical care and 25 in intensive care, according to the Paris prosecutor. On 29 October 2020, a stabbing attack killed three people at the local Notre-Dame de Nice. One of the victims, a woman, was beheaded by the attacker. Several additional victims were injured. The attacker, who was shot by the police, was taken into custody. The Islamic state claimed responsibility for both attacks.


title: Nice

text: In 2021, the city was proclaimed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as "Nice, Winter Resort Town of the Riviera".


title: Nice

text: The Promenade des Anglais ("Promenade of the English") is a promenade along the Baie des Anges ("Bay of the Angels"), which is a bay of the Mediterranean in Nice. Before Nice was urbanised, the coastline at Nice was just bordered by a deserted stretch of shingle beach (covered with large pebbles). The first houses were located on higher ground well away from the sea, as wealthy tourists visiting Nice in the 18th century did not come for the beach, but for the gentle winter weather. The areas close to the water were home to Nice's dockworkers and fishermen.


title: Nice

text: In the second half of the 18th century, many wealthy English people took to spending the winter in Nice, enjoying the panorama along the coast. This early aristocratic English colony conceived the building of a promenade with the leadership and financial support of Rev. Lewis Way. With the initial promenade completed, the city of Nice, intrigued by the prospect, greatly increased the scope of the work. The Promenade was first called the "Camin dei Anglès" (the English Way) by the Niçois in their native dialect Nissart. In 1823, the promenade was named "La Promenade des Anglais" by the French, a name that would stick after the annexation of Nice by France in 1860.


title: Nice

text: The Hotel Negresco on the Promenade des Anglais was named after Henri Negresco who had the palatial hotel constructed in 1912. In keeping with the conventions of the time, when the Negresco first opened in 1913 its front opened on the side opposite the Mediterranean.


title: Nice

text: Another place worth mentioning is the small street parallel to the Promenade des Anglais, leading from Nice's downtown, beginning at Place Masséna and running parallel to the promenade in the direction of the airport for a short distance of about 4 blocks. This section of the city is referred to as the "Zone Pietonne", or "Pedestrian Zone". Cars are not allowed (with exception to delivery trucks), making this avenue a popular walkway.


title: Nice

text: Old Nice is also home to the Opéra de Nice. It was constructed at the end of the 19th century under the design of François Aune, to replace King Charles Félix's Maccarani Theater. Today, it is open to the public and provides a regular program of performances.


title: Nice

text: The "Place Masséna" is the main square of the city. Before the Paillon River was covered over, the Pont-Neuf was the only practicable way between the old town and the modern one. The square was thus divided into two parts (North and South) in 1824. With the demolition of the Masséna Casino in 1979, the Place Masséna became more spacious and less dense and is now bordered by red ochre buildings of Italian architecture.


title: Nice

text: The recent rebuilding of the tramline gave the square back to the pedestrians, restoring its status as a real Mediterranean square. It is lined with palm trees and stone pines, instead of being the rectangular roundabout of sorts it had become over the years. Since its construction, the Place Masséna has always been the spot for great public events. It is used for concerts, and particularly during the summer festivals, the "Corso carnavalesque" (carnival parade) in February, the military procession of 14 July (Bastille Day) or other traditional celebrations and banquets.


title: Nice

text: The Place Masséna is a two-minute walk from the Promenade des Anglais, old town, town centre, and Albert I Garden ("Jardin Albert Ier"). It is also a large crossroads between several of the main streets of the city: avenue Jean Médecin, "avenue Félix Faure", "boulevard Jean Jaurès", "avenue de Verdun" and "rue Gioffredo".


title: Nice

text: The "Place Garibaldi" also stands out for its architecture and history. It is named after Giuseppe Garibaldi, hero of the Italian unification (born in Nice in 1807 when Nice was part of the Napoleonic Empire, before reverting to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia). The square was built at the end of the 18th century and served as the entry gate to the city and end of the road from Turin. It took several names between 1780 and 1870 (Plaça Pairoulièra, Place de la République, Place Napoléon, Place d'Armes, Place Saint-Augustin, Piazza Vittorio) and finally Place Garibaldi in September 1870.


title: Nice

text: A statue of Garibaldi, who was fiercely in favour of the union of Nice with Italy, stands in the centre of the square. The recent rebuilding of the area to accommodate the new tramway line gave mostly the entire square to pedestrians. The architecture is in line with the Turin model, which was the norm of urban renewal throughout the entire realm of the House of Savoy.


title: Nice

text: It is a crossroads between the "Vieux Nice" (old town) and the town centre. Place Garibaldi is close to the eastern districts of Nice, "Port Lympia" (Lympia Harbour), and the TNL commercial centre. This square is also a junction of several important streets: the "boulevard Jean-Jaurès", the "avenue de la République", the "rue Cassini" and the "rue Catherine-Ségurane".


title: Nice

text: Entirely enclosed and pedestrianised, this square is located in the heart of the old town. With typical buildings in red and yellow ochres surrounding the square, the "cathédrale Sainte-Réparate" and the fountain in the centre, "place Rossetti" is a must-see spot in the old town. By day, the place is invaded by the terraces of traditional restaurants and the finest ice-cream makers. By night, the environment changes radically, with tourists and youths flocking to the square, where music reverberates on the walls of the small square. The square's lighting at night gives it a magical aspect.


title: Nice

text: Place Rossetti is in the centre of the old town, streets "Jesus", "Rossetti", "Mascoïnat" and the "Pont-vieux" (old bridge)


title: Nice

text: The Cours Saleya is situated parallel to the "Quai des États-Unis". In the past, it belonged to the upper classes. It is probably the most traditional square of the town, with its daily flower market. The "Cours Saleya" also opens on the "Palais des Rois Sardes" (Palace of the Kings of Sardinia). In the present, the "court" is mostly a place of entertainment.


title: Nice

text: As its name indicates, the "Place du Palais" is where the "Palais de la Justice" (Law courts) of Nice is located. On this square, there also is the "Palais Rusca", which also belongs to the justice department (home of the "tribunal de grande instance").


title: Nice

text: The square is also notable due to the presence of the city clock. Today, the "Place du Palais" is alive day and night. Often, groups of youths will hangout on the steps leading to the "Palais de la Justice". Concerts, films, and other major public events frequently occur in this space.


title: Nice

text: Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, Nice is a commune and the prefecture (administrative capital) of the Alpes-Maritimes département. However, it is also the largest city in France that is not a regional capital; the much larger Marseille is its regional capital. Christian Estrosi, its mayor, is a member of the Republicans (formerly the Union for a Popular Movement), the party supporting former President Nicolas Sarkozy.


title: Nice

text: The Coat of Arms of Nice appeared for the first time in a copy of the "Regulations" of Amadeus VIII, probably written around 1430. The Nice is symbolised by a red eagle on silver background, placed on three mountains, which can be described in French heraldic language as "d'argent à une aigle de gueule posée sur trois coupeaux". ("Upon silver a red eagle is displayed, posed upon three mounds.") The arms have only undergone minor changes: the eagle has become more and more stylised, it now "wears" a coronet for the County of Nice, and the three mountains are now surrounded by a stylised sea.


title: Nice

text: The presence of the eagle, an imperial emblem, shows that these arms are related to the power of the House of Savoy. The eagle standing over the three hills is a depiction of Savoy, referring to its domination over the country around Nice. The combination of silver and red (argent and gules) is a reference to the colours of the flag of Savoy. The three mountains symbolise a territorial honour, without concern for geographic realism.


title: Nice

text: Nice consists of two large bays. Villefranche-sur-Mer sits on an enclosed bay, while the main expanse of the city lies between the old port city and the Aeroport de Côte d'Azur, across a gently curving bay. The city rises from the flat beach into gentle rising hills, then is bounded by surrounding mountains that represent the Southern and nearly the Western extent of the Ligurian Alps range.


title: Nice

text: The natural vegetation of Nice is typical for a Mediterranean landscape, with a heavy representation of broadleaf evergreen shrubs. Trees tend to be scattered but form dense forests in some areas. Large native tree species include evergreens such as holm oak, stone pine and arbutus. Many introduced species grow in parks and gardens. Palms, eucalyptus and citrus fruits are among the trees which give Nice a subtropical appearance. But there are also species familiar to temperate areas around the world; examples include horse chestnut, linden and even Norway spruce.


title: Nice

text: Nice has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: "Csa"), enjoying mild winters with moderate rainfall. It is one of the warmest Mediterranean climates for its latitude. Summers are warm to hot, dry, and sunny. Rainfall is rare in this season, and a typical July month only records one or two days with measurable rainfall. The temperature is typically above but rarely above . The climate data is recorded from the airport, located just metres from the sea. Summer temperatures, therefore, are often higher in the city. The average maximum temperature in the warmest months of July and August is about . The highest recorded temperature was on 1 August 2006. Autumn generally starts sunny in September and becomes more cloudy and rainy towards October, while temperatures usually remain above until November where days start to cool down to around .


title: Nice

text: Winters are characterised by mild days (), cool nights (), and variable weather. Days can be either sunny and dry or damp and rainy. The average minimum temperature in January is around . Frost is unusual and snowfalls are rare. The most recent snowfall in Nice was on 26 February 2018. Nice also received a dusting of snow in 2005, 2009 and 2010. Spring starts cool and rainy in late March, and Nice becomes increasingly warm and sunny around June.


title: Nice

text: Nice is the seat of the Chambre de commerce et d'industrie Nice Côte d'Azur, which manages the Port of Nice. Investors from France and abroad can benefit from the assistance of the Côte d'Azur Economic Development Agency Team Côte d'Azur.


title: Nice

text: Nice has one conference centre: the Palais des Congrès Acropolis. The city also has several business parks, including l'Arenas, Nice the Plain, Nice Méridia, Saint Isidore, and the Northern Forum.


title: Nice

text: In addition, the city features several shopping centres such as Nicetoile, Nice TNL, Nice Lingostière, Northern Forum, St-Isidore, the Trinity (around the Auchan hypermarket), Cap3000 in Saint-Laurent-du-Var and Polygone Riviera in Cagnes-sur-Mer.


title: Nice

text: Sophia Antipolis is a technology park northwest of Antibes. Much of the park is within the commune of Valbonne. Established between 1970 and 1984, it primarily houses companies in the fields of computing, electronics, pharmacology and biotechnology. Several institutions of higher learning are also located here, along with the European headquarters of W3C.


title: Nice

text: The Nice metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $47.7 billion, and $34,480 per capita, slightly lower than the French average.


title: Nice

text: The main port of Nice is also known as Lympia port. This name comes from the Lympia spring which fed a small lake in a marshy zone where work on the port was started in 1745. Today this is the principal harbour installation of Nice – there is also a small port in the Carras district. The port is the first port cement manufacturer in France, linked to the treatment plants of the rollers of the valley of Paillon. Fishing activities remain but the number of professional fishermen is now less than 10. Nice, being the point of continental France nearest to Corsica, has ferry connections with the island developed with the arrival of NGV ("navires à grande vitesse") or high-speed craft. The connections are provided by Corsica Ferries - Sardinia Ferries. Located in front of the port, the Place Cassini has been renamed Place of Corsica.


title: Nice

text: Nice Côte d'Azur Airport is the third busiest airport in France after Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport, both near Paris. It is on the Promenade des Anglais, near l'Arénas and has two terminals. Due to its proximity to the Principality of Monaco, it also serves as that city–state's airport. A helicopter service provided by Heli Air Monaco and Monacair links the city and airport. It is run by the ACA (Aéroports Côte d'Azur), which includes Cannes - Mandelieu Airport and La Môle – Saint-Tropez Airport. Public transportation into the city proper is serviced by the Tramway line 2 (T2).


title: Nice

text: The main railway station is Nice-Ville, served both by high speed TGV trains connecting Paris and Nice in less than 6 hours and by local commuter TER services. Marseille is reached in 2.5 hours. Nice also has international connections to Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, and Russia. Nice is also served by several suburban stations including Nice St-Augustin, Nice St-Roch and Nice Riquier.


title: Nice

text: Nice is also the southern terminus of the independently run Chemins de Fer de Provence railway line which connects the city with Digne in approximatively 4 hours from the Nice CP station. A metro-like suburban service is also provided on the southern part of the line.


title: Nice

text: Tramway de Nice began operating horse-drawn trams in 1879. Electrified in 1900, the combined length of the network reached by 1930. The replacement of trams with trolleybuses began in 1948 and was completed in 1953.


title: Nice

text: In 2007, the new Tramway de Nice linked the northern and eastern suburbs via the city centre. Two other lines are currently operating. The second line runs east–west from Jean Médecin to the Nice Côte d'Azur Airport and reaches the Port, while the third line provides a connection to the future TGV Nice Saint-Augustin and to Lingostière railway station. A fourth line is set to run from the future TGV Nice Saint-Augustin to Cagnes-sur-Mer.


title: Nice

text: , the urban area ("unité urbaine") of Nice, defined by INSEE, is home to 944,321 inhabitants (seventh most populous in France) and its metropolitan area ("aire urbaine") totals 609,695 inhabitants, which makes it the 13th largest in France. Part of the urban area of Nice belongs to the metropolitan area of Cannes–Antibes.


title: Nice

text: Since the 1970s, the number of inhabitants has not changed significantly; the relatively high migration to Nice is balanced by a natural negative growth of the population.


title: Nice

text: The "Observatoire de Nice" (Nice Observatory) is located on the summit of Mont Gros. The observatory was established in 1879 by the banker Raphaël Bischoffsheim. The architect was Charles Garnier; Gustave Eiffel designed the main dome.


title: Nice

text: The 76-cm (30-inch) refractor telescope that became operational in 1888 was at that time the world's largest telescope.


title: Nice

text: Terra-Amata, an archaeological site dating from the Lower Palaeolithic age, is situated near Nice. Nice itself was established by the ancient Greeks. There was also an independent Roman city, Cemenelum, near Nice, where the hill of Cimiez is located. It is an archaeological site with treasures, of which only a small part has been excavated. The excavated site includes thermal baths, arenas and Roman road.


title: Nice

text: Since the 2nd century AD, the light of the city has attracted painters and sculptors such as Chagall, Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle, Klein, Arman and Sosno. Nice inspired many composers and intellectuals in different countries e.g. Berlioz, Rossini, Nietzsche, etc.


title: Nice

text: Nice also has numerous museums of all kinds: Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Musée international d'Art naïf Anatole Jakovsky, Musée Terra-Amata, Museum of Asian Art, Musée d'art moderne et d'art contemporain (which devotes much space to the well-known "École of Nice ""), Museum of Natural History, Musée Masséna, Naval Museum and "Galerie des Ponchettes".


title: Nice

text: Being a vacation resort, Nice hosts many festivals throughout the year, such as the Nice Carnival and the Nice Jazz Festival.


title: Nice

text: Nice has a distinct culture due to its unique history. The local language "Niçard (Nissart)" is an Occitan dialect (but some Italian scholars argue that it is a Ligurian dialect). It is still spoken by a substantial minority. Strong Italian and (to a lesser extent) Corsican influences make it more intelligible to speakers of Italian than other extant Provençal dialects.


title: Nice

text: In the past, Nice has welcomed many immigrants from Italy (who continue to make up a large proportion of the population), as well as Spanish and Portuguese immigrants. However, in the past few decades immigration has been opened to include immigrants from all over the world, particularly those from former Northern and Western African colonies, as well as Southeast Asia. Traditions are still alive, especially in folk music and dances, including the farandole – an open-chain community dance.


title: Nice

text: Since 1860 a cannon (based at the Château east of Old Nice) is shot at twelve o'clock sharp. The detonation can be heard almost all over the city. This tradition goes back to Sir Thomas Coventry, who intended to remind the citizens of having lunch on time.


title: Nice

text: The cuisine of Nice is especially close to those of Provence but also Liguria and Piedmont and uses local ingredients (olive oil, anchovies, fruit and vegetables) but also those from more remote regions, in particular from Northern Europe, because ships which came to pick up olive oil arrived full of food products, such as dried haddock.


title: Nice

text: Nice has a few local dishes. There is a local tart made with onions and anchovies (or anchovy paste), named "Pissaladière". "Socca" is a type of pancake made from chickpea flour. "Farcis niçois" is a dish made from vegetables stuffed with a mixture of breadcrumbs, meat (generally sausage and ground beef), and herbs; and "salade niçoise" is a tomato salad with green peppers of the "Corne" variety, baked eggs, tuna or anchovies, and olives.


title: Nice

text: Local meat comes from neighbouring valleys, such as the sheep of Sisteron. Local fish, such as mullets, bream, sea urchins, and anchovies (alevins) are used to a great extent, so much so that it has given birth to a proverb: "fish are born in the sea and die in oil".


title: Tupolev Tu-95

text: The Tupolev Tu-95 (; NATO reporting name: "Bear") is a large, four-engine turboprop-powered strategic bomber and missile platform. First flown in 1952, the Tu-95 entered service with the Long-Range Aviation of the Soviet Air Forces in 1956 and was first used in combat in 2015. It is expected to serve the Russian Aerospace Forces until at least 2040.


title: Tupolev Tu-95

text: A development of the bomber for maritime patrol is designated the Tu-142, while a passenger airliner derivative was called the Tu-114.


title: Tupolev Tu-95

text: The aircraft has four Kuznetsov NK-12 engines with contra-rotating propellers. It is the only propeller-powered strategic bomber still in operational use today. The Tu-95 is one of the loudest military aircraft, particularly because the tips of the propeller blades move faster than the speed of sound. Its distinctive swept-back wings are set at an angle of 35°. The Tu-95 is the only propeller-driven aircraft with swept wings that has been built in large numbers.


title: Tupolev Tu-95

text: The design bureau, led by Andrei Tupolev, designed the Soviet Union's first intercontinental bomber, the 1949 Tu-85, a scaled-up version of the Tu-4, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress copy. A new requirement was issued to both Tupolev and Myasishchev design bureaus in 1950: the proposed bomber had to have an un-refueled range of , far enough to threaten key targets in the United States. Other goals included the ability to carry an load over the target.