title: Lutheranism

text: Rationalist philosophers from France and England had an enormous impact during the 18th century, along with the German Rationalists Christian Wolff, Gottfried Leibniz, and Immanuel Kant. Their work led to an increase in rationalist beliefs, "at the expense of faith in God and agreement with the Bible".


title: Lutheranism

text: In 1709, Valentin Ernst Löscher warned that this new Rationalist view of the world fundamentally changed society by drawing into question every aspect of theology. Instead of considering the authority of divine revelation, he explained, Rationalists relied solely on their personal understanding when searching for truth.


title: Lutheranism

text: Johann Melchior Goeze (1717–1786), pastor of St. Catherine's Church, Hamburg, wrote apologetical works against Rationalists, including a theological and historical defence against the historical criticism of the Bible.


title: Lutheranism

text: Dissenting Lutheran pastors were often reprimanded by the government bureaucracy overseeing them, for example, when they tried to correct Rationalist influences in the parish school. As a result of the impact of a local form of rationalism, termed Neology, by the latter half of the 18th century, genuine piety was found almost solely in small Pietist conventicles. However, some of the laity preserved Lutheran orthodoxy from both Pietism and rationalism through reusing old catechisms, hymnbooks, postils, and devotional writings, including those written by Johann Gerhard, Heinrich Müller and Christian Scriver.


title: Lutheranism

text: A layman, Luther scholar Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788), became famous for countering Rationalism and striving to advance a revival known as the "Erweckung", or "Awakening". In 1806, Napoleon's invasion of Germany promoted Rationalism and angered German Lutherans, stirring up a desire among the people to preserve Luther's theology from the Rationalist threat. Those associated with this "Awakening" held that reason was insufficient and pointed out the importance of emotional religious experiences.


title: Lutheranism

text: Small groups sprang up, often in universities, which devoted themselves to Bible study, reading devotional writings, and revival meetings. Although the beginning of this "Awakening" tended heavily toward Romanticism, patriotism, and experience, the emphasis of the "Awakening" shifted around 1830 to restoring the traditional liturgy, doctrine, and confessions of the Lutheran church in the Neo-Lutheran movement.


title: Lutheranism

text: This "Awakening" swept through all of Scandinavia though not Iceland. It developed from both German Neo-Lutheranism and Pietism. Danish pastor and philosopher N. F. S. Grundtvig reshaped church life throughout Denmark through a reform movement beginning in 1830. He also wrote about 1,500 hymns, including "God's Word Is Our Great Heritage".


title: Lutheranism

text: In Norway, Hans Nielsen Hauge, a lay street preacher, emphasized spiritual discipline and sparked the Haugean movement, which was followed by the "Johnsonian Awakening" within the state-church. The "Awakening" drove the growth of foreign missions in Norway to non-Christians to a new height, which has never been reached since. In Sweden, Lars Levi Læstadius began the Laestadian movement that emphasized moral reform. In Finland, a farmer, Paavo Ruotsalainen, began the Finnish Awakening when he took to preaching about repentance and prayer.


title: Lutheranism

text: In 1817, Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his territory to unite, forming the Prussian Union of Churches. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the Schism of the Old Lutherans. Many Lutherans, called "Old Lutherans", chose to leave the state churches despite imprisonment and military force. Some formed independent church bodies, or "free churches", at home while others left for the United States, Canada and Australia. A similar legislated merger in Silesia prompted thousands to join the Old Lutheran movement. The dispute over ecumenism overshadowed other controversies within German Lutheranism.


title: Lutheranism

text: Despite political meddling in church life, local and national leaders sought to restore and renew Christianity. Neo-Lutheran Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe and Old Lutheran free church leader Friedrich August Brünn both sent young men overseas to serve as pastors to German Americans, while the Inner Mission focused on renewing the situation home. Johann Gottfried Herder, superintendent at Weimar and part of the Inner Mission movement, joined with the Romantic movement with his quest to preserve human emotion and experience from Rationalism.


title: Lutheranism

text: Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg, though raised Reformed, became convinced of the truth of historic Lutheranism as a young man. He led the Neo-Lutheran "Repristination School" of theology, which advocated a return to the orthodox theologians of the 17th century and opposed modern Bible scholarship. As editor of the periodical "Evangelische Kirchenzeitung", he developed it into a major support of Neo-Lutheran revival and used it to attack all forms of theological liberalism and rationalism. Although he received a large amount of slander and ridicule during his forty years at the head of revival, he never gave up his positions.


title: Lutheranism

text: The theological faculty at the University of Erlangen in Bavaria became another force for reform. There, professor Adolf von Harless, though previously an adherent of rationalism and German idealism, made Erlangen a magnet for revival oriented theologians. Termed the "Erlangen School" of theology, they developed a new version of the Incarnation, which they felt emphasized the humanity of Jesus better than the ecumenical creeds. As theologians, they used both modern historical critical and Hegelian philosophical methods instead of attempting to revive the orthodoxy of the 17th century.


title: Lutheranism

text: Friedrich Julius Stahl led the "High Church Lutherans". Though raised Jewish, he was baptized as a Christian at the age of 19 through the influence of the Lutheran school he attended. As the leader of a neofeudal Prussian political party, he campaigned for the divine right of kings, the power of the nobility, and episcopal polity for the church. Along with Theodor Kliefoth and August Friedrich Christian Vilmar, he promoted agreement with the Roman Catholic Church with regard to the authority of the institutional church, ex opere operato effectiveness of the sacraments, and the divine authority of clergy. Unlike Catholics, however, they also urged complete agreement with the "Book of Concord".


title: Lutheranism

text: The Neo-Lutheran movement managed to slow secularism and counter atheistic Marxism, but it did not fully succeed in Europe. It partly succeeded in continuing the Pietist movement's drive to right social wrongs and focus on individual conversion. The Neo-Lutheran call to renewal failed to achieve widespread popular acceptance because it both began and continued with a lofty, idealistic Romanticism that did not connect with an increasingly industrialized and secularized Europe. At best, the work of local leaders resulted in specific areas with vibrant spiritual renewal, but people in Lutheran areas overall continued to become increasingly distant from church life. Additionally, the revival movements were divided by philosophical traditions. The Repristination school and Old Lutherans tended towards Kantianism, while the Erlangen school promoted a conservative Hegelian perspective. By 1969, Manfried Kober complained that "unbelief is rampant" even within German Lutheran parishes.


title: Lutheranism

text: Traditionally, Lutherans hold the Bible of the Old and New Testaments to be the only divinely inspired book, the only source of divinely revealed knowledge, and the only norm for Christian teaching. Scripture alone is the formal principle of the faith, the final authority for all matters of faith and morals because of its inspiration, authority, clarity, efficacy, and sufficiency.


title: Lutheranism

text: The authority of the Scriptures has been challenged during the history of Lutheranism. Martin Luther taught that the Bible was the written Word of God, and the only reliable guide for faith and practice. He held that every passage of Scripture has one straightforward meaning, the literal sense as interpreted by other Scripture. These teachings were accepted during the orthodox Lutheranism of the 17th century. During the 18th century, Rationalism advocated reason rather than the authority of the Bible as the final source of knowledge, but most of the laity did not accept this Rationalist position. In the 19th century, a confessional revival re-emphasized the authority of the Bible and agreement with the Lutheran Confessions.


title: Lutheranism

text: Today, Lutherans disagree about the inspiration and authority of the Bible. Theological conservatives use the historical-grammatical method of Biblical interpretation, while theological liberals use the higher critical method. The 2008 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey conducted by the Pew Research Center surveyed 1,926 adults in the United States that self-identified as Lutheran. The study found that 30% believed that the Bible was the Word of God and was to be taken literally word for word. 40% held that the Bible was the Word of God, but was not literally true word for word or were unsure if it was literally true word for word. 23% said the Bible was written by men and not the Word of God. 7% did not know, were not sure, or had other positions.


title: Lutheranism

text: Although many Lutherans today hold less specific views of inspiration, historically, Lutherans affirm that the Bible does not merely contain the Word of God, but every word of it is, because of plenary, verbal inspiration, the direct, immediate word of God. The "Apology of the Augsburg Confession" identifies Holy Scripture with the Word of God and calls the Holy Spirit the author of the Bible. Because of this, Lutherans confess in the "Formula of Concord", "we receive and embrace with our whole heart the prophetic and apostolic Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the pure, clear fountain of Israel". The apocryphal books were not written by the prophets nor by inspiration; they contain errors and were never included in the Judean Canon that Jesus used; therefore they are not a part of Holy Scripture. The prophetic and apostolic Scriptures are authentic as written by the prophets and apostles. A correct translation of their writings is God's Word because it has the same meaning as the original Hebrew and Greek. A mistranslation is not God's word, and no human authority can invest it with divine authority.


title: Lutheranism

text: Historically, Lutherans understand the Bible to present all doctrines and commands of the Christian faith clearly. In addition, Lutherans believe that God's Word is freely accessible to every reader or hearer of ordinary intelligence, without requiring any special education. A Lutheran must understand the language that scriptures are presented in, and should not be so preoccupied by error so as to prevent understanding. As a result of this, Lutherans do not believe there is a need to wait for any clergy, pope, scholar, or ecumenical council to explain the real meaning of any part of the Bible.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans confess that Scripture is united with the power of the Holy Spirit and with it, not only demands, but also creates the acceptance of its teaching. This teaching produces faith and obedience. Holy Scripture is not a dead letter, but rather, the power of the Holy Spirit is inherent in it. Scripture does not compel a mere intellectual assent to its doctrine, resting on logical argumentation, but rather it creates the living agreement of faith. As the Smalcald Articles affirm, "in those things which concern the spoken, outward Word, we must firmly hold that God grants His Spirit or grace to no one, except through or with the preceding outward Word".


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans are confident that the Bible contains everything that one needs to know in order to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life. There are no deficiencies in Scripture that need to be filled with by tradition, pronouncements of the Pope, new revelations, or present-day development of doctrine.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans understand the Bible as containing two distinct types of content, termed Law and Gospel (or Law and Promises). Properly distinguishing between Law and Gospel prevents the obscuring of the Gospel teaching of justification by grace through faith alone.


title: Lutheranism

text: The "Book of Concord", published in 1580, contains 10 documents which some Lutherans believe are faithful and authoritative explanations of Holy Scripture. Besides the three Ecumenical Creeds, which date to Roman times, the "Book of Concord" contains seven credal documents articulating Lutheran theology in the Reformation era.


title: Lutheranism

text: The doctrinal positions of Lutheran churches are not uniform because the "Book of Concord" does not hold the same position in all Lutheran churches. For example, the state churches in Scandinavia consider only the "Augsburg Confession" as a "summary of the faith" in addition to the three ecumenical creeds. Lutheran pastors, congregations, and church bodies in Germany and the Americas usually agree to teach in harmony with the entire Lutheran confessions. Some Lutheran church bodies require this pledge to be unconditional because they believe the confessions correctly state what the Bible teaches. Others allow their congregations to do so "insofar as" the confessions are in agreement with the Bible. In addition, Lutherans accept the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the Christian Church.


title: Lutheranism

text: The Lutheran Church traditionally sees itself as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, the Church of Rome fell away. As such, the "Augsburg Confession" teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church". When the Lutherans presented the "Augsburg Confession" to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, they explained "that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".


title: Lutheranism

text: The key doctrine, or material principle, of Lutheranism is the doctrine of justification. Lutherans believe that humans are saved from their sins by God's grace alone ("Sola Gratia"), through faith alone ("Sola Fide"), on the basis of Scripture alone ("Sola Scriptura"). Orthodox Lutheran theology holds that God made the world, including humanity, perfect, holy and sinless. However, Adam and Eve chose to disobey God, trusting in their own strength, knowledge, and wisdom. Consequently, people are saddled with original sin, born sinful and unable to avoid committing sinful acts. For Lutherans, original sin is the "chief sin, a root and fountainhead of all actual sins".


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans teach that sinners, while capable of doing works that are outwardly "good", are not capable of doing works that satisfy God's justice. Every human thought and deed is infected with sin and sinful motives. Because of this, all humanity deserves eternal damnation in hell. God in eternity has turned His Fatherly heart to this world and planned for its redemption because he loves all people and does not want anyone to be eternally damned.


title: Lutheranism

text: To this end, "God sent his Son Jesus Christ, our Lord, into the world to redeem and deliver us from the power of the devil, and to bring us to Himself, and to govern us as a King of righteousness, life, and salvation against sin, death, and an evil conscience", as Luther's Large Catechism explains. Because of this, Lutherans teach that salvation is possible only because of the grace of God made manifest in the birth, life, suffering, death, resurrection, and continuing presence by the power of the Holy Spirit, of Jesus Christ. By God's grace, made known and effective in the person and work of Jesus Christ, a person is forgiven, adopted as a child and heir of God, and given eternal salvation. Christ, because he was entirely obedient to the law with respect to both his human and divine natures, "is a perfect satisfaction and reconciliation of the human race", as the "Formula of Concord" asserts, and proceeds to summarize:


title: Lutheranism

text: [Christ] submitted to the law for us, bore our sin, and in going to his Father performed complete and perfect obedience for us poor sinners, from his holy birth to his death. Thereby he covered all our disobedience, which is embedded in our nature and in its thoughts, words, and deeds, so that this disobedience is not reckoned to us as condemnation but is pardoned and forgiven by sheer grace, because of Christ alone.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation through faith alone. Saving faith is the knowledge of, acceptance of, and trust in the promise of the Gospel. Even faith itself is seen as a gift of God, created in the hearts of Christians by the work of the Holy Spirit through the Word and Baptism. Faith receives the gift of salvation rather than causes salvation. Thus, Lutherans reject the "decision theology" which is common among modern evangelicals.


title: Lutheranism

text: Since the term "grace" has been defined differently by other Christian church bodies (e.g. Roman Catholicism) it is important to note that Lutheranism defines grace as entirely limited to God's gifts to us. Justification comes as a pure gift, not something we merit by changed behavior or in which we cooperate. Grace is not about our response to God's gifts, but only His gifts.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans are . Lutherans reject the idea that the Father and are merely faces of the same person, stating that both the Old Testament and the New Testament show them to be two distinct persons. Lutherans believe the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. In the words of the Athanasian Creed: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the Substance. For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one: the glory equal, the majesty coeternal."


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans believe Jesus is the Christ, the savior promised in the Old Testament. They believe he is both by nature God and by nature man in one person, as they confess in Luther's "" that he is "true God begotten of the Father from eternity and also true man born of the Virgin Mary".


title: Lutheranism

text: [T]he Son of God, did assume the human nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin Mary, so that there are two natures, the divine and the human, inseparably enjoined in one Person, one Christ, true God and true man, who was born of the Virgin Mary, truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and buried, that He might reconcile the Father unto us, and be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual sins of men.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution. Whenever they are properly administered by the use of the physical component commanded by God along with the divine words of institution, God is, in a way specific to each sacrament, present with the Word and physical component. He earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament forgiveness of sins and eternal salvation. He also works in the recipients to get them to accept these blessings and to increase the assurance of their possession.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans are not dogmatic about the number of the sacraments. In line with Luther's initial statement in his Large Catechism some speak of only two sacraments, Baptism and Holy Communion, although later in the same work he calls Confession and Absolution "the third sacrament". The definition of sacrament in the "Apology of the Augsburg Confession" lists Absolution as one of them. With the exception of Laestadian Lutherans, Private Confession is not practiced among Lutherans as often as in the Catholic Church. Rather, it is expected before receiving the Eucharist for the first time. Some churches also allow for individual absolution on Saturdays before the Eucharistic service. A general confession and absolution (known as the Penitential Rite) is proclaimed in the Eucharistic liturgy.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans hold that Baptism is a saving work of God, mandated and instituted by Jesus Christ. Baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration" in which infants and adults are reborn. Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same.


title: Lutheranism

text: It is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, so Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare". Lutherans hold fast to the Scripture cited in 1 Peter 3:21, "Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you, not as a removal of dirt from the body but as an appeal to God for a good conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ." Therefore, Lutherans administer Baptism to both infants and adults. In the special section on infant baptism in his "Large Catechism", Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans hold that within the Eucharist, also referred to as the Sacrament of the Altar or the Lord's Supper, the true body and blood of Christ are truly present "in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it, a doctrine that the "Formula of Concord" calls the sacramental union.


title: Lutheranism

text: Many Lutherans receive the sacrament of penance before receiving the Eucharist. Prior to going to Confessing and receiving Absolution, the faithful are expected to examine their lives in light of the . An is contained in the Small Catechism, as well as in liturgical books. Lutherans typically kneel at the communion rails to confess their sins, while the confessor listens and then offers absolution while laying their stole on the penitent's head. Clergy are prohibited from revealing anything said during private Confession and Absolution per the Seal of the Confessional, and face excommunication if it is violated. Apart from this, Laestadian Lutherans have a practice of lay confession.


title: Lutheranism

text: In Lutheranism, conversion or regeneration in the strict sense of the term is the work of divine grace and power by which man, born of the flesh, and to think, to will, or to do any good thing, and dead in sin is, through the gospel and holy baptism, taken from a state of sin and spiritual death under God's wrath into a state of spiritual life of faith and grace, rendered able to will and to do what is spiritually good and, especially, made to trust in the benefits of the redemption which is in Christ Jesus.


title: Lutheranism

text: During conversion, one is moved from impenitence to repentance. The "Augsburg Confession" divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans adhere to divine monergism, the teaching that salvation is by God's act alone, and therefore reject the idea that humans in their fallen state have a free will concerning spiritual matters. Lutherans believe that although humans have free will concerning civil righteousness, they cannot work spiritual righteousness in the heart without the presence and aid of the Holy Spirit. Lutherans believe Christians are "saved"; that all who trust in Christ alone and his promises can be certain of their salvation.


title: Lutheranism

text: According to Lutheranism, the central final hope of the Christian is "the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting" as confessed in the "" rather than predestination. Lutherans disagree with those who make predestination—rather than Christ's suffering, death, and resurrection—the source of salvation. Unlike some Calvinists, Lutherans do not believe in a predestination to damnation, usually referencing "God our Savior, who desires all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth" as contrary evidence to such a claim. Instead, Lutherans teach eternal damnation is a result of the unbeliever's sins, rejection of the forgiveness of sins, and unbelief.


title: Lutheranism

text: According to Lutherans, God preserves his creation, cooperates with everything that happens, and guides the universe. While God cooperates with both good and evil deeds, with evil deeds he does so only inasmuch as they are deeds, but not with the evil in them. God concurs with an act's effect, but he does not cooperate in the corruption of an act or the evil of its effect. Lutherans believe everything exists for the sake of the Christian Church, and that God guides everything for its welfare and growth.


title: Lutheranism

text: The of the Apostles' Creed given in the "Small Catechism" declares that everything good that people have is given and preserved by God, either directly or through other people or things. Of the services others provide us through family, government, and work, "we receive these blessings not from them, but, through them, from God". Since God uses everyone's useful tasks for good, people should not look down upon some useful vocations as being less worthy than others. Instead people should honor others, no matter how lowly, as being the means God uses to work in the world.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans believe that are the fruit of faith, always and in every instance. Good works have their origin in God, not in the fallen human heart or in human striving; their absence would demonstrate that faith, too, is absent. Lutherans do not believe that good works are a factor in obtaining salvation; they believe that we are saved by the grace of God—based on the merit of Christ in his suffering and death—and faith in the Triune God. Good works are the natural result of faith, not the cause of salvation. Although Christians are no longer compelled to keep God's law, they freely and willingly serve God and their neighbors.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans do not believe in any sort of earthly millennial kingdom of Christ either before or after his second coming on the last day. Lutherans teach that, at death, the souls of Christians are immediately taken into the presence of Jesus, where they await the of Jesus on the last day. On the last day, all the bodies of the dead will be resurrected.


title: Lutheranism

text: Their souls will then be reunited with the same bodies they had before dying. The bodies will then be changed, those of the wicked to a state of everlasting shame and torment, those of the righteous to an everlasting state of celestial glory. After the resurrection of all the dead, and the change of those still living, all nations shall be gathered before Christ, and he will separate the righteous from the wicked.


title: Lutheranism

text: Christ will publicly judge all people by the testimony of their deeds, the good works of the righteous in evidence of their faith, and the evil works of the wicked in evidence of their unbelief. He will judge in righteousness in the presence of all people and angels, and his final judgment will be just damnation to everlasting punishment for the wicked and a gracious gift of life everlasting to the righteous.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services; although there are substantial non-liturgical minorities, for example, the Haugean Lutherans from Norway. Martin Luther was a great proponent of music, and this is why music forms a central part of Lutheran services to this day. In particular, Luther admired the composers Josquin des Prez and Ludwig Senfl, and wanted singing in the church to move away from the "ars perfecta" (Catholic Sacred Music of the late Renaissance) and towards singing as a "Gemeinschaft" (community). Lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales. Lutheran hymnody is well known for its doctrinal, didactic, and musical richness. Most Lutheran churches are active musically with choirs, handbell choirs, children's choirs, and occasionally change ringing groups that ring bells in a bell tower. Johann Sebastian Bach, a devout Lutheran, composed a huge body of sacred music for the Lutheran church.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans also preserve a liturgical approach to the celebration of the Holy Eucharist/Communion, emphasizing the Sacrament as the central act of Christian worship. Lutherans believe that the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ are present in, with and under the bread and the wine. This belief is called Real Presence or sacramental union and is different from consubstantiation and transubstantiation. Additionally Lutherans reject the idea that communion is a mere symbol or memorial. They confess in the "Apology of the Augsburg Confession":


title: Lutheranism

text: [W]e do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it. Among us the Mass is celebrated every Lord's Day and on other , when the Sacrament is made available to those who wish to partake of it, after they have been examined and absolved. We also keep traditional liturgical forms, such as the order of readings, prayers, vestments, and other similar things.In addition to the Holy Communion (Divine Service), congregations frequently also hold offices, which are worship services without communion. They may include Matins, Vespers, Compline, or other observances of the Daily Office. Private or family offices include the from Luther's "Small Catechism". Meals are blessed with the "Common table prayer", , or other prayers, and after eating the Lord is thanked, for example, with . Luther himself encouraged the use of Psalm verses, such as those already mentioned, along with the Lord's Prayer and another short prayer before and after each meal: from Luther's "Small Catechism". In addition, Lutherans use devotional books, from small daily devotionals, for example, "Portals of Prayer", to large breviaries, including the "Breviarium Lipsiensae" and "Treasury of Daily Prayer".


title: Lutheranism

text: The predominant rite used by the Lutheran Churches is a Western one based on the "Formula missae" ("Form of the Mass") although other Lutheran liturgies are also in use, such as those used in the Byzantine Rite Lutheran Churches, such as the Ukrainian Lutheran Church and Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Slovenia. Although Luther's Deutsche Messe was completely chanted except for the sermon, this is less common today.


title: Lutheranism

text: In the 1970s, many Lutheran churches began holding contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelistic outreach. These services were in a variety of styles, depending on the preferences of the congregation. Often they were held alongside a traditional service in order to cater to those who preferred contemporary worship music. Today, a few Lutheran congregations have contemporary worship as their sole form of worship. Outreach is no longer given as the primary motivation; rather this form of worship is seen as more in keeping with the desires of individual congregations. In Finland, Lutherans have experimented with the and Metal Mass in which traditional hymns are adapted to heavy metal. Some Laestadians enter a heavily emotional and ecstatic state during worship. The Lutheran World Federation, in its Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture, recommended every effort be made to bring church services into a more sensitive position with regard to cultural context.


title: Lutheranism

text: In 2006, both the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), in cooperation with certain international English speaking church bodies within their respective fellowships, released new hymnals: "Evangelical Lutheran Worship" (ELCA) and "Lutheran Service Book" (LCMS). Along with these, the most widely used among English speaking congregations include: "Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary" (1996, Evangelical Lutheran Synod), "The Lutheran Book of Worship" (1978, Lutheran Council in the United States of America), "Lutheran Worship" (1982, LCMS), "Christian Worship" (1993, Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod), and "The Lutheran Hymnal" (1941, Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America). In the Lutheran Church of Australia, the official hymnal is the "Lutheran Hymnal with Supplement" of 1986, which includes a supplement to the "Lutheran Hymnal" of 1973, itself a replacement for the "Australian Lutheran Hymn Book" of 1921. Prior to this time, the two Lutheran church bodies in Australia (which merged in 1966) used a bewildering variety of hymnals, usually in the German language. Spanish-speaking ELCA churches frequently use "Libro de Liturgia y Cántico" (1998, Augsburg Fortress) for services and hymns. For a more complete list, see List of English language Lutheran hymnals.


title: Lutheranism

text: Sizable Lutheran missions arose for the first time during the 19th century. Early missionary attempts during the century after the Reformation did not succeed. However, European traders brought Lutheranism to Africa beginning in the 17th century as they settled along the coasts. During the first half of the 19th century, missionary activity in Africa expanded, including preaching by missionaries, translation of the Bible, and education.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutheranism came to India beginning with the work of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, where a community totaling several thousand developed, complete with their own translation of the Bible, catechism, their own hymnal, and system of Lutheran schools. In the 1840s, this church experienced a revival through the work of the Leipzig Mission, including Karl Graul. After German missionaries were expelled in 1914, Lutherans in India became entirely autonomous, yet preserved their Lutheran character. In recent years India has relaxed its anti-religious conversion laws, allowing a resurgence in missionary work.


title: Lutheranism

text: In Latin America, missions began to serve European immigrants of Lutheran background, both those who spoke German and those who no longer did. These churches in turn began to evangelize those in their areas who were not of European background, including indigenous peoples.


title: Lutheranism

text: In 1892, the first Lutheran missionaries reached Japan. Although work began slowly and a major setback occurred during the hardships of WWII. Lutheranism there has survived and become self-sustaining. After missionaries to China, including those of the Lutheran Church of China, were expelled, they began ministry in Taiwan and Hong Kong, the latter which became a center of Lutheranism in Asia.


title: Lutheranism

text: The Lutheran Mission in New Guinea, though founded only in 1953, became the largest Lutheran mission in the world in only several decades. Through the work of native lay evangelists, many tribes of diverse languages were reached with the Gospel.


title: Lutheranism

text: Today the Lutheran World Federation operates Lutheran World Relief, a relief and development agency active in more than 50 countries.


title: Lutheranism

text: is considered foundational in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain Sunday Schools, and some host or maintain Lutheran schools, at the preschool, elementary, middle, high school, folk high school, or university level. Lifelong study of the catechism is intended for all ages so that the abuses of the pre-Reformation Church will not recur. Lutheran schools have always been a core aspect of Lutheran mission work, starting with Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Putschasu, who began work in India in year 1706. During the Counter-Reformation era in German speaking areas, backstreet Lutheran schools were the main Lutheran institution among crypto-Lutherans.


title: Lutheranism

text: Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including Koine Greek and Biblical Hebrew so that they can refer to the Christian scriptures in the original language. Pastors usually teach in the common language of the local congregation. In the U.S., some congregations and synods historically taught in German, Danish, Finnish, Norwegian, or Swedish, but retention of immigrant languages has been in significant decline since the early and middle 20th century.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans were divided about the issue of church fellowship for the first thirty years after Luther's death. Philipp Melanchthon and his Philippist party felt that Christians of different beliefs should join in union with each other without completely agreeing on doctrine. Against them stood the Gnesio-Lutherans, led by Matthias Flacius and the faculty at the University of Jena. They condemned the Philippist position for indifferentism, describing it as a "unionistic compromise" of precious Reformation theology. Instead, they held that genuine unity between Christians and real theological peace was only possible with an honest agreement about every subject of doctrinal controversy.


title: Lutheranism

text: Complete agreement finally came about in 1577, after the death of both Melanchthon and Flacius, when a new generation of theologians resolved the doctrinal controversies on the basis of Scripture in the "Formula of Concord" of 1577. Although they decried the visible division of Christians on earth, orthodox Lutherans avoided ecumenical fellowship with other churches, believing that Christians should not, for example, join together for the Lord's Supper or exchange pastors if they do not completely agree about what the Bible teaches. In the 17th century, Georgius Calixtus began a rebellion against this practice, sparking the Syncretistic Controversy with Abraham Calovius as his main opponent.


title: Lutheranism

text: In the 18th century, there was some ecumenical interest between the Church of Sweden and the Church of England. John Robinson, Bishop of London, planned for a union of the English and Swedish churches in 1718. The plan failed because most Swedish bishops rejected the Calvinism of the Church of England, although Jesper Swedberg and Johannes Gezelius the younger, bishops of Skara, Sweden and Turku, Finland, were in favor. With the encouragement of Swedberg, church fellowship was established between Swedish Lutherans and Anglicans in the Middle Colonies. Over the course of the 1700s and the early 1800s, Swedish Lutherans were absorbed into Anglican churches, with the last original Swedish congregation completing merger into the Episcopal Church in 1846.


title: Lutheranism

text: In the 19th century, Samuel Simon Schmucker attempted to lead the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States toward unification with other American Protestants. His attempt to get the synod to reject the "Augsburg Confession" in favor of his compromising "Definite Platform" failed. Instead, it sparked a Neo-Lutheran revival, prompting many to form the General Council, including Charles Porterfield Krauth. Their alternative approach was "Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran ministers only and Lutheran altars...for Lutheran communicants only."


title: Lutheranism

text: Beginning in 1867, confessional and liberal minded Lutherans in Germany joined to form the "Common Evangelical Lutheran Conference" against the ever looming prospect of a state-mandated union with the Reformed. However, they failed to reach consensus on the degree of shared doctrine necessary for church union. Eventually, the fascist German Christians movement pushed the final national merger of Lutheran, Union, and Reformed church bodies into a single Reich Church in 1933, doing away with the previous umbrella German Evangelical Church Confederation (DEK). As part of denazification the Reich Church was formally done away with in 1945, and certain clergy were removed from their positions. However, the merger between the Lutheran, United, and Reformed state churches was retained under the name Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD). In 1948 the Lutheran church bodies within the EKD founded the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD), but it has since been reduced from being an independent legal entity to an administrative unit within the EKD.


title: Lutheranism

text: Presently, Lutherans are divided over how to interact with other Christian denominations. Some Lutherans assert that everyone must share the "whole counsel of God" (Acts 20:27) in complete unity (1 Cor. 1:10) before pastors can share each other's pulpits, and before communicants commune at each other's altars, a practice termed closed (or close) communion. On the other hand, other Lutherans practice varying degrees of open communion and allow preachers from other Christian denominations in their pulpits.


title: Lutheranism

text: While not an issue in the majority of Lutheran church bodies, some of them forbid membership in Freemasonry. Partly, this is because the lodge is viewed as spreading Unitarianism, as the Brief Statement of the LCMS reads, "Hence we warn against Unitarianism, which in our country has to a great extent impenetrated the sects and is being spread particularly also through the influence of the lodges." A 1958 report from the publishing house of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that, "Masonry is guilty of idolatry. Its worship and prayers are idol worship. The Masons may not with their hands have made an idol out of gold, silver, wood or stone, but they created one with their own mind and reason out of purely human thoughts and ideas. The latter is an idol no less than the former."


title: Lutheranism

text: The largest organizations of Lutheran churches around the world are the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, the International Lutheran Council (ILC), and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference (CELC). These organizations together account for the great majority of Lutheran denominations. The LCMS and the Lutheran Church–Canada are members of the ILC. The WELS and ELS are members of the CELC. Many Lutheran churches are not affiliated with the LWF, the ILC or the CELC: The congregations of the Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) are affiliated with their mission organizations in Canada, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and many African nations; and those affiliated with the Church of the Lutheran Brethren are especially active doing mission work in Africa and East Asia.


title: Lutheranism

text: The Lutheran World Federation-aligned churches do not believe that one church is singularly true in its teachings. According to this belief, Lutheranism is a reform movement rather than a movement into doctrinal correctness. As part of this, in 1999 the LWF and the Roman Catholic Church jointly issued a statement, the "Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification", that stated that the LWF and the Catholics both agreed about certain basics of Justification and lifted certain Catholic anathemas formerly applying to the LWF member churches.


title: Lutheranism

text: Besides their intra-Lutheran arrangements, some member churches of the LWF have also declared full communion with non-Lutheran Protestant churches. The Porvoo Communion is a communion of episcopally led Lutheran and Anglican churches in Europe. Beside its membership in the Porvoo Communion, The state Protestant churches in Germany many other European countries have signed the "Leuenberg Agreement" to form the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America has been involved in ecumenical dialogues with several denominations. The ELCA has declared full communion with multiple American Protestant churches.


title: Lutheranism

text: Although on paper the LWF churches have all declared have full communion with each other, in practice some churches within the LWF have renounced ties with specific other churches. One development in this ongoing schism is the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, which consists of churches and church related organizations tracing their heritage back to mainline American Lutheranism in North America, European state churches, as well as certain African churches. As of 2019, the Forum is not a full communion organization. Similar in this structure is the International Lutheran Council, where issues of communion are left to the individual denominations. Not all ILC churches have declared church-fellowship with each other. In contrast, mutual church-fellowship is part of the CELC member churches, and unlike in the LWF, this is not contradicted by individual statements from any particular member church body.


title: Lutheranism

text: Laestadians within certain European state churches maintain close ties to other Laestadians, often called Apostolic Lutherans. Altogether, Laestadians are found in 23 countries across five continents, but there is no single organization which represents them. Laestadians operate Peace Associations to coordinate their churchly efforts. Nearly all are located in Europe, although they there are 15 combined in North America, Ecuador, Togo, and Kenya.


title: Lutheranism

text: By contrast, the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference and International Lutheran Council as well as some unaffiliated denominations such as the Church of the Lutheran Confession and North American Laestadians maintain that the orthodox confessional Lutheran churches are the only churches with completely correct doctrine. They teach that while other Christian churches teach partially orthodox doctrine and have true Christians as members, the doctrines of those churches contain significant errors. More conservative Lutherans strive to maintain historical distinctiveness while emphasizing doctrinal purity alongside Gospel-motivated outreach. They claim that LWF Lutherans are practicing ""fake ecumenism"" by desiring church fellowship outside of actual unity of teaching.


title: Lutheranism

text: Although not an "ecumenical" movement in the formal sense, in the 1990s influences from the megachurches of American evangelicalism have become somewhat common. Many of the largest Lutheran congregations in the United States have been heavily influenced by these "progressive Evangelicals". These influences are sharply criticized by some Lutherans as being foreign to orthodox Lutheran beliefs.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutheran polity varies depending on influences. Although of the "Augsburg Confession" mandates that one must be "properly called" to preach or administer the Sacraments, some Lutherans have a broad view of on what constitutes this and thus allow lay preaching or students still studying to be pastors someday to consecrate the Lord's Supper. Despite considerable diversity, Lutheran polity trends in a geographically predictable manner in Europe, with episcopal governance to the north and east but blended and consistorial-presbyterian type synodical governance in Germany.


title: Lutheranism

text: To the north in Scandinavia, the population was more insulated from the influence and politics of the Reformation and thus the Church of Sweden (which at the time included Finland) retained the Apostolic succession, although they did not consider it essential for valid sacraments as the Donatists did in the fourth and fifth centuries and the Roman Catholics do today. Recently, the Swedish succession was introduced into all of the Porvoo Communion churches, all of which have an episcopal polity. Although the Lutheran churches did not require this or change their doctrine, this was important in order for more strictly high church Anglican individuals to feel comfortable recognizing their sacraments as valid. The occasional ordination of a bishop by a priest was not necessarily considered an invalid ordination in the Middle Ages, so the alleged break in the line of succession in the other Nordic Churches would have been considered a violation of canon law rather than an invalid ordination at the time. Moreover, there are no consistent records detailing pre-Reformation ordinations prior to the 12th century.


title: Lutheranism

text: In the far north of the Scandinavian peninsula are the Sámi people, some of which practice a form of Lutheranism called Apostolic Lutheranism, or Laestadianism due to the efforts of Lars Levi Laestadius. However, others are Orthodox in religion. Some Apostolic Lutherans consider their movement as part of an unbroken line down from the Apostles. In areas where Apostolic Lutherans have their own bishops apart from other Lutheran church organizations, the bishops wield more practical authority than Lutheran clergy typically do. In Russia, Laestadians of Lutheran background cooperate with the Ingrian church, but since Laestadianism is an interdenominational movement, some are Eastern Orthodox. Eastern Orthodox Laestadians are known as (article is in Russian).


title: Lutheranism

text: Although historically Pietism had a significant influence on the understanding of the ministry among Lutherans in the Russian Empire, today nearly all Russian and Ukrainian Lutherans are influenced by Eastern Orthodox polity. In their culture, giving a high degree of respect and authority to their bishops is necessary for their faith to be seen as legitimate and not sectarian. In Russia, lines of succession between bishops and the canonical authority between their present-day hierarchy is also carefully maintained in order to legitimize the existing Lutheran churches as present day successors of the former Lutheran Church of the Russian Empire originally authorized by Catherine the Great. This allows for the post-Soviet repatriation of Lutheran church buildings to local congregations on the basis of this historical connection.


title: Lutheranism

text: In Germany, several dynamics encouraged Lutherans to maintain a different form of polity. First, due to de facto practice during the Nuremberg Religious Peace the subsequent legal principal of Cuius regio, eius religio in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, German states were officially either Catholic or "Evangelical" (that is, Lutheran under the "Augsburg Confession"). In some areas both Catholic and Lutheran churches were permitted to co-exist. Because German-speaking Catholic areas were nearby, Catholic-leaning Christians were able to emigrate and there was less of an issue with Catholics choosing to live as "crypto-papists" in Lutheran areas. Although Reformed-leaning Christians were not allowed to have churches, Melancthon wrote "Augsburg Confession Variata" which some used to claim legal protection as "Evangelical" churches. Many chose to live as crypto-Calvinists either with or without the protection offered by the "Variata", but this did not make their influence go away, and as a result the Protestant church in Germany as of 2017 was only about ~40% Lutheran, with most of the rest being United Protestant, a combination of Lutheran and Reformed beliefs and practices.


title: Lutheranism

text: In terms of polity, over the 17th and 18th centuries the carefully negotiated and highly prescriptive church orders of the Reformation era gave way to a joint cooperation between state control and a Reformed-style blend of consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. Just as negotiations over the details in the church orders involved the laity, so did the new synodical governance. Synodical governance had already been practiced in the Reformed Netherlands prior to its adoption by Lutherans. During the formation of the modern German state, ideas about the nature of authority and the best design for governments and organizations came from the philosophies of Kant and Hegel, further modifying the polity. When the monarchy and the sovereign governance of the church were ended in 1918, the synods took over the governance of the state churches.


title: Lutheranism

text: During the period of the emigration, Lutherans took their existing ideas about polity with them across the ocean, though with the exception of the early Swedish Lutherans immigrants of the New Sweden colony who accepted the rule of the Anglican bishops and became part of the established church, they now had to fund churches on their own. This increased the congregationalist dynamic in the blended consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. The first organized church body of Lutherans in America was the Pennsylvania Ministerium, which used Reformed style synodical governance over the 18th and 19th centuries. Their contribution to the development of polity was that smaller synods could in turn form a larger body, also with synodical governance, but without losing their lower level of governance. As a result, the smaller synods gained unprecedented flexibility to join, leave, merge, or stay separate, all without the hand of the state as had been the case in Europe.


title: Lutheranism

text: During their 19th-century persecution, "Old Lutheran" (scholastic, orthodox) believers were left in a conundrum. Resistance to authority was traditionally considered disobedience, but, under the circumstances, upholding orthodox doctrine and historical practice was considered by the government disobedience. However, the doctrine of the lesser magistrate allowed clergy to legitimately resist the state and even leave. Illegal free churches were set up in Germany and mass emigration occurred. For decades the new churches were mostly dependent on the free churches to send them new ministerial candidates for ordination. These new church bodies also employed synodical governance, but tended to exclude Hegelianism in their constitutions, due to its incompatibility with the doctrine of the lesser magistrates. In contrast to Hegelianism where authority flows in from all levels, Kantianism presents authority proceeding only from the top down, hence the need for a lesser magistrate to become the new top magistrate.


title: Lutheranism

text: Over the 20th and 21st centuries, some Lutheran bodies have adopted a more congregationalist approach, such as the Protes'tant Conference and the Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ, or LCMC. The LCMC formed due to a church split after the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America signed an agreement with the Episcopal Church to start ordaining all of their new bishops into the Episcopalian apostolic succession. In other words, this meant that new ELCA bishops, at least at first, would be jointly ordained by Anglican bishops as well as Lutheran bishops so that the more strict Episcopalians (i.e., Anglo-Catholics) would recognize their sacraments as valid. This was offensive to some in the ELCA at the time because of the implications this practice would have on the teachings of the priesthood of all believers and the nature of ordination.


title: Lutheranism

text: Today, some churches allow dual-rostering. Situations like this one where a church or church body belongs to multiple larger organizations that do not have ties are termed "triangular fellowship". Another variant is independent Lutheran churches, although for some independent churches the clergy are members of a larger denomination. In other cases, a congregation may belong to a synod, but the pastor may be unaffiliated. In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Lutheran Church of Australia, the Wisconsin Synod, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Church of the Lutheran Confession, and the Missouri Synod, teachers at parochial schools are considered to be ministers of religion, with the latter defending this before the Supreme Court in 2012. However, differences remain in the precise status of their teachers.


title: Lutheranism

text: Today, millions belong to Lutheran churches, which are present on all populated continents. The Lutheran World Federation estimates the total membership of its churches over 74 million. This figure miscounts Lutherans worldwide as not all Lutheran churches belong to this organization, and many members of merged LWF church bodies do not self-identify as Lutheran or attend congregations that self-identify as Lutheran. Lutheran churches in North America, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean regions are experiencing decreases and no growth in membership, while those in Africa and Asia continue to grow. Lutheranism is the largest religious group in Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Namibia, and North Dakota and South Dakota in the United States.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutheranism is also the dominant form of Christianity in the White Mountain and San Carlos Apache nations. In addition, Lutheranism is a main Protestant denomination in Germany (behind United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed) churches; EKD Protestants form about 24.3% of the country's total population), Estonia, Poland, Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Papua New Guinea, and Tanzania. Although some convents and monasteries voluntarily closed during the Reformation, and many of the remaining damenstift were shuttered by communist authorities following World War II, the are still open. Nearly all are located in Europe.


title: Lutheranism

text: Although Namibia is the only country outside Europe to have a Lutheran majority, there are sizable Lutheran bodies in other African countries. In the following African countries, the total number of Lutherans exceeds 100,000: Nigeria, Central African Republic, Chad, Kenya, Malawi, Congo, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Madagascar. In addition, the following nations also have sizable Lutheran populations: Canada, France, the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, the Netherlands (as a synod within the PKN and two strictly Lutheran denominations), South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States, especially in the heavily German and Scandinavian Upper Midwest.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutheranism is also a state religion in Iceland, Denmark, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. Finland has its Lutheran church established as a national church. Similarly, Sweden also has its national church, which was a state church until 2000.


title: Lutheranism

text: The Evangelical Church of the Lutheran Confession in Brazil (Igreja Evangélica de Confissão Luterana no Brasil) is the largest Lutheran denomination in Brazil. It is a member of the Lutheran World Federation, which it joined in 1952. It is a member of the Latin American Council of Churches, the National Council of Christian Churches and the World Council of Churches. The denomination has 1.02 million adherents and 643,693 registered members. The church ordains women as ministers. In 2011, the denomination released a pastoral letter supporting and accepting the Supreme Court's decision to allow same-sex marriage.


title: Lutheranism

text: The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Brazil (Portuguese: Igreja Evangélica Luterana do Brasil, IELB) is a Lutheran church founded in 1904 in Rio Grande do Sul, a southern state in Brazil. The IELB is a conservative, confessional Lutheran synod which holds to the Book of Concord. It started as a mission of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and operated as the Brazilian District of that body. The IELB became an independent church body in 1980. It has about 243,093 members. The IELB is a member of the International Lutheran Council.


title: Lutheranism

text: The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) started a Brazilian mission, the first for WELS in the Portuguese language, in the early 1980s. Its first work was done in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in the south of Brazil, alongside some small independent Lutheran churches which had asked for help from WELS. Today, the Brazilian WELS Lutheran Churches are self-supporting and an independent mission partner of the Latin America WELS missions team.


title: Lutheranism

text: This map shows where members of the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference (CELC) are located in 2013:


title: Jerry Hall

text: Jerry Faye Hall (born July 2, 1956) is an American model and actress. She began modelling in the 1970s and became one of the most sought after models in the world. She transitioned into acting, appearing in the 1989 film "Batman". Hall was the long-term partner of Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger, with whom she has four children. She subsequently married media mogul Rupert Murdoch, from whom she is now divorced.


title: Jerry Hall

text: Hall was born in Gonzales, Texas, to Marjorie (née Sheffield), a medical records librarian, and John P. Hall. She is of English, Irish, and Dutch descent. She was raised in the Dallas suburb of Mesquite, Texas.


title: Jerry Hall

text: Hall graduated from North Mesquite High School early at 16. While in high school, she also took classes at Eastfield College in archery, tennis, and gymnastics. Hall has been fluent in French since she was 16.


title: Jerry Hall

text: She has a twin sister, Terry, whose jobs have included working in a photography and printmaking shop, real estate investing, and real estate broker. They have three older sisters, including Rosy Hall, one of the first Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders.


title: Jerry Hall

text: In the TV series "Who Do You Think You Are?", Hall discovered that she was descended from Humphrey Best, an associate of American pioneer Daniel Boone.


title: Jerry Hall

text: Jerry Hall and her twin sister Terry were in the French Riviera sunbathing on a Saint Tropez beach when fashion agent Claude Haddad discovered them. She moved to Paris where she shared an apartment with singer Grace Jones and Jessica Lange. Her modelling career began when she appeared, in the guise of a siren, on the cover of Roxy Music's album "Siren" (1975).


title: Jerry Hall

text: By 1977, Hall had been on 40 magazine covers including Italian "Vogue" and "Cosmopolitan". She was earning modelling fees in excess of $1,000 per day. Her long blonde hair and height of six feet quickly made her one of the most visible and photographed models of the day.


title: Jerry Hall

text: Hall was also a muse for artists Francesco Clemente, Ed Ruscha and Lucian Freud. Hall modeled for Andy Warhol many times.


title: Jerry Hall

text: She made her professional stage debut playing Cherie in a revival of "Bus Stop" (a role played by Marilyn Monroe in the film adaption) in the Theaterfest summer stock (hosted at Montclair State University) in July 1988. She reprised the role for her London West End stage début in 1990 at the Lyric Theatre in Shaftesbury Avenue.


title: Jerry Hall

text: Hall played the role of Miss Scarlett in the 1993 British television show "Cluedo" and in TV series, "The Detectives". In the early 2000s, she appeared as Mrs. Robinson in a Broadway production of "The Graduate". Hall appeared as herself in the documentary "Being Mick" (2001). She appeared in Brighton in the play "Picasso's Women" in 2002.


title: Jerry Hall

text: Hall was presented with the Guinness World Record in February 2004 for making the most musical appearances in a single night; she performed in six shows before 9,124 theatregoers in London's West End.


title: Jerry Hall

text: In 2005, Hall appeared on the West End stage playing Mother Lord in the first London production of Cole Porter's "High Society". Hall provided the voice for Sister Penelope in the British cartoon "Popetown" first screened in New Zealand during the year. In 2007, Hall guest-starred on the British TV show "Hotel Babylon". She has also appeared in the BBC comedy series "French and Saunders".


title: Jerry Hall

text: In June 2012, Hall made a one-week appearance with David Soul at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, in a reprise of the Pulitzer Prize-nominated play "Love Letters" by A. R. Gurney. On September 10, 2012, Hall was announced as a contestant for the tenth series of the British dance show "Strictly Come Dancing". Her professional partner was Anton du Beke. She was the second celebrity to be eliminated from the competition.


title: Jerry Hall

text: In 2000, Hall was a judge for the Whitbread Prize. She argued for Seamus Heaney's translation of Beowulf.


title: Jerry Hall

text: In 2010, she sold her art collection through Sotheby's. Four years later, she performed at Glastonbury. She wrote music and lyrics to original country and western music.


title: Jerry Hall

text: Hall started dating musician Bryan Ferry in 1975, leaving him for Mick Jagger in 1977. Jagger and Hall held a Hindu wedding ceremony on November 21, 1990, in Bali, Indonesia. The putative marriage was later declared null and void "ab initio" by the High Court of England and Wales in 1999, ruling that the "marriage" was not legally valid according to either Indonesian or English law. The couple have four children together: Elizabeth Scarlett (born 1984), James Leroy (born 1985), Georgia May (born 1992), and Gabriel Luke (born 1997). The couple lived together at Downe House, Richmond Hill, in Greater London, which Jagger purchased in the early 1990s. They separated in August 1999.


title: Jerry Hall

text: On March 4, 2016, Hall married media business magnate Rupert Murdoch, in a ceremony at the Church of England church of St Bride's, Fleet Street, eight weeks after announcing their engagement with a listing in Murdoch's "The Times" newspaper. On June 22, 2022, "The New York Times", citing two anonymous sources, reported that the couple were divorcing. Hall filed for divorce on July 1, 2022 citing irreconcilable differences; the divorce was finalized in August 2022.


title: Joey Diaz

text: José Antonio Díaz (born February 19, 1963), known professionally as Joey "CoCo" Diaz, is a Cuban-American stand-up comedian, actor, and podcaster. After pursuing stand-up comedy full time in 1991 in the Colorado and Seattle areas, Diaz relocated to Los Angeles in 1995 where he began acting, securing various film and television roles, including "My Name Is Earl", "The Longest Yard", "Spider-Man 2", "Grudge Match", and "The Many Saints of Newark".


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 2010, Diaz started to gain widespread notoriety from his appearances on "The Joe Rogan Experience" podcast. From 2012 to 2020, he was the host of his own podcast, "The Church of What's Happening Now" with Lee Syatt, and has since hosted "Uncle Joey's Joint".


title: Joey Diaz

text: José Antonio Diaz was born in Havana, Cuba. He immigrated at a young age to the United States, where he was raised in North Bergen, New Jersey, a town where he noted he was the only Cuban-American at the time. His mother ran a bar and a successful numbers game operation. He was raised Catholic as a youngster and enjoyed learning stories about Francis of Assisi and St. Michael. Diaz attended McKinley School and then North Bergen High School, where he won awards for performing arts. He graduated in 1982.


title: Joey Diaz

text: Diaz's father died when he was three years old. His mother died when he was 16, Diaz having found her dead in their home. He was taken in by four families around North Bergen during his teenage years, and credits about twenty people who helped him, but his reckless nature and tendency to get into trouble caused him to move from one home to another. During this time, Diaz began taking drugs and committing crimes. Diaz explains that his peers' sense of humor greatly influenced his comedy career, as did the comedy albums of Richard Pryor.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 1982, Diaz moved to Colorado. However, his growing homesickness led to his return to New Jersey initially for his birthday in 1984, but he stayed there for eighteen months. He later called this time as "the worst 18 months of my life" and "the biggest mistake of my life," as his cocaine abuse worsened.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In June 1985, Diaz left New Jersey and returned to Colorado to study economics at the University of Colorado at Boulder. He did not enjoy his time there, and quit before taking up work selling roofing which earned him money, but he remained unhappy.


title: Joey Diaz

text: Following his arrest for kidnapping and aggravated robbery, he was sent to prison in 1988, serving 16 months of a four-year sentence. During his time in prison, Diaz would perform stand-up routines for his fellow inmates during the weekly film screening event when the projector broke. It took Diaz a further three years to try stand-up, despite being often told of his talent, and later called his entry into the line of work as "the last resort" as he had many other jobs in the past.


title: Joey Diaz

text: After seeing the 1988 film "Punchline", Diaz responded to an advertisement for a $37 stand-up comedy course in the "Rocky Mountain Post", and developed a blue comedy act. Before he did his first standup routine, he worked as a doorman at Wit's End.


title: Joey Diaz

text: Diaz performed his first routine on June 18, 1991 at the Comedy Works in Denver at a show headlined by Matt Woods. In April 1992, prior to his opening spot for Troy Baxley in Boulder, Colorado, Diaz took cocaine before going on stage and had a set that he described as "a disaster". He then ceased to take the substance before a performance. After developing his act, Diaz entered the Beck's Amateur Comedy Competition and won. He initially lost another competition until the winner was caught stealing jokes made famous by Jerry Seinfeld and Diaz was declared the winner. Diaz claimed Comedy Works manager Wende Curtis promised him a flight to Los Angeles for a showcase spot at The Comedy Store for owner Mitzi Shore, but never received either. Diaz went on to participate in a similar contest in Seattle, Washington, and finished sixth out of 40. In 1994, Diaz returned to the Comedy Works and found Curtis had started a developmental program for comics which he joined. The process involved group writing sessions at Wood's home followed by sets in the club the same evening. At one point, Curtis banned Diaz from the Comedy Works before it was lifted after they met years later.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 1995, Diaz left Colorado for Los Angeles, California to try and make it as a successful stand-up comic. He used his divorce from his first wife, and the loss of contact with their daughter in the process, as a motivation so he "could come back and make her proud".


title: Joey Diaz

text: On November 4, 2007, Diaz appeared in North Bergen to help raise money for North Bergen High School's basketball team uniforms.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In April 2012, Diaz supported his "Where I Got My Balls From" documentary with the release of his stand-up special, "It's Either You or the Priest". It went to number one on the "Billboard" comedy charts in the UK and Canada, and number one on iTunes.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In December 2016, Diaz put out his first one-hour comedy special, "Sociably Unacceptable", through the on-demand subscription services Seeso and Comedy Dynamics.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 1998, Diaz received a contract to star in a television pilot, playing a bartender in a series titled "Bronx County", after a talent scout at CBS saw him perform comedy in Seattle. The offer was a total surprise to Diaz, who initially did not believe him until he saw the talent scout possess tickets to have him fly to Los Angeles for the shoot. The series was not picked up, but the opportunity led to more work for Diaz, including an offer in his first feature film, a referee in "BASEketball" (1998), and a part in the television series "NYPD Blue". In 2000, Diaz was featured in "You Got Nothin"' (2003), an independent film. Parts of "Analyze That" (2002), which starred Diaz, were filmed in Hudson County, New Jersey. He said, "That was big for me, able to come home to film".


title: Joey Diaz

text: Diaz's profile increased with subsequent roles in "Law & Order" and his first major feature films, "Spider-Man 2" (2004) and "Taxi" (2004). After, Diaz acted as an unlawful union organizer in "The Longest Yard" (2005). Diaz secured the role when he learned a remake of the original was in production, and had lunch with Chris Rock and Adam Sandler, during which Rock said he could land Diaz an audition. Diaz proceeded to assemble an audition tape: "I went out and got a football jersey two sizes too small, pants two sizes too small with my butt hanging out. I got kids' football shoulder pads and ran around the field with a cigar in my mouth". Three days after submitting the tape, Diaz landed the role; the producers liked the name Big Tony Tedesco, which Diaz named himself on the tape, and wrote it into the script. Originally the part had a mere three lines, but Diaz' tape got his part extended.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 2005, Diaz expressed his wish to continue as a character actor, saying: "It's like a dream come true for me. ... I got my call and I have to make the most of it". Around this time, Diaz prepared his one-man comedy show "Larceny & Laughter", which featured stories about his time growing up in North Bergen.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 2007, Diaz appeared in four episodes of the television series "My Name is Earl" as Joey the Candy Bar Criminal. The show's producers wished to hire actors to play prisoners, and called Diaz after they saw him in "The Longest Yard". That year, he hosted a series of humorous promotions for the Ultimate Fighting Championship as Joey Karate, giving karate instructions and comical predictions for upcoming fights. Diaz regards his role in the 2009 television film "The Dog Who Saved Christmas" as a point of pride, as it allowed children in North Bergen to see him act. At the time of filming, Diaz weighed 390 lbs. By late 2009, he slimmed down to 295 lbs.


title: Joey Diaz

text: Around 2011, Diaz raised $1400 from fans on Twitter and Facebook to finance a documentary about his upbringing in North Bergen, chronicling his life and how he was influenced by the various people who took care of him following his parents' death. Diaz contributed $2,600 to complete it and by mid-2012, "Where I Got My Balls From" was produced with his podcast co-host and producer Lee Syatt as director, who shot six hours of footage in total. Diaz made the film in tribute to those who helped him.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 2013, Diaz appeared in "Sal's Pizza", the ninth episode of the comedy "Brooklyn Nine-Nine". That same year, he played Robert De Niro's coach in the feature film "Grudge Match", which premiered on December 25. Diaz took his fifth grade teacher to the premiere. In 2014, Diaz appeared in "White Truck", the twelfth episode of the second season of "Maron".


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 2009, Diaz was introduced to comedian Felicia Michaels, who encouraged him to co-host a new comedy podcast. "Beauty and Da Beast" launched in August 2010. In one early episode, Diaz recalled a story about setting a prostitute's wig on fire when he was young. The weekend after it aired, attendance increased at Diaz's stand-up shows. The podcast ended in November 2012 after 113 episodes.


title: Joey Diaz

text: On September 2, 2012, Diaz launched his own podcast "The Church of What's Happening Now" which he co-hosted with producer and sidekick Lee Syatt. Diaz named it after a phrase that his former manager told him while he was working selling cars in Boulder. Episodes were released on various audio-only podcast platforms in addition to the audio+video version on YouTube, where they garnered over half a million subscribers.


title: Joey Diaz

text: On October 5, 2020, Diaz launched a new podcast series, "Uncle Joey's Joint" after moving back to New Jersey from California. Diaz's former producer and sidekick Lee Syatt has been a recurring guest on the relaunched podcast but is no longer the show's producer.


title: Joey Diaz

text: Diaz has married twice. In 1991, he divorced his first wife, during which he lost a relationship with their daughter. On November 25, 2009, he married Terrie Clark. The couple have one daughter.


title: Joey Diaz

text: In 2007, Diaz quit his longtime cocaine abuse. He later said, "It has to do with your peace of mind. For some people, it takes 10 years to acquire. It took me 30."


title: Circulatory system

text: The blood circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the entire body of a human or other vertebrate. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart and blood vessels (from Greek "kardia" meaning "heart", and from Latin "vascula" meaning "vessels"). The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circulation or circuit, and a pulmonary circulation or circuit. Some sources use the terms "cardiovascular system" and "vascular system" interchangeably with the "circulatory system".


title: Circulatory system

text: The network of blood vessels are the great vessels of the heart including large elastic arteries, and large veins; other arteries, smaller arterioles, capillaries that join with venules (small veins), and other veins. The circulatory system is closed in vertebrates, which means that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. Some invertebrates such as arthropods have an open circulatory system. Diploblasts such as sponges, and comb jellies lack a circulatory system.


title: Circulatory system

text: Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated around the body carrying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and waste materials away. Circulated nutrients include proteins and minerals, other components transported are gases such as oxygen, and carbon dioxide, hormones, and hemoglobin; providing nourishment, help in the immune system to fight diseases, and in maintaining homeostasis by stabilizing temperature and natural pH.


title: Circulatory system

text: In vertebrates, complementary to the circulatory system is the lymphatic system. This system carries excess plasma filtered from the capillaries as interstitial fluid between cells, away from the body tissues in an accessory route to return the excess fluid back to the blood circulation as lymph. The passage of lymph takes much longer than that of blood. The lymphatic system is a subsystem that is essential for the functioning of the blood circulatory system; without it the blood would become depleted of fluid. The lymphatic system works together with the immune system. Unlike the closed circulatory system, the lymphatic system is an open system. Some sources describe it as a "secondary circulatory system".


title: Circulatory system

text: The circulatory system can be affected by many cardiovascular diseases. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on disorders of the blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.


title: Circulatory system

text: The circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The cardiovascular system in all vertebrates, consists of the heart and blood vessels. The circulatory system is further divided into two major circuits – a pulmonary circulation, and a systemic circulation.


title: Ñ

text: Ñ, or ñ (, ), is a letter of the modern Latin alphabet, formed by placing a tilde (also referred to as a "virgulilla" in Spanish) on top of an upper- or lower-case "N". It became part of the Spanish alphabet in the eighteenth century when it was first formally defined, but it has subsequently been used in other languages, such as Galician, Asturian, the Aragonese "Grafía de Uesca", Basque, Chavacano, some Philippine languages (especially Filipino and Bisayan), Chamorro, Guarani, Quechua, Mapudungun, Mandinka, Papiamento, and Tetum alphabets, as well as in Latin transliteration of Tocharian and many Indian languages, where it represents or . It represents in Crimean Tatar, Kazakh, ALA-LC romanization for Turkic languages, the Common Turkic Alphabet, Nauruan and romanized Quenya. In Breton and in Rohingya, it denotes nasalization of the preceding vowel. Many Portuguese speakers use this letter in informal internet language to represent the word "não" (no).


title: Ñ

text: Unlike many other letters that use diacritic marks (such as "Ü" in Catalan and Spanish and "Ç" in Catalan, French, Portuguese and sometimes in Spanish), "Ñ" in Spanish, Galician, Basque, Asturian, Leonese, Guarani and Filipino is considered a letter in its own right, has its own name (in Spanish: ""), and its own place in the alphabet (after "N"). Historically, it came from a superscript abbreviation for a doubled N. Its alphabetical independence is similar to the Germanic "W", which came from a doubled "V".


title: Ñ

text: Historically, ñ arose as a ligature of "nn"; the tilde was shorthand for the second "n", written over the first; compare umlaut, of analogous origin. It is a letter in the Spanish alphabet that is used for many words—for example, the Spanish word "año" ("anno" in Old Spanish) meaning "year" and derived from Latin "annus". Other languages used the macron over an "n" or "m" to indicate simple doubling.


title: Ñ

text: Already in medieval Latin palaeography, the sign that in Spanish came to be called "virgulilla" (meaning "little comma") was used over a vowel to indicate a following nasal consonant ("n" or "m") that had been omitted, as in "tãtus" for "tantus" or "quã" for "quam". This usage was passed on to other languages using the Latin alphabet although it was subsequently dropped by most. Spanish retained it, however, in some specific cases, particularly to indicate the palatal nasal, the sound that is now spelt as "ñ". The word "tilde" comes from Spanish, derived by metathesis of the word "título" as "tidlo", this originally from Latin "title" or "heading"; compare "cabildo" with Latin .


title: Ñ

text: From spellings of "anno" abbreviated as "año", as explained above, the tilde was thenceforth transferred to the "n" and kept as a useful expedient to indicate the new palatal nasal sound that Spanish had developed in that position: "año". The sign was also adopted for the same palatal nasal in all other cases, even when it did not derive from an original "nn", as in "leña" (from Latin "ligna") or "señor" (from Latin ).


title: Ñ

text: Other Romance languages have different spellings for this sound: Italian and French use "gn", a consonant cluster that had evolved from Latin, whereas Occitan and Portuguese chose "nh" and Catalan "ny" even though these digraphs had no etymological precedent.


title: Ñ

text: When Morse code was extended to cover languages other than English, a sequence ( — — · — — ) was allotted for this character.


title: Ñ

text: Although "ñ" is used by other languages whose spellings were influenced by Spanish, it has recently been chosen to represent the identity of the Spanish language, especially as a result of the battle against its obliteration from computer keyboards by an English-led industry.


title: Ñ

text: In Spanish it represents a palatal nasal. This is also the case of Philippine languages, Aymara, Quechua, Mapudungún, Guarani, Basque, Chamorro, Leonese, Yavapai, and Iñupiaq, whose orthographies have some basis in that of Spanish. Many languages of Senegal also use it in the same way. Senegal is unique among countries of West Africa in using this letter.


title: Ñ

text: In Tetum, it was adopted to represent the same sound in Portuguese loanwords represented by "nh", although this is also used in Tetum, as is "ny", influenced by Indonesian.


title: Ñ

text: In Tagalog, Visayan, and other Philippine languages, most Spanish terms that include "ñ" are respelled with "ny". The conventional exceptions (with considerable variations) are proper names, which usually retain "ñ" and their original Spanish or Hispanicised spelling ("Santo Niño", "Parañaque", "Mañalac", "Malacañan"). It is collated as the 15th letter of the Filipino alphabet. In old Filipino orthography, the letter was also used, along with "g", to represent the velar nasal sound (except at the end of a word, when "ng" would be used) if appropriate instead of a tilde, which originally spanned a sequence of "n" and "g" (as in "n͠g"), such as "pan͠galan" ("name"). That is because the old orthography was based on Spanish, and without the tilde, "pangalan" would have been pronounced with the sequence (therefore "pang-GAlan"). The form "ñg" became a more common way to represent "n͠g" until the early 20th century, mainly because it was more readily available in typesets than the tilde spanning both letters.


title: Ñ

text: It is also used to represent the velar nasal in Crimean Tatar and Nauruan. In Malay, the Congress Spelling System (1957–1972) formerly used it for /ŋ/ before /g/. In Turkmen, it was used for /ŋ/ until 1999. In Latin-script writing of the Tatar language and Lule Sami language, "ñ" is sometimes used as a substitute for ꞑ, which is not available on many computer systems. In addition to Tatar, "ñ" has the value of /ŋ/ in the Common Turkic Alphabet.


title: Ñ

text: In the Breton language, it nasalises the preceding vowel, as in "Jañ" , which corresponds to the French name "Jean" and has the same pronunciation.


title: Ñ

text: It is used in a number of English terms of Spanish origin, such as "jalapeño", "piña colada", "piñata", and "El Niño". The Spanish word "cañón", however, became naturalized as "canyon". Until the middle of the 20th century, adapting it as "nn" was more common in English, as in the phrase "Battle of Corunna". Now, it is almost always left unmodified. The Society for the Advancement of Spanish Letters in the Anglo Americas (SASLAA) is the preeminent organization focused on promoting the permanent adoption of "ñ" into the English language.


title: Ñ

text: The letter "Ñ" has come to represent the identity of the Spanish language. Latin publisher Bill Teck labeled Hispanic culture and its influence on the United States "Generation Ñ" and later started a magazine with that name. Organizations such as the Instituto Cervantes and the National Association of Hispanic Journalists have adopted the letter as their mark for Hispanic heritage. It was used in the Spanish Republican Air Force for aircraft identification. The circumstances surrounding the crash of serial 'Ñ' Potez 540 plane that was shot down over the Sierra de Gúdar range of the Sistema Ibérico near Valdelinares inspired French writer André Malraux to write the novel "L'Espoir" (1937), translated into English as "Man's Hope" and made into the movie named "".


title: Ñ

text: In 1991, a European Community report recommended the repeal of a regulation preventing the sale in Spain of computer products not supporting "all the characteristics of the Spanish writing system," claiming that it was a protectionist measure against the principles of the free market. This would have allowed the distribution of keyboards without an "Ñ" key. The Real Academia Española stated that the matter was a serious attack against the language. Nobel Prize winner in literature Gabriel García Márquez expressed his disdain over its elimination by saying: "The 'Ñ' is not an archaeological piece of junk, but just the opposite: a cultural leap of a Romance language that left the others behind in expressing with only one letter a sound that other languages continue to express with two."


title: Ñ

text: Among other forms of controversy are those pertaining to the anglicization of Spanish surnames. The replacement of "ñ" with another letter alters the pronunciation and meaning of a word or name, in the same manner that replacing any letter in a given word with another one would. For example, "Peña" is a common Spanish surname and a common noun that means "rocky hill"; it is often anglicized as "Pena", changing the name to the Spanish word for "pity", often used in terms of sorrow.


title: Ñ

text: When Federico Peña was first running for mayor of Denver in 1983, the "Denver Post" printed his name without the tilde as "Pena." After he won the election, they began printing his name with the tilde. As Peña's administration had many critics, their objections were sometimes whimsically expressed as "ÑO."


title: Ñ

text: Since 2011, CNN's Spanish-language news channel incorporates a new logo wherein a tilde is placed over two "N"s.


title: Ñ

text: Another news channel, TLN en Español, has "tlñ", with an "ñ" taking the place of the expected "n", as its logo.


title: Ñ

text: As part of April Fool's Day, in 2013, Puerto Rican linguistics professor Aida Vergne penned a mock newspaper article stating that the Royal Spanish Academy had opted to eliminate the "ñ" from the Spanish language, instead being replaced by the original "nn" in Old Spanish. As the Academy had previously eliminated letters such as "ch" and "ll", such an allegation was taken seriously and occasionally the Academy has to resort to deny and clarify the allegation.


title: Ñ

text: In Unicode "Ñ" has the code U+00D1 (decimal 209) while "ñ" has the code U+00F1 (decimal 241). Additionally, they can be generated by typing "N" or "n" followed by a combining tilde modifier, &#x303, U+0303, decimal 771.


title: Ñ

text: In HTML character entity reference, the codes for "Ñ" and "ñ" are codice_1 and codice_2 or codice_3 and codice_4.


title: Ñ

text: "Ñ" and "ñ" have their own key in the Spanish and Latin American keyboard layouts (see the corresponding sections at keyboard layout and Tilde#Role of mechanical typewriters). The following instructions apply only to English-language keyboards.


title: Ñ

text: On Apple Macintosh operating systems (including Mac OS X), it can be typed by pressing and holding the Option key and then typing "N", followed by typing either "N" or "n".


title: Ñ

text: On the iPhone and iPad, which use the Apple iOS operating system, the "ñ" is accessed by holding down the "n" key, which opens a menu (on an English-language keyboard). Apple's Mac OS X 10.7 Lion operating system also made the "ñ" available in the same way.


title: Ñ

text: The lowercase "ñ" can be made in the Microsoft Windows operating system by typing or on the numeric keypad (with Num Lock turned on); the uppercase "Ñ" can be made with or . Character Map in Windows identifies the letter as "Latin Small/Capital Letter N With Tilde". A soft (not physical) Spanish-language keyboard is easily installed in Windows.


title: Ñ

text: On Linux it can be created by pressing Ctrl+Shift+U and then typing '00d1' or '00f1', followed by space or Ctrl to end the character code input. This produces "Ñ" or "ñ".


title: Ñ

text: Another option (for any operating system) is to configure the system to use the US-International keyboard layout, with which "ñ" can be produced either by holding Alt Gr and then pressing "N", or by typing the tilde (~) followed by "n".


title: Ñ

text: Yet another option is to use a compose key (hardware-based or software-emulated). Pressing the compose key, then "~", and then "n" results in "ñ". A capital "N" can be substituted to produce "Ñ", and in most cases the order of "~" and "n" can be reversed.


title: Ñ

text: The letter "Ñ" may be used in internationalized domain names, but it will have to be converted from Unicode to ASCII using punycode during the registration process (i.e. from www.piñata.com to www.xn--piata-pta.com).


title: Ñ

text: In URLs (except for the domain name), "Ñ" may be replaced by codice_5, and "ñ" by codice_6. This is not needed for newer browsers. The hex digits represent the UTF-8 encoding of the glyphs "Ñ" and "ñ". This feature allows almost any Unicode character to be encoded, and it is considered important to support languages other than English.


title: Cappadocia

text: Cappadocia or Capadocia (; ), is a historical region in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It largely is in the provinces Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray, Kırşehir, Sivas and Niğde.


title: Cappadocia

text: According to Herodotus, in the time of the Ionian Revolt (499 BC), the Cappadocians were reported as occupying a region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine (Black Sea). Cappadocia, in this sense, was bounded in the south by the chain of the Taurus Mountains that separate it from Cilicia, to the east by the upper Euphrates, to the north by Pontus, and to the west by Lycaonia and eastern Galatia.


title: Cappadocia

text: The name, traditionally used in Christian sources throughout history, continues in use as an international tourism concept to define a region of exceptional natural wonders, in particular characterized by fairy chimneys and a unique historical and cultural heritage.


title: Cappadocia

text: The earliest record of the name of Cappadocia (; also Capadocia; ; , Syriac: ܩܦܘܕܩܝܐ , from ; ; ) dates from the late 6th century BC, when it appears in the trilingual inscriptions of two early Achaemenid kings, Darius I and Xerxes, as one of the countries (Old Persian "dahyu-") of the Persian Empire. In these lists of countries, the Old Persian name is "Katpatuka". It was proposed that "Kat-patuka" came from the Luwian language, meaning "Low Country". Subsequent research suggests that the adverb "katta" meaning 'down, below' is exclusively Hittite, while its Luwian equivalent is "zanta". Therefore, the recent modification of this proposal operates with the Hittite "katta peda-", literally "place below" as a starting point for the development of the toponym Cappadocia. The earlier derivation from Iranian "Hu-apa-dahyu" 'Land of good horses' can hardly be reconciled with the phonetic shape of "Kat-patuka". A number of other etymologies have also been offered in the past.


title: Cappadocia

text: Herodotus wrote that the name of the Cappadocians was applied to them by the Persians, while they were termed by the Greeks "White Syrians" ("Leucosyri"), who were most probably descendants of the Hittites. One of the Cappadocian tribes he mentions is the Moschoi, associated by Flavius Josephus with the biblical figure Meshech, son of Japheth: "and the Mosocheni were founded by Mosoch; now they are Cappadocians". AotJ I:6.


title: Cappadocia

text: Cappadocia appears in the biblical account given in the book of . The Cappadocians were named as one group (among "Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia") hearing the Gospel account from Galileans in their own language on the day of Pentecost shortly after the resurrection of Jesus Christ. states "Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven," seeming to suggest that some of the Cappadocians were Jews, or part of the diaspora of Jews present in Jerusalem at the time.


title: Cappadocia

text: The region is also mentioned in the Jewish Mishnah, in Ketubot 13:11, and in several places in the Talmud, including Yevamot 121a.


title: Cappadocia

text: Under the later kings of the Persian Empire, the Cappadocians were divided into two satrapies, or governments, with one comprising the central and inland portion, to which the name of Cappadocia continued to be applied by Greek geographers, while the other was called Pontus. This division had already come about before the time of Xenophon. As after the fall of the Persian government the two provinces continued to be separate, the distinction was perpetuated, and the name Cappadocia came to be restricted to the inland province (sometimes called Great Cappadocia), which alone will be the focus of this article.


title: Cappadocia

text: The kingdom of Cappadocia still existed in the time of Strabo (c. 64 BCc. AD 24 ) as a nominally independent state. Cilicia was the name given to the district in which Caesarea, the capital of the whole country, was situated. The only two cities of Cappadocia considered by Strabo to deserve that appellation were Caesarea (originally known as Mazaca) and Tyana, not far from the foot of the Taurus.


title: Cappadocia

text: Cappadocia lies in eastern Anatolia, in the heartland of what is now Turkey. The relief consists of a high plateau over 1000 m in altitude that is pierced by volcanic peaks, with Mount Erciyes (ancient Argaeus) near Kayseri (ancient Caesarea) being the tallest at . The boundaries of historical Cappadocia are vague, particularly towards the west. To the south, the Taurus Mountains form the boundary with Cilicia and separate Cappadocia from the Mediterranean Sea. To the west, Cappadocia is bounded by the historical regions of Lycaonia to the southwest, and Galatia to the northwest. Due to its inland location and high altitude, Cappadocia has a markedly continental climate, with hot dry summers and cold snowy winters. Rainfall is sparse and the region is largely semi-arid.


title: Cappadocia

text: Cappadocia contained the sources of the Sarus and Pyramus rivers with their higher affluents, and also the middle course of the Halys, and the whole course of the tributary of the Euphrates later called Tokhma Su. But as no one of these rivers was navigable or served to fertilize the lands along its course, none has much importance in the history of the province.


title: Cappadocia

text: In respect of the 'voluminous eruption deposits in a fluvio-lacustrine sequence with 'fairy-chimney' development produced by uplift and erosion', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included 'The Miocene Cappadocian ignimbrites sequence' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'