title: Julian calendar

text: The Asian calendar was an adaptation of the Ancient Macedonian calendar used in the Roman province of Asia and, with minor variations, in nearby cities and provinces. It is known in detail through the survival of decrees promulgating it issued in 8BC by the proconsul Paullus Fabius Maximus. It renamed the first month Dios as , and arranged the months such that each month started on the ninth day before the kalends of the corresponding Roman month; thus the year began on 23 September, Augustus's birthday. Since Greek months typically had 29 or 30 days, the extra day of 31-day months was named —the emperor's day—and was the first day of these months. The leap day was a second Sebaste day in the month of Xandikos, i.e., 24 February. This calendar remained in use at least until the middle of the fifth century AD.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Syro-Macedonian calendar was an adaptation of the Macedonian calendar used in Antioch and other parts of Roman Syria. The months were exactly aligned to the Julian calendar, but they retained their Macedonian names and the year began in Dios (November) until the fifth century, when the start of the year was moved to Gorpiaios (September).


title: Julian calendar

text: These reformed calendars generally remained in use until the fifth or sixth century. Around that time most of them were replaced as civil calendars by the Julian calendar, but with a year starting in September to reflect the year of the indiction cycle.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian calendar spread beyond the borders of the Roman Empire through its use as the Christian liturgical calendar. When a people or a country converted to Christianity, they generally also adopted the Christian calendar of the church responsible for conversion. Thus, Christian Nubia and Ethiopia adopted the Alexandrian calendar, while Christian Europe adopted the Julian calendar, in either the Catholic or Orthodox variant. Starting in the 16th century, European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere likewise inherited the Julian calendar of the mother country, until they adopted the Gregorian reform. The last country to adopt the Julian calendar was the Ottoman Empire, which used it for financial purposes for some time under the name Rumi calendar and dropped the "escape years" which tied it to Muslim chronology in 1840.


title: Julian calendar

text: The first step of the reform was to realign the start of the calendar year (1 January) to the tropical year by making 46 BC 445 days long, compensating for the intercalations which had been missed during Caesar's pontificate. This year had already been extended from 355 to 378 days by the insertion of a regular intercalary month in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the African campaign in late Quintilis (July), he added 67 more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December.


title: Julian calendar

text: These months are called "Intercalaris Prior" and "Intercalaris Posterior" in letters of Cicero written at the time; there is no basis for the statement sometimes seen that they were called "Undecimber" and "Duodecimber", terms that arose in the 18th century over a millennium after the Roman Empire's collapse. Their individual lengths are unknown, as is the position of the Nones and Ides within them.


title: Julian calendar

text: Because 46 BC was the last of a series of irregular years, this extra-long year was, and is, referred to as the "last year of confusion". The new calendar began operation after the realignment had been completed, in 45 BC.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian months were formed by adding ten days to a regular pre-Julian Roman year of 355 days, creating a regular Julian year of 365 days. Two extra days were added to January, Sextilis (August) and December, and one extra day was added to April, June, September, and November. February was not changed in ordinary years, and so continued to be the traditional 28 days. Thus, the ordinary (i.e., non-leap year) lengths of all of the months were set by the Julian calendar to the same values they still hold today. (See Sacrobosco's incorrect theory on month lengths (below) for stories purporting otherwise.)


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian reform did not change the method used to account days of the month in the pre-Julian calendar, based on the Kalends, Nones and Ides, nor did it change the positions of these three dates within the months. Macrobius states that the extra days were added immediately before the last day of each month to avoid disturbing the position of the established religious ceremonies relative to the Nones and Ides of the month. However, since Roman dates after the Ides of the month counted down toward the start of the next month, the extra days had the effect of raising the initial value of the count of the day following the Ides in the lengthened months. Thus, in January, Sextilis and December the 14th day of the month became a.d. XIX Kal. instead of a.d. XVII Kal., while in April, June, September and November it became a.d. XVIII Kal.


title: Julian calendar

text: Romans of the time born after the Ides of a month responded differently to the effect of this change on their birthdays. Mark Antony kept his birthday on 14 January, which changed its date from a.d. XVII Kal. Feb to a.d. XIX Kal. Feb, a date that had previously not existed. Livia kept the date of her birthday unchanged at a.d. III Kal. Feb., which moved it from 28 to 30 January, a day that had previously not existed. Augustus kept his on 23 September, but both the old date (a.d. VIII Kal. Oct.) and the new (a.d. IX Kal. Oct.) were celebrated in some places.


title: Julian calendar

text: The inserted days were all initially characterised as "dies fasti" (F – see Roman calendar). The character of a few festival days was changed. In the early Julio-Claudian period a large number of festivals were decreed to celebrate events of dynastic importance, which caused the character of the associated dates to be changed to NP. However, this practice was discontinued around the reign of Claudius, and the practice of characterising days fell into disuse around the end of the first century AD: the Antonine jurist Gaius speaks of "dies nefasti" as a thing of the past.


title: Julian calendar

text: The old intercalary month was abolished. The new leap day was dated as "ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias" ('the sixth doubled day before the Kalends of March'), usually abbreviated as "a.d. bis VI Kal. Mart."; hence it is called in English the bissextile day. The year in which it occurred was termed "annus bissextus", in English the bissextile year.


title: Julian calendar

text: There is debate about the exact position of the bissextile day in the early Julian calendar. The earliest direct evidence is a statement of the 2nd century jurist Celsus, who states that there were two-halves of a 48-hour day, and that the intercalated day was the "posterior" half. An inscription from AD 168 states that "a.d. V Kal. Mart." was the day after the bissextile day. The 19th century chronologist Ideler argued that Celsus used the term "posterior" in a technical fashion to refer to the earlier of the two days, which requires the inscription to refer to the whole 48-hour day as the bissextile. Some later historians share this view. Others, following Mommsen, take the view that Celsus was using the ordinary Latin (and English) meaning of "posterior". A third view is that neither half of the 48-hour "bis sextum" was originally formally designated as intercalated, but that the need to do so arose as the concept of a 48-hour day became obsolete.


title: Julian calendar

text: There is no doubt that the bissextile day eventually became the earlier of the two days for most purposes. In 238 Censorinus stated that it was inserted after the Terminalia (23 February) and was followed by the last five days of February, i.e., a.d. VI, V, IV, III and prid. Kal. Mart. (which would be 24 to 28 February in a common year and the 25th to 29th in a leap year). Hence he regarded the bissextum as the first half of the doubled day. All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter) followed this rule, as does the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. However, Celsus' definition continued to be used for legal purposes. It was incorporated into Justinian's Digest, and in the English statute "De anno et die bissextili" of 1236, which was not formally repealed until 1879.


title: Julian calendar

text: The effect of the bissextile day on the nundinal cycle is not discussed in the sources. According to Dio Cassius, a leap day was inserted in 41 BC to ensure that the first market day of 40 BC did not fall on 1 January, which implies that the old 8-day cycle was not immediately affected by the Julian reform. However, he also reports that in AD 44, and on some previous occasions, the market day was changed to avoid a conflict with a religious festival. This may indicate that a single nundinal letter was assigned to both halves of the 48-hour bissextile day by this time, so that the Regifugium and the market day might fall on the same date but on different days. In any case, the 8-day nundinal cycle began to be displaced by the 7-day week in the first century AD, and dominical letters began to appear alongside nundinal letters in the fasti.


title: Julian calendar

text: During the late Middle Ages days in the month came to be numbered in consecutive day order. Consequently, the leap day was considered to be the last day in February in leap years, i.e., 29 February, which is its current position.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian reform set the lengths of the months to their modern values. However, a different explanation for the lengths of Julian months, usually alleged to the 13th century scholar Sacrobosco, but also attested in 12th century works, is still widely repeated, but is certainly wrong.


title: Julian calendar

text: Allegedly according to Sacrobosco, the month lengths for ordinary years in the Roman Republican calendar were a standard lunar calendar, similar the Greek city calendars. From Ianuarius to December, the month lengths were:


title: Julian calendar

text: Sacrobosco then thought that Julius Caesar added one day to every month except Februarius, a total of 11 more days to regular months, giving the ordinary Julian year of 365 days. A single leap day could now be added to this extra-short Februarius:


title: Julian calendar

text: He then said Augustus changed this, by taking one day from Februarius to add it to Sextilis, and then modifying the alternation of the following months, to:


title: Julian calendar

text: so that the length of "Augustus" (August) would not be shorter than (and therefore inferior to) the length of "Iulius" (July), giving us the irregular month lengths which are still in use.


title: Julian calendar

text: Although plausible and filled with ingenious arithmetical organization, there is abundant evidence disproving this theory.


title: Julian calendar

text: First, the "Fasti Antiates Maiores", a wall painting of a pre-Julian Roman calendar has survived. That pre-Julian calendar confirms the literary accounts that the months were already irregular before Julius Caesar reformed them, with an ordinary year of 355 days (not evenly divisible into Roman weeks), not 354, with month lengths arranged as:


title: Julian calendar

text: Also, the Julian reform did not change the dates of the Nones and Ides. In particular, the Ides were late (on the 15th rather than 13th) in March, May, July, and October, showing that these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar, whereas Sacrobosco's theory requires that March, May, and July were originally 30 days long and that the length of October was changed from 29 to 30 days by Caesar and to 31 days by Augustus.


title: Julian calendar

text: Further, Sacrobosco's theory is explicitly contradicted by the 3rd and 5th century authors Censorinus and Macrobius, and it is inconsistent with seasonal lengths given by Varro, writing in 37 BCE, before Sextilis was renamed for Augustus in 8 BCE, with the 31 day Sextilis given by an Egyptian papyrus from 24 BCE, and with the 28 day Februarius shown in the "Fasti Caeretani", which is dated before 12 BCE.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian calendar has two types of year: "normal" years of 365 days and "leap" years of 366 days. There is a simple cycle of three "normal" years followed by a leap year and this pattern repeats forever without exception. The Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. Consequently, the Julian year drifts over time with respect to the tropical (solar) year (365.24217 days).


title: Julian calendar

text: Although Greek astronomers had known, at least since Hipparchus, a century before the Julian reform, that the tropical year was slightly shorter than 365.25 days, the calendar did not compensate for this difference. As a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was largely corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582. The Gregorian calendar has the same months and month lengths as the Julian calendar, but, in the Gregorian calendar, year numbers evenly divisible by 100 are not leap years, except that those evenly divisible by 400 remain leap years. (Even then, the Gregorian calendar diverges from astronomical observations by one day in 3,030 years.)


title: Julian calendar

text: The difference in the average length of the year between Julian (365.25 days) and Gregorian (365.2425 days) is 0.002%, making the Julian 10.8 minutes longer. The accumulated effect of this difference over some 1600 years since the basis for calculation of the date of Easter was determined at the First Council of Nicea means for example that, from 29 February "Julian" (13 March "Gregorian") 1900 and until 28 February "Julian" (13 March "Gregorian") 2100, the "Julian" calendar is 13 days behind the "Gregorian" calendar; one day after (i.e. on 29 February "Julian" or 14 March "Gregorian"), the difference will be 14 days.


title: Julian calendar

text: Although the new calendar was much simpler than the pre-Julian calendar, the pontifices initially added a leap day every three years, instead of every four. There are accounts of this in Solinus, Pliny, Ammianus, Suetonius, and Censorinus.


title: Julian calendar

text: Some people have had different ideas as to how the leap years went. The above scheme is that of Scaliger (1583) in the table below. He established that the Augustan reform was instituted in 8 BC. The table below shows for each reconstruction the implied proleptic Julian date for the first day of Caesar's reformed calendar and the first Julian date on which the Roman calendar date matches the Julian calendar after the completion of Augustus' reform.


title: Julian calendar

text: By the systems of Scaliger, Ideler and Bünting, the leap years prior to the suspension happen to be BC years that are divisible by 3, just as, after leap year resumption, they are the AD years divisible by 4.


title: Julian calendar

text: Pierre Brind'Amour argued that "only one day was intercalated between 1/1/45 and 1/1/40 (disregarding a momentary 'fiddling' in December of 41) to avoid the nundinum falling on Kal. Ian."


title: Julian calendar

text: Alexander Jones says that the correct Julian calendar was in use in Egypt in 24 BC, implying that the first day of the reform in both Egypt and Rome, , was the Julian date 1 January if 45 BC was a leap year and 2 January if it was not. This necessitates fourteen leap days up to and including AD 8 if 45 BC was a leap year and thirteen if it was not.


title: Julian calendar

text: In 1999, a papyrus was discovered which gives the dates of astronomical phenomena in 24 BC in both the Egyptian and Roman calendars. From , Egypt had two calendars: the old Egyptian in which every year had 365 days and the new Alexandrian in which every fourth year had 366 days. Up to the date in both calendars was the same. The dates in the Alexandrian and Julian calendars are in one-to-one correspondence except for the period from 29 August in the year preceding a Julian leap year to the following 24 February. From a comparison of the astronomical data with the Egyptian and Roman dates, Alexander Jones concluded that the Egyptian astronomers (as opposed to travellers from Rome) used the correct Julian calendar.


title: Julian calendar

text: Due to the confusion about this period, we cannot be sure exactly what day (e.g. Julian day number) any particular Roman date refers to before March of 8 BC, except for those used in Egypt in 24BC which are secured by astronomy.


title: Julian calendar

text: An inscription has been discovered which orders a new calendar to be used in the Province of Asia to replace the previous Greek lunar calendar. According to one translation


title: Julian calendar

text: This is historically correct. It was decreed by the proconsul that the first day of the year in the new calendar shall be Augustus' birthday, a.d. IX Kal. Oct. Every month begins on the ninth day before the kalends. The date of introduction, the day after 14 Peritius, was 1 Dystrus, the next month. The month after that was Xanthicus. Thus Xanthicus began on a.d. IX Kal. Mart., and normally contained 31 days. In leap year, however, it contained an extra "Sebaste day", the Roman leap day, and thus had 32 days. From the lunar nature of the old calendar we can fix the starting date of the new one as 24 January, in the Julian calendar, which was a leap year. Thus from inception the dates of the reformed Asian calendar are in one-to-one correspondence with the Julian.


title: Julian calendar

text: This would move the starting date back three years to 8 BC, and from the lunar synchronism back to 26 January (Julian). But since the corresponding Roman date in the inscription is 24 January, this must be according to the incorrect calendar which in 8 BC Augustus had ordered to be corrected by the omission of leap days. As the authors of the previous paper point out, with the correct four-year cycle being used in Egypt and the three-year cycle abolished in Rome, it is unlikely that Augustus would have ordered the three-year cycle to be introduced in Asia.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian reform did not immediately cause the names of any months to be changed. The old intercalary month was abolished and replaced with a single intercalary day at the same point (i.e., five days before the end of February). January continued to be the first month of the year.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Romans later renamed months after Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintilis as "Iulius" (July) in 44 BC and Sextilis as "Augustus" (August) in 8 BC. Quintilis was renamed to honour Caesar because it was the month of his birth. According to a "senatus consultum" quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honour Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred in that month.


title: Julian calendar

text: Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the later changes survived their deaths. In AD 37, Caligula renamed September as "Germanicus" after his father; in AD 65, Nero renamed April as "Neroneus", May as "Claudius" and June as "Germanicus"; and in AD 84 Domitian renamed September as "Germanicus" and October as "Domitianus". Commodus was unique in renaming all twelve months after his own adopted names (January to December): "Amazonius", "Invictus", "Felix", "Pius", "Lucius", "Aelius", "Aurelius", "Commodus", "Augustus", "Herculeus", "Romanus", and "Exsuperatorius". The emperor Tacitus is said to have ordered that September, the month of his birth and accession, be renamed after him, but the story is doubtful since he did not become emperor before November 275. Similar honorific month names were implemented in many of the provincial calendars that were aligned to the Julian calendar.


title: Julian calendar

text: Other name changes were proposed but were never implemented. Tiberius rejected a senatorial proposal to rename September as "Tiberius" and October as "Livius", after his mother Livia. Antoninus Pius rejected a senatorial decree renaming September as "Antoninus" and November as "Faustina", after his empress.


title: Julian calendar

text: Much more lasting than the ephemeral month names of the post-Augustan Roman emperors were the Old High German names introduced by Charlemagne. According to his biographer, Charlemagne renamed all of the months agriculturally into German. These names were used until the 15th century, over 700 years after his rule, and continued, with some modifications, to see some use as "traditional" month names until the late 18th century. The names (January to December) were: "Wintarmanoth" ("winter month"), "Hornung", "Lentzinmanoth" ("spring month", "Lent month"), "Ostarmanoth" ("Easter month"), "Wonnemanoth" ("joy-month", a corruption of "Winnimanoth" "pasture-month"), "Brachmanoth" ("fallow-month"), "Heuuimanoth" ("hay month"), "Aranmanoth" ("reaping month"), "Witumanoth" ("wood month"), "Windumemanoth" ("vintage month"), "Herbistmanoth" ("harvest month"), and "Heilagmanoth" ("holy month").


title: Julian calendar

text: The calendar month names used in western and northern Europe, in Byzantium, and by the Berbers, were derived from the Latin names. However, in eastern Europe older seasonal month names continued to be used into the 19th century, and in some cases are still in use, in many languages, including: Belarusian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Finnish, Georgian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Slovene, Ukrainian. When the Ottoman Empire adopted the Julian calendar, in the form of the Rumi calendar, the month names reflected Ottoman tradition.


title: Julian calendar

text: The principal method used by the Romans to identify a year for dating purposes was to name it after the two consuls who took office in it, the eponymous period in question being the consular year. Beginning in 153 BC, consuls began to take office on 1 January, thus synchronizing the commencement of the consular and calendar years. The calendar year has begun in January and ended in December since about 450 BC according to Ovid or since about 713 BC according to Macrobius and Plutarch (see Roman calendar). Julius Caesar did not change the beginning of either the consular year or the calendar year. In addition to consular years, the Romans sometimes used the regnal year of the emperor, and by the late 4th century documents were also being dated according to the 15-year cycle of the indiction. In 537, Justinian required that henceforth the date must include the name of the emperor and his regnal year, in addition to the indiction and the consul, while also allowing the use of local eras.


title: Julian calendar

text: In 309 and 310, and from time to time thereafter, no consuls were appointed. When this happened, the consular date was given a count of years since the last consul (called "post-consular" dating). After 541, only the reigning emperor held the consulate, typically for only one year in his reign, and so post-consular dating became the norm. Similar post-consular dates were also known in the west in the early 6th century. The system of consular dating, long obsolete, was formally abolished in the law code of Leo VI, issued in 888.


title: Julian calendar

text: Only rarely did the Romans number the year from the founding of the city (of Rome), (AUC). This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another, not to date a year. Different historians had several different dates for the founding. The , an inscription containing an official list of the consuls which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC. The epoch used by Varro, 753 BC, has been adopted by modern historians. Indeed, Renaissance editors often added it to the manuscripts that they published, giving the false impression that the Romans numbered their years. Most modern historians tacitly assume that it began on the day the consuls took office, and ancient documents such as the which use other AUC systems do so in the same way. However, Censorinus, writing in the 3rd century AD, states that, in his time, the AUC year began with the Parilia, celebrated on 21 April, which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the foundation of Rome.


title: Julian calendar

text: Many local eras, such as the Era of Actium and the Spanish Era, were adopted for the Julian calendar or its local equivalent in the provinces and cities of the Roman Empire. Some of these were used for a considerable time. Perhaps the best known is the Era of Martyrs, sometimes also called (after Diocletian), which was associated with the Alexandrian calendar and often used by the Alexandrian Christians to number their Easters during the 4th and 5th centuries, and continues to be used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches.


title: Julian calendar

text: In the eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of Christian chronographers such as Annianus of Alexandria to date the Biblical creation of the world led to the introduction of Anno Mundi eras based on this event. The most important of these was the Etos Kosmou, used throughout the Byzantine world from the 10th century and in Russia until 1700. In the west, the kingdoms succeeding the empire initially used indictions and regnal years, alone or in combination. The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine, in the fifth century, used an era dated from the Passion of Christ, but this era was not widely adopted. Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini in 525. This era gradually spread through the western Christian world, once the system was adopted by Bede in the eighth century.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian calendar was also used in some Muslim countries. The Rumi calendar, the Julian calendar used in the later years of the Ottoman Empire, adopted an era derived from the lunar AH year equivalent to AD 1840, i.e., the effective Rumi epoch was AD 585. In recent years, some users of the Berber calendar have adopted an era starting in 950 BC, the approximate date that the Libyan pharaoh came to power in Egypt.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform. However, even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar, they started the new year on different dates. The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August (30 August after an Alexandrian leap year). Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus, 23 September. The indiction caused the Byzantine year, which used the Julian calendar, to begin on 1 September; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year. When the Julian calendar was adopted in AD 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496, beginning on 1 March, six months after the start of the Byzantine Anno Mundi year with the same number. In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, realigned the start of the year to 1 September, so that AM 7000 only lasted for six months in Russia, from 1 March to 31 August 1492.


title: Julian calendar

text: During the Middle Ages 1 January retained the name "New Year's Day" (or an equivalent name) in all western European countries (affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church), since the medieval calendar continued to display the months from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just as the Romans had. However, most of those countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), or even Easter, as in France (see the Liturgical year article for more details).


title: Julian calendar

text: In Anglo-Saxon England, the year most commonly began on 25 December, which, as (approximately) the winter solstice, had marked the start of the year in pagan times, though 25 March (the equinox) is occasionally documented in the 11th century. Sometimes the start of the year was reckoned as 24 September, the start of the so-called "western indiction" introduced by Bede. These practices changed after the Norman conquest. From 1087 to 1155 the English year began on 1 January, and from 1155 to 1751 it began on 25 March. In 1752 it was moved back to 1 January. (See Calendar (New Style) Act 1750).


title: Julian calendar

text: Even before 1752, 1 January was sometimes treated as the start of the new year – for example by Pepys – while the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year". To reduce misunderstandings on the date, it was not uncommon for a date between 1 January and 24 March to be written as "1661/62". This was to explain to the reader that the year was 1661 counting from March and 1662 counting from January as the start of the year. (For more detail, see Dual dating).


title: Julian calendar

text: Most western European countries shifted the first day of their numbered year to 1 January while they were still using the Julian calendar, "before" they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the 16th century. The following table shows the years in which various countries adopted 1 January as the start of the year. Eastern European countries, with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church, began the year on 1 September from about 988. The Rumi calendar used in the Ottoman Empire began the civil year on 1 March until 1918.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian calendar has been replaced as the civil calendar by the Gregorian calendar in all countries which officially used it. Turkey switched (for fiscal purposes) on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918. Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923, but the national day (25 March), was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have made the change to Gregorian for their liturgical calendars to align with the civil calendar.


title: Julian calendar

text: A calendar similar to the Julian one, the Alexandrian calendar, is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, which is still the civil calendar of Ethiopia. Egypt converted from the Alexandrian calendar to Gregorian on 1 Thaut 1592/11 September 1875.


title: Julian calendar

text: During the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as modern texts that describe events during the period of change, it is customary to clarify to which calendar a given date refers by using an O.S. or N.S. suffix (denoting Old Style, Julian or New Style, Gregorian).


title: Julian calendar

text: The Julian calendar was in general use in Europe and northern Africa until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar. Reform was required because too many leap days were added with respect to the astronomical seasons under the Julian scheme. On average, the astronomical solstices and the equinoxes advance by 10.8 minutes per year against the Julian year. As a result, 21 March (which is the base date for the calculating the date of Easter) gradually moved out of alignment with the March equinox.


title: Julian calendar

text: While Hipparchus and presumably Sosigenes were aware of the discrepancy, although not of its correct value, it was evidently felt to be of little importance at the time of the Julian reform (46 BC). However, it accumulated significantly over time: the Julian calendar gained a day every 128 years. By 1582, 21 March was ten days out of alignment with the March equinox, the date where it supposedly had been in 325, the year of the Council of Nicaea.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Gregorian calendar was soon adopted by most Catholic countries (e.g., Spain, Portugal, Poland, most of Italy). Protestant countries followed later, and some countries of eastern Europe even later. In the British Empire (including the American colonies), Wednesday was followed by Thursday . For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian calendar, and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753.


title: Julian calendar

text: Since the Julian and Gregorian calendars were long used simultaneously, although in different places, calendar dates in the transition period are often ambiguous, unless it is specified which calendar was being used. In some circumstances, double dates might be used, one in each calendar. The notation "Old Style" (O.S.) is sometimes used to indicate a date in the Julian calendar, as opposed to "New Style" (N.S.), which either represents the Julian date with the start of the year as 1 January or a full mapping onto the Gregorian calendar. This notation is used to clarify dates from countries that continued to use the Julian calendar after the Gregorian reform, such as Great Britain, which did not switch to the reformed calendar until 1752, or Russia, which did not switch until 1918 (see Soviet calendar). This is why the Russian Revolution of 7 November 1917 N.S. is known as the October Revolution, because it began on 25 October O.S.


title: Julian calendar

text: Throughout the long transition period, the Julian calendar has continued to diverge from the Gregorian. This has happened in whole-day steps, as leap days that were dropped in certain centennial years in the Gregorian calendar continued to be present in the Julian calendar. Thus, in the year 1700 the difference increased to 11 days; in 1800, 12; and in 1900, 13. Since 2000 was a leap year according to both the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the difference of 13 days did not change in that year: (Gregorian) fell on (Julian). This difference of 13 days will persist until Saturday 28 February 2100 (Julian), i.e. 13 March 2100 (Gregorian), since 2100 is "not" a Gregorian leap year, but "is" a Julian leap year; the next day the difference will be of 14 days: Sunday 29 February (Julian) will be Sunday 14 March (Gregorian); the next day Monday (Julian) falls on Monday (Gregorian).


title: Julian calendar

text: Although most Eastern Orthodox countries (most of them in eastern or southeastern Europe) had adopted the Gregorian calendar by 1924, their national churches had not. The "Revised Julian calendar" was endorsed by a synod in Constantinople in May 1923, consisting of a solar part which was and will be identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800, and a lunar part which calculated Easter astronomically at Jerusalem. All Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part, so all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter according to the Julian calendar, with the exception of the Finnish Orthodox Church. (The Estonian Orthodox Church was also an exception from 1923 to 1945.)


title: Julian calendar

text: The solar part of the Revised Julian calendar was accepted by only some Orthodox churches. Those that did accept it, with hope for improved dialogue and negotiations with the western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, the Orthodox Churches of Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Poland (from 1924 to 2014; it is still permitted to use the Revised Julian calendar in parishes that want it), Bulgaria (in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (although some OCA parishes are permitted to use the Julian calendar). Thus these churches celebrate the Nativity on the same day that western Christians do, 25 December Gregorian until 2799.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Orthodox Churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Montenegro, Poland (from 15 June 2014), North Macedonia, Georgia, Ukraine, and the Greek Old Calendarists and other groups continue to use the Julian calendar, thus they celebrate the Nativity on 25 December "Julian" (which is 7 January "Gregorian" until 2100). The Russian Orthodox Church has some parishes in the West that celebrate the Nativity on 25 December "Gregorian" until 2799.


title: Julian calendar

text: Parishes of the Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese, both before and after the 1976 transfer of that diocese from the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia to the Orthodox Church in America, were permitted to use this date. Some Old Calendarist groups which stand in opposition to the state churches of their homelands will use the Great Feast of the Theophany (6 January "Julian"/19 January "Gregorian") as a day for religious processions and the Great Blessing of Waters, to publicise their cause.


title: Julian calendar

text: Most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, upon which the timing of all the other moveable feasts depends. Some such churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while such Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Ancient Assyrian Church of the East, an East Syriac rite that is commonly miscategorised under "eastern Orthodox", uses the Julian calendar, where its participants celebrate Christmas on 7 January "Gregorian" (which is 25 December "Julian"). The Assyrian Church of the East, the church it split from in 1968 (the replacement of traditional Julian calendar with Gregorian calendar being among the reasons), uses the Gregorian calendar ever since the year of the schism. The Syriac Orthodox Church uses both Julian calendar and Gregorian calendar based on their regions and traditions they adapted.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Oriental Orthodox Churches generally use the local calendar of their homelands. However, when calculating the Nativity Feast, most observe the Julian calendar. This was traditionally for the sake of unity throughout Christendom. In the west, some Oriental Orthodox Churches either use the Gregorian calendar or are permitted to observe the Nativity according to it.


title: Julian calendar

text: The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem of Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church uses Julian calendar, while the rest of Armenian Church uses Gregorian calendar. Both celebrate the Nativity as part of the Feast of Theophany according to their respective calendar.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mason Tony Mount (born 10 January 1999) is an English professional footballer who plays as an attacking or central midfielder for club Chelsea and the England national team.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount began his senior club career with Chelsea, and joined Vitesse and Derby County on consecutive loans between 2017 and 2019. He established himself as an integral player for Chelsea in the following years, and won the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Super Cup in 2021.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount won the UEFA European Under-19 Championship with the England national under-19 team in 2017. He made his senior international debut in 2019, at age 20, and was part of the England team at UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mason Tony Mount was born on 10 January 1999, in Portsmouth, Hampshire, to parents Debbie and Tony Mount. His father, Tony, was a former non-league footballer who later coached local clubs, including Havant Town. As a child, Mount played locally for Boarhunt Rovers and United Services Portsmouth. In 2003, at age 4, he spent one day a week training in the academies at Portsmouth and Chelsea. Citing Frank Lampard, Luka Modrić and Andrés Iniesta as his favourite players, Mount eventually joined Chelsea in 2005.


title: Mason Mount

text: At age 18, Mount was promoted to Chelsea's senior team; he previously debuted for the club's under-18 team in 2014, at age 15, and also appeared consistently for the club's under-21 team by 2016. Mount scored 10 goals in 30 games in the club's victorious 2016–17 U18 Premier League campaign. He also won two FA Youth Cups, the UEFA Youth League, and Chelsea Academy Player of the Year by 2017.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount joined Dutch Eredivisie club Vitesse on 24 July 2017 on a season-long loan. He made his first-team debut on 26 August, as a 77th-minute substitute during Vitesse's 2–1 home defeat against AZ. The following month, he was given his first start in Vitesse's KNVB Cup first-round defeat away to fifth-tier team Swift, playing the full 90 minutes of the 0–0 draw, which Swift won in a penalty shoot-out. He scored his first goal for Vitesse on 1 October in the 76th minute of a 1–1 home draw with Utrecht. Mount went onto appear in the Eredivisie Team of the Year and won Vitesse Player of the Year.


title: Mason Mount

text: During Vitesse's Eredivisie European play-off semi-final first leg against ADO Den Haag on 9 May 2018, Mount scored his first hat-trick, as Vitesse won 5–2 away. In the second leg, Mount scored in a 2–1 win as Vitesse won 7–3 on aggregate. In the first leg of the final against Utrecht, Mount opened the scoring but was booked and therefore suspended for the second leg. Mount made 39 appearances in all competitions for Vitesse, scoring 14 times, before returning to Chelsea.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount joined Championship club Derby County on 17 July 2018 on a season-long loan. He scored a 60th-minute equaliser on his debut for Derby on 3 August 2018, during a 2–1 away victory over Reading. Mount was sidelined for two months after suffering a hamstring injury in a FA Cup game against Accrington Stanley. He returned in a 6–1 win over Rotherham United, winning a penalty for teammate Martyn Waghorn and later scoring. Two weeks later, he scored his second senior hat-trick in a 4–0 Championship league game against Bolton Wanderers, keeping Derby in contention for the promotion playoff.


title: Mason Mount

text: On 15 July 2019, Mount signed a new five-year contract with Chelsea, which would keep him at the club until 2024. He made his competitive debut for Chelsea on 11 August 2019 in a 4-0 away defeat to Manchester United in the Premier League. He scored his first Chelsea goal a week later against Leicester City during Frank Lampard’s home debut as manager at Stamford Bridge, a 1–1 draw, and added another in the next game away to Norwich City, in a 2-3 away win. On 17 September, he suffered an ankle injury against Valencia in the Champions League opener.


title: Mason Mount

text: In March 2020, Mount was spoken to by Chelsea for ignoring self-isolation rules during the COVID-19 pandemic. While the entire squad was forced to self-isolate due to Callum Hudson-Odoi's positive COVID-19 test, Mount had gone to play football with friends, including West Ham's Declan Rice. On 19 July 2020, Mount scored in the FA Cup semi-final 3-1 win against Manchester United, helping Chelsea earn a place in the FA Cup Final. On 22 July, he became the first Chelsea Academy graduate to make his first team debut and complete 50 appearances in the same season. On the final day of the 2019–20 Premier League season in a 2–0 victory against Wolves, Mount scored the first goal from a free kick and assisted Olivier Giroud for the second goal to help Chelsea secure a place in the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League. Mount was named in the starting 11 against Arsenal in the FA Cup final on 1 August - Chelsea would go on to lose 2-1.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount started the 2020–21 season well, as he featured in all Chelsea matches including the one against Barnsley in the third round of the EFL Cup on 23 September, which ended in a 6–0 win at home. Three days later on 26 September, Mount scored his first goal of the season against West Bromwich Albion in a 3–3 away draw, in which Chelsea would come back 3-0 down to draw. In the next fixture, however, Mount missed the decisive penalty in Chelsea’s 5–4 shoot-out loss away to Tottenham Hotspur in the fourth round of the EFL Cup on 29 September. He scored in back-to-back games in January, first in a 4–0 home win against Morecambe in the third round of the FA Cup and then away to Fulham in a 1–0 Premier League victory. On 24 January 2021, Mount captained Chelsea for the first time in a 3–1 win at home over Luton Town in the FA Cup. On 4 March, Mount scored the only goal in a 1–0 away league win over Liverpool, handing the Reds their fifth consecutive league defeat at Anfield for the first time in their history.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount scored his first goal in European football in Chelsea's 2–0 win over Porto in the first leg of the Champions League quarter-final on 7 April, becoming the youngest Chelsea player to score in the Champions League knockout stage. On 27 April, he marked his 100th appearance for Chelsea in a 1–1 away draw against Real Madrid in the Champions League semi-final first leg. In the second leg at Stamford Bridge on 5 May, he scored the second goal in a 2–0 win over Real Madrid, which helped Chelsea advance to the Champions League Final 3–1 on aggregate.


title: Mason Mount

text: Early in the season, Mount's presence in the Chelsea and England starting line-ups was alleged by fans and media to be because of favouritism by respective team managers, Lampard and Gareth Southgate. These doubts were allayed after Thomas Tuchel acknowledged Chelsea's growing reliance on Mount calling him "crucial for our game" and "an absolutely key player" and endorsed him as one of the best players in Europe. On 18 May, Mount was voted as Chelsea's Player of the Year. On 29 May, Mount provided the assist for Kai Havertz's goal, as Chelsea won 1–0 against Manchester City in the final in Porto to win the Champions League for the second time in their history, and Mount’s first trophy with the club.


title: Mason Mount

text: On 11 August 2021, following a 1–1 draw after extra time in the 2021 UEFA Super Cup against Villarreal, Mount scored Chelsea's fourth penalty in the resulting shoot-out, which saw Chelsea triumph 6–5 for their second UEFA Super Cup title. On 8 October, Mount was one of five Chelsea players included in the final 30-man shortlist for the 2021 Ballon d'Or. The Ballon d’Or was won by Lionel Messi, and Mount would place 19th in the rankings. On 23 October, Mount scored his first goals of the season, and his first hat-trick for Chelsea, in a 7–0 home win over Norwich City.


title: Mason Mount

text: In December, Mount became the youngest Chelsea player to score in four consecutive Premier League games, with a goal and assist in back-to-back trips to Watford and West Ham, and then scoring at home against Leeds United and Everton. On 16 December, at 22 years and 340 days, Mount became the youngest Chelsea player to score 20 Premier League goals in the competition's history. As a result of his four goals and three assists during the December 2021 month, he was nominated for Player of the Month and his goal against West Ham was nominated for Goal of the Month, which were eventually won by Raheem Sterling and Alexandre Lacazette, respectively.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount made his 100th Premier League appearance on 20 April 2022, marking the occasion with an assist, although this ended in a 2-4 home defeat against Arsenal.


title: Mason Mount

text: On 11 May, Mount scored his 11th Premier League goal of the season and assisted Christian Pulisic to make it 2–0 against Leeds United, giving him double digits in both goals and assists and becoming only the fifth Chelsea player (as well as the youngest) to reach that landmark in a season. In the next game, however, Mount and César Azpilicueta would miss penalties in a penalty shootout against Liverpool in the FA Cup Final, as the Reds would win 6-5 on penalties, on 14 May. Mount was named Chelsea's player of the season for a second consecutive season on 22 May, becoming the 12th player to win it more than once.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount has represented England at under-16, under-17, under-18 and under-19 levels. Mount represented the under-17s at the 2016 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount was included in the under-19 team for the 2017 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. He provided the assist for Lukas Nmecha to score the winning goal against Portugal in the final. He was subsequently named Golden Player of the tournament. On 27 May 2019, Mount was included in England's 23-man squad for the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship.


title: Mason Mount

text: Following his impressive season with Vitesse, Mount was invited by manager Gareth Southgate to train with the senior team for a week ahead of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. He was called up to the senior team for the UEFA Nations League matches against Croatia and Spain in October 2018. Mount made his debut for the England senior team on 7 September 2019 as a 67th-minute substitute in England's 4–0 home win over Bulgaria in UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying. He scored his first goal for England on 17 November in a 4–0 away win against Kosovo in UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount was named in the 26-man England squad for Euro 2020. On 22 June 2021, Mount and fellow England player Ben Chilwell were forced to self-isolate after coming into contact with Scotland player Billy Gilmour, who tested positive for COVID-19 after England's 0–0 draw with Scotland at the tournament.


title: Mason Mount

text: Mount has been best friends with fellow England international Declan Rice since childhood. Mount supports Portsmouth, citing former Portsmouth players such as Peter Crouch, Jermain Defoe and Nwankwo Kanu as his footballing heroes whilst growing up. He attended Purbrook Park School in Waterlooville. In 2021, Mount became a patron of the charity Together for Short Lives.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Saw is a 2004 American horror film directed by James Wan, in his feature directorial debut, and written by Leigh Whannell from a story by Wan and Whannell. It is the first installment in the "Saw" film series, and stars Whannell, Cary Elwes, Danny Glover, Monica Potter, Michael Emerson, Ken Leung, and Tobin Bell. The film tells a nonlinear narrative, revolving around the mystery of the Jigsaw Killer, who tests his victims' will to live by putting them through deadly "games" where they must inflict great physical pain upon themselves to survive. The frame story follows Jigsaw's latest victims (Whannell and Elwes), who awaken in a large, dilapidated bathroom, with one being ordered to kill the other to save his own family.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: The screenplay was written by Whannell, who co-created the story with Wan in their respective screenwriting debuts. It was originally written in 2001, but after failed attempts to get the script produced in Wan and Whannell's home country of Australia, they were urged to travel to Los Angeles. In order to help attract producers they shot a low-budget short film of the same name from a scene out of the script. This proved successful in 2003 as producers from Evolution Entertainment were immediately attached and also formed a horror genre production label, Twisted Pictures. The film was given a small budget of $1.2 million and was shot in 18 days.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: "Saw" was first screened on January 19, 2004 at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival, before being released in North America on October 29, 2004, by Lionsgate Films. The film received generally mixed reviews from critics but grossed more than $100 million worldwide to become one of the most profitable horror films since "Scream" (1996). It was theatrically re-released, to select theaters, on October 31, 2014, to celebrate its tenth anniversary. The first sequel, titled "Saw II", was released in 2005.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Photographer Adam Stanheight awakens in a dilapidated bathtub, with his ankle chained to a pipe. Across the room is oncologist Dr. Lawrence Gordon, also chained, and between them is the corpse of an apparent suicide victim holding a revolver and a microcassette recorder. Both men find a tape in their pockets, and Adam retrieves the recorder. Adam's tape urges him to survive, while Gordon's tells him to kill Adam by six o'clock or his wife Alison and daughter Diana will be killed. Adam finds a bag containing two hacksaws inside the toilet. Both men try to saw through their chains, but Adam's saw breaks. Gordon realizes that the saws are intended for their feet, and identifies their captor as the Jigsaw Killer, a serial killer testing his victims' will to survive through lethal traps referred to as "games", whom Gordon knows of because he was once a suspect.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Five months prior, Gordon, while discussing the terminal brain cancer of patient John Kramer, was interrogated by Detectives David Tapp and Steven Sing, who found his penlight at the scene of one of Jigsaw's games. Gordon's alibi cleared him, but he agreed to view the testimony of heroin addict Amanda Young, the only known survivor of one of Jigsaw's traps, who had been forced to kill and disembowel a man to obtain a key to free herself. After Gordon's release, Tapp and Sing find Jigsaw's warehouse using the videotape from Amanda's game. There, they apprehend Jigsaw and save a man from a trap, but Jigsaw injures Tapp and escapes. Sing pursues Jigsaw down a hallway where he accidentally triggers a shotgun trap and is killed.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: In the present, Alison and Diana are held captive at their apartment as their captor watches Adam and Gordon through a hidden camera. The house is simultaneously watched by Tapp who, after being discharged from the police following Sing's death, has become obsessed with the Jigsaw case, and remains convinced that Gordon is the killer. Meanwhile, Gordon finds a box containing two cigarettes, a lighter, and a one-way cellphone. He recounts his abduction in a parking garage by a pig-masked figure. Adam recalls his own abduction when he returned home to find a puppet in his darkroom, where he stored photos of Gordon.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Alison, held at gunpoint, calls her husband and warns him not to believe Adam. Adam admits to Gordon that he was paid by Tapp to spy on him, and reveals his knowledge of Gordon's affair with one of his medical students whom he had visited the night he was abducted; Gordon deduces that the affair is the reason why he is being tested. Adam finds a photo of Alison and Diana's captor whom Gordon identifies as Zep Hindle, a hospital orderly.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Once the clock strikes six, Zep, seeing that Gordon has still not killed Adam, moves to murder Alison and Diana, but Alison frees herself and fights him. The struggle attracts Tapp's attention, and he saves Alison and Diana before chasing Zep to the sewers, where he is shot in the chest after a brief fight. Gordon, only aware of the gunshots and screaming, is shocked and loses reach of the cell phone. In desperation, he saws off his foot and shoots Adam with the corpse's revolver. Zep enters the bathroom to kill Gordon but Adam, having survived the gunshot, bludgeons him to death with a toilet tank lid. Gordon crawls out of the bathroom to find help while Adam searches Zep's body for a key. He finds another tape, revealing that Zep was just another victim of Jigsaw following rules to obtain an antidote for a slow-acting poison in his body.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: The corpse in the room rises and is revealed to be John Kramer, who is the real Jigsaw Killer. He tells Adam that the key to his ankle chain was in the bathtub; it went down the drain when Adam had first awoken and drained the water. Horrified, Adam attempts to shoot John with Zep's gun, but John electrically shocks him through his chain, exits the bathroom before sealing the door, leaving Adam to die.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: After finishing film school, Australian director James Wan and Australian writer Leigh Whannell wanted to write and fund a film. The inspiration that they needed came after watching the low-budget independent film "The Blair Witch Project". Another film that inspired them to finance the film themselves was Darren Aronofsky's "Pi". The two thought the cheapest script to shoot would involve two actors in one room. Whannell said, "So I actually think the restrictions we had on our bank accounts at the time, the fact that we wanted to keep the film contained, helped us come up with the ideas in the film." One idea was to have the entire film set with two actors stuck in an elevator and being shot in the point of view of security cameras.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Wan pitched the idea to Whannell of two men chained to opposite sides of a bathroom with a dead body in the middle of the floor and they are trying to figure out why and how they are there. By the end of the film, they realize the person lying on the floor is not dead and he is the reason they are locked in the room. Whannell initially did not give Wan the reaction he was looking for. He said, "I'll never forget that day. I remember hanging up the phone and started just going over it in my head, and without any sort of long period of pondering, I opened my diary that I had at the time and wrote the word 'Saw'." Before instantaneously writing the word "Saw" in a blood-red, dripping font, the two had not come up with a title. "It was one of those moments that made me aware that some things just really are meant to be. Some things are just waiting there to be discovered", Whannell said.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: The character of Jigsaw did not come until months later, when Whannell was working at a job he was unhappy with and began having migraines. Convinced it was a brain tumor, he went to a neurologist to have an MRI; and, while sitting nervously in the waiting room, he thought: "What if you were given the news that you had a tumor and you were going to die soon? How would you react to that?" He imagined the character Jigsaw having been given one or two years to live and combined that with the idea of Jigsaw putting others in a literal version of the situation but only giving them a few minutes to choose their fate. Wan did not intend to make a "torture porn" film, and the script only had one short segment of torture. He said the film "played out like a mystery thriller". It was not until the sequels that the plot focused more on torture scenes.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Whannell and Wan initially had $30,000 to spend on the film, but as the script developed it was clear that more funds would be needed. The script was optioned by a producer in Sydney for a year but the deal eventually fell through. After other failed attempts to get the script produced in Australia from 2001 to 2002, literary agent Ken Greenblat read the script and suggested they travel to Los Angeles, where their chances of finding an interested studio were greater. Wan and Whannell initially refused, due to lack of traveling funds but the pair's agent, Stacey Testro, convinced them to go. In order to help studios take interest in the script, Whannell provided A$5,000 (US$5,000) to make a seven-minute short film based on the script's jaw trap scene, which they thought would prove most effective. Whannell played David, the man wearing the reverse bear trap. Working at the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Whannell and Wan knew cameramen who were willing to provide technical assistance for the short.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Wan shot the short with a 16mm camera in over two days and transferred the footage to DVDs to ship along with the script. Whannell wanted to play the lead character in the feature film. The short helped show that Wan and Whannell were a "director-actor team" rather than just wanting to sell the script. Wan said, "Leigh and I just loved the project so much and we wanted a career in filmmaking so we stuck to our guns and said, 'Look, guys, if you want this project, we're coming on board — Leigh has to act in it and I have to direct it."


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: In early 2003, while in Los Angeles and before they met with producer Gregg Hoffman, Hoffman's friend pulled him into his office and showed him the short. Hoffman said, "About two or three minutes into it, my jaw hit the floor." He quickly showed the short and script to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules of Evolution Entertainment. They later formed Twisted Pictures as a horror genre production label. The producers read the screenplay that night and two days later offered Wan and Whannell creative control and 25% of the net profits. Even though Wan and Whannell received "better offers" from studios like DreamWorks and Gold Circle Films, they were not willing to chance Wan's directing and Whannell acting in the lead role. In order to finance the film, Hoffman, Burg, and Koules put up a second mortgage on their Highland Avenue headquarters. "Saw" was given a production budget of between $1 million and $1.2 million.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Cary Elwes was sent the short film on DVD and immediately became interested in playing Dr. Lawrence Gordon in the film. He read the script in one sitting and was drawn in by the "uniqueness and originality" of the story. Koules was Elwes' manager at the time. To prepare for his role as an oncologist, he met with a doctor at UCLA's Department of Neurosurgery.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Shawnee Smith, who is not a horror fan, initially refused the role of Amanda Young, describing the script as "horrific". However, after watching the short, she agreed to the role, which was the part that Whannell portrayed in the short. Wan offhandly suggested Smith when his casting director asked who he wanted to play Amanda, as he had had a crush on Smith since his teenage years, and was surprised when his casting director secured her on the role. Danny Glover was cast as Detective Tapp, who is in pursuit of the Jigsaw Killer. Glover stated in an interview, "Something about that detective character at that particular point attracted me to it".


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: On taking the role of Jigsaw, Tobin Bell said, "I did "Saw" because I thought it was a fascinating location for a film to be made. These guys locked in a room, to me, was fresh. I did not anticipate the ending when I read the script, so I was quite caught by surprise and it was clear to me that if the filmmakers shot the scene well, the audience would be caught by surprise as well. The film was worth doing for that moment alone". Bell also stated that he wanted to take the opportunity to work with Glover, whom he had never worked with. Wan primarily cast Bell because of his voice. Mike Butters was originally offered the role of Jigsaw, but declined as he felt that that role did not have enough exciting scenes. Butters, a friend of one of the producers whom he used to play hockey with, ended up cast as Paul Leahy, the Jigsaw victim who perishes in a razor wire maze trap.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: With a shooting budget of $700,000, "Saw" began principal photography on at Lacy Street Production Facility in Los Angeles for 18 days. The bathroom was the only set that had to be built. There were no chairs on the set. Other sets like the police station were shot in locations where other productions had built similar sets. The bathtub scene was filmed the first day of filming, and it was once then that Whannell realized that they didn't have money left in the budget to hire a stuntman to shoot the scene, forcing him to perform the scene himself. It took six days to shoot all the scenes in the bathroom, and these were filmed chronologically to avoid continuity jumps and help the actors stay in character. To film the scenes of the two protagonists, Wan made sure most of Dr. Gordon's shots were very steady and controlled while Adam's shots were shaky and handheld to match the characters' personalities. Instead of using a camera dolly or a tripod, cinematographer David A. Armstrong shot the entire film with the camera over his shoulder.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: There was not time for Elwes and Whannell to rehearse their scenes together to not conflict with the schedules of Danny Glover and Michael Emerson, who were only available for a certain number of days. Glover completed his scenes in two days. According to Elwes, his dialogue averaged 12 to 16 pages a day, which he considered a great challenge. Due to the tight shooting schedule, Wan could not afford to shoot more than a couple of takes per actor. "It was a really tough struggle for me. Every day, it was me fighting to get the shots I did not get. I had high aspirations, but there's only so much you can do. I wanted to make it in a very Hitchcockian style of filmmaking, but that style of filmmaking takes time to set up and so on", Wan said about the very short shooting schedule. He said the style instead ended up being "more gritty and rough around the edges due to the lack of time and money that we had to shoot the movie with" and it ultimately became the aesthetic of the film.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: $400 were spent on reshoots Wan and Whannell did on their own. For the reshoots, Whannell served as a stand-in to Smith and Ken Leung in the scenes of Amanda searching for her key and of Steven Sing entering into Jigsaw's lair. In post-production, Wan found he did not have enough shots or takes to work with as he was basically shooting rehearsals. Having a lot of missing gaps in the final product, he and editor Kevin Greutert created shots to mend together during editing, such as making a shot look like a surveillance camera feed and using still photographs. "We did a lot of things to fill in gaps throughout the film. Whatever we cut to newspaper clippings and stuff like that, or we cut to surveillance cameras, or we cut to still photography within the film, which now people say, 'Wow, that's such a cool experimental style of filmmaking', we really did that out of necessity to fill in gaps we did not get during the filming", he explained.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Lionsgate picked up "Saw" worldwide distribution rights at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival days before the film premiered on . There it played to a packed theater for three midnight showings to a positive reaction. It was the closing film at the Toronto International Film Festival on . Lionsgate initially planned to release the film direct-to-video, but due to the positive reaction at Sundance, they chose to release it theatrically by Halloween. It was released on in the United Kingdom, in the United States and in Australia. The film was originally rated NC-17 (No children under 17 permitted) by the Motion Picture Association of America for strong graphic violence, though after being re-edited, it was released with an R rating.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Lionsgate held the inaugural "Give Til It Hurts" blood drive for the Red Cross and collected 4,249 pints of blood.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: "Saw" soundtrack was mainly composed by Charlie Clouser, and took six weeks to complete. Other songs were performed by Front Line Assembly, Fear Factory, Enemy, Pitbull Daycare and Psychopomps. Megadeth's song "Die Dead Enough" was originally set to be featured in the film but was not used for undisclosed reasons.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: The soundtrack was released on by Koch Records. Johnny Loftus of AllMusic gave it three out of five stars. He said that Clouser "really nails it with his creaky, clammy score" and that he "understands that "Saw" horror only works with a heady amount of camp, and he draws from industrial music in the same way". He particularly liked, "Cigarette"; "Hello, Adam"; and "F**k This S*!t", commenting that they "blend chilling sounds with harsh percussion and deep-wound keyboard stabs".


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: The theatrical version of the film was released on VHS and DVD on in the United States and Canada. After its first week, it made in DVD rentals and in VHS rentals, making it the top rental of the week. For the second week it remained as the number one DVD rental with , for a two-week total. It dropped to third place in VHS rentals with , for a two-week total. The film went on to sell more than $70 million worth of video and DVDs. A two-disc "Uncut Edition" was released on to tie in with the release of "Saw II". The short film, also entitled "Saw", was included on the DVD.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: The film was later released on Blu-ray on . On , "Saw" was released on 4K-UHD with a new 2160p transfer and a new 58 minute making-of documentary.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: "Saw" opened at number three on Halloween weekend 2004 in 2,315 theaters and grossed , behind "Ray" ($20 million) and "The Grudge" ($21.8 million). According to Lionsgate's exit poll, 60% of the mostly male audience was under 25 years of age. "Saw" had also become Lionsgate's second best opening, after "Fahrenheit 9/11" (2004). On its second weekend, an additional 152 theaters were added, bringing the theater count to 2,467. It dropped to number four, making $11 million, a 39% drop from the opening weekend.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: "Saw" opened in the United Kingdom to in 301 theaters, grossing a total in seven weeks. In Australia, it opened in 161 theaters with and totaled out to in six weeks. In Italy, the film opened on in 267 theaters to and grossed in six weeks. "Saw" opened to 187 theaters in France on and made by the end of its four-week run. "Saw" came to gross in the United States and Canada and in other markets for a worldwide total of . At the time, it became the most profitable horror film after "Scream" (1996).


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: On October 31, 2014, in honor of the film's tenth anniversary, "Saw" was re-released to select theaters for one week. The release earned $650,051 in its opening weekend, and is the third lowest-grossing wide opening. At the end of its run, the release had grossed $815,324, bringing the film's overall domestic gross to $56,000,369.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 49% based on 190 reviews with an average rating of 5.6/10. The site's critics consensus reads, ""Saw" ensnares audiences with a deceptively clever plot and a myriad of memorable, nasty set pieces, but its lofty ambitions are undercut by a nihilistic streak that feels more mean than profound." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 46 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Dennis Harvey of "Variety" gave the film a negative review after its Sundance premiere. He called it a "crude concoction sewn together from the severed parts of prior horror/serial killer pics". He called the screenplay "convoluted", criticizing the use of "flashbacks within flashbacks" and red herrings. He described the film as being "too hyperbolic to be genuinely disturbing". Carla Meyer of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave the film a positive review, saying the film "combined B-movie acting with a twisted mind-set and visual tricks designed to camouflage cheap effects" and that it was "terrifying at some moments and insinuatingly creepy at many others." She called the killing scenes "amazingly evocative for such a low-budget movie".


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: "Empire" Kim Newman gave the film four out of five stars. He said "Saw" is styled like early David Fincher films and "boasts an intricate structure — complex flashbacks-within-flashbacks explain how the characters have come to this crisis — and a satisfying mystery to go with its ghastly claustrophobia." He ended his review saying, "As good an all-out, non-camp horror movie as we've had lately." Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a B minus, calling it "derivative and messy and too nonsensical for its own good." He described Jigsaw's intent as "to show you the serial killer lurking inside yourself". Gleiberman criticized Elwes' performance by saying, "[Elwes] ought to be featured in a seminar on the perils of overacting. He compared the plot to "Seven" saying, "In a blatant imitation of "Seven", "Saw" features a lunatic sadist whose ghoulish crimes are meant, in each case, to mirror the sins of his victims. The twist here is that the psycho doesn't do the killing."" Daniel M. Kimmel of the "Telegram & Gazette" called it "one of the most loathsome films this critic has seen in more than 20 years on the job".


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: "The New York Times" Stephen Holden gave a mixed review, saying the film "does a better-than-average job of conveying the panic and helplessness of men terrorized by a sadist in a degrading environment, but it is still not especially scary. What sets its demon apart from run-of-the-mill movie serial killers is his impulse to humiliate and torture his victims and justify it with some twisted morality." He said the film is "seriously undermined by the half-baked, formulaic detective story in which the horror is framed." Carina Chocano of the "Los Angeles Times" also gave the film a mixed review, saying, ""Saw" is so full of twists it ends up getting snarled. For all of his flashy engineering and inventive torture scenarios, the Jigsaw Killer comes across as an amateur. Hannibal Lecter would have him for lunch." She said the film "carelessly underscores its own shaky narrative at every turn with its mid-budget hokiness". She also noted that Elwes and Whannell had trouble keeping an American accent. Another mixed review came from Roger Ebert, who gave the film 2 out of 4 stars and lamented the gimmicks and plot contrivances but nonetheless described "Saw" as "well made and acted, and does what it does about as well as it could be expected to".


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Richard J. Leskosky of Champaign-Urbana's "The News-Gazette" said ""Saw" wants to be taken as another "Seven". Though it features perverse gross-out scenes and a villain with a superficially pedantic motive behind his crimes (his victims, if they survive, have learned to appreciate life more), it lacks the finesse and polish of the David Fincher film." When asked if the 1995 thriller film "Seven" was an inspiration to "Saw", Whannell said "For me as the writer, definitely. I mean, "Seven" is just a very well constructed film, and if you're writing a thriller, it can't hurt to study it. In terms of the story though, James and I never really felt "Seven" was that close to our film. I guess if you stand back, you have two detectives chasing a psychopath, who uses vile methods to teach people lessons, and those points echo "Seven". What we always liked about "Saw", though, was the fact that the story is told from the point of view of two of the psychopath's victims, instead of the police chasing after him, as you so often see."


title: Saw (2004 film)

text: Horror review website, Bloody Disgusting, ranked the film tenth in its list of the Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade, with the article calling "Saw" "perhaps the most influential horror film of the decade”, which kick-started a franchise consisting of more than 9 movies spanning over, as of July 2022, 17 years (2004-2021). In light of it’s small production budget of $1.2 million, the film's quality relative to bigger-budget horror films is striking. It also takes itself seriously, which came as a breath of fresh air following the trend of wimpy tongue-in-cheek horror movies that had dominated the film’s industry post 1996’s "Scream". More than anything, the premise of the film’s twisted take on morality is a story made truly for horror fans; it's gory, it's depraved, and, best of all, it introduced a new horror icon in the form of a doll on a child’s bicycle accompanied with a message on a tape recorder. "The Daily Telegraph" listed the film number 14 on their Top 100 list that defined the 2000s.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: On August 31, 2014, a collection of nearly five hundred private pictures of various celebrities, mostly women, with many containing nudity, were posted on the imageboard 4chan, and quickly disseminated by other users on websites and social networks such as Imgur and Reddit. The leak has been popularly dubbed The Fappening and also Celebgate. The images were initially believed to have been obtained via a breach of Apple's cloud services suite iCloud, or a security issue in the iCloud API which allowed them to make unlimited attempts at guessing victims' passwords. Apple claimed in a press release that access was gained via spear phishing attacks.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: The incident was met with varied reactions from the media and fellow celebrities. Critics felt the distribution of the photos was a major invasion of privacy for their subjects, while some of the alleged subjects denied the images' authenticity. The leak also prompted increased concern from analysts surrounding the privacy and security of cloud computing services such as iCloud—with a particular emphasis on their use to store sensitive, private information.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: "The Fappening" is a jocular portmanteau coined by combining the words "fap", an internet slang term for masturbation, and the title of the 2008 film "The Happening". Though the term is a vulgarism originating either with the imageboards where the pictures were initially posted or Reddit, mainstream media outlets soon adopted the term themselves, such as the BBC. The term has received criticism from journalists like Radhika Sanghani of "The Daily Telegraph" and Toyin Owoseje of the "International Business Times", who said that the term not only trivialized the leak, but also, according to Sanghani, "[made] light of a very severe situation." Both articles used the term extensively to describe the event, including in their headlines.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: The images were obtained via the online storage offered by Apple's iCloud platform for automatically backing up photos from iOS devices, such as iPhones. Apple later reported that the victims' iCloud account information was obtained using "a very targeted attack on user names, passwords and security questions", such as phishing and brute-force attack guessing. It was initially believed that the images were obtained using an exploit in the Find My iPhone service. Court documents from 2014 indicated that one user created a fake email account called "appleprivacysecurity" to ask celebrities for security information. The photos were being passed around privately for at least a couple of weeks before their public release on August 31. There are claims that unreleased photos and videos exist.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: The hacker responsible for the leak, who described themselves as being a "collector", distributed the leaked images on the image boards 4chan and Anon-IB in exchange for Bitcoin. Ultimately, the images were widely circulated online via other channels, including Imgur and Tumblr. Celebrity gossip blogger Perez Hilton also re-posted some of the photos on his blog, but soon took them down and issued an apology, saying "he had acted in bad taste".


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: A major center of activity was the link-sharing website Reddit, where a subreddit, /r/TheFappening, was created for sharing the photos; in a single day, it amassed over 100,000 followers. Reddit administrators were criticized for allowing this to take place in an alleged violation of their anti-doxing rules. As McKayla Maroney claimed to be under 18 at the time the photos of her were taken, Reddit staff took photos of her down and warned that anyone re-posting them, or underage photos of Liz Lee which had been circulating prior to this incident, would be permanently banned from the site and could be prosecuted for distributing child pornography. On September 7, citing copyright issues, Reddit banned /r/TheFappening, also saying the workload of dealing with them had become too much. Reddit banned another subreddit named "Fappening" on the same day.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: The original release contained photos and videos of more than 100 individuals that were allegedly obtained from file storage on hacked iCloud accounts, including some the leakers claimed were A-list celebrities. Shortly after the photos were leaked, several affected celebrities issued statements either confirming or denying the photos' authenticity. Celebrities who confirmed the photos' authenticity include Jennifer Lawrence (confirmed by her publicist), Kate Upton and her husband Justin Verlander (confirmed by Upton's lawyer), Mary Elizabeth Winstead (confirmed via Twitter), Jessica Brown Findlay (confirmed by spokesman), Kaley Cuoco (confirmed via Instagram), and Kirsten Dunst, who also criticized the iCloud service. Jill Scott confirmed on Twitter that one of the leaked photos was of her while stating that another was fake.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: Celebrities who denied the photos' authenticity include Ariana Grande and Yvonne Strahovski. Olympic gymnast McKayla Maroney initially denied the images' authenticity on Twitter, but later confirmed the photos were legitimate while also saying she was underage when they were taken. Victoria Justice denied the photos were authentic but later stated on Twitter that she was pursuing legal action and found the leak to be a massive invasion of not just her privacy, but of the privacy of all celebrities affected by the incident. Reports in October indicated that Nick Hogan was the first male star to be directly targeted by hackers; however, Hogan denied the pictures' authenticity.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: According to security expert Nik Cubrilovic, in addition to the photographs, other personal information such as text messages, calendars, address books, phone call logs and any other data stored on their phones and backed up to the service were also likely stolen.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: On September 20, 2014, a second batch of similar private photos of additional celebrities was leaked by hackers. On September 26, 2014, a third batch was also leaked, which was dubbed "The Fappening 3".


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: Actress Lena Dunham pleaded on Twitter for people not to view the photos, arguing that in doing so "you are violating these women over and over again. It's not okay." Actress Emma Watson condemned not only the leak but "the accompanying comments [on social media] that show such a lack of empathy." Actors Seth Rogen and Lucas Neff also spoke out against the hackers and people who posted the pictures. Justin Verlander, then a pitcher for the Detroit Tigers, told the media prior to a game against the Cleveland Indians that he keeps his private life private and would rather focus on the Tigers' race with the Kansas City Royals for the AL Central title than be a distraction to his teammates. Security analysts have stated that the breach could have been prevented through the use of two-factor authentication, while a "Forbes" writer recommended completely shutting down the iCloud "Photo Stream" feature (which automatically uploads photos taken with an iOS device to iCloud servers).


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: In an interview with "The Wall Street Journal", Apple CEO Tim Cook stated that in response to the leak, the company planned to take additional steps to protect the privacy and security of iCloud users in the future. Notifications will be provided whenever data is restored to a device via iCloud and after logging into iCloud via a web browser, in addition to existing notifications when a user's iCloud password is changed. Additionally, Apple will broaden and encourage the use of two-factor authentication in future versions of its software and operating systems, such as the then-upcoming iOS 8. In conclusion, he emphasized that "we want to do everything we can do to protect our customers, because we are as outraged if not more so than they are."


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: Jennifer Lawrence contacted authorities and her publicist stated that the authorities would prosecute anyone who posted leaked images of her. "Forbes" columnist Joseph Steinberg questioned whether the reactions by law enforcement and technology providers indicated that celebrities were being treated differently from ordinary Americans, which, in the case of law enforcement, may be illegal.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: On October 1, 2014, Google was threatened with a $100 million lawsuit by lawyer Martin Singer on behalf of unnamed victims of the leak, alleging that Google had refused to respond to requests for the images to be removed from its platforms (including Blogger and YouTube), "[failing] to act expeditiously, and responsibly to remove the images", and "knowingly accommodating, facilitating, and perpetuating the unlawful conduct".


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: In an interview with "Vanity Fair", victim Jennifer Lawrence called the leak a "sex crime" and a "sexual violation"; she added, "Anybody who looked at those pictures, you're perpetuating a sexual offense. You should cower with shame." This view was contrasted by another victim of the leak, Emily Ratajkowski, who told "GQ", "A lot of people who were victims of [the hack] said anyone who looks at these pictures should feel guilty, but I just don't think that's fair", and "I'm not sure that anyone who Googles it is necessarily a criminal. I think the people who stole the photos are".


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: The FBI said it was "aware of the allegations concerning computer intrusions and the unlawful release of material involving high profile individuals, and is addressing the matter." Similarly, Apple stated that it had been investigating whether a security breach of the iCloud service was responsible for the leaked photographs, as per the company's commitment to user privacy. On September 2, 2014, Apple reported that the leaked images were the result of compromised accounts, using "a very targeted attack on user names, passwords and security questions, a practice that has become all too common on the Internet".


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: In October 2014, the FBI searched a house in Chicago, Illinois and seized several computers, cellphones and storage drives after tracking the source of a hacking attack to an IP address linked to an individual named Emilio Herrera. A related search warrant application mentioned eight unidentified high profile victims. According to law enforcement officials, Herrera was just one of several people under investigation and the FBI carried out various searches across the country.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: In March 2016, 36-year-old Ryan Collins of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, agreed to plead guilty to one count of unauthorized access to a protected computer to obtain information resulting in an 18-month sentence. While no victims were named in the court documents, numerous media outlets connected Collins' case to the breach. During the investigation, it was found that Collins phished by sending e-mails to the victims that looked like they had been sent by Apple or Google, warning the victims that their accounts might be compromised and asking for their account details. The victims would enter their passwords, and Collins gained access to their accounts, downloading e-mails and iCloud backups. In October 2016, Collins was sentenced to 18 months in prison.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: In August 2016, 28-year-old Edward Majerczyk of Chicago, agreed to plead guilty to a similar phishing scheme, although authorities believe he worked independently and he was not accused of selling the images or posting them online. On January 24, 2017, Majerczyk was sentenced to nine months in prison and was ordered to pay $5,700 in restitution to cover the counseling services of one unnamed celebrity victim.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: Emilio Herrera, also from Chicago, had first been named in the press in 2014; he pleaded guilty to one count of unauthorized access to a protected computer to obtain information in October 2017. Herrera had accessed the accounts of unnamed celebrities and others but was not accused of being involved in leaking or sharing the photos and videos he obtained. He was sentenced to 16 months in jail in March 2018.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: In April 2018, 26-year-old George Garofano of North Branford, Connecticut, pleaded guilty to one count of unauthorized access to a protected computer to obtain information. Garofano's attorney said he had been led into the phishing scheme by criminals.


title: 2014 celebrity nude photo leak

text: On October 22, 2018, Christopher Brannan, a former Virginia teacher, became the fifth man to be convicted in relation to the hacking. Brannan pled guilty to federal charges of aggravated identity theft and unauthorized access to a protected computer. Through a phishing expedition, he hacked more than 200 people. In addition to his celebrity victims, Brannan targeted his underage sister-in-law, as well as teachers and students at the school where he used to teach. Brannan was sentenced to 34 months in prison on March 1, 2019.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: Jai Hemant "Tiger" Shroff (born 2 March 1990) is an Indian actor and martial artist known for his work in the Indian cinema. He is best known for his Baaghi action franchise, "Heropanti" (2014) and "War" ("2019"). He has featured in Forbes India Celebrity 100 list since 2018.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: The son of actor Jackie Shroff and producer Ayesha Dutt, he made his film debut with the 2014 action romantic film "Heropanti" which became a commercial success and earned him several awards including Stardust Awards For Superstar of Tomorrow – Male and IIFA Awards For Star Debut of the Year – Male.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: Jai Hemant Shroff was born on 2 March 1990, to Indian film actor Jackie Shroff and his wife Ayesha Shroff (née Dutt). He has a younger sister named Krishna Shroff. On his paternal side, he is of Gujarati and Turkmen ancestry while from his maternal side, he is of Bengali and Belgian descent.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: Shroff is a devout Hindu devotee of Lord Shiva and has attributed his physique to Lord Shiva. He holds a fast every Monday and during every Mahashivaratri festival. He studied at the American School of Bombay.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: Due to his experience in martial arts, he has frequently spent time helping other actors train for films. In 2014, he was awarded an honorary fifth degree black belt in Taekwondo.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In June 2012, Shroff was signed by producer Sajid Nadiadwala to make his film debut in Sabbir Khan's action romantic comedy "Heropanti". To prepare for the role, he took flexibility training under Ziley Mawai. Released on 23 May 2014, and made on a final budget of 250 million Indian Rupees, "Heropanti" was a commercial success with gross of worldwide and became a HIT film. He gained praise for his dancing skills, action sequences, tough physique and for the ability to perform onerous stunts, but was also criticised for his acting, looks and dialogue delivery. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama appreciated his performance, saying "Tiger registers an impact in several sequences" and that he "scores brownie points in action and stunts". Adarsh also added that "for a first-timer, he exudes supreme confidence". Subhash K. Jha praised him for his versatility, saying that "he emotes, he dances and yes, he can fight". However, Sweta Kaushal of "Hindustan Times" disagreed, calling his "dialogues forced" and said "his expressions do nothing in a given situation". In spite of terming his performance "a little unconvincing", Kaushal called his action sequences "admirable" and said he's a "great dancer". Furthermore, Anupama Chopra, though noting that he has star-like qualities and "very solid screen presence", called his dialogue delivery "off". Shroff's portrayal fetched him the Screen Award for Best Male Debut and the IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year – Male in addition to a nomination in the same category at the 60th Filmfare Awards.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In 2015, Tiger Shroff's album “Zindagi Aa Raha Hoon Main” was released, and that album was a big hit. It featured Atif Aslam and was directed by Ahmed Khan. Tiger Shroff was praised for his dance skills in the album.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In 2016, Shroff reteamed with Nadiadwala and Sabbir in "Baaghi" (2016), set against the backdrop of a martial arts school while also featuring Shraddha Kapoor and Sudheer Babu. Earning in worldwide markets, "Baaghi" was his first big hit. Tiger Shroff was praised for his actions, stunts and tough physique. Bollywood Hungama praised his action sequences, saying: "The action Tiger performed without use of double body is delight to see." That year he also played a martial arts teacher who gains superpowers, in Remo D'Souza's superhero film "A Flying Jatt" alongside Jacqueline Fernandez. In 2017, Shroff teamed with Sabbir for the third time in the dance film "Munna Michael" opposite Nidhhi Agerwal. However, both "A Flying Jatt" and "Munna Michael" were unsuccessful at the box office.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In 2018, Shroff achieved a turning point in his career and established himself in the industry with Ahmed Khan's "Baaghi 2", a spiritual sequel to "Baaghi", and the second installment of the Baaghi Film Series opposite Disha Patani. Produced by Nadiadwala, the film featured him as a rebellious army officer set on the mission to find his ex-girlfriend's missing daughter. Surpassing initial predictions, "Baaghi 2" grossed net domestically in India and over worldwide to become one of the top-grossing Bollywood films of the year.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: After the blockbuster success of Baaghi 2, Tiger Shroff's album “Get Ready to Move” was released in 2018. The album was also a hit.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In 2019, Shroff appeared in Punit Malhotra's teen drama "Student of the Year 2", his first mainstream romantic drama. Produced by Karan Johar's Dharma Productions, it was the sequel to "Student of the Year" and saw Shroff portray a college student who competes in an annual school championship. Rajeev Masand of News18 called his performance "the film's singular strength". Ronak Kotecha, from The Times of India, agreed by saying "Tiger Shroff pretty much carries the film on his well-toned shoulders". The film did decently well having a gross worldwide collection of ₹982 million. The expectations were higher but still managed to be a hit film overall.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In October 2019, Shroff starred in Siddharth Anand's action thriller "War" alongside Hrithik Roshan. The film was the highest-grossing Bollywood film of the year and ranks as Shroff's highest-grossing release as of that time and one of the biggest blockbuster films of Tiger Shroff's career. The Worldwide Collection for War was 4.75 billion Indian Rupees (US$63 Million) and 3.18 billion Indian Rupees nett domestically in India. War created an historic record by having the highest opening- day collection made by a Bollywood movie in India of over 53.35 crore Indian Rupees. The film emerged as a huge box office and a blockbuster success, becoming the highest-grossing Indian film of 2019 and one of the highest-grossing Indian films of all time.[8]


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In March 2020, he starred in the third installment of the "Baaghi" film series titled "Baaghi 3", where he reunited with Shraddha Kapoor. The collections of the films were affected as theatres were shut due to the COVID-19 pandemic but the film managed to become highest first day opener and second highest grosser of 2020 with a worldwide collection of and with first day collection of at the box office.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: He was set to portray Rambo in the Hindi reboot of the "Rambo" franchise, and the film was supposed to be directed by Siddharth Anand. The project is delayed since 2017.


title: Tiger Shroff

text: In 2017, Shroff was brought in as Brand Ambassador and co-owner of Bengaluru Tigers, which is owned by 8K Miles Media Group. The Bengaluru Tigers won third place in the inaugural season of Super Fight League, the first mixed martial arts (MMA) League in India. In 2018, Shroff was also made the Brand Ambassador of Prowl. He is also the brand ambassador of big brands like Pepsi, ASICS India, Casio India, 8PM Premium Black, Macho, Garnier, Forca, Great White Electronic and many more.


title: George Jung

text: George Jacob Jung (August 6, 1942 – May 5, 2021), nicknamed Boston George and El Americano, was an American drug trafficker and smuggler. He was a major figure in the United States cocaine trade during the 1970s and early 1980s. Jung and his partner Carlos Lehder smuggled cocaine into the United States for the Colombian Medellín Cartel. Jung was sentenced to 70 years in prison in 1994 on conspiracy charges, but was released in 2014. Jung was portrayed by Johnny Depp in the biopic "Blow" (2001).


title: George Jung

text: George Jung was born on August 6, 1942, in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to Frederick Jung, who owned a small business, and Ermine (née O'Neill) Jung. In high school, Jung was a star football player and was described by his classmates as "a natural leader", but was charged by an undercover police officer for solicitation of prostitution. After graduating in 1961 from Weymouth High School, Jung briefly attended the University of Southern Mississippi, where he considered studying advertising, but dropped out. Jung began recreationally using marijuana and sold a portion of everything he bought to break even.


title: George Jung

text: In 1967, after meeting with a childhood friend, Jung realized the enormous profit potential represented by smuggling the cannabis he bought in California back to New England. Jung initially had his stewardess girlfriend transport the drugs in her suitcases on flights. In search of even greater profits, he expanded his operation to flying the drugs in from Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, using airplanes stolen from private airports on Cape Cod and professional pilots. At the height of this enterprise, Jung and his associates were reportedly making $250,000 a month (equivalent to over $ million in 2021 dollars, adjusting for inflation). This ended in 1974, when Jung was arrested in Chicago for smuggling of marijuana. He had been staying at the Playboy Club, where he was to meet a connection who would pick up the marijuana. The connection was arrested for heroin smuggling; however, he informed the authorities about Jung to get a reduced sentence. After arguing with the judge about the purpose of sending a man to prison "for crossing an imaginary line with a bunch of plants", Jung was sent to the Federal Correctional Institution, Danbury.