title: Ralph Waldo Emerson

text: As a lecturer and orator, Emerson—nicknamed the Sage of Concord—became the leading voice of intellectual culture in the United States. James Russell Lowell, editor of the "Atlantic Monthly" and the "North American Review", commented in his book "My Study Windows" (1871), that Emerson was not only the "most steadily attractive lecturer in America," but also "one of the pioneers of the lecturing system." Herman Melville, who had met Emerson in 1849, originally thought he had "a defect in the region of the heart" and a "self-conceit so intensely intellectual that at first one hesitates to call it by its right name", though he later admitted Emerson was "a great man". Theodore Parker, a minister and transcendentalist, noted Emerson's ability to influence and inspire others: "the brilliant genius of Emerson rose in the winter nights, and hung over Boston, drawing the eyes of ingenuous young people to look up to that great new star, a beauty and a mystery, which charmed for the moment, while it gave also perennial inspiration, as it led them forward along new paths, and towards new hopes".


title: Ralph Waldo Emerson

text: Emerson's work not only influenced his contemporaries, such as Walt Whitman and Henry David Thoreau, but would continue to influence thinkers and writers in the United States and around the world down to the present. Notable thinkers who recognize Emerson's influence include Nietzsche and William James, Emerson's godson. There is little disagreement that Emerson was the most influential writer of 19th-century America, though these days he is largely the concern of scholars. Walt Whitman, Henry David Thoreau and William James were all positive Emersonians, while Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry James were Emersonians in denial—while they set themselves in opposition to the sage, there was no escaping his influence. To T. S. Eliot, Emerson's essays were an "encumbrance". Waldo the Sage was eclipsed from 1914 until 1965, when he returned to shine, after surviving in the work of major American poets like Robert Frost, Wallace Stevens and Hart Crane.


title: Ralph Waldo Emerson

text: In his book "The American Religion", Harold Bloom repeatedly refers to Emerson as "The prophet of the American Religion", which in the context of the book refers to indigenously American religions such as Mormonism and Christian Science, which arose largely in Emerson's lifetime, but also to mainline Protestant churches that Bloom says have become in the United States more gnostic than their European counterparts. In "The Western Canon", Bloom compares Emerson to Michel de Montaigne: "The only equivalent reading experience that I know is to reread endlessly in the notebooks and journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson, the American version of Montaigne." Several of Emerson's poems were included in Bloom's "The Best Poems of the English Language", although he wrote that none of the poems are as outstanding as the best of Emerson's essays, which Bloom listed as "Self-Reliance", "Circles", "Experience", and "nearly all of "Conduct of Life"". In his belief that line lengths, rhythms, and phrases are determined by breath, Emerson's poetry foreshadowed the theories of Charles Olson.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: Herschel Beahm IV (born March 10, 1982), better known as Dr Disrespect or SPECT, is an American video game streamer. He had over 4 million followers on Twitch when he was active on the site, and became known for playing battle royale games such as "Apex Legends", "", "", "Fortnite", "H1Z1", and "".


title: Dr Disrespect

text: In June 2020, Dr Disrespect was banned from Twitch and his channel was removed from the site for reasons that were never explained. Sources have reported that the ban is permanent. He returned to streaming a month later on YouTube, with one stream peaking at over 510,000 simultaneous viewers. As of December 2022, he has over 4 million subscribers on YouTube.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: Herschel Beahm IV was born on March 10, 1982. He graduated in 2005 from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, where he played NCAA Division II basketball.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: Beahm's first video as the Dr Disrespect character was posted on January 11, 2010, showing gameplay of "". He was featured in multiple videos for the gaming channel Machinima, mostly playing "Call of Duty". He became inactive in late 2011 and did not release any content on YouTube for nearly five years.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: On March 16, 2011, Dr Disrespect was appointed as the community manager of Sledgehammer Games. He joined Justin.tv (which later became Twitch) while he was working at Sledgehammer, and quit Sledgehammer in 2015 to focus on a full-time streaming career.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: Dr Disrespect gained a following for playing battle royale games, starting with "H1Z1" before switching to "" and then moving on to "". His stream on February 5, 2018 reached a total of 388,000 concurrent viewers, just shy of beating Tyler1's record of 410,000. His popularity has led to sponsorship deals with Gillette, ASUS, Roccat and Game Fuel.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: On January 10, 2019, Creative Artists Agency signed Dr Disrespect as a client. He signed a multi-year deal with Twitch in March 2020. In August 17 2020, he announced that he was writing a personal memoir called "Violence. Speed. Momentum." The book was released on March 30, 2021.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: In October 2020, Dr Disrespect worked with Hi-Rez Studios to design a custom map and a Dr Disrespect character skin for "Rogue Company".


title: Dr Disrespect

text: In December 2021, Dr Disrespect announced the launch of a triple A gaming studio named Midnight Society, which will be headed by him along with "Call of Duty" and "Halo" veterans Robert Bowling and Quinn DelHoyo, as well as Sumit Gupta acting as CEO. The studio's mission is creating a "day-zero" community experience, where the players will have the power to decide the games' "feature prioritization, pivotal design decisions, and fuel innovation in the shooter genre", and will focus on online player versus player multiplayer games. Their currently in-development free-to-play battle royale title, which is codenamed "Project Moon", sparked criticism around the sale of "Founder's Access" NFTs.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: Dr Disrespect's on-stream persona is usually ruthless, quick-witted, and bombastic. He is often regarded as an entertainer in the streaming industry, rather than a professional gamer. ESPN describes him as "a WWE character in the competitive gaming world" and he himself has said, "I created a character who plays multiplayer video games, and he's considered the most dominating gaming specimen."


title: Dr Disrespect

text: When playing the Dr Disrespect character, he wears a black mullet wig, sunglasses, a red or black long-sleeved athletic shirt, and a red or black tactical vest. He sports a mustache he has nicknamed "Slick Daddy" and "The Poisonous Ethiopian Caterpillar".


title: Dr Disrespect

text: He has repeatedly made known his discontent with "aim assist" mechanics in first-person shooters (a feature intended to make aiming easier) that only apply to players using a controller but are active during cross-play against mouse-and-keyboard players like himself. He argues that controller-wielding players who enable it have an unfair advantage over mouse-and-keyboard players, making claims that it reduces the skill involved such that it's "so easy you can close your eyes" and even going as far to compare the mechanic to cheating by calling it "like a version of hacks". Fellow streamer TimTheTatman has publicly suggested in response "if controller is so broken then play controller" as there is nothing technically "illegal" about the mechanic as it is a developer-implemented feature.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: On June 11, 2019, Dr Disrespects Twitch channel was suspended as he was livestreaming while attending the 2019 edition of the Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) in Los Angeles, California. Dr Disrespect and his cameraman went into a public restroom (Dr Disrespect re-entered the bathroom on two occasions, with filming still going on) at the venue in violation of Twitch's privacy rules and privacy laws in the California Penal Code. In addition, E3 organizer Entertainment Software Association revoked Dr Disrespect E3 pass, banning him from the event. Twitch reinstated the DrDisrespect channel on June 25.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: On June 26, 2020, the DrDisRespect Twitch account was banned from Twitch. Twitch's official statement on the ban said "As is our process, we take appropriate action when we have evidence that a streamer has acted in violation of our Community Guidelines or Terms of Service. These apply to all streamers regardless of status or prominence in the community". No specific details have been released. On June 27, Dr Disrespect tweeted that he had not yet been informed on the exact reason for the ban. On July 16, 20 days after he was banned, he broke his silence and was interviewed by "PC Gamer" and "The Washington Post"; insisting that he still does not know why Twitch banned him from the platform, that his contracts were still in good standing, debunks any "crazy speculation" or theory that developed and is focusing on his upcoming "Doc 3.0" personality.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: On August 6, after 42 days without streaming, he tweeted a link to his YouTube channel with the caption "Tomorrow, we arrive". He went live on YouTube at the same time, but the stream only showed a looping video of a custom Champions Club gas station. He also confirmed that he would show up on stream at noon PDT on the following day. On August 7, Dr Disrespect returned to his stream at 1 pm PDT. The reason for his ban has yet to be announced.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: On August 23, 2021, Dr Disrespect revealed that he has known "for months" the reason for his ban and his intentions to litigate due to suggested major damages.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: On March 10, 2022, Dr Disrespect and Twitch each announced that they had resolved their legal dispute with neither party admitting to any wrongdoing. In a follow-up tweet, he clarified that he will not be returning to the Twitch platform.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: Beahm is married and has a daughter. In December 2017, he took a two-month hiatus from streaming to focus on his marriage after he admitted to being unfaithful to his wife.


title: Dr Disrespect

text: Beahm stated that an unknown person shot at his house with a BB gun and hit an upstairs window on September 11, 2018. This was reportedly the second time that someone shot at his house.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The is a compact crossover SUV produced by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota. Considered the first ever compact crossover SUV, it made its debut in Japan and Europe in 1994, and in North America in 1995, being launched in January 1996. The vehicle was designed for consumers wanting a vehicle that had most of the benefits of SUVs, such as increased cargo room, higher visibility, and the option of full-time four-wheel drive, along with the manoeuvrability and fuel economy of a compact car. The vehicle's name is an abbreviation of "Recreational Active Vehicle with 4-wheel drive", or "Robust Accurate Vehicle with 4-wheel drive", although not all models come equipped with the four-wheel drive system.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: For the third-generation model, Toyota offered both short- and long-wheelbase versions of the RAV4. Short-wheelbase versions were sold in Japan and Europe; long-wheelbase versions in Australia and North America. Toyota of Japan also sold the longer-wheelbase version as the at Toyopet Store dealership chain from 2005 through 2016. RAV4 for the Japanese market were sold at two different Toyota dealership chains, Corolla Store and Netz.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In 2019, the RAV4 was the best-selling SUV of any type in the world, and the fourth best-selling passenger car overall. North America is the largest market, with 535,000 units sold in 2019, followed by Europe (133,000) and China (127,000). By February 2020, a total of 10 million RAV4s had been sold globally.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The first-generation RAV4, known as the XA10 series, was constructed on a unique platform that shared Carina and Corolla elements. It launched in Japan in May 1994. Design and development commenced in 1989 under code-name 153T, with design approval and start of production development in the second half of 1991 on the 3-door version and in 1993 for the 5-door version. In March 1995, the 5-door was launched and introduced to the US in January 1996, with standard dual airbags.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The XA10 series was available in both three and five door versions. In the US, a 2.0-litre straight-four producing was available. Both front-wheel drive and four-wheel drive were available, and the RAV4 could be had with either a five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmission. It was named the "1997 Automobile of the Year" by Automobile Magazine. The 1996-1997 model years had headlamps with a bracket push in type, dual filament bulb. The front running/turn signal lamps used older round socket dual filament bulbs. The rear used round socket type bulbs as well. In 1997 for the 1998 model year, the RAV4 was slightly restyled on the front and rear fascias, and a soft top three-door was made available. Power was increased slightly to . In June 1999, the two-door hardtop was dropped from the American lineup, leaving the five-door and soft top models. The 1998-2000 models used a single filament headlamp, with two different beams per housing (low and high beam) opposed to the original single beam with dual filaments. The rear lamps use the more modern rectangular style bulbs (7440/7443). The interior has subtle changes such as different colored seats, different colored door panels, extra cup holders on certain models (cigarette lighter/cup holder duo), and a digital odometer. In Japan, the 2.0-litre "3S-GE BEAMS" engine with was also available. Some variants of the 1998 Toyota RAV4 were labeled as SXA11 rather than XA10, paired with an owner-given name of "RAV 4.1".


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 EV is a plug-in, all-electric variant of the RAV4. Produced from 1997 to 2003 for fleet lease, this "zero emission" model was only offered for public sale for seven months in 2002, in very small quantities in California. Powered by an advanced Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack capable of storing 27 kWh, the RAV4 EV can go up to between charges, and came with a battery warranty. A total of 1,484 units were leased and/or sold in California, and as of mid-2012, almost 500 units were still in use.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The second generation RAV4, known as the XA20 series, went on sale in July 2000. Like the previous model, the XA20 was available in three- and five-door configurations and was constructed on a platform that shared Carina and Corolla elements. Development began in 1995, with a design freeze in the first half of 1998. Styling was done at Calty Design Research Incorporated (also simply known as Calty) by Yasuhide Hosoda and Kevin Hunter from 1996 to 1997.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The second generation RAV4 was originally offered in a number of trim levels in the UK: NV was front-wheel drive, while NRG, GX, and VX were permanent four-wheel drive with differing levels of equipment. Although the RAV4 was available as a three-door in Europe, Asia and Australia, the American model was only available in a five-door configuration. A 1.8-litre inline-four engine (only with 2WD) producing , 2.0-litre inline-four engine producing , 2.4-litre inline-four engine producing , and a D-4D diesel engine were available. Some RAV4s came with anti-lock braking system, electronic stability control, air conditioning, a height-adjustable driver's seat, cruise control, a six-speaker CD stereo and power windows, mirrors and seats. A sport package added a mesh grille, bonnet scoop, color-keyed door handles, a roof rack, silver sport pedals, heated mirrors, gray-painted bumpers and fender flares, and sport fabric seats. Other options included alloy wheels, heated seats, a sunroof and keyless entry. 16-inch wheels were standard; larger wheels were available on four-wheel drive models.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In Australia, the RAV4 came in base Edge and upmarket Cruiser models in both three- and five-door configurations. The main differentiation between the two models was in appearance. Edge models came with unpainted grey bumpers and side cladding, mirrors, and door handles, and featured steel rims. Cruiser models gained body-colored (painted) bumpers and moldings, mirrors, and door handles, alloy wheels, and ABS brakes. All models came equipped with a brand-new 2.0-litre four-cylinder engine featuring VVT (variable valve timing), resulting in improved power and torque, as well as fuel consumption. Permanent four-wheel drive was a feature. Options were ABS brakes (on the Edge), and air conditioning (on all models). The second generation RAV4 enjoyed success in Australia, where it became the best-selling SUV in the country in 2001, overtaking its rival the Honda CR-V for the first time.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In late 2003, the 2004 model RAV4 was given a styling update, improved equipment, and, in certain markets, a new engine. In the United States the safety structure was improved and Vehicle Stability Control made standard. The RAV4's 2.0-litre engine was upgraded with a new 2.4-litre engine in the US, and Australia producing and . Other countries got mostly 5-door models with the 2.0 litre VVT-i engine. Automatic electric air conditioning also became available. European models got a new catalytic converter because of the new European emission policy. The new model also got an electric throttle.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In Australia, for the facelift, the base Edge was renamed CV, and gained standard air conditioning (previously an option). The CV also received painted bumpers, which came in either silver or body-colored shades, depending on the body color. In addition, the model range was given a subtle facelift, consisting largely of a new front bumper with circular fog lights and white turn signals instead of the older orange lights. In 2005, a new "CV Sport" model was added to the range in Australia, which included a non-functional bonnet scoop, giving the RAV4 a more aggressive appearance. The CV Sport model was short-lived, lasting only a year, and was introduced primarily to stimulate sales until the new model arrived in early 2006.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The second generation RAV4 had the highest proportion of female drivers among all makes and models in the United States, with the possible exception of the Volkswagen New Beetle, according to 2003–2004 registration and survey data.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The Toyota RAV4 was redesigned for the 2006 model year, using an all-new platform, and was first unveiled at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show. It uses an electric power steering (EPS) system.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The third generation RAV4 is offered in two versions: a short- or a long-wheelbase model. The short-wheelbase model is sold only in Japan, Europe and New Zealand (diesel only in NZ), with the long-wheelbase RAV4 sold in Australia, New Zealand and North America. Since 2007, the extended-length RAV4 is also sold alongside its shorter counterpart in Japan as the Toyota Vanguard, albeit with a revised front-end body work incorporating a revised grille, bumper, bonnet and headlamps. When the larger XA40 arrived in 2012, the short wheelbase model was kept in production for the Japanese market and sold instead of the new version until 2016.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Japanese models went on sale in 2005 at Netz dealers. The 3-door was dropped in the beginning of 2007, leaving Toyota without a mini SUV until the 2009 Urban Cruiser, which is sold in Europe, North America (as the Scion xD) and Japan (as the Toyota ist). The XA30 series RAV4 was sold in Japan until July 2016, where the XA40 is not to be offered. Toyota discontinued the Vanguard in November 2013 in favour of the redesigned XU60 Harrier. The RAV4 continued to grow beyond the "compact car" segment in Japan due to enlarged exterior dimensions and engine displacement, placing it in the upper tax bracket as defined by Japanese government's dimension regulations and annual road tax obligations.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: It is also the first generation of RAV4 to be offered in regular length (for Asian and European markets, dropping the spare wheel from the rear) and extended length (for North American and Australian markets) versions. The extended-length version has an additional 21% in interior volume from the last generation, and had an optional third-row for two additional passengers (North America and Japan only). The RAV4 can still be had in either front-wheel drive or four-wheel drive in North America and Japan; however most countries only sell the four-wheel drive version.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In 2008 (for the 2009 model year), the RAV4 was given a mid-cycle refresh in some markets, featuring a number of changes, including an all-new four-cylinder engine, and a redesigned front end and tweaked rear end. The Limited model gets a different front grille and bumper cover from other models. The Sport model features a bigger spoiler and red badging along with an option on the V6 model to have a rear door without the externally mounted spare wheel (run-flat tires are used on this model). New features/options include turn signals integrated into the side mirrors, backup camera (with monitor built into rear-view mirror), satellite navigation, smart keyless entry, a push button starter, a multi-function instrument cluster display, etc. Much of the interior remains as before. In 2009, it was also the first time that the Canadian market received a front-wheel drive model to lower the price of entry.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In 2011 (for the 2012 model year), the RAV4 underwent another facelift, based on the Vanguard's styling.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The vehicles were built in Toyota's Tahara, Aichi assembly plant, and under contract by Toyota Industries in its Nagakusa, Obu, Aichi plant. Beginning in November 2008, vehicles for the North American market were built in the Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada Inc. at the new West Plant in Woodstock, Ontario. Beginning in March 2009, Chinese models began production by Tianjin FAW Toyota Motor Co. Ltd. in a joint-venture plant in Tianjin, China.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 in its standard European configuration received 4 stars for adult occupants, 4 stars for toddlers, and 3 stars for pedestrians from Euro NCAP in 2006.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Model ranges include "X", "G" and "Sport", replacing "RAV4 L" and "RAV4 J". The "X" and "G" can be ordered with either front-wheel drive or four-wheel drive. The "Sport" model with over fenders is four-wheel drive only. The extended-length RAV4 is sold in Japan as the Toyota Vanguard, released on August 30, 2007. It is sold in five- and seven-passenger versions and slots between the regular RAV4 and Kluger. As it is often the case in Japan-only vehicles, the Vanguard comes loaded with high-tech gadgets, including steering-assisted stability control, keyless entry and satellite navigation. The Toyota Vanguard was facelifted in 2010.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Unlike the North American variant that came with a 4-speed automatic gearbox, the Japanese RAV4 (or Vanguard) came with a 7-speed Automatic Transmission from the K112 line also known as Super CVT-i Sports Sequential Shiftmatic. That was along with the upgraded 2AZ-FE that was rated at .


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In Australia, the RAV4 is sold in four-cylinder base "CV", "Cruiser", "Cruiser L" and the limited edition "Altitude" trim levels, and "CV6", "SX6", and "ZR6" are 6-cylinder variants. The V6 was available from 2007.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In Malaysia, the 2.0-litre and 2.4-litre automatic variant is available, both in "X" and "G" trim. This model uses the "1AZ-FE" four-cylinder, inline 16-valve engine with DOHC and VVT-i. The output for the 2.0-litre RAV4 in Malaysia is at at 6,000 rpm with a torque of at 4,000 rpm while the 2.4-litre uses the "2AZ-FE" engine. Both the RAV4 and the Vanguard was available through general importers, but not officially sold by UMW Toyota Motor.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In the Middle East, the RAV4 is available with a 2.4-litre engine. Most markets, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), get the four-wheel drive model with an automatic gearbox, but KSA additionally gets a two-wheel-drive model as well, the base one with a manual gearbox.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: North American models include choices of 2.4-litre "2AZ-FE" inline-four or 3.5-litre "2GR-FE" V6 engine. The V6 model has . In model year 2009, a slightly larger 2.5-litre "2AR-FE" inline-four replaced the previous 2.4-litre engine. Either four-cylinder engine came equipped with a four-speed automatic transmission. The North American RAV4 with 3.5-litre "2GR-FE" V6 engine is fitted with a five-speed automatic transmission. All US models feature Toyota's Star Safety System which includes Vehicle Stability Control. The new RAV4 topped Toyota SUV sales in the United States for the first time.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Facelifted for the 2009 model year, North American models include the choice of a new "2AR-FE" inline-four or "2GR-FE" V6 engine.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 was first introduced in 2004; and was only available in two trim levels: Base and L. This was already an outgoing generation but still sold pretty well and both came in 2WD only and both models had, as standard equipment 16-inch alloy wheels and a roof rack. The new generation RAV4, which is the current model, had more features as standard equipment. Base and Limited trims continue to be available, but on the Limited trim 4WD became an option and the Base model added 17-inch steel wheels but the roof rack was still standard in both trims. For the refresh of 2009 the roof rack in the Base model was eliminated as standard equipment and the Sport trim was added to the line-up. Up to 2008MY all RAV4s in Mexico had four-cylinder engines but for 2009 the Sport model became available with the V6 engine, although the four-cylinder engine was still available. The Limited trim was only available with the V6 engine and four-wheel drive. For 2010, the RAV4 in Mexico has been simplified again to two trims but the Limited trim was dropped and consequently removed the four-wheel drive option, while the Base and Sport trims remained unchanged from 2009. The RAV4 in Mexico has experienced good acceptance since its introduction.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The XA30 RAV4 commenced production in China in April 2009. Trim levels were the 2.0 Classic, 2.0 Luxury, 2.0 Luxury Navi, 2.4 Luxury and 2.4 Luxury Navi. The 2.0-litre "1AZ-FE" and 2.4-litre "2AZ-FE" were standard paired to a 5 speed manual and 4 speed automatic gearbox. Pricing ranged from to ( to at the August 2019 exchange rate).


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The China-specific model had different styling compared to the those sold in other countries, with a black strip that was placed in between the radiator and license plate like a moustache. It also had chrome bars below the front and rear bumpers. The license plate was also moved to the bottom bumper area to make way for the RAV4 logo and a rear foglamp. Front and rear parking sensors are also standard.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Toyota worked together with Tesla Motors to develop the second generation RAV4 EV, and the electric SUV was scheduled for market launch late in the third quarter of 2012. Production was limited to 2,600 units during the first three years, and sales were limited to California only, beginning with the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles/Orange County and San Diego.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The second generation RAV4 EV has a motor powered by a 41.8kWh lithium ion battery pack, that Toyota expects to deliver a US Environmental Protection Agency rated range of in standard charge mode and in extended charge mode, for a combined range of ; and a combined fuel economy rating of . The RAV4 EV battery pack and electronic components are similar to those used in the Tesla Model S sedan launched in June 2012, because Tesla Motors is the manufacturer of the powertrain.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fourth generation RAV4 was a complete redesign; it was revealed at the November 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show. Unlike the previous generations, it featured a rear liftgate rather than a side-opening rear door and no longer had the spare wheel mounted on the rear door.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 no longer offers a V6 engine like the previous generation—all engine choices were inline four-cylinder engines. Also, while the previous XA30 model was offered in regular and extended wheelbase lengths, the XA40 was only sold in a single wheelbase length (corresponding to the long wheelbase XA30).


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The full hybrid system combined a 2.5-litre Atkinson cycle petrol engine with a powerful electric motor, a high voltage generator, a 204 cell nickel–metal hydride battery located under the rear seats, a power control unit, and a power split device. RAV4 Hybrids were available in both front and four-wheel drive variants. The four-wheel drive came equipped with a second, 50 kW high-voltage, rear mounted electric motor that offers increased traction and a towing capacity. The rear's electric motor operates independently from the hybrid system front's electric motor, driving the rear wheels alone.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: For the Japanese market, the previous generation in short-wheelbase length remained on sale in Japan until 2016 instead of the newer, export only, XA40. The Harrier replaced the long-wheelbase model in Japan, previously badged as the Vanguard.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In Australia, the fourth generation RAV4 went on sale in February 2013. Engine choices included a 2.0- and 2.5-litre four-cylinder petrol, and 2.0- and 2.2-litre turbo-diesels. Transmissions included a six-speed manual (UK/Australia only), Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), and six-speed automatic.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The UK model went on sale in 2013. Early European models included a choice of a 2.0-litre petrol or one of three 2.0-litre diesel engines.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 manufactured in Woodstock, Ontario, Canada had about 50 percent of its parts coming from Japan.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Taiwanese models included a 2.0-litre Dual VVT-i inline four-cylinder engine with 7-speed Continuously Variable Transmission (Sequential Manual) or 2.5-litre Dual VVT-i inline-four engine with six-speed automatic.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Production in China commenced in August 2013 and was sold alongside the XA30 model for a short time. The XA40 RAV4 in China came standard with the 2 litre "6ZR-FE" and 2.5 litre "5AR-FE" petrol engine. 6 speed manual, automatic and CVT gearboxes are standard. Seven trim levels were available with prices ranging from 183,800 to 272,800 yuan (US$25,680 to 38,120).


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In 2015, for the 2016 model year, Toyota released a facelift for the XA40 series. The facelift debuted with the RAV4 Hybrid shown at the April 2015 New York International Auto Show. The facelift included redesigned LED front and rear lamps and updated speedometer dials with full color TFT multi information display.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 Adventure is a concept vehicle that accentuated the car's look to reinforce its off-road capabilities. It included dark red body color, extended wheel arches, 20-inch alloy wheels and matte painted front and rear bumpers.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 Premium is a concept vehicle with Deep Bronze body color, bumpers in Deep Bronze, chrome-finished spoiler, chrome inserts in the rear bumper, brushed aluminium skid plates, integrated tailpipe at the rear bumper, 20-inch wheels, leather interior upholstery designed by Toyota's Kansei design department, seats with black piping and V-shaped outline, two-tone double stitching and grey and black leather on the instrument panel and door panels.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The Japan--made RAV4 in its most basic Latin American configuration with 3 airbags received 5 stars for adult occupant and 4 stars for toddlers from Latin NCAP in 2015.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) evaluations, the 2013 and 2014 model year RAV4 achieved a "good" crashworthiness rating for head restraints and seats, roof strength, side, and moderate overlap front, while achieving a "poor" rating in the IIHS Small Overlap Frontal Test. Modifications were made starting in the 2015 model year which increased the small overlap front rating to "good".


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The small overlap test, introduced in 2012 by the IIHS, simulates a frontal collision on 25 percent of the driver's side. Since its adoption, the IIHS has noticed several automakers making non-symmetrical modifications to their vehicles, including the RAV4. Another small overlap test was conducted on a number of vehicles, including a 2015 RAV4, but was conducted on the passenger side instead. The RAV4 fared the worst and would have received a "poor" rating if the IIHS were to provide ratings for passenger-side protection. The crash test's intrusion was further into the vehicle on the passenger's side than on the driver's side and caused the passenger door to open during the crash.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fifth-generation RAV4 was unveiled at the March 2018 New York International Auto Show. The design was previewed by the FT-AC concept shown at the December 2017 Los Angeles Auto Show. It is built on the same TNGA-K (GA-K) platform as the XV70 series Camry. Both 4-cylinder petrol-powered and petrol-electric hybrid (Hybrid Synergy Drive) variants would remain available.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: Development of the model was led by chief engineer Yoshikazu Saeki. Built on the GA-K platform, the unibody chassis of the fifth-generation RAV4 is 57 percent more rigid than the previous generation. The model incorporates a multi-link rear suspension to which is claimed to provide more ideal damping for handling, lesser interior cabin noise, and enhanced ride comfort.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: For improved forward visibility around the A-pillar, Toyota positioned the side mirrors lower on the doors. The lowered beltline and the enlarged rear quarter glass also increased the side visibility from inside the car. Forward visibility is also enhanced by the positioning of the lower instrument panel and tucked-in windshield wipers.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fifth-generation RAV4 also introduced a newly developed four-wheel drive system, Dynamic Torque Vectoring AWD. Claimed to be a world-first adoption, it is a torque vectoring mechanism, which independently distributes torque to the left and right rear wheels according to driving conditions. A disconnect is incorporated to transmit driving force only to the rear wheels when 4WD is deemed unnecessary.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: For hybrid models, all-wheel drive model utilized the "E-Four"/"AWD-i" system. The updated system increases the total torque to the electronically driven rear wheels by 30 percent compared to the AWD system used in the previous generation. A new control system allows torque distribution to the front and rear wheels to be changed from between 100:0 to 20:80. A standard AWD system without torque vectoring is also available for petrol models.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The RAV4 went on sale in the United States in December 2018, while the RAV4 Hybrid went on sale in March 2019. It is available in five petrol trim levels which include the LE, XLE, XLE Premium, Adventure and Limited, and four hybrid trim levels which include the LE, XLE, XSE and Limited. Both Adventure and Limited grades are equipped with Dynamic Torque Vectoring AWD. It has Multi Terrain Select providing operators an ability to maximize traction when driving on sand, mud, rock, or dirt. North American market RAV4 is equipped with a 2.5-litre petrol engine paired with an 8-speed Direct Shift automatic. A 7-inch multi-touch screen is available standard, as well as the Toyota Safety Sense 2.0.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: For the North American market, the RAV4 is built in two plants in Ontario, Canada, while the RAV4 Hybrid is produced in Georgetown, Kentucky, United States. The RAV4 Prime plug-in hybrid is imported from the Nagakusa plant in Japan.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In 2019, for the 2020 model year, the TRD Off-Road trim level was added to the lineup, making a total of ten trim levels available. In 2020, for the 2021 model year the XLE Premium Hybrid trim level is added to the lineup. Toyota also added new TRD-stamped stainless steel front skid plate for the TRD Off-Road. The SE Hybrid grade is added in 2021 for the 2022 model year. The Woodland Edition model was added in 2022 for the 2023 model year with standard hybrid powertrain, TRD bronze-coloured wheels, and roof rails. For the 2023 model, all RAV4 trims also received upgrade to Toyota Safety Sense 2.5.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In the United Kingdom, the fifth-generation RAV4 is available exclusively in its hybrid version, either front-wheel drive or with four-wheel drive. It is available in four grades—Icon, Design, Excel and Dynamic. Ireland was the first market to release the Hybrid version of the fifth-generation RAV4 with delivery in late December 2018.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fifth-generation RAV4 was unveiled in Japan in February 2019, and went on sale in April 2019. It marked the reintroduction of the RAV4 nameplate in Japan after almost three years of hiatus. Monthly sales target in Japan was set at 3,000 units, while grade levels available during launch are X, G, "Z package", Adventure, Hybrid X, and Hybrid G. Until 2020, the model was only available in Corolla Store and Netz dealership chains. The plug-in hybrid version called the RAV4 PHV was added in June 2020.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fifth-generation RAV4 was also launched in Singapore on 10 January 2019 at the Singapore Motorshow and in the Philippines on 8 February 2019.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In Malaysia, the fifth-generation RAV4 was launched in the country on 18 June 2020 and available in 2 engine options, the 2.0 M20A-FKS and 2.5 A25A-FKS, both in single trim only. As of August 2020, the 2.0-litre engine option was dropped.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fifth-generation RAV4 has been available in South Africa since March 2019 in five variants: 2.0 GX 2WD, 2.0 GX CVT 2WD, 2.0 GX-R CVT AWD, 2.5 VX CVT 2WD and 2.5 VX AT AWD, with the 2.5 GX Hybrid available since September 2021. The 2.0 GX 2WD trim is also available with 6-speed manual transmission. As of March 2022, the GX Hybrid was dropped in favour of the facelifted GX-R and VX e-Four Hybrids.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fifth-generation RAV4 went on sale in Australia on 8 May 2019 and is available in four trim levels: GX, GXL, Cruiser and Edge. The GX, GXL and Cruiser trims have two engine options: the 2.0 L petrol and the 2.5 L hybrid, while the Edge trim has only one engine option: the 2.5 L petrol. The GX trim is available with either 6-speed manual transmission or CVT, while the GXL and Cruiser trims as well as the GX, GXL and Cruiser hybrid variants are only available with CVT. The Edge trim is available with 8-speed automatic transmission.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The fifth-generation RAV4 was also launched in China on 22 November 2019 at the Guangzhou International Motor Show. It is produced and sold by FAW Toyota. Another Chinese market variant with different front and rear fascias produced and sold by GAC Toyota is called the Toyota Wildlander (). The PHEV version of the Wildlander was unveiled on 19 April 2021.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: A hybrid variant of the RAV4 was announced available alongside the standard petrol variant and made available in March 2019. It comes standard with four-wheel drive and the hybrid system uses a 1.6 kWh nickel-metal-hydride battery pack. Fuel economy is estimated by the EPA in to be:


title: Toyota RAV4

text: A plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) variant of the RAV4 was unveiled at the December 2019 Los Angeles Auto Show. The vehicle, called the RAV4 PHEV (RAV4 Prime in North America), is powered by a differently-tuned 2.5-litre "A25A-FXS" engine with the same power output as the standard hybrid version but with uprated torque to at 2,800 rpm. It has a total power output of , which is higher than the regular hybrid version. The RAV4 PHEV has a claimed acceleration from in 5.8 seconds and in 6.2 seconds, which, at the time of its introduction, made it the second quickest acceleration time in Toyota’s lineup after the GR Supra sports car.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The sales have begun in Japan since 8 June 2020, initially sold as the RAV4 PHV. The "PHV" moniker was later dropped in October 2022.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In September 2021, Toyota revealed the updated RAV4 with new LED projector type headlights, alloy wheels which can be had in either silver or black, USB-C charging ports, while the European market gains the new Adventure variant which has been offered in other markets like Japan, United States and Australia. Plug-in hybrids are still available with up to 306 PS and it has a claimed all-EV range of .


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In October 2022, the Toyota RAV4 GR Sport was launched in Europe with a firmer suspension, a sportier look and new 19-inch wheels.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: A Suzuki-badged version of the RAV4 PHEV called Suzuki Across was introduced in July 2020, exclusively for the European market. The model was introduced to help Suzuki meet fleet-wide average emission targets in the European Union in 2021, as the Across offers a low 22 g/km emission figure. The Suzuki variant receives slim LED headlights, which appear to be identical to the Chinese market Toyota Wildlander, and a rounder front grille that differentiates the Across from the Toyota RAV4.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The Suzuki Across received a minor update in November 2022, receiving the new touchscreen infotainment and digital instrument cluster from the facelifted Toyota RAV4.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: An aftermarket modified version of the RAV4, the Mitsuoka Buddy, made its debut in October 2020 for Japan only. The front fascia harkens back to the Chevrolet K5 Blazer and the rear is similar to the Cadillac cars of the 1970s. Engine options are 2.0-litre petrol and 2.5-litre hybrid.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: In September 2019, "Teknikens Värld" ran both the petrol and hybrid versions of the RAV4 on the moose test, where both vehicles failed. The testers noted "dangerous behavior" on the cone course, and that the electronic stability control "engaged very late", causing both vehicles to hop up on their outer tyres multiple times during the test. In response to the findings, Toyota issued a software update. In January 2020, "Teknikens Värld" retested the model giving it a passing mark.


title: Toyota RAV4

text: The Japan-made RAV4 in its most basic Latin American configuration with 7 airbags received 5 stars for adult occupants, 5 stars for toddlers and "Advanced Award" from Latin NCAP in 2019.


title: Five Eyes

text: The Five Eyes (FVEY) is an intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries are parties to the multilateral UKUSA Agreement, a treaty for joint cooperation in signals intelligence. Informally, Five Eyes can also refer to the group of intelligence agencies by these countries.


title: Five Eyes

text: The origins of the FVEY can be traced to informal secret meetings during World War II between British and American code-breakers, which started before the U.S. formally entered the war, followed by the Allies' 1941 Atlantic Charter that established their vision of the post-war world. Canadian academic Srdjan Vucetic argues the alliance emerged from Winston Churchill's Iron Curtain speech in 1946, which warned of open conflict with the Soviet bloc unless the English-speaking democracies learned to cooperate:


title: Five Eyes

text: Neither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of world organisation will be gained without what I have called the fraternal association of the English-speaking peoples. This means a special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States... the continuance of the intimate relationship between our military advisers, leading to common study of potential dangers..."


title: Five Eyes

text: As the Cold War deepened, the intelligence sharing arrangement became formalised under the ECHELON surveillance system in the 1960s. This was initially developed by the FVEY to monitor the communications of the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, although it is now used to monitor communications worldwide.


title: Five Eyes

text: In the late 1990s, the existence of ECHELON was disclosed to the public, triggering a major debate in the European Parliament and, to a lesser extent, the United States Congress. The FVEY further expanded their surveillance capabilities during the course of the "war on terror", with much emphasis placed on monitoring the World Wide Web. Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the Five Eyes as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that does not answer to the known laws of its own countries". Documents leaked by Snowden in 2013 revealed that the FVEY has been spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other in order to circumvent restrictive domestic regulations on surveillance of citizens.


title: Five Eyes

text: In spite of continued controversy over its methods, the Five Eyes relationship remains one of the most comprehensive known espionage alliances in history.


title: Five Eyes

text: Since processed intelligence is gathered from multiple sources, the intelligence shared is not restricted to signals intelligence (SIGINT) and often involves defence intelligence as well as human intelligence (HUMINT) and geospatial intelligence (GEOINT).


title: Five Eyes

text: The following table provides an overview of most of the FVEY agencies involved in such forms of data sharing.


title: Five Eyes

text: The earliest origins of the Five Eyes alliance are secret meetings between British and US code-breakers at the British code-breaking establishment at Bletchley Park in February 1941 (before the US entry into the war). A February 1941 entry in the diary of Alastair Denniston, head of Bletchley Park, reading "The Ys are coming!" ("Ys" referring to "Yanks") is the first record, followed by "Ys arrive" on 10 February. The British and US agencies shared extremely confidential information, including the British breaking of the German Enigma code, and the US breaking of the Japanese Purple code. From then key figures travelled back and forth across the Atlantic, including Denniston and code-breaking expert Alan Turing. The practical relationship established for wartime signals intelligence developed into a formal signed agreement at the start of the post-war Cold War.


title: Five Eyes

text: The formal Five Eyes alliance can be traced back to the Atlantic Charter, which was issued in August 1941 to lay out the Allied goals for the post-war world. On 17 May 1943, the British–U.S. Communication Intelligence Agreement, also known as the BRUSA Agreement, was signed by the UK and U.S. governments to facilitate co-operation between the U.S. War Department and the British Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS). On 5 March 1946, the secret treaty was formalized as the UKUSA Agreement, which forms the basis for all signal intelligence cooperation between the NSA and GCHQ to this day.


title: Five Eyes

text: In 1948, the treaty was extended to include Canada, followed by Norway (1952), Denmark (1954), West Germany (1955), Australia (1956), and New Zealand (1956). These countries participated in the alliance as "third parties". By 1955, the formal status of the remaining Five Eyes countries was officially acknowledged in a newer version of the UKUSA Agreement that contained the following statement:


title: Five Eyes

text: The "Five Eyes" term has its origins as a shorthand for a "AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US EYES ONLY" (AUSCANNZUKUS) releasability caveat.


title: Five Eyes

text: During the Cold War (generally accepted to be approximately the period 1947–1991), GCHQ and the NSA shared intelligence on the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and several eastern European countries (known as Exotics). Over the course of several decades, the ECHELON surveillance network was developed to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies.


title: Five Eyes

text: During the Vietnam War, Australian and New Zealand operators in the Asia-Pacific region worked directly to support the United States, while GCHQ operators stationed in the (then) British colony of Hong Kong were tasked with monitoring North Vietnamese air defence networks. During the Falklands War, the British received intelligence data from its FVEY allies such as Australia, as well as from third parties such as Norway and France. In the aftermath of the Gulf War, a technician of the ASIS was used by SIS to bug Kuwaiti government offices.


title: Five Eyes

text: In the 1950s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Iran's Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. In the 1960s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the assassination of the Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba. In the 1970s, the ASIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Chile's President Salvador Allende. During the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, SIS and the CIA took part in Operation Yellowbird to rescue dissidents from the Chinese regime.


title: Five Eyes

text: By the end of the 20th century, the ECHELON surveillance network had evolved into a global system capable of sweeping up massive amounts of private and commercial communications, including telephone calls, fax, e-mail and other data traffic. This was done through the interception of communication bearers such as satellite transmission and public switched telephone networks.


title: Five Eyes

text: The Five Eyes has two types of information collection methods: the PRISM program and the Upstream collection system. The PRISM program gathers user information from technology firms such as Google, Apple and Microsoft, while the Upstream system gathers information directly from the communications of civilians via fiber cables and infrastructure as data flows past. The program's first disclosure to the public came in 1972 when a former NSA communications analyst reported to "Ramparts" magazine that the NSA had developed technology that "could crack all Soviet codes". In 1988, Duncan Campbell revealed in the "New Statesman" the existence of ECHELON, an extension of the UKUSA Agreement on global signals intelligence [Sigint]. The story, 'Somebody's listening,' detailed how the eavesdropping operations were not only being employed in the interests of 'national security,' but were regularly abused for corporate espionage in the service of US business interests. The piece passed largely unnoticed outside of journalism circles.


title: Five Eyes

text: In 1996, a detailed description of ECHELON was provided by New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager in a book titled ""Secret Power – New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network"", which was cited by the European Parliament in a 1998 report titled "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control" (PE 168.184). On 16 March 2000, the Parliament called for a resolution on the Five Eyes and their ECHELON surveillance network, which, if passed, would have called for the "complete dismantling of ECHELON".


title: Five Eyes

text: Three months later, the Temporary Committee on ECHELON was set up by the European Parliament to investigate the ECHELON surveillance network. However, according to a number of European politicians such as Esko Seppänen of Finland, these investigations were hindered by the European Commission.


title: Five Eyes

text: In the United States, congressional legislators warned that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor U.S. citizens. On 14 May 2001, the U.S. government cancelled all meetings with the Temporary Committee on ECHELON.


title: Five Eyes

text: According to a BBC report in May 2001, "the US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists."


title: Five Eyes

text: In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the surveillance capabilities of the Five Eyes were greatly increased as part of the global War on Terror.


title: Five Eyes

text: During the run-up to the Iraq War, the communications of UN weapons inspector Hans Blix were monitored by the Five Eyes. The office of UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan was bugged by British agents. An NSA memo detailed plans of the Five Eyes to boost eavesdropping on UN delegations of six countries as part of a "dirty tricks" campaign to apply pressure on these six countries to vote in favour of using force against Iraq.


title: Five Eyes

text: SIS and the CIA forged a surveillance partnership with Libya's ruler Muammar Gaddafi to spy on Libyan dissidents in the West, in exchange for permission to use Libya as a base for extraordinary renditions.


title: Five Eyes

text: , the Five Eyes also have access to SIPRNet, the U.S. government's classified version of the Internet.


title: Five Eyes

text: In 2013, documents leaked by the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed the existence of numerous surveillance programs jointly operated by the Five Eyes. The following list includes several notable examples reported in the media:


title: Five Eyes

text: In March 2014, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ordered Australia to stop spying on East Timor. This marks the first such restrictions imposed on a member of the FVEY.


title: Five Eyes

text: In November 2020, the Five Eyes alliance criticised China's rules which disqualified elected legislators in Hong Kong.


title: Five Eyes

text: On 1 December 2018, Meng Wanzhou, a Huawei executive, was arrested by Canadian authorities at Vancouver International Airport, in order to face charges of fraud and conspiracy in the United States. China responded by arresting two Canadian nationals. According to the "South China Morning Post" this conflict was seen by analysts as the beginning of a direct clash between the CCPs leadership of China and members of the Five Eyes alliance. In the months that followed, the United States placed restrictions on technology exchanges with China. Following prompting by parliamentarians in Australia and by US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, the UK Government announced it would reduce the presence of Huawei technology in its 5G network to zero. The newspaper reported that these events were seen by Beijing as political warfare "waged with the world’s oldest intelligence alliance, the Five Eyes."


title: Five Eyes

text: In mid-April 2021, the New Zealand Foreign Minister Nanaia Mahuta issued a statement that New Zealand would not let the Five Eyes alliance dictate its bilateral relationship with China and that New Zealand was uncomfortable with expanding the remit of the intelligence grouping. In response, the Australian Government expressed concern that Wellington was undermining collective efforts to combat what it regarded as Chinese aggression. Mahuta's remarks were echoed by New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern who claimed that while New Zealand was still committed to the Five Eyes alliance, it would not use the network as its first point for communicating on non-security matters. While "The Telegraph" defence editor Con Coughlin and British Conservative Member of Parliament Bob Seely criticised New Zealand for undermining the Five Eyes' efforts to put a united front against Beijing, the Chinese "Global Times" praised New Zealand for putting its own national interests over the Five Eyes.


title: Five Eyes

text: In late April 2021, the "Global Times" reported that employees of companies and organisations considered to be "at-risk" of foreign infiltration travelling to the Five Eyes countries would be monitored by the Chinese Ministry of State Security. These employees will be required to report their travel destinations, agendas, and meetings with foreign personnel to Chinese authorities. Other security measures include undergoing "pre-departure spying education" and leave their electronic devices at home and bring new ones abroad. These measures came at a time of heightened tensions between China and the Five Eyes countries.


title: Five Eyes

text: In mid-December 2021, the United States Secretary of State Antony Blinken along with the Foreign Ministers of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom issued a joint statement criticising the exclusion of opposition candidates, the Hong Kong national security law, and urging China to respect human rights and freedoms in Hong Kong in accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration. In response, the Chinese Government claimed the Hong Kong elections were fair and criticised the Five Eyes for interfering in Hong Kong's domestic affairs.


title: Five Eyes

text: In May 2022, Justice ministers from the Five Eyes intelligence network have pledged their support to Ukraine in the prosecution of Russian war crimes. They would also support the investigations of the International Criminal Court (ICC), they said.


title: Five Eyes

text: In recent years, documents of the FVEY have shown that they are intentionally spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other. Shami Chakrabarti, the director of the advocacy group Liberty, claimed that the FVEY alliance increases the ability of member states to "subcontract their dirty work" to each other. The former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the FVEY as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that doesn't answer to the laws of its own countries".


title: Five Eyes

text: As a result of Snowden's disclosures, the FVEY alliance has become the subject of a growing amount of controversy in parts of the world:


title: Five Eyes

text: Beginning with its founding by the United States and United Kingdom in 1946, the alliance expanded twice, inducting Canada in 1948 and Australia and New Zealand in 1956, establishing the Five Eyes as it remains to this day. Further, there are nations termed "Third Party Partners" that share their intelligence with the Five Eyes despite not being formal members. While the Five Eyes is rooted in a particular agreement with specific operations amongst the five nations, similar sharing agreements have been set up independently and for specific purposes; for example, according to Edward Snowden, the NSA has a "massive body" called the Foreign Affairs Directorate dedicated to partnering with foreign countries beyond the alliance.


title: Five Eyes

text: Several countries have been prospective members of the Five Eyes. Israel, Singapore, South Korea, and Japan have or continue to collaborate with the alliance, though none are formally members. According to French news magazine "L'Obs", in 2009, the United States propositioned France to join the treaty and form a subsequent "Six Eyes" alliance. French President Nicolas Sarkozy required that France have the same status as the other members, including the signing of a "no-spy agreement". This proposal was approved by the director of the NSA, but rejected by the director of the CIA and by President Barack Obama, resulting in a refusal from France.


title: Five Eyes

text: In 2013 it was reported that Germany was interested in joining the Five Eyes alliance. At that time, several members of the United States Congress, including Tim Ryan and Charles Dent, were pushing for Germany's entrance to the Five Eyes alliance.


title: Five Eyes

text: Since 2018, through an initiative sometimes termed "Five Eyes Plus 3", Five Eyes formed associations with France, Germany and Japan to introduce an information-sharing framework to counter threats arising from foreign activities of China as well as Russia. Five Eyes plus France, Japan and South Korea share information about North Korea's military activities including ballistic missiles, in an arrangement sometimes dubbed "Five Eyes Plus".


title: Five Eyes

text: The Nine Eyes is a different arrangement that consists of the same members of Five Eyes working with Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Norway.


title: Five Eyes

text: According to a document leaked by Edward Snowden, there is another working agreement among 14 nations officially known as SIGINT Seniors Europe, or "SSEUR". These "14 Eyes" consist of the same members of Nine Eyes plus Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden.


title: Five Eyes

text: As spelled out by Privacy International, there are a number of issue-specific intelligence agreements that include some or all the above nations and numerous others, such as:


title: Hridayam

text: Hridayam () is a 2022 Indian Malayalam-language coming-of-age romantic drama film written and directed by Vineeth Sreenivasan. It was produced by Visakh Subramaniam through Merryland Cinemas and co-produced by Noble Babu Thomas through Big Bang Entertainments. The film stars Pranav Mohanlal, Kalyani Priyadarshan and Darshana Rajendran. The film's songs and background score was composed by Hesham Abdul Wahab.


title: Hridayam

text: "Hridayam" marks the return of Merryland Studio, one of the earliest film studios in Kerala, into film production. The film reintroduced once obsolete audio cassettes and limited edition vinyl records in India. Principal photography began in February 2020, after taking a break with the surge of COVID-19 pandemic in India, filming was concluded in March 2021. The film was shot at KCG College of Technology in Chennai, where Vineeth, his wife Divya and his friend and actor Aju Varghese studied, and in Palakkad, Kochi, and Andhra Pradesh.


title: Hridayam

text: "Hridayam" was released in theatres worldwide on 21 January 2022. It received positive reviews from critics and audiences. The film grossed over worldwide, becoming the 3rd highest grossing Malayalam film of the year. The film won two Kerala State Film Awards, including Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value. The film was one of the top rated Indian movies of 2022, by the Internet Movie Database (IMDB).


title: Hridayam

text: Arun Neelakandan, a teenager from Kerala, joins KC Tech, a popular engineering college in Chennai for his graduation. He falls in love with college sweetheart Darshana at the first sight. They grow closer after Arun is ragged by his seniors, but a few scuffles and incidents get the seniors suspended and they start dating. Arun accompanies his friend Antony to meet his online girlfriend, and feels attracted to her colleague. He lies to her, states he is single and they lean in for a kiss but they are interrupted by moral police. A guilt-ridden Arun confesses to Darshana, who lividly calls off the relationship. In the heat of their argument, they challenge each other that they will have other romantic partners better than each other.


title: Hridayam

text: Arun's life goes downhill after the breakup. He takes to ragging juniors and thrashing up other people and outsiders in his second year and is addicted to alcohol. He begins a relationship with Maya but doesn't find himself happy. Meanwhile, Darshana starts dating Kedar, a womanizer. He warns Darshana but she ignores it as a sign of jealousy. However, Arun is proven right and Darshana slaps Kedar. Kedar threatens to spread rumours about her, and her friend convey this to and Arun beats Kedar up and silences him. At home, Arun's parents notice something is wrong with their son. His father advices him to quit alcohol and turn over a new leaf in his life.


title: Hridayam

text: Arun moves out of his shared hostel room to a more peaceful atmosphere. He joins their classmate Selva's coaching classes along with Antony and they soon rebound in academics, with Arun being fifth in class, and both clearing many of their exams. Later, Darshana too joins Selva's coaching class and finds herself liking the newly changed Arun. Selva dies in a bus accident and everyone in his class is grief-stricken. Maya calls off her relationship with Arun after her father's death, realizing that Arun does not love her but only wanted her to make Darshana jealous. On the last day of college, all students are led into a room called "the secret alley," (which was shown in their first year and they learned that only the final year students can see what it is on their final day) where they leave a message for the next batch of students. However, Arun finds himself unable to write anything. Darshana, who accompanies Arun to his train, asks him if they would have still been together if not for the argument four years ago. He does not have an answer.


title: Hridayam

text: After graduation, Arun gets a job in a campus interview. Two years later, Arun feels dissatisfied with his job and leaves it. Darshana, now a YouTube vlogger, advises him to pursue his dreams. On a bus journey, he meets Jimmy, a wedding photographer who is in need of a partner, drags him to photography. Arun decides that they should be a company that specialises in intimate weddings since no such brand currently exists in Kerala. He gets their company a shoutout from Prateek Tiwari, his batchmate at KC Tech who, is now a popular Bollywood singer. After the shoutout, they get lots of bookings and enquiries and they become famous and Arun now feels satisfied with what he is doing.


title: Hridayam

text: During one of such weddings, Arun sees Nithya Balagopal and feels instantly attracted to her. Impressed with his photographs, Nithya recommends Arun to her cousin, who is about to be married. However, Arun discovers that the groom is Kedar and exposes his character to Nithya. The wedding is called off and Nithya is grateful to Arun for saving her cousin's life. They grow closer and Nithya accompanies Arun to Chennai, for a wedding and back to the terrace where Selva held his coaching classes, but unfortunately now locked up after arrival of new tenants.


title: Hridayam

text: With their parents' approval, Nithya and Arun fix their marriage. Darshana attends the wedding reception but finds herself unable to come to terms with the fact Arun can no longer be hers and leaves in tears. Arun and Nithya get married and live happily thereafter. Three years later, Nithya gives birth to a baby boy. A joyous Arun feels like telling Darshana the news first.


title: Hridayam

text: Darshana's marriage is fixed, and Arun and Nitya along with their son go to her place for the same, but Darshana, who still has feelings for Arun, acts too close around him, which irks Nithya. That night, she calls him to meet at the same place they confessed to each other, the beach. Arun tries to secretly leave but Nithya wakes up and he lies to her saying that they have a bachelorette party for her and leaves. But Arun feels guilty and goes to the room to find Nithya in a sad state realising that he lied. He confesses that he is going to meet Darshana. She allows him and she goes back to sleep peacefully. Darshana, who is due to get married the next day, expresses her reservations about marriage to Arun, and asks him once again if they would have still been together were it not for the argument. Arun tells her to stop thinking about the what-ifs and look forward to her future and they tearfully embrace. Darshana gets married.


title: Hridayam

text: While in Chennai, Arun takes a detour to KC Tech and gets the key to the secret alley. He writes a thank you note to the college for making him who he is and exits the campus, where he, Nithya and their son return home.


title: Hridayam

text: "Hridayam" was officially announced in December 2019, set to be produced by Visakh Subramaniam and co-produced by Noble Babu Thomas, starring Pranav Mohanlal, Kalyani Priyadarshan, and Darshana Rajendran, intended to be released during Onam 2020. The film marks the comeback of film studio Merryland Studio into film production after a hiatus of 30 years, under the new company Merryland Cinemas. Vineeth told in an interview that the characters in the film draws inspiration from moments and memories from his and his wife's lives and their friends' from college and life beyond that. According to Vineeth, "Hridayam" is about a young man named Arun Neelakandan and "tracks his journey right from when he was 17 to 30 years old. We have tried to convey the various highs and lows in his life, his friendships, love, emotional ups and downs, career-related uncertainties, up to the time he is about to be a family man". He described the film as a coming-of-age drama. Talking about how much of his real-life is presented in the film, Vineeth said that it is "based on a lot of incidents that happened during my college life in Chennai. The first half of the film is a cinematic dramatisation of real-life events. "Thattathin Marayathu" is a campus I am not familiar with. But this is home". About casting Pranav, Vineeth said that he liked him from "Aadhi", there was something special about his eyes and smile in it, and that he wanted a charmer rather than an accomplished actor, like Suriya in "Vaaranam Aayiram" or Logan Lerman in "The Perks of Being a Wallflower".


title: Hridayam

text: The film began principal photography in early February 2020. After a schedule in Kochi, filming was shifted to Kollengode, Palakkad for a two-day schedule. The film's main location was Chennai. Filming was paused in March 2020 due to a 21-day COVID-19 lockdown in India. By then about 50 percent of the film was complete, primarily featuring Pranav and Darshana. Filming was put on hold indefinitely after the surge of COVID-19 pandemic. It was resumed in January 2021. Kalyani joined the sets. Vineeth recalled in an interview that he never saw Pranav reading his dialogues on location as he would have learned it by rote. Significant parts of the film takes place in a college. It was shot at KCG College of Technology in Chennai, where Vineeth and his wife studied. That schedule was concluded in Kochi on 21 January. Vineeth said that "Hridayam" gave him the most fun working in a film since "Thattathin Marayathu". For certain scenes,Rohit [A.D.F Of Mumbai] made the actors listen to music to get them feel the mood of the scene. Another schedule in Chennai was concluded on 11 February, about 95 percent of the film was complete by then. Principal photography was complete by mid-March, with one song remaining to be shot with limited crew. The film, which was originally charted to shoot for 100 days in multiple schedules was able to complete in 60 or more days. The follow-up 5-day song shoot was held in July 2021 in Andhra Pradesh. Post-production of the film was completed by October 2021.


title: Hridayam

text: The music for the film was composed by Hesham Abdul Wahab. In early 2020, Vineeth went to Istanbul to record pieces of music for the film. Actor Prithviraj Sukumaran has sung a song for the film. Beside acting, Darshana Rajendran has sung the track "Darshana". The track list was revealed on 21 June 2021 on the occasion of World music day. Audio mastering of the film was completed by September 2021. Audio rights of the movie was acquired by Think Music. "Hridayam" is bringing back audio cassettes and limited edition vinyl records back to India, which was a dream shared by Vineeth, Hesham, and Think Music executives. Since its production was obsolete in the country, Think Music had to partner with a cassette manufacturer in Japan to import its physical copies to India.


title: Hridayam

text: When the filming was through midway in March 2020, the producers announced that the film will have a theatrical release. In October 2021, it was announced along with the song "Darshana" that the film will have a worldwide theatrical release on 21 January 2022.


title: Hridayam

text: Disney+ Hotstar has acquired the film's post-theatrical digital distribution and was premiered on 18 February 2022. and Satellite rights bagged by Asianet


title: Hridayam

text: It received mostly positive reviews from critics. Rating 3 out of 5 stars, "The New Indian Express" said that "Vineeth Sreenivasan has structured "Hridayam" in a way that makes it seem like you're watching two feel-good films for the price of one", and that the film has a therapeutic quality that "makes you feel less embarrassed about the awkward, foolish things you did in the past", and "as a coming-of-age drama, "Hridayam" is to Vineeth Sreenivasan what "Premam" was to Alphonse Puthren. (If given a choice, I would easily pick "Hridayam" over "Premam"). It's one of those films I wanted to hug once the end credits started rolling", also praised the casting. "The Times of India" gave a rating of 3.5 on 5 and wrote ""Hridayam" tries to give a realistic, coming-of-age depiction of a Malayali's campus life in Chennai and those who have done engineering in the city might connect with it the best, thanks to the different moods, flavours and vibes of the city woven into the narrative in a hearty manner ... The movie has an interesting emotional core, brought out by performances of Pranav, Darshana and others, which makes gentle tugs at the viewers' heartstrings". "The Week" also rated 3.5 out of 5, called it "a coming-of-age drama high on emotions" and stated that "Vineeth Srinivasan is back with a feel-good, new-age drama that most youngsters can relate to ... Arun is safe in the hands of Pranav, who has indeed grown as an actor", also praised the music and cinematography.


title: Hridayam

text: "The Quint" rated the film 2.5 on 5 and wrote that ""Hridayam" is Vineeth's labour of love, a tribute to his campus life"; the film is "a fun-filled coming-of-age drama set in a typical engineering college campus; of love, break-ups, heartaches and the discovery of life in the process, also spilling over to the next phase of the lives of the protagonists", concluding that ""Hridayam" is eminently watchable and you are sure to leave cinemas with a lighter heart after watching it". "Pinkvilla" rated the film 3.5 on 5 and described the film "a marvelously structured memory piece on soul searching", saying "Hridayam is a gigantic, ambitious puzzle of a narrative, built confidently around a certain time in a person's life that informs the type of person that you turn out to be in the future. The screenplay is infused with fifteen songs yet the interlacing works for the nature of the story, a character driven memory piece as opposed to a plot heavy drama". "Manorama Online" wrote that "there is romance, friendship, heartbreak, pathos, and life in "Hridayam". That's "Hridayam" in very simple terms. A beautiful gift during these trying times ... One can't even visualise any other actor in place of Arun Neelakandan. Pranav has come a long way since his first film. His charm is undeniable. And that's exactly what makes us warm up to Arun Neelakandan".


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Martin Van Buren ( ; ; ; December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862) was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the eighth president of the United States from 1837 to 1841. A primary founder of the Democratic Party, he served as New York's attorney general, U.S. senator, then briefly as the ninth governor of New York before joining Andrew Jackson's administration as the tenth United States secretary of state, minister to the United Kingdom, and ultimately the eighth vice president of the United States when named Jackson's running mate for the 1832 election. Van Buren won the presidency in 1836, lost re-election in 1840, and failed to win the Democratic nomination in 1844. Later in his life, Van Buren emerged as an elder statesman and an important anti-slavery leader who led the Free Soil Party ticket in the 1848 presidential election.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren was born in Kinderhook, New York, where most residents were of Dutch descent and spoke Dutch as their primary language. He was the first president to have been born after the American Revolution — in which his father served as a patriot — and is the only president to have spoken English as a second language. Trained as a lawyer, he entered politics as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, won a seat in the New York State Senate, and was elected to the United States Senate in 1821. As the leader of the Bucktails faction, Van Buren emerged as the most influential politician from New York in the 1820s and established a political machine known as the Albany Regency.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Following the 1824 presidential election, Van Buren sought to re-establish a two-party system with partisan differences based on ideology rather than personalities or sectional differences; he supported Andrew Jackson's candidacy in the 1828 presidential election with this goal in mind. He ran successfully for governor of New York to support Jackson's campaign but resigned shortly after Jackson was inaugurated so he could accept appointment as Jackson's secretary of state. In the cabinet, Van Buren was a key Jackson advisor and built the organizational structure for the coalescing Democratic Party. He ultimately resigned to help resolve the Petticoat affair and briefly served as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom. At Jackson's behest, the 1832 Democratic National Convention nominated Van Buren for vice president, and he took office after the Democratic ticket won the 1832 presidential election.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: With Jackson's strong support and the organizational strength of the Democratic Party, Van Buren successfully ran for president in the 1836 presidential election, defeating several Whig opponents. However, his popularity soon eroded because of his response to the Panic of 1837, which centered on his Independent Treasury system, a plan under which the federal government of the United States would store its funds in vaults rather than in banks; more conservative Democrats and Whigs in Congress ultimately delayed his plan from being implemented until 1840. His presidency was further marred by the costly Second Seminole War (a result of continuing Jackson's Indian removal policy); and his refusal to admit Texas to the Union as a slave state as an attempt to avoid heightened sectional tensions. In 1840, Van Buren lost his re-election bid to William Henry Harrison, the nominee of the anti-Jacksonian Whig Party.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren was initially the leading candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination again in 1844, but his continued opposition to the annexation of Texas angered Southern Democrats, leading to the nomination of James K. Polk. Van Buren was the newly formed Free Soil Party's presidential nominee in 1848, and his candidacy helped Whig nominee Zachary Taylor defeat Democrat Lewis Cass. Van Buren returned to the Democratic Party after 1848, but grew increasingly opposed to slavery, and became one of the party's outspoken abolitionists. He supported the policies of President Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, during the American Civil War. He died of asthma at his home in Kinderhook, New York, on Thursday, July 24, 1862, aged 79.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: In historical rankings, historians and political scientists often rank Van Buren as an average or below-average U.S. president, due to his handling of the Panic of 1837.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren was born as Maarten Van Buren on December 5, 1782, in Kinderhook, New York, about south of Albany in the Hudson River valley.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: His father, Abraham Van Buren, was a descendant of Cornelis Maessen, a native of Buurmalsen, Netherlands who had emigrated to New Netherland in 1631 and purchased a plot of land on Manhattan Island. Van Buren was the first U.S President without any British ancestry. Abraham Van Buren had been a Patriot during the American Revolution, and he later joined the Democratic-Republican Party. He owned an inn and tavern in Kinderhook and served as Kinderhook's town clerk for several years. In 1776, he married Maria Hoes (or Goes) Van Alen (1746-1818) in the town of Kinderhook, also of Dutch extraction and the widow of Johannes Van Alen (1744-c. 1773). She had three children from her first marriage, including future U.S. Representative James I. Van Alen. Her second marriage produced five children, of which Martin was the third.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren received a basic education at the village schoolhouse, and briefly studied Latin at the Kinderhook Academy and at Washington Seminary in Claverack. Van Buren was raised speaking primarily Dutch and learned English while attending school; he is the only president of the United States whose first language was not English. Also during his childhood, Van Buren learned at his father's inn how to interact with people from varied ethnic, income, and societal groups, which he used to his advantage as a political organizer. His formal education ended in 1796, when he began reading law at the office of Peter Silvester and his son Francis.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren, at tall, was small in stature, and affectionately nicknamed "Little Van". When he began his legal studies he wore rough, homespun clothing, causing the Silvesters to admonish him to pay greater heed to his clothing and personal appearance as an aspiring lawyer. He accepted their advice, and subsequently emulated the Silvesters' clothing, appearance, bearing, and conduct. The lessons he learned from the Silvesters were reflected in his career as a lawyer and politician, in which Van Buren was known for his amiability and fastidious appearance. Despite Kinderhook's strong affiliation with the Federalist Party, of which the Silvesters were also strong supporters, Van Buren adopted his father's Democratic-Republican leanings. The Silvesters and Democratic-Republican political figure John Peter Van Ness suggested that Van Buren's political leanings constrained him to complete his education with a Democratic-Republican attorney, so he spent a final year of apprenticeship in the New York City office of John Van Ness's brother William P. Van Ness, a political lieutenant of Aaron Burr. Van Ness introduced Van Buren to the intricacies of New York state politics, and Van Buren observed Burr's battles for control of the state Democratic-Republican party against George Clinton and Robert R. Livingston. He returned to Kinderhook in 1803, after his admission to the New York bar.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren married Hannah Hoes (or Goes) in Catskill, New York, on February 21, 1807. She was his childhood sweetheart, and a daughter of his maternal first cousin, Johannes Dircksen Hoes. She grew up in Valatie, and like Van Buren her home life was primarily Dutch; she spoke Dutch as her first language, and spoke English with a marked accent. The couple had six children, four of whom lived to adulthood: unnamed daughter (stillborn around 1807); Abraham (1807–1873), John (1810–1866), Martin Jr. (1812–1855), Winfield Scott (born and died in 1814), and Smith Thompson (1817–1876). Hannah contracted tuberculosis, and died in Kinderhook on February 5, 1819, at age 35. Van Buren never remarried.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Upon returning to Kinderhook in 1803, Van Buren formed a law partnership with his half-brother, James Van Alen, and became financially secure enough to increase his focus on politics. Van Buren had been active in politics from age 18, if not before. In 1801, he attended a Democratic-Republican Party convention in Troy, New York, where he worked successfully to secure for John Peter Van Ness the party nomination in a special election for the 6th Congressional District seat. Upon returning to Kinderhook, Van Buren broke with the Burr faction, becoming an ally of both DeWitt Clinton and Daniel D. Tompkins. After the faction led by Clinton and Tompkins dominated the 1807 elections, Van Buren was appointed Surrogate of Columbia County, New York. Seeking a better base for his political and legal career, Van Buren and his family moved to the town of Hudson, the seat of Columbia County, in 1808. Van Buren's legal practice continued to flourish, and he traveled all over the state to represent various clients.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: In 1812, Van Buren won his party's nomination for a seat in the New York State Senate. Though several Democratic-Republicans, including John Peter Van Ness, joined with the Federalists to oppose his candidacy, Van Buren won election to the state senate in mid-1812. Later in the year, the United States entered the War of 1812 against Great Britain, while Clinton launched an unsuccessful bid to defeat President James Madison in the 1812 presidential election. After the election, Van Buren became suspicious that Clinton was working with the Federalist Party, and he broke from his former political ally.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: During the War of 1812, Van Buren worked with Clinton, Governor Tompkins, and Ambrose Spencer to support the Madison administration's prosecution of the war. In addition, he was a special judge advocate appointed to serve as a prosecutor of William Hull during Hull's court-martial following the surrender of Detroit. Anticipating another military campaign, he collaborated with Winfield Scott on ways to reorganize the New York Militia in the winter of 1814–1815, but the end of the war halted their work in early 1815. Van Buren was so favorably impressed by Scott that he named his fourth son after him. Van Buren's strong support for the war boosted his standing, and in 1815, he was elected to the position of New York Attorney General. Van Buren moved from Hudson to the state capital of Albany, where he established a legal partnership with Benjamin Butler, and shared a house with political ally Roger Skinner. In 1816, Van Buren won re-election to the state senate, and he would continue to simultaneously serve as both state senator and as the state's attorney general. In 1819, he played an active part in prosecuting the accused murderers of Richard Jennings, the first murder-for-hire case in the state of New York.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: After Tompkins was elected as vice president in the 1816 presidential election, Clinton defeated Van Buren's preferred candidate, Peter Buell Porter, in the 1817 New York gubernatorial election. Clinton threw his influence behind the construction of the Erie Canal, an ambitious project designed to connect Lake Erie to the Atlantic Ocean. Though many of Van Buren's allies urged him to block Clinton's Erie Canal bill, Van Buren believed that the canal would benefit the state. His support for the bill helped it win approval from the New York legislature. Despite his support for the Erie Canal, Van Buren became the leader of an anti-Clintonian faction in New York known as the "Bucktails".


title: Martin Van Buren

text: The Bucktails succeeded in emphasizing party loyalty and used it to capture and control many patronage posts throughout New York. Through his use of patronage, loyal newspapers, and connections with local party officials and leaders, Van Buren established what became known as the "Albany Regency", a political machine that emerged as an important factor in New York politics. The Regency relied on a coalition of small farmers, but also enjoyed support from the Tammany Hall machine in New York City. During this era, Van Buren largely determined Tammany Hall's political policy for New York's Democratic-Republicans.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: A New York state referendum that expanded state voting rights to all white men in 1821, and which further increased the power of Tammany Hall, was guided by Van Buren. Although Governor Clinton remained in office until late 1822, Van Buren emerged as the leader of the state's Democratic-Republicans after the 1820 elections. Van Buren was a member of the 1820 state constitutional convention, where he favored expanded voting rights, but opposed universal suffrage and tried to maintain property requirements for voting.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: In February 1821, the state legislature elected Van Buren to represent New York in the United States Senate. Van Buren arrived in Washington during the "Era of Good Feelings", a period in which partisan distinctions at the national level had faded. Van Buren quickly became a prominent figure in Washington, D.C., befriending Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, among others. Though not an exceptional orator, Van Buren frequently spoke on the Senate floor, usually after extensively researching the subject at hand. Despite his commitments as a father and state party leader, Van Buren remained closely engaged in his legislative duties, and during his time in the Senate he served as the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and the Senate Judiciary Committee. As he gained renown, Van Buren earned monikers like "Little Magician" and "Sly Fox".


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren chose to back Crawford over John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, and Henry Clay in the presidential election of 1824. Crawford shared Van Buren's affinity for Jeffersonian principles of states' rights and limited government, and Van Buren believed that Crawford was the ideal figure to lead a coalition of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia's "Richmond Junto". Van Buren's support for Crawford aroused strong opposition in New York in the form of the People's party, which drew support from Clintonians, Federalists, and others opposed to Van Buren. Nonetheless, Van Buren helped Crawford win the Democratic-Republican party's presidential nomination at the February 1824 congressional nominating caucus. The other Democratic-Republican candidates in the race refused to accept the poorly attended caucus's decision, and as the Federalist Party had all but ceased to function as a national party, the 1824 campaign became a competition among four candidates of the same party. Though Crawford suffered a severe stroke that left him in poor health, Van Buren continued to support his chosen candidate. Van Buren met with Thomas Jefferson in May 1824 in an attempt to bolster Crawford's candidacy, and though he was unsuccessful in gaining a public endorsement for Crawford, he nonetheless cherished the chance to meet with his political hero.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: The 1824 elections dealt a severe blow to the Albany Regency, as Clinton returned to the governorship with the support of the People's party. By the time the state legislature convened to choose the state's presidential electors, results from other states had made it clear that no individual would win a majority of the electoral vote, necessitating a contingent election in the United States House of Representatives. While Adams and Jackson finished in the top three and were eligible for selection in the contingent election, New York's electors would help determine whether Clay or Crawford would finish third. Though most of the state's electoral votes went to Adams, Crawford won one more electoral vote than Clay in the state, and Clay's defeat in Louisiana left Crawford in third place. With Crawford still in the running, Van Buren lobbied members of the House to support him. He hoped to engineer a Crawford victory on the second ballot of the contingent election, but Adams won on the first ballot with the help of Clay and Stephen Van Rensselaer, a Congressman from New York. Despite his close ties with Van Buren, Van Rensselaer cast his vote for Adams, thus giving Adams a narrow majority of New York's delegation and a victory in the contingent election.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: After the House contest, Van Buren shrewdly kept out of the controversy which followed, and began looking forward to 1828. Jackson was angered to see the presidency go to Adams despite having won more popular votes than he had, and he eagerly looked forward to a rematch. Jackson's supporters accused Adams and Clay of having made a "corrupt bargain" in which Clay helped Adams win the contingent election in return for Clay's appointment as Secretary of State. Van Buren was always courteous in his treatment of opponents and showed no bitterness toward either Adams or Clay, and he voted to confirm Clay's nomination to the cabinet. At the same time, Van Buren opposed the Adams-Clay plans for internal improvements like roads and canals and declined to support U.S. participation in the Congress of Panama. Van Buren considered Adams's proposals to represent a return to the Hamiltonian economic model favored by Federalists, which he strongly opposed. Despite his opposition to Adams's public policies, Van Buren easily secured re-election in his divided home state in 1827.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Van Buren's overarching goal at the national level was to restore a two-party system with party cleavages based on philosophical differences, and he viewed the old divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans as beneficial to the nation. Van Buren believed that these national parties helped ensure that elections were decided on national, rather than sectional or local, issues; as he put it, "party attachment in former times furnished a complete antidote for sectional prejudices". After the 1824 election, Van Buren was initially somewhat skeptical of Jackson, who had not taken strong positions on most policy issues. Nonetheless, he settled on Jackson as the one candidate who could beat Adams in the 1828 presidential election, and he worked to bring Crawford's former backers into line behind Jackson.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: He also forged alliances with other members of Congress opposed to Adams, including Vice President John C. Calhoun, Senator Thomas Hart Benton, and Senator John Randolph. Seeking to solidify his standing in New York and bolster Jackson's campaign, Van Buren helped arrange the passage of the Tariff of 1828, which opponents labeled as the "Tariff of Abominations". The tariff satisfied many who sought protection from foreign competition, but angered Southern cotton interests and New Englanders. Because Van Buren believed that the South would never support Adams, and New England would never support Jackson, he was willing to alienate both regions through passage of the tariff.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Meanwhile, Clinton's death from a heart attack in 1828 dramatically shook up the politics of Van Buren's home state, while the Anti-Masonic Party emerged as an increasingly important factor. After some initial reluctance, Van Buren chose to run for Governor of New York in the 1828 election. Hoping that a Jackson victory would lead to his elevation to Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury, Van Buren chose Enos T. Throop as his running mate and preferred successor. Van Buren's candidacy was aided by the split between supporters of Adams, who had adopted the label of National Republicans, and the Anti-Masonic Party.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: Reflecting his public association with Jackson, Van Buren accepted the gubernatorial nomination on a ticket that called itself "Jacksonian-Democrat". He campaigned on local as well as national issues, emphasizing his opposition to the policies of the Adams administration. Van Buren ran ahead of Jackson, winning the state by 30,000 votes compared to a margin of 5,000 for Jackson. Nationally, Jackson defeated Adams by a wide margin, winning nearly every state outside of New England. After the election, Van Buren resigned from the Senate to start his term as governor, which began on January 1, 1829. While his term as governor was short, he did manage to pass the Bank Safety Fund Law, an early form of deposit insurance, through the legislature. He also appointed several key supporters, including William L. Marcy and Silas Wright, to important state positions.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: In February 1829, Jackson wrote to Van Buren to ask him to become Secretary of State. Van Buren quickly agreed, and he resigned as governor the following month; his tenure of forty-three days is the shortest of any Governor of New York. No serious diplomatic crises arose during Van Buren's tenure as Secretary of State, but he achieved several notable successes, such as settling long-standing claims against France and winning reparations for property that had been seized during the Napoleonic Wars. He reached an agreement with the British to open trade with the British West Indies colonies and concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that gained American merchants access to the Black Sea. Items on which he did not achieve success included settling the Maine-New Brunswick boundary dispute with Great Britain, gaining settlement of the U.S. claim to the Oregon Country, concluding a commercial treaty with Russia, and persuading Mexico to sell Texas.


title: Martin Van Buren

text: In addition to his foreign policy duties, Van Buren quickly emerged as an important advisor to Jackson on major domestic issues like the tariff and internal improvements. The Secretary of State was instrumental in convincing Jackson to issue the Maysville Road veto, which both reaffirmed limited government principles and also helped prevent the construction of infrastructure projects that could potentially compete with New York's Erie Canal. He also became involved in a power struggle with Calhoun over appointments and other issues, including the Petticoat Affair. The Petticoat Affair arose because Peggy Eaton, wife of Secretary of War John H. Eaton, was ostracized by the other cabinet wives due to the circumstances of her marriage.