title: Miles Morales

text: Marvel ended the Ultimate Marvel imprint with the "Secret Wars" storyline, in which the Marvel Universe was merged with other alternate universes, including the Ultimate Universe. Following "Secret Wars", Miles was made a character of the mainstream Marvel Universe, and a member of the titular team in "All-New, All-Different Avengers". He also headlines his third solo series, titled simply "Spider-Man", which debuted February 3, 2016, with Bendis and Pichelli returning as the creative team. Pichelli would be succeeded by Nico Leon and Oscar Bazaldua. In the storyline, Peter Parker expands the scope of his activities globally, while the now-16-year-old Miles continues to patrol New York City, and deals with issues such as confrontations with Parker's rogues gallery, the public's reaction to his ethnicity, and his love life. Each issue was numbered sequentially beginning with issue 1, and ending with issue 21, when the numbering switched to legacy numbering, in order to assume an unbroken numbering from 2000's "Ultimate Spider-Man" #1, with the following issue continuing with issue 234. On November 7, 2017, it was announced that Bendis, having signed an exclusive contract with DC Comics, would be leaving Marvel in early 2018, and "Spider-Man" canceled with issue #240 (May 2018).


title: Miles Morales

text: On September 13, 2018, Marvel announced that Saladin Ahmed and Javier Garron would be the writer and artist, respectively on a fourth ongoing solo series, "Miles Morales: Spider-Man", the first issue of which was released on December 12, 2018, coinciding with the premiere of the animated feature film, "". The visual design of that film would reportedly influence a new costume designed by Chase Conley for the character's tenth anniversary in 2021, which included trademark sneakers. This series concluded with issue 42 on September 2022. In December 2022 Marvel debuted the next series, "Miles Morales: Spider-Man" by writer Cody Ziglar and artist Federico Vicentini.


title: Miles Morales

text: On July 9, 2020, Marvel announced that an original graphic novel, "Miles Morales: Shock Waves", would be released in 2021 in partnership with Scholastic, written by "Opposite of Always" author Justin A. Reynolds, with art by Pablo Leon.


title: Miles Morales

text: Miles Morales first appeared in "Ultimate Comics: Fallout" #4, which was published in August 2011, in which he foils an assault by Kangaroo a short time after Peter Parker's death. He wears a Spider-Man costume similar to Parker's, but considers changing it when spectators tell him it is in "bad taste".


title: Miles Morales

text: The opening story arc of "Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man", which premiered in September 2011, is set prior to "Ultimate Fallout" #4, and establishes the character of Miles Morales, a grade-schooler who lives with his mother Rio Morales, a nurse, and his father Jefferson Davis, and details how he received his superhuman abilities. After scientist Dr. Conrad Markus uses Parker's blood to recreate the formula that created Spider-Man, the Prowler (Aaron Davis) steals the formula, and in the process, one of the spiders created by Markus crawls into the Prowler's duffel bag. Days later, Miles is bitten by the spider during a visit to Aaron's apartment. Morales develops superhuman abilities similar to those Peter has, but does not tell his parents, due to his father's distrust of superheroes, confiding only in his best friend Ganke Lee.


title: Miles Morales

text: Miles, who wants a normal life, is unhappy about having these abilities and resistant to the idea of risking his life to engage in superheroics, a reaction that Bendis wrote to further contrast Miles with Parker. However, after witnessing Spider-Man's death at the Green Goblin's hands, the guilt-ridden Miles realizes he could have helped. After Ganke suggests he assume the Spider-Man mantle, and learns from Gwen Stacy why Parker did what he did, Miles is inspired to try costumed crimefighting.


title: Miles Morales

text: His first time out, he is confronted not only by those who feel his use of the Spider-Man costume is in bad taste, but also by Spider-Woman over his use of the Spider-Man identity. She unmasks and arrests Miles and takes him to S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters, where Nick Fury reveals that he knows about Miles and his family, including the criminal activity of Miles' uncle. After Miles helps S.H.I.E.L.D. subdue the escaped supervillain Electro, S.H.I.E.L.D. releases Miles and gives him a modified black-and-red version of the Spider-Man costume, which Ganke feels makes Miles "officially" the new Spider-Man. He also receives the blessing of the Earth-616 Peter Parker during the 2012 "Spider-Men" miniseries, in which Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles. After the media report the emergence of a new Spider-Man, Aaron deduces that it is Miles, and offers to train Miles and work with him. After Aaron uses Miles in his ongoing conflict with the Mexican crime lord Scorpion, Miles realizes he is being exploited, and refuses to assist his uncle further, despite Aaron's threat to inform Jefferson of his secret. This leads to an altercation that results in the malfunction of Aaron's weapons, which explode, killing Aaron.


title: Miles Morales

text: In subsequent storylines, Miles becomes acquainted with Parker's loved ones, May Parker, Gwen and Mary Jane Watson, who know of his secret identity and give him Parker's web shooters. He also work alongside the Ultimates superhuman team's various members.


title: Miles Morales

text: In a 2013 storyline, when investigative journalist Betty Brant incorrectly concludes that Miles' father, Jefferson, is the new Spider-Man, she is murdered by Markus, who has become the Venom symbiote's newest host. In the subsequent "Venom War" storyline, Venom critically injures Jefferson. When Venom confronts Spider-Man at the hospital, Rio learns her son is Spider-Man. During the battle, both she and Markus are killed by police gunfire, though before she dies, Rio tells Miles not to reveal his secret to Jefferson. Miles quits being Spider-Man as a result. A year later he has a girlfriend, Kate Bishop, and plans to tell her about his former life as Spider-Man. S.H.I.E.L.D. pressures him to return to that role, and he reluctantly does so, after Ganke and Spider-Woman convince him that there needs to be a Spider-Man.


title: Miles Morales

text: In the "Cataclysm" storyline, the mainstream Marvel version of Galactus comes to Miles' Earth to consume it for its energy. Believing the world is ending, Miles reveals his double life to his father, who holds Miles responsible for the deaths of Aaron and Rio, and disowns him. Miles also journeys to the mainstream Marvel universe with Reed Richards to acquire information on how to repel Galactus.


title: Miles Morales

text: In his second solo series, "Miles Morales: Ultimate Spider-Man", Miles encounters the presumed-dead Peter Parker, who cannot explain his reappearance, and who does not intend to return to his former life. Together, the two Spider-Men defeat the Goblin, who is also revealed to be alive, but who is killed during the course of the story. After witnessing Miles courageously battle the Goblin, Peter acknowledges Miles a worthy successor, and decides to retire from superheroics for a life with family and Mary Jane.


title: Miles Morales

text: Miles' father Jefferson reappears, revealing to his son that as young men, Jefferson and Aaron worked for a criminal in the organization of Wilson Fisk, though Jefferson was spying for S.H.I.E.L.D. He afterward declined an offer to join S.H.I.E.L.D., and went on to marry Rio and have Miles. He explains he had fled after learning Miles was Spider-Man because it stirred unresolved issues from that time, and tells Miles he no longer blames him for his mother's death, and regrets abandoning him.


title: Miles Morales

text: When Miles reveals his secret identity to Katie, the Bishop family is revealed to be sleeper agents for the terrorist group Hydra who then kidnap Miles, his father and Ganke, as part of a plan involving Dr. Doom. Miles and the other prisoners are freed, however, in part with help from Judge (Miles's dorm mate), Maria Hill and other superhuman colleagues.


title: Miles Morales

text: During the events of the 2015 "Secret Wars" storyline, both the Ultimate Marvel universe and the mainstream Earth-616 universe are destroyed. Miles survives the destruction by infiltrating an escape ship designed by the Cabal. After eight years in stasis, Miles awakens on the planet Battleworld, created from the remains of destroyed alternate Earths. He reunites with Earth-616's Peter Parker and the other surviving heroes from that former mainstream-Marvel Earth. They battle Doctor Doom, who with his new powers, appointed himself God Emperor of the planet. At the conclusion of the storyline, the Molecule Man, in gratitude for Miles' earlier compassion, restores Earth-616, with Miles and his family, including his mother, restored to life in the process, among its inhabitants. Aaron is also later revealed to have been restored to life, retaining his knowledge of Miles's dual identity, and becomes the villainous Iron Spider. Both Miles and Peter share the Spider-Man mantle in the new universe, though the now-16-year-old Miles patrols New York City, while Peter acts globally. Miles also joins the latest team of Avengers in the 2016 series "All-New, All-Different Avengers",


title: Miles Morales

text: In this new continuity, Miles and his loved ones initially have no memories of their origins in the Ultimate universe, though Miles eventually learns of his past there, including details such as Rio's "death". Jefferson is aware of his double life, but Rio is not, nor is S.H.I.E.L.D., though Rio eventually learns the truth. Miles' circle of fellow superheroes who know of his double identity expands to include Kamala Khan, the fourth Ms. Marvel, and the former X-Man Fabio Medina, a school roommate of Miles and Ganke. This group of confidants later includes the teen superhero Bombshell. His relationship with Bishop apparently did not occur in this continuity, as Miles begins seeing classmate Barbara Rodriguez, whom he calls his "first serious girlfriend", who is unaware of his double life. Miles becomes a central figure in the 2016–2017 "Civil War II" storyline. Afterward, Miles joins other teen superheroes to form a new incarnation of the Champions, who star in their self-titled series.


title: Miles Morales

text: In a 2019 story, Jefferson tells Miles he has his mother's surname because Jefferson's physically abusive father was "not a good person" and not having his grandfather's name gave Miles a "clean start."


title: Miles Morales

text: Bitten by a genetically engineered spider known as specimen 42, which is slightly different than the one that granted Peter Parker superhuman powers, Miles Morales possesses abilities similar to the original Spider-Man's, including enhanced strength, agility, and reflexes, the ability to adhere to walls and ceilings with his hands and feet, and a "spider sense" that warns him of danger with a buzzing sensation in his head. Though his strength and agility are similar to those of the original younger Spider-Man, his spider-sense is not as strong, as it only warns him of immediate danger.


title: Miles Morales

text: He has two abilities that the original Spider-Man does not have: the ability to camouflage himself, including his clothing, to match his surroundings, making him effectively invisible, and a "venom strike" that can temporarily paralyze almost anyone with just a touch. The venom strike does not employ actual venom, but is a type of directed energy that can be conducted through Miles' gloves, and can be used against an opponent at a distance by conducting it through a material in which both Miles and his opponent are in contact, such as the webbing of the Earth-616's Spider-Man. It can break chains being used to restrain Miles and even repel non-ferrous objects, such as plastic Lego bricks. The venom strike is powerful enough to render unconscious a person as large as Hank Pym's Giant-Man. It is powerful enough to drive away the symbiotic villain Venom during Miles' first encounter with the creature, but by their second encounter, Venom has developed such a tolerance to the strike that Miles has to be completely enveloped by the symbiote before the venom strike is able to separate the symbiote from its host. Doctor Octopus also developed a set of tentacles that would not conduct the venom strike. The effect of the venom strike manifests itself a few seconds after it is implemented, and is described by Bendis as being comparable to the feeling of being kicked in the testicles. Miles can effect a more powerful version of the strike, which he calls a "mega venom blast". When Miles employs this ability, his eyes glow with yellow energy, which then explodes outwards in a radiant burst that can not only repel a large group of opponents, but also destroy thick ropes and chains that have been used to restrain him. This application of the strike leaves him "dizzy and useless", and cannot be used multiple times in rapid succession without a "recharging" period for Miles, though he can still make use of the conventional strike against people during this period. The conventional venom strike is mostly useless against the supervillain Armadillo, but during Miles' encounter with that villain, his venom blast manifests itself in a form similar to Miles' webbing, and Miles uses it like a lasso to pull Armadillo towards him and knock him unconscious with a venom strike-powered punch.


title: Miles Morales

text: Miles' body also possesses a significant resistance to injury. During an altercation with the Roxxon mercenary Taskmaster, Miles is thrown through a brick wall without any apparent serious injury, though the experience is painful for him.


title: Miles Morales

text: Miles wears a costume given to him by S.H.I.E.L.D., and initially uses Peter Parker's web shooters, which are given to him by May Parker. He is eventually given a new set of webshooters by S.H.I.E.L.D. as well.


title: Miles Morales

text: The character Miles Morales was first reported by "USA Today" on August 2, 2011, shortly before the character officially debuted in "Ultimate Fallout" #4. The announcement received international coverage in the mainstream media and was met with mixed reactions by audiences. Chris Huntington of "The New York Times" lauded the creation of Morales, relating that it gave his adopted Ethiopian son Dagim a superhero who looks like him. "The Guardian" and Culture Map Houston reported that some fans viewed the decision as an example of political correctness, and that the introduction of a minority Spider-Man was a publicity stunt to attract more readers, while others felt that a person of color as Spider-Man would set a positive example for minority readers, particularly children. Many Spider-Man fans were disappointed that Peter Parker was killed, regardless of who replaced him. The wide-ranging critical reception prompted "The Washington Post" to run an article called, "Sorry, Peter Parker. The response to the black Spider-Man shows why we need one", in which writer Alexandra Petri wrote that the character should be judged on the quality of its stories rather than on his appearance or ethnicity.


title: Miles Morales

text: Radio host and conservative pundit Lou Dobbs expressed outrage over the original Spider-Man being replaced by Morales, stating during a television commentary, "Peter Parker, who was a white orphan from Queens, was killed off in June during a fight with his nemesis, the Green Goblin…Marvel Comics saying it’s replacing the iconic character with Miles Morales, who is part Latino and part Black." Political satirist Jon Stewart mocked Dobbs' criticism on "The Daily Show", while also pointing out that Morales replaced Spider-Man only in the Ultimate universe, and that the original Peter Parker would still be appearing in several titles. Conservative talk show host Glenn Beck, claiming that Miles resembled President Barack Obama, argued that the new Spider-Man was a result of a comment from Michelle Obama about changing traditions. However, Beck said he did not care about Miles' race, and also acknowledged that this was not the mainstream Spider-Man. Axel Alonso denied the character was created out of political correctness, stating "Simple fact is Marvel comics reflect the world in all its shapes, sizes and colors. We believe there's an audience of people out there who is thirsty for a character like Miles Morales." Bendis also denied that the character's ethnicity was an attempt to generate publicity. Original Spider-Man co-creator Stan Lee approved of Miles, stating that "Doing our bit to try to make our nation, and the world, color blind is definitely the right thing."


title: Miles Morales

text: In a review for the first issue, David Pepose of Newsarama wrote, "The biggest victory that Bendis scores with Miles Morales is that he makes us care about him, and care about him quickly. Even though we're still scratching the surface of what makes him tick, we're seeing the world through his eyes, and it's similar to Peter Parker's but a whole lot tougher. But that kind of Parker-style guilt—that neurotic, nearly masochistic tendency for self-sacrifice that comes with great power and greater responsibility—is still intact." Jesse Schedeen of IGN wrote that "Miles still feels like a bit of an outsider in his own book. Bendis never quite paints a complete picture of Miles—his thoughts, motivations, personality quirks, and so forth. Miles is largely a reactionary figure throughout the book as he confronts struggles like registering for a charter school or dealing with family squabbles." Schedeen also opined that "Miles occupies a more urban, racially diverse, and tense landscape. All the story doesn't pander or lean too heavily on elements like racial and economic tension to move forward. Miles is simply a character who speaks to a slightly different teen experience, and one not nearly as well represented in superhero comics as Peter's". James Hunt of CBR.com rated the issue #1 four and a half out of five stars, lauding Bendis for emphasizing Morales' character and his supporting cast instead of rushing him into costume. The first issue holds a score of 8.0 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup, based on 13 reviews, while the final issue, #200, holds a score of 8.4, based on 14 reviews, and the series overall holds an average issue rating of 8.3.


title: Miles Morales

text: The second solo series, "Miles Morales: Ultimate Spider-Man", has an average issue rating of 8.2 out of 10 at Comic Book Roundup, while the third series, "Spider-Man", holds a rating of 7.6, and the fourth, "Miles Morales: Spider-Man", holds a rating of 8.4.


title: Miles Morales

text: In the 2012 miniseries "Spider-Men", the mainstream Marvel Universe Peter Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles Morales. This was followed up in the 2017 sequel miniseries "Spider-Men II", in which the Earth-616 version of Miles Morales makes his first appearance, and is revealed to be a fully-grown adult with a scarred face. The version of Miles became a close friend and confidant to the mob enforcer Wilson Fisk when he saved Fisk's life in prison, an event that resulted in the scars on Miles' face. Miles worked for Fisk following their time in prison, aiding him during Wilson's violent rise to crime boss in New York. Subsequent to this, after Miles fell in love with a woman named Barbara Sanchez, Fisk arranged to have all traces of Miles' existence erased from searchable records in order help Miles leave his criminal life behind him. Years later, after Barbara died, Fisk informs a grief-stricken Miles that he has knowledge of a parallel universe in which Barbara might still be alive. Miles hires the Taskmaster, who confirms not only that the Ultimate Universe still exists following the events of the "Secret Wars" storyline, but that its version of Barbara is still alive. The adult Miles journeys to the Ultimate Universe to reunite with his lost love, essentially switching places with his younger counterpart.


title: Miles Morales

text: In a 2019–2020 storyline, Miles takes on the criminal identity of Ultimatum, and having acquired a costume equipped with the size-shifting technology of Giant-Man, returns to the Marvel-616 universe with the Ultimate Universe's Green Goblin as his henchman. He establishes a crime partnership with Fisk, and floods the area with a drug derived from Green Goblin's blood that mutates people into monstrous slaves called Goblinoids. He kidnaps the teenaged Miles and Aaron Davis, and reveals to them the existence of the multiverse. He plans to return Miles and his family to the Ultimate Universe with an interdimensional portal generator, after which he will be free to take over Brooklyn without interference. After the two abductees free themselves, they and their allies battle Ultimatum's forces. During the melee, Aaron induces an explosion that destroys the portal generator and sends the two villains back to the Ultimate Universe, but which kills himself in the process, a loss that devastates Miles.


title: Miles Morales

text: In "Deadpool Killustrated" #1 (Jan. 2013), Miles Morales' corpse is seen among those of various Spider-Men across various dimensions of the multiverse that an alternate Deadpool has killed.


title: Miles Morales

text: In the 2014 book "Ultimate FF" #4, a version of Miles Morales' Spider-Ham is introduced with the name Miles Morhames, who hails from a dimension inhabited by beings that resemble anthropomorphic animals. His origin is similar to the Ultimate version, in that after the death of Peter Porker, Miles Morhames was inspired to become a hero.


title: Miles Morales

text: In the 2017 "Sitting in a Tree" storyline that ran in "Spider-Man" and "Spider-Gwen", Miles is transported to Earth-8, where that dimension's versions of him and fellow costumed crimefighter Gwen Stacy have been married for 20 years, and have two children.


title: Miles Morales

text: In a 2017 storyline that ran in "Unbelievable Gwenpool", a future version of Miles Morales whose wife and child were killed after an evil Gwen Poole of the future revealed his and all other superheroes' identities, travels back in time to kill a young Gwen. He accidentally brings the older version of Gwen Poole with him, which leads to her to encounter her younger self.


title: Miles Morales

text: In the 2017 book "Venomverse: War Stories" #1, a version of Miles appears with other heroes in the world of the Venomized Doctor Doom, in which each person is bonded to a symbiote.


title: Miles Morales

text: In "Secret Roar", a 2019 story in "Spider-Man Annual" (Vol. 3) #1, different versions of Earth's superheroes gather together to fight a Celestial, including a feline version of Miles Morales named Meows Morales. He is presumed dead along with most of the heroes after being killed by the Celestial.


title: Miles Morales

text: In the continuity of the 2019 miniseries "Spider-Man: Life Story", which depicts the characters of the Marvel Universe aging naturally after 1962, Miles becomes Spider-Man sometime in the 2010s. An elderly Peter Parker discovers that Miles' brain houses the mind of Otto Octavius, who took possession of Miles' body shortly after Miles became Spider-Man, and trapped the young hero in his own dying body (as Octavius had done to Peter in the 2012 Marvel-616 storyline "Dying Wish"). After Peter sacrifices his life in saving Octavius, Octavius switches his and Miles back to their original bodies, after which Miles is given Peter's original Spider-Man costume by Mary Jane Watson.


title: Miles Morales

text: An elderly Miles Morales appears as the main protagonist of the one-shot "Miles Morales: The End", which is set in a post-apocalyptic Brooklyn, and casts Miles as "the last bastion of civilization". The book is one of six featuring Marvel characters as part of its "The End" series, which were announced at the 2019 New York Comic Con for January 2020 release.


title: Miles Morales

text: In the 2021 "Heroes Reborn" storyline, a change in the timeline results in a continuity in which the Squadron Supreme are Earth's mightiest heroes while the Avengers never existed. In this continuity, after Falcon was killed by the Goblin, Miles used his electrical engineering knowledge to design a flight suit and became the new Falcon. The original Falcon's partner, Nighthawk, still traumatized by his death, refuses to mentor Miles. Miles later forms a team called the Champions with Girl Power (Kamala Khan) and Kid Spectrum (Sam Alexander).


title: Miles Morales

text: The 2022 miniseries "What If...? Miles Morales" introduces alternate versions of Miles that had become Captain America, Wolverine, Hulk, and Thor. Issue 4, written by Yehudi Mercado and drawn by Paco Medina and Luigi Zagaria, garnered controversy for its stereotypical language and depictions of black culture. Mercado, who identifies as Mexican and Jewish, publicly apologized for this. He stated he would donate his salary for the issue to the Brooklyn Book Bodega, and resolved to work toward effecting greater authenticity in his depiction of minorities.


title: Miles Morales

text: In March 2018, Sideshow Collectibles debuted a Miles Morales Premium Format Figure, a 17"-tall polystone statue depicting Morales jumping over the gaping jaws of a giant Venom symbiote. The statue features two removal heads, with and without the mask, and an extra hand holding the mask. Upon its release, the statue was priced at $520.


title: Valkyrie

text: In Norse mythology, a valkyrie ("chooser of the slain") is one of a host of female figures who guide souls of the dead to the god Odin's hall Valhalla. There, the deceased warriors become (Old Norse "single (or once) fighters"). When the are not preparing for the events of Ragnarök, the valkyries bear them mead. Valkyries also appear as lovers of heroes and other mortals, where they are sometimes described as the daughters of royalty, sometimes accompanied by ravens and sometimes connected to swans or horses.


title: Valkyrie

text: Valkyries are attested in the "Poetic Edda" (a book of poems compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources), the "Prose Edda", the (both by Snorri Sturluson) and the (one of the Sagas of Icelanders), all written—or compiled—in the 13th century. They appear throughout the poetry of skalds, in a 14th-century charm, and in various runic inscriptions.


title: Valkyrie

text: The Old English cognate term appears in several Old English manuscripts, and scholars have explored whether the term appears in Old English by way of Norse influence, or reflects a tradition also native among the Anglo-Saxon pagans. Scholarly theories have been proposed about the relation between the valkyries, the Norns, and the , all of which are supernatural figures associated with fate. Archaeological excavations throughout Scandinavia have uncovered amulets theorized as depicting valkyries. In modern culture, valkyries have been the subject of works of art, musical works, comic books, video games and poetry.


title: Valkyrie

text: The word "valkyrie" derives from Old Norse ' (plural ), which is composed of two words: the noun ' (referring to the slain on the battlefield) and the verb ' (meaning "to choose"). Together, they mean 'chooser of the slain'. The Old Norse is cognate to Old English '. From the Old English and Old Norse forms, philologist Vladimir Orel reconstructs the Proto-Germanic form . However, the term may have been borrowed into Old English from Old Norse: see discussion in the Old English attestations section below.


title: Valkyrie

text: Other terms for valkyries in Old Norse sources include ("wish maid"), appearing in the poem , and ("Odin's maids"), appearing in the . may be related to the Odinic name (roughly meaning "wish fulfiller"), referring to the fact that Odin receives slain warriors in Valhalla.


title: Valkyrie

text: The name "Randalín", which Aslaug is called in "Ragnars saga loðbrókar", when she joins her sons to avenge their brothers Agnarr and Eric in Sweden, is probably from "Randa-Hlín", which means "shield-goddess", i.e. a kenning for "Valkyrie".


title: Valkyrie

text: Valkyries are mentioned or appear in the "Poetic Edda" poems "Völuspá", "Grímnismál", "Völundarkviða", "Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar", "Helgakviða Hundingsbana I", "Helgakviða Hundingsbana II" and "Sigrdrífumál".


title: Valkyrie

text: In stanza 30 of the poem "Völuspá", a völva (a travelling seeress in Norse society) tells Odin that "she saw" valkyries coming from far away who are ready to ride to "the realm of the gods". The völva follows this with a list of six valkyries: Skuld (Old Norse, possibly "debt" or "future") who "bore a shield", Skögul ("shaker"), Gunnr ("war"), Hildr ("battle"), Göndul ("wand-wielder") and Geirskögul ("Spear-Skögul"). Afterwards, the völva tells him she has listed the "ladies of the War Lord, ready to ride, valkyries, over the earth".


title: Valkyrie

text: In the poem "Grímnismál", Odin (disguised as "Grímnir"), tortured, starved and thirsty, tells the young Agnar that he wishes that the valkyries Hrist ("shaker") and Mist ("cloud") would "bear him a [drinking] horn", then provides a list of 11 more valkyries who he says "bear ale to the einherjar"; Skeggjöld ("axe-age"), Skögul, Hildr, Þrúðr ("power"), Hlökk ("noise", or "battle"), Herfjötur ("host-fetter"), Göll ("tumult"), Geirahöð ("spear-fight"), Randgríð ("shield-truce"), Ráðgríð ("council-truce") and Reginleif ("power-truce").


title: Valkyrie

text: A prose introduction in the poem "Völundarkviða" relates that the brothers Slagfiðr, Egil and Völund dwelt in a house sited in a location called Úlfdalir ("wolf dales"). There, early one morning, the brothers find three women spinning linen on the shore of the lake Úlfsjár ("wolf lake"), and "near them were their swan's garments; they were valkyries". Two daughters of King Hlödvér are named Hlaðguðr svanhvít ("swan-white") and Hervör alvitr (possibly meaning "all-wise" or "strange creature"); the third, daughter of Kjárr of Valland, is named Ölrún (possibly meaning "beer rune"). The brothers take the three women back to their hall with them—Egil takes Ölrún, Slagfiðr takes Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund takes Hervör alvitr. They live together for seven winters, until the women fly off to go to a battle and do not return. Egil goes off in snow-shoes to look for Ölrún, Slagfiðr goes searching for Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund sits in Úlfdalir.


title: Valkyrie

text: In the poem "Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar", a prose narrative says that an unnamed and silent young man, the son of the Norwegian King Hjörvarðr and Sigrlinn of Sváfaland, witnesses nine valkyries riding by while sitting atop a burial mound. He finds one particularly striking; this valkyrie is detailed later in a prose narrative as Sváva, King Eylimi's daughter, who "often protected him in battles". The valkyrie speaks to the unnamed man, and gives him the name "Helgi" (meaning "the holy one"). The previously silent Helgi speaks; he refers to the valkyrie as "bright-face lady", and asks her what gift he will receive with the name she has bestowed upon him, but he will not accept it if he cannot have her as well. The valkyrie tells him she knows of a hoard of swords in Sigarsholm, and that one of them is of particular importance, which she describes in detail. Further into the poem, Atli flytes with the female jötunn Hrímgerðr. While flyting with Atli, Hrímgerðr says that she had seen 27 valkyries around Helgi, yet one particularly fair valkyrie led the band:


title: Valkyrie

text: After Hrímgerðr is turned to stone by the daylight, a prose narrative continues that Helgi, who is now king, goes to Sváva's father—King Eylimi—and asks for his daughter. Helgi and Sváva are betrothed and love one another dearly. Sváva stays at home with King Eylimi, and Helgi goes raiding, and to this the narrative adds that Sváva "was a valkyrie just as before". The poem continues, and, among various other events, Helgi dies from a wound received in battle. A narrative at the end of the poem says that Helgi and his valkyrie wife Sváva "are said to be reincarnated".


title: Valkyrie

text: In the poem "Helgakviða Hundingsbana I", the hero Helgi Hundingsbane sits in the corpse-strewn battlefield of Logafjöll. A light shines from the fell, and from that light strike bolts of lightning. Flying through the sky, helmeted valkyries appear. Their waist-length mail armour is drenched in blood; their spears shine brightly:


title: Valkyrie

text: In the stanza that follows, Helgi asks the valkyries (who he refers to as "southern goddesses") if they would like to come home with the warriors when night falls (all the while arrows were flying). The battle over, the valkyrie Sigrún ("victory-rune"), informs him from her horse that her father Högni has betrothed her to Höðbroddr, the son of king Granmar of the Hniflung clan, who Sigrún deems unworthy. Helgi assembles an immense host to ride to wage battle at Frekastein against the Hniflung clan to assist Sigrún in her plight to avoid her betrothment. Later in the poem, the hero Sinfjötli flytes with Guðmundr. Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been female, and gibes that Guðmundr was "a witch, horrible, unnatural, among Odin's valkyries", adding that all of the einherjar "had to fight, headstrong woman, on your account". Further in the poem, the phrase "the valkyrie's airy sea" is used for "mist".


title: Valkyrie

text: Towards the end of the poem, valkyries again descend from the sky, this time to protect Helgi amid the battle at Frekastein. After the battle, all the valkyries fly away but Sigrún and wolves (referred to as "the troll-woman's mount") consume corpses:


title: Valkyrie

text: At the beginning of the poem "Helgakviða Hundingsbana II", a prose narrative says that King Sigmund (son of Völsung) and his wife Borghild (of Brálund) have a son named Helgi, who they named for Helgi Hjörvarðsson (the antagonist of the earlier "Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar"). After Helgi has killed King Hunding in stanza 4, a prose narrative says that Helgi escapes, consumes the raw meat of cattle he has slaughtered on a beach, and encounters Sigrún. Sigrún, daughter of King Högni, is "a valkyrie and rode through air and sea", and she is the valkyrie Sváva reincarnated. In stanza 7, Sigrún uses the phrase "fed the gosling of Gunn's sisters". Gunnr and her sisters are valkyries, and these goslings are ravens, who feed on the corpses left on the battlefield by warriors.


title: Valkyrie

text: After stanza 18, a prose narrative relates that Helgi and his immense fleet of ships are heading to Frekastein, but encounter a great storm. Lightning strikes one of the ships. The fleet sees nine valkyries flying through the air, among whom they recognise Sigrún. The storm abates, and the fleets arrive safely at land. Helgi dies in battle, yet returns to visit Sigrún from Valhalla once in a burial mound, and at the end of the poem, a prose epilogue explains that Sigrún later dies of grief. The epilogue details that "there was a belief in the pagan religion, which we now reckon [is] an old wives' tale, that people could be reincarnated" and that "Helgi and Sigrun were thought to have been reborn" as another Helgi and valkyrie couple; Helgi as Helgi Haddingjaskaði and Sigrún as the daughter of Halfdan; the valkyrie Kára. The epilogue details that further information about the two can be found in the (now lost) work "Káruljóð".


title: Valkyrie

text: In the prose introduction to the poem "Sigrdrífumál", the hero Sigurd rides up to Hindarfell and heads south towards "the land of the Franks". On the mountain Sigurd sees a great light, "as if fire were burning, which blazed up to the sky". Sigurd approaches it, and there he sees a "skjaldborg" with a banner flying overhead. Sigurd enters the "skjaldborg", and sees a warrior lying there—asleep and fully armed. Sigurd removes the helmet of the warrior, and sees the face of a woman. The woman's corslet is so tight that it seems to have grown into the woman's body. Sigurd uses his sword Gram to cut the corslet, starting from the neck of the corslet downwards, he continues cutting down her sleeves, and takes the corslet off of her.


title: Valkyrie

text: The woman wakes, sits up, looks at Sigurd, and the two converse in two stanzas of verse. In the second stanza, the woman explains that Odin placed a sleeping spell on her she could not break, and due to that spell she has been asleep a long time. Sigurd asks for her name, and the woman gives Sigurd a horn of mead to help him retain her words in his memory. The woman recites a heathen prayer in two stanzas. A prose narrative explains that the woman is named Sigrdrífa and that she is a valkyrie.


title: Valkyrie

text: A narrative relates that Sigrdrífa explains to Sigurd that there were two kings fighting one another. Odin had promised one of these—Hjalmgunnar—victory in battle, yet she had "brought down" Hjalmgunnar in battle. Odin pricked her with a sleeping-thorn in consequence, told her she would never again "fight victoriously in battle", and condemned her to marriage. In response, Sigrdrífa told Odin she had sworn a great oath that she would never wed a man who knew fear. Sigurd asks Sigrdrífa to share with him her wisdom of all worlds. The poem continues in verse, where Sigrdrífa provides Sigurd with knowledge in inscribing runes, mystic wisdom, and prophecy.


title: Valkyrie

text: In the "Prose Edda", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, valkyries are first mentioned in chapter 36 of the book "Gylfaginning", where the enthroned figure of High informs Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) of the activities of the valkyries and mentions a few goddesses. High says "there are still others whose duty it is to serve in Valhalla. They bring drink and see to the table and the ale cups." Following this, High gives a stanza from the poem "Grímnismál" that contains a list of valkyries. High says "these women are called valkyries, and they are sent by Odin to every battle, where they choose which men are to die and they determine who has victory". High adds that Gunnr ("war"), Róta, and Skuld—the last of the three he refers to as "the youngest norn"—"always ride to choose the slain and decide the outcome of battle". In chapter 49, High describes that when Odin and his wife Frigg arrived at the funeral of their slain son Baldr, with them came the valkyries and also Odin's ravens.


title: Valkyrie

text: References to valkyries appear throughout the book "Skáldskaparmál", which provides information about skaldic poetry. In chapter 2, a quote is given from the work "Húsdrápa" by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason. In the poem, Úlfr describes mythological scenes depicted in a newly built hall, including valkyries and ravens accompanying Odin at Baldr's funeral feast:


title: Valkyrie

text: Further in chapter 2, a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem "Eiríksmál" is provided (see the "Fagrskinna" section below for more detail about the poem and another translation):


title: Valkyrie

text: In chapter 31, poetic terms for referring to a woman are given, including "[a] woman is also referred to in terms of all Asyniur or valkyries or norns or "dísir"". In chapter 41, while the hero Sigurd is riding his horse Grani, he encounters a building on a mountain. Within this building Sigurd finds a sleeping woman wearing a helmet and a coat of mail. Sigurd cuts the mail from her, and she awakes. She tells him her name is Hildr, and "she is known as Brynhildr, and was a valkyrie".


title: Valkyrie

text: In chapter 48, poetic terms for "battle" include "weather of weapons or shields, or of Odin or valkyrie or war-kings or their clash or noise", followed by examples of compositions by various skalds that have used the name of valkyries in said manner (Þorbjörn Hornklofi uses "Skögul's din" for "battlefield", Bersi Skáldtorfuson uses "Gunnr's fire" for "sword" and "Hlökk's snow" for "battle", Einarr Skúlason uses "Hildr's sail" for "shield" and "Göndul's crushing wind" for "battle" and Einarr skálaglamm uses "Göndul's din"). Chapter 49 gives similar information when referring to weapons and armor (though the term "death-maidens"—Old Norse "valmeyjar"—instead of "valkyries" is used here), with further examples. In chapter 57, within a list of names of ásynjur (and after alternate names for the goddess Freyja are provided), a further section contains a list of "Odin's maids"; valkyries: Hildr, Göndul, Hlökk, Mist, Skögul. And then an additional four names; Hrund, Eir, Hrist and Skuld. The section adds that "they are called norns who shape necessity".


title: Valkyrie

text: Some manuscripts of the feature "Nafnaþulur" section of "Skáldskaparmál" contain an extended list of 29 valkyrie names (listed as the "valkyries of Viðrir"—a name of Odin). The first stanza lists: Hrist, Mist, Herja, Hlökk, Geiravör, Göll, Hjörþrimul, Guðr, Herfjötra, Skuld, Geirönul, Skögul and Randgníð. The second stanza lists: Ráðgríðr, Göndul, Svipul, Geirskögul, Hildr, Skeggöld, Hrund, Geirdriful, Randgríðr, Þrúðr, Reginleif, Sveið, Þögn, Hjalmþrimul, Þrima and Skalmöld.


title: Valkyrie

text: The fragmentary skaldic poem "Hrafnsmál" (generally accepted as authored by 9th century Norwegian skald Þorbjörn Hornklofi) features a conversation between a valkyrie and a raven, largely consisting of the life and deeds of Harald I of Norway. The poem begins with a request for silence among noblemen so that the skald may tell the deeds of Harald Fairhair. The narrator states that they once overheard a "high-minded", "golden-haired" and "white-armed" maiden speaking with a "glossy-beaked raven". The valkyrie considers herself wise, understands the speech of birds, is further described as having a white-throat and sparkling eyes, and she takes no pleasure in men:


title: Valkyrie

text: The valkyrie, previously described as fair and beautiful, then speaks to the gore-drenched and corpse-reeking raven:


title: Valkyrie

text: The black raven shakes himself, and he responds that he and the rest of the ravens have followed Harald since hatching from their eggs. The raven expresses surprise that the valkyrie seems unfamiliar with the deeds of Harald, and tells her about his deeds for several stanzas. At stanza 15, a question and answer format begins where the valkyrie asks the raven a question regarding Harald, and the raven responds in turn. This continues until the poem ends abruptly.


title: Valkyrie

text: In chapter 157 of "Njáls saga", a man named Dörruð witnesses 12 people riding together to a stone hut on Good Friday in Caithness. The 12 go into the hut and Dörruð can no longer see them. Dörruð goes to the hut, and looks through a chink in the wall. He sees that there are women within, and that they have set up a particular loom; the heads of men are the weights, the entrails of men are the warp and weft, a sword is the shuttle, and the reels are composed of arrows. The women sing a song called "Darraðarljóð", which Dörruð memorizes.


title: Valkyrie

text: The song consists of 11 stanzas, and within it the valkyries weave and choose who is to be slain at the Battle of Clontarf (fought outside Dublin in 1014 CE). Of the 12 valkyries weaving, six have their names given in the song: Hildr, Hjörþrimul, Sanngriðr, Svipul, Guðr and Göndul. Stanza 9 of the song reads:


title: Valkyrie

text: At the end of the poem, the valkyries sing "start we swiftly with steeds unsaddled—hence to battle with brandished swords!" The prose narrative picks up again, and says that the valkyries tear their loom down and into pieces. Each valkyrie holds on to what she has in her hands. Dörruð leaves the chink in the wall and heads home, and the women mount their horses and ride away; six to the south and six to the north.


title: Valkyrie

text: At the end of the "Heimskringla" saga "Hákonar saga góða", the poem "Hákonarmál" by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is presented. The saga relates that king Haakon I of Norway died in battle, and although he is Christian, he requests that since he has died "among heathens, then give me such burial place as seems most fitting to you". The saga relates that shortly after Haakon died on the same slab of rock that he was born upon, he was greatly mourned by friend and foe alike, and that his friends moved his body northward to Sæheim in North Hordaland. Haakon was buried there in a large burial mound in full armour and his finest clothing, yet with no other valuables. Further, "words were spoken over his grave according to the custom of heathen men, and they put him on the way to Valhalla". The poem "Hákonarmál" is then provided.


title: Valkyrie

text: In "Hákonarmál", Odin sends forth the two valkyries Göndul and Skögul to "choose among the kings' kinsmen" and who in battle should dwell with Odin in Valhalla. A battle rages with great slaughter, and part of the description employs the kenning "Skögul's-stormblast" for "battle". Haakon and his men die in battle, and they see the valkyrie Göndul leaning on a spear shaft. Göndul comments that "groweth now the gods' following, since Hákon has been with host so goodly bidden home with holy godheads". Haakon hears "what the valkyries said", and the valkyries are described as sitting "high-hearted on horseback", wearing helmets, carrying shields and that the horses wisely bore them. A brief exchange follows between Haakon and the valkyrie Skögul:


title: Valkyrie

text: Skögul says that they shall now ride forth to the "green homes of the godheads" to tell Odin the king will come to Valhalla. The poem continues, and Haakon becomes a part of the einherjar in Valhalla, awaiting to do battle with the monstrous wolf Fenrir.


title: Valkyrie

text: In chapter 8 of "Fagrskinna", a prose narrative states that, after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe, Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him. The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as "Eiríksmál". It describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death. The poem begins with comments by Odin (as Old Norse "Óðinn"):


title: Valkyrie

text: The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from, and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking—as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla—and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand. Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe, who will soon arrive in Valhalla. Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall, if it is indeed he.


title: Valkyrie

text: A witchcraft trial held in 1324 in Bergen, Norway, records a spell used by the accused Ragnhild Tregagás to end the marriage of her former lover, a man named Bárd. The charm contains a mention of the valkyrie Göndul being "sent out":


title: Valkyrie

text: The Old English appears several times in Old English manuscripts, generally to translate foreign concepts into Old English. It is used in the sermon , where it is thought to appear as a word for a human "sorceress". An early 11th-century manuscript of Aldhelm's (Oxford, Bodleian library, Digby 146) glosses with (with meaning "goddess"). is used to translate the names of the classical furies in two manuscripts (Cotton Cleopatra A. iii, and the older "Corpus Glossary"). In the manuscript Cotton Cleopatra A. iii, is also used to gloss the Roman goddess Bellona. A description of a raven flying over the Egyptian army appears as (meaning "dark one choosing the slain"). Scholarly theories debate whether these attestations point to an indigenous belief among the Anglo-Saxons shared with the Norse, or if they were a result of later Norse influence (see section below).


title: Valkyrie

text: Viking Age stylized silver amulets depicting women wearing long gowns, their hair pulled back and knotted into a ponytail, sometimes bearing drinking horns, have been discovered throughout Scandinavia. These figures are commonly considered to represent valkyries or dísir. According to Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees, the amulets appear in Viking Age graves, and were presumably placed there because "they were thought to have protective powers".


title: Valkyrie

text: The Tjängvide image stone from the Baltic island of Gotland, Sweden features a rider on an eight-legged horse, which may be Odin's eight-legged horse Sleipnir, being greeted by a female, which may be a valkyrie at Valhalla. The 11th century runestone U 1163 features a carving of a female bearing a horn that has been interpreted as the valkyrie Sigrdrífa handing the hero Sigurd (also depicted on the stone) a drinking horn.


title: Valkyrie

text: In 2013, a small figure dated at around 800 AD was discovered in Hårby, Denmark by three amateur archaeologists. The figurine portrays a woman with long hair knotted into a ponytail who is wearing a long dress which is sleeveless and vest like at the top. Over the top of her dress she is wearing an embroidered apron. Her clothing keeps the woman's arms unobstructed so she can fight with the sword and shield she is holding. Commenting on the figure, archaeologist Mogens Bo Henriksen said that "there can hardly be any doubt that the figure depicts one of Odin's valkyries as we know them from the sagas as well as from Swedish picture stones from the time around AD700".


title: Valkyrie

text: Specific valkyries are mentioned on two runestones; the early 9th century Rök runestone in Östergötland, Sweden, and the 10th-century Karlevi Runestone on the island of Öland, Sweden, which mentions the valkyrie Þrúðr. On the Rök runestone, a kenning is employed that involves a valkyrie riding a wolf as her steed:


title: Valkyrie

text: Among the Bryggen inscriptions found in Bergen, Norway, is the "valkyrie stick" from the late 14th century. The stick features a runic inscription intended as a charm. The inscription says that "I cut cure-runes", and also "help-runes", once against elves, twice against trolls, thrice against thurs and then a mention of a valkyrie occurs:


title: Valkyrie

text: This is followed by "I send you, I look at you, wolfish perversion, and unbearable desire, may distress descend on you and "jöluns" wrath. Never shall you sit, never shall you sleep ... (that you) love me as yourself." According to Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees, the inscription "seems to begin as a benevolent formulation before abruptly switching to the infliction of distress and misery, presumably upon the recipient of the charm rather than the baleful valkyrie", and they posit the final line appears "to constitute a rather spiteful kind of charm aimed at securing the love of a woman".


title: Valkyrie

text: MacLeod and Mees state that the opening lines of the charm correspond to the "Poetic Edda" poem "Sigrdrífumál", where the valkyrie Sigrdrífa provides runic advice, and that the meaning of the term "skag" is unclear, but a cognate exists in "Helgakviða Hundingsbana I" where Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been a ""skass"-valkyrie". MacLeod and Mees believe the word means something like "supernatural sending", and that this points to a connection to the Ragnhild Tregagás charm, where a valkyrie is also "sent forth".


title: Valkyrie

text: The Old Norse poems "Völuspá", "Grímnismál", "Darraðarljóð" and the "Nafnaþulur" section of the "Prose Edda" book "Skáldskaparmál", provide lists of valkyrie names. In addition, some valkyrie names appear solely outside of these lists, such as "Sigrún" (who is attested in the poems "Helgakviða Hundingsbana I" and "Helgakviða Hundingsbana II"). Many valkyrie names emphasize associations with battle and, in many cases, on the spear—a weapon heavily associated with the god Odin. Some scholars propose that the names of the valkyries themselves contain no individuality, but are rather descriptive of the traits and nature of war-goddesses, and are possibly the descriptive creations of skalds.


title: Valkyrie

text: Some valkyrie names may be descriptive of the roles and abilities of the valkyries. The valkyrie name "Herja" has been theorised as pointing to a connection to the name of the goddess "Hariasa", who is attested from a stone from 187 CE. The name "Herfjötur" has been theorised as pointing to the ability of the valkyries to place fetters. The name "Svipul" may be descriptive of the influence the valkyries have over wyrd or ørlog—a Germanic concept of fate.


title: Valkyrie

text: Richard North says that the description of a raven flying over the Egyptian army (glossed as ) may have been directly influenced by the Old Norse concept of Valhalla, the usage of in may represent a loan or loan-translation of Old Norse , but the Cotton Cleopatra A. iii and the "Corpus Glossary" instances "appear to show an Anglo-Saxon conception of that was independent of contemporary Scandinavian influence".


title: Valkyrie

text: Two Old English charms mention figures that are theorised as representing an Anglo-Saxon notion of valkyries or valkyrie-like female beings; , a charm to cure a sudden pain or stitch, and "For a Swarm of Bees", a charm to keep honey bees from swarming. In , a sudden pain is attributed to a small, "shrieking" spear thrown with supernatural strength () by "fierce" loudly flying "mighty women" () who have ridden over a burial mound:


title: Valkyrie

text: Theories have been proposed that these figures are connected to valkyries. Richard North says that "though it is not clear what the poet takes these women to be, their female sex, riding in flight and throwing spears suggest that they were imagined in England as a female being analogous to the later Norse ." Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that was originally a battle spell that had, over time, been reduced to evoke "a prosaic stitch in the side". Towards the end of "For a Swarm of Bees", the swarming bees are referred to as "victory-women" (Old English ):


title: Valkyrie

text: The term "victory women" has been theorised as pointing to an association with valkyries. This theory is not universally accepted, and the reference has also been theorised as a simple metaphor for the "victorious sword" (the stinging) of the bees.


title: Valkyrie

text: One of the two Old High German Merseburg Incantations call upon female beings—"Idisi"—to bind and hamper an army. The incantation reads:


title: Valkyrie

text: The "Idisi" mentioned in the incantation are generally considered to be valkyries. Rudolf Simek says that "these Idisi are obviously a kind of valkyrie, as these also have the power to hamper enemies in Norse mythology" and points to a connection with the valkyrie name (Old Norse "army-fetter"). Hilda R. Davidson compares the incantation to the Old English charm and theorises a similar role for them both.


title: Valkyrie

text: Simek says that the West Germanic term "Idisi" (, , ) refers to a "dignified, well respected woman (married or unmarried), possibly a term for any woman, and therefore glosses exactly Latin " and that a link to the North Germanic term is reasonable to assume, yet not undisputed. In addition, the place name Idisiaviso (meaning "plain of the Idisi") where forces commanded by Arminius fought those commanded by Germanicus at the Battle of the Weser River in 16 AD. Simek points to a connection between the name "Idisiaviso", the role of the Idisi in one of the two Merseburg Incantations and valkyries.


title: Valkyrie

text: Regarding the , Simek states that Old Norse appears commonly as simply a term for "woman", just as Old High German , Old Saxon and Old English , and may have also been used to denote a type of goddess. According to Simek, "several of the Eddic sources might lead us to conclude that the were valkyrie-like guardians of the dead, and indeed in I 19 the valkyries are even called "Odin's ". The are explicitly called dead women in 28 and a secondary belief that the were the souls of dead women (see ) also underlies the of Icelandic folklore. Simek says that "as the function of the matrons was also extremely varied—fertility goddess, personal guardians, but also warrior-goddesses—the belief in the , like the belief in the valkyries, norns and matrons, may be considered to be different manifestations of a belief in a number of female (half-?) goddesses."


title: Valkyrie

text: Jacob Grimm states that, though the norns and valkyries are similar in nature, there is a fundamental difference between the two. Grimm states that a can be both norn and a valkyrie, "but their functions are separate and usually the persons. The norns have to pronounce the fatum [fate], they sit on their chairs, or they roam through the country among mortals, fastening their threads. Nowhere is it said that they ride. The valkyrs "ride" to war, decide the issues of fighting, and conduct the fallen to heaven; their riding is like that of heroes and gods".


title: Valkyrie

text: Various theories have been proposed about the origins and development of the valkyries from Germanic paganism to later Norse mythology. Rudolf Simek suggests valkyries were probably originally viewed as "demons of the dead to whom warriors slain on the battlefield belonged", and that a shift in interpretation of the valkyries may have occurred "when the concept of Valhalla changed from a battlefield to a warrior's paradise". Simek says that this original concept was "superseded by the shield girls—Irish female warriors who lived on like the "einherjar" in Valhall." Simek says that the valkyries were closely associated with Odin, and that this connection existed in an earlier role as "demons of death". Simek states that due to the shift of concept, the valkyries became popular figures in heroic poetry, and during this transition were stripped of their "demonic characteristics and became more human, and therefore become capable of falling in love with mortals [...]." Simek says that the majority of the names of the valkyries point to a warlike function, that most of valkyrie names do not appear to be very old, and that the names "mostly come from poetic creativity rather than from real folk-belief."


title: Valkyrie

text: MacLeod and Mees theorise that "the role of the corpse-choosing valkyries became increasingly confused in later Norse mythology with that of the Norns, the supernatural females responsible for determining human destiny [...]."


title: Valkyrie

text: Hilda Ellis Davidson says that, regarding valkyries, "evidently an elaborate literary picture has been built up by generations of poets and storytellers, in which several conceptions can be discerned. We recognise something akin to Norns, spirits who decide destinies of men; to the seeresses, who could protect men in battle with their spells; to the powerful female guardian spirits attached to certain families, bringing luck to youth under their protection; even to certain women who armed themselves and fought like men, for whom there is some historical evidence from the regions round the Black Sea". She adds that there may also be a memory in this of a "priestess of the god of war, women who officiated at the sacrificial rites when captives were put to death after battle."


title: Valkyrie

text: Davidson places emphasis on the fact that "valkyrie" literally means "chooser of the slain". She compares Wulfstan's mention of a "chooser of the slain" in his "Sermo Lupi ad Anglos" sermon, which appears among "a blacklist of sinners, witches and evildoers", to "all the other classes whom he [Wulfstan] mentions", and concludes as those "are human ones, it seems unlikely that he has introduced mythological figures as well." Davidson points out that Arab traveller Ibn Fadlan's detailed account of a 10th-century Rus ship funeral on the Volga River features an "old Hunnish woman, massive and grim to look upon" (who Fadlan refers to as the "Angel of Death") who organises the killing of the slave girl, and has two other women with her that Fadlan refers to as her daughters. Davidson says that "it would hardly be surprising if strange legends grew up about such women, who must have been kept apart from their kind due to their gruesome duties. Since it was often decided by lot which prisoners should be killed, the idea that the god "chose" his victims, through the instrument of the priestesses, must have been a familiar one, apart from the obvious assumption that some were chosen to fall in war." Davidson says that it appears that from "early times" the Germanic peoples "believed in fierce female spirits doing the command of the war god, stirring up disorder, taking part in battle, seizing and perhaps devouring the slain."


title: Valkyrie

text: The goddess Freyja and her afterlife field Fólkvangr, where she receives half of the slain, has been theorized as connected to the valkyries. Britt-Mari Näsström points out the description in "Gylfaginning" where it is said of Freyja "whenever she rides into battle she takes half of the slain", and interprets "Fólkvangr" as "the field of the Warriors". Näsström notes that, just like Odin, Freyja receives slain heroes who have died on the battlefield, and that her house is Sessrumnir (which she translates as "filled with many seats"), a dwelling that Näsström posits likely fills the same function as Valhalla. Näsström comments that "still, we must ask why there are two heroic paradises in the Old Norse view of afterlife. It might possibly be a consequence of different forms of initiation of warriors, where one part seemed to have belonged to Óðinn and the other to Freyja. These examples indicate that Freyja was a war-goddess, and she even appears as a valkyrie, literally 'the one who chooses the slain'."


title: Valkyrie

text: Siegfried Andres Dobat comments that "in her mythological role as the chooser of half the fallen warriors for her death-realm Fólkvangr, the goddess Freyja, however, emerges as the mythological role-model for the Valkyrjar and the dísir".


title: Valkyrie

text: Valkyries have been the subjects of various poems, stories, works of art, and musical works. In poetry, valkyries appear in ""Die Walküren" by H. Heine (appearing in "Romanzero", 1847), ""Die Walküren" (1864) by H. v. Linge, and ""Sköldmon" (appearing in "Gömda Land", 1904). In music, they appear in "Die Walküre" by Richard Wagner (1870), from which the "Ride of the Valkyries" is the most well known theme. In literature, Valkyries make an appearance in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Marsh King's Daughter".


title: Valkyrie

text: Works of art depicting valkyries include "Die Walküren" (sketch, 1818) by J. G. Sandberg, "Reitende Walküre" (fresco), previously located in Munich palace but now destroyed, 1865–66 by M. Echter, "Valkyrien" and "Valkyriens død" (paintings, both from 1860), "Walkürenritt" (etching, 1871) by A. Welti, "Walkürenritt" (woodcut, 1871) by T. Pixis, "Walkürenritt" (1872) by A. Becker (reproduced in 1873 with the same title by A. v. Heyde), "Die Walkyren" (charcoal, 1880) and "Walkyren wählen und wecken die gefallenen Helden (Einherier), um sie vom Schlachtfield nach Walhall zu geleiten" (painting, 1882) and "Walkyrenschlacht" (oil painting, 1884) by K. Ehrenberg, "Walkürenritt" (oil painting, 1888, and etching, 1890) by A. Welti, "Walküre" (statue) by H. Günther, "Walkürenritt" (oil painting) by H. Hendrich, "Walkürenritt" (painting) by F. Leeke, "Einherier" (painting, from around 1900), by K. Dielitz, "The Ride of the Valkyries" (painting, from around 1900) by J. C. Dollman, "Valkyrie" (statue, 1910) and "Walhalla-freeze" (located in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 1886–87), "Walkyrien" (print, 1915) by A. Kolb, and "Valkyrier" (drawing, 1925) by E. Hansen.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Aortic dissection (AD) occurs when an injury to the innermost layer of the aorta allows blood to flow between the layers of the aortic wall, forcing the layers apart. In most cases, this is associated with a sudden onset of severe chest or back pain, often described as "tearing" in character. Also, vomiting, sweating, and lightheadedness may occur. Other symptoms may result from decreased blood supply to other organs, such as stroke, lower extremity ischemia, or mesenteric ischemia. Aortic dissection can quickly lead to death from insufficient blood flow to the heart or complete rupture of the aorta.


title: Aortic dissection

text: AD is more common in those with a history of high blood pressure; a number of connective tissue diseases that affect blood vessel wall strength including Marfan syndrome and Ehlers–Danlos syndrome; a bicuspid aortic valve; and previous heart surgery. Major trauma, smoking, cocaine use, pregnancy, a thoracic aortic aneurysm, inflammation of arteries, and abnormal lipid levels are also associated with an increased risk. The diagnosis is suspected based on symptoms with medical imaging, such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, or ultrasound used to confirm and further evaluate the dissection. The two main types are Stanford type A, which involves the first part of the aorta, and type B, which does not.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Prevention is by blood pressure control and smoking cessation. Management of AD depends on the part of the aorta involved. Dissections that involve the first part of the aorta (adjacent to the heart) usually require surgery. Surgery may be done either by an opening in the chest or from inside the blood vessel. Dissections that involve the second part of the aorta can typically be treated with medications that lower blood pressure and heart rate, unless there are complications which then require surgical correction.


title: Aortic dissection

text: AD is relatively rare, occurring at an estimated rate of three per 100,000 people per year. It is more common in men than women. The typical age at diagnosis is 63, with about 10% of cases occurring before the age of 40. Without treatment, about half of people with Stanford type A dissections die within three days and about 10% of people with Stanford type B dissections die within one month. The first case of AD was described in the examination of King George II of Great Britain following his death in 1760. Surgery for AD was introduced in the 1950s by Michael E. DeBakey.


title: Aortic dissection

text: About 96% of individuals with AD present with severe pain that had a sudden onset. The pain may be described as a tearing, stabbing, or sharp sensation in the chest, back, or abdomen. About 17% of individuals feel the pain migrate as the dissection extends down the aorta. The location of pain is associated with the location of the dissection. Anterior chest pain is associated with dissections involving the ascending aorta, while interscapular back pain is associated with descending aortic dissections. If the pain is pleuritic in nature, it may suggest acute pericarditis caused by bleeding into the sac surrounding the heart. This is a particularly dangerous eventuality, suggesting that acute pericardial tamponade may be imminent. Pericardial tamponade is the most common cause of death from AD.


title: Aortic dissection

text: While the pain may be confused with that of a heart attack, AD is usually not associated with the other suggestive signs, such as heart failure and ECG changes. Less common symptoms that may be seen in the setting of AD include congestive heart failure (7%), fainting (9%), stroke (6%), ischemic peripheral neuropathy, paraplegia, and cardiac arrest. If the individual fainted, about half the time it is due to bleeding into the pericardium, leading to pericardial tamponade. Neurological complications of aortic dissection, such as stroke and paralysis, are due to the involvement of one or more arteries supplying portions of the central nervous system.


title: Aortic dissection

text: If the AD involves the abdominal aorta, compromise of one or both renal arteries occurs in 5–8% of cases, while ischemia of the intestines occurs about 3% of the time.


title: Aortic dissection

text: People with AD often have a history of high blood pressure. The blood pressure is quite variable at presentation with acute AD. It tends to be higher in individuals with a distal dissection. In individuals with a proximal AD, 36% present with hypertension, while 25% present with hypotension. Proximal AD tends to be associated with weakening of the vascular wall due to cystic medial degeneration. In those who present with distal (Stanford type B) AD, 60–70% present with high blood pressure, while 2–3% present with low blood pressure.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Severe hypotension at presentation is a grave prognostic indicator. It is usually associated with pericardial tamponade, severe aortic insufficiency, or rupture of the aorta. Accurate measurement of blood pressure is important. Pseudohypotension (falsely low blood-pressure measurement) may occur due to involvement of the brachiocephalic artery (supplying the right arm) or the left subclavian artery (supplying the left arm).


title: Aortic dissection

text: Aortic insufficiency (AI) occurs in half to two-thirds of ascending AD, and the diastolic heart murmur of aortic insufficiency is audible in about 32% of proximal dissections. The intensity (loudness) of the murmur depends on the blood pressure and may be inaudible in the event of low blood pressure.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Multiple causes exist for AI in the setting of ascending AD. The dissection may dilate the annulus of the aortic valve, preventing the leaflets of the valve from coapting. The dissection may extend into the aortic root and detach the aortic valve leaflets. Alternatively, following an extensive intimal tear, the intimal flap may prolapse into the left ventricular outflow tract, causing intimal intussusception into the aortic valve, thereby preventing proper valve closure.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Heart attack occurs in 1–2% of aortic dissections. Infarction is caused by the involvement of the coronary arteries, which supply the heart with oxygenated blood, in the dissection. The right coronary artery is involved more commonly than the left coronary artery. If the myocardial infarction is treated with thrombolytic therapy, the mortality increases to over 70%, mostly due to bleeding into the pericardial sac, causing cardiac tamponade.


title: Aortic dissection

text: A pleural effusion (fluid collection in the space between the lungs and the chest wall or diaphragm) can be due to either blood from a transient rupture of the aorta or fluid due to an inflammatory reaction around the aorta. If a pleural effusion were to develop due to AD, it is more common in the left hemithorax rather than the right hemithorax.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Aortic dissection is associated with hypertension (high blood pressure) and many connective tissue disorders. Vasculitis (inflammation of an artery) is rarely associated with aortic dissection. It can also be the result of chest trauma. About 72 to 80% of individuals who present with an aortic dissection have a previous history of hypertension. Illicit drug use with stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine is also a modifiable risk factor for AD. It can also be caused by smoking.


title: Aortic dissection

text: A bicuspid aortic valve (a type of congenital heart disease involving the aortic valve) is found in 7–14% of individuals who have an aortic dissection. These individuals are prone to dissection in the ascending aorta. The risk of dissection in individuals with bicuspid aortic valves is not associated with the degree of stenosis of the valve.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Connective tissue disorders such as Marfan syndrome, Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, and Loeys–Dietz syndrome increase the risk of aortic dissection. Similarly, vasculitides such as Takayasu's arteritis, giant cell arteritis, polyarteritis nodosa, and Behçet's disease have been associated with a subsequent aortic dissection. Marfan Syndrome is found in 5–9% of individuals who had an aortic dissection. In this subset, the incidence in young individuals is increased. Individuals with Marfan syndrome tend to have aneurysms of the aorta and are more prone to proximal dissections of the aorta.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Chest trauma leading to aortic dissection can be divided into two groups based on cause: blunt chest trauma (commonly seen in car accidents) and iatrogenic. Iatrogenic causes include trauma during cardiac catheterization or due to an intra-aortic balloon pump.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Aortic dissection may be a late sequela of heart surgery. About 18% of individuals who present with an acute aortic dissection have a history of open-heart surgery. Individuals who have undergone aortic valve replacement for aortic insufficiency are at particularly high risk because aortic regurgitation causes increased blood flow in the ascending aorta. This can cause dilatation and weakening of the walls of the ascending aorta.


title: Aortic dissection

text: As with all other arteries, the aorta is made up of three layers, the intima, the media, and the adventitia. The intima is in direct contact with the blood inside the vessel, and mainly consists of a layer of endothelial cells on a basement membrane; the media contains connective and muscle tissue, and the vessel is protected on the outside by the adventitia, comprising connective tissue.


title: Aortic dissection

text: In an aortic dissection, blood penetrates the intima and enters the media layer. The high pressure rips the tissue of the media apart along the laminated plane splitting the inner two-thirds and the outer one-third of the media apart. This can propagate along the length of the aorta for a variable distance forward or backward. Dissections that propagate towards the iliac bifurcation (with the flow of blood) are called anterograde dissections and those that propagate towards the aortic root (opposite of the flow of blood) are called retrograde dissections. The initial tear is usually within 100 mm of the aortic valve, so a retrograde dissection can easily compromise the pericardium leading to a hemopericardium. Anterograde dissections may propagate all the way to the iliac bifurcation of the aorta, rupture the aortic wall, or recanalize into the intravascular lumen leading to a double-barrel aorta. The double-barrel aorta relieves the pressure of blood flow and reduces the risk of rupture. Rupture leads to hemorrhaging into a body cavity, and prognosis depends on the area of rupture. Retroperitoneal and pericardial ruptures are both possible.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The initiating event in aortic dissection is a tear in the intimal lining of the aorta. Due to the high pressures in the aorta, blood enters the media at the point of the tear. The force of the blood entering the media causes the tear to extend. It may extend proximally (closer to the heart) or distally (away from the heart) or both. The blood travels through the media, creating a false lumen (the true lumen is the normal conduit of blood in the aorta). Separating the false lumen from the true lumen is a layer of intimal tissue known as the intimal flap.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The vast majority of aortic dissections originate with an intimal tear in either the ascending aorta (65%), the aortic arch (10%), or just distal to the ligamentum arteriosum in the descending thoracic aorta (20%).


title: Aortic dissection

text: As blood flows down the false lumen, it may cause secondary tears in the intima. Through these secondary tears, the blood can re-enter the true lumen.


title: Aortic dissection

text: While it is not always clear why an intimal tear may occur, quite often it involves degeneration of the collagen and elastin that make up the media. This is known as cystic medial necrosis and is most commonly associated with Marfan syndrome and is also associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.


title: Aortic dissection

text: In about 13% of aortic dissections, no evidence of an intimal tear is found. In these cases, the inciting event is thought to be an intramural hematoma (caused by bleeding within the media). Since no direct connection exists between the true lumen and the false lumen in these cases, diagnosing an aortic dissection by aortography is difficult if the cause is an intramural hematoma. An aortic dissection secondary to an intramural hematoma should be treated the same as one caused by an intimal tear.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Because of the varying symptoms of aortic dissection, the diagnosis is sometimes difficult to make. Concern should be increased in those with low blood pressure, neurological problems, and an unequal pulses.


title: Aortic dissection

text: While taking a good history from the individual may be strongly suggestive of an aortic dissection, the diagnosis cannot always be made by history and physical signs alone. Often, the diagnosis is made by visualization of the intimal flap on a diagnostic imaging test. Common tests used to diagnose an aortic dissection include a CT scan of the chest with iodinated contrast material and a transesophageal echocardiogram. The proximity of the aorta to the esophagus allows the use of higher-frequency ultrasound for better anatomical images. Other tests that may be used include an aortogram or magnetic resonance angiogram of the aorta. Each of these tests has pros and cons, and they do not have equal sensitivities and specificities in the diagnosis of aortic dissection.


title: Aortic dissection

text: In general, the imaging technique chosen is based on the pretest likelihood of the diagnosis, availability of the testing modality, patient stability, and the sensitivity and specificity of the test.


title: Aortic dissection

text: A measurement of blood D-dimer level may be useful in diagnostic evaluation. A level less than 500 ng/ml may be considered evidence against a diagnosis of aortic dissection, although this guideline is only applicable in cases deemed "low risk" and within 24 hours of symptom onset. The American Heart Association does not advise using this test in making the diagnosis, as evidence is still tentative.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Chest radiography may although demonstrate a change in the morphology of the thoracic aorta which can be seen in aortic dissection. Classically, new widening of the mediastinum on radiograph is of moderate sensitivity for detecting an ascending aortic dissection; however, this finding is of low specificity, as many other conditions can cause apparent widening of the mediastinum.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Importantly, about 12 to 20% of aortic dissections are not detectable by chest radiograph; therefore, a "normal" chest radiograph does not rule out aortic dissection. If there is high clinical suspicion, a more sensitive imaging test (CT angiogram, MR angiography, or transesophageal echo) may be warranted.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Computed tomography angiography is a fast, non-invasive test that gives an accurate three-dimensional view of the aorta. These images are produced by taking rapid, thin-cut slices of the chest and abdomen, and combining them in the computer to create cross-sectional slices. To delineate the aorta to the accuracy necessary to make the proper diagnosis, an iodinated contrast material is injected into a peripheral vein. Contrast is injected and the scan performed using a bolus tracking method. This type of scan is timed to injection to capture the contrast as it enters the aorta. The scan then follows the contrast as it flows through the vessel. It has a sensitivity of 96 to 100% and a specificity of 96 to 100%. Disadvantages include the need for iodinated contrast material and the inability to diagnose the site of the intimal tear.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is also used for the detection and assessment of aortic dissection, with a sensitivity of 98% and a specificity of 98%. An MRI examination of the aorta produces a three-dimensional reconstruction of the aorta, allowing the physician to determine the location of the intimal tear and the involvement of branch vessels, and to locate any secondary tears. It is a noninvasive test, does not require the use of iodinated contrast material, and can detect and quantitate the degree of aortic insufficiency.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The disadvantage of the MRI scan in the face of aortic dissection is that it may be available only in larger hospitals, and the scan is relatively time-consuming, which could be dangerous in people who are already very unwell. Due to the high-intensity magnetic fields used during MRI, it cannot be used on individuals with metallic implants. In addition, some individuals experience claustrophobia while surrounded by the MRI magnet.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) is a good test in the diagnosis of aortic dissection, with a sensitivity up to 98% and a specificity up to 97%. It has become the preferred imaging modality for suspected aortic dissection. It is a relatively noninvasive test, requiring the individual to swallow the echocardiography probe. It is especially good in the evaluation of AI in the setting of ascending aortic dissection and to determine whether the ostia (origins) of the coronary arteries are involved. While many institutions give sedation during transesophageal echocardiography for added patient comfort, it can be performed in cooperative individuals without the use of sedation. Disadvantages of TEE include the inability to visualize the distal ascending aorta (the beginning of the aortic arch), and the descending abdominal aorta that lies below the stomach. A TEE may be technically difficult to perform in individuals with esophageal strictures or varices.


title: Aortic dissection

text: An aortogram involves the placement of a catheter in the aorta and injection of contrast material while taking X-rays of the aorta. The procedure is known as aortography. Previously thought to be the diagnostic gold standard, it has been supplanted by other, less-invasive imaging modalities.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Several different classification systems have been used to describe aortic dissections. One such classification is based on chronicity and labels aortic dissections as hyperacute (<24 hours duration), acute (2–7 days), subacute (8–30 days), and chronic (>30 days). The systems commonly in use are based on either the anatomy of the dissection or the duration of onset of symptoms before the presentation. The Stanford system is used more commonly now, as it is more attuned to the management of the patient.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The DeBakey system, named after cardiothoracic surgeon Michael E. DeBakey, is an anatomical description of the aortic dissection. It categorizes the dissection based on where the original intimal tear is located and the extent of the dissection (localized to either the ascending aorta or descending aorta or involving both the ascending and descending aorta).


title: Aortic dissection

text: The Stanford classification is divided into two groups, A and B, depending on whether the ascending aorta is involved.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The Stanford classification is useful as it follows clinical practice, as type A ascending aortic dissections generally require primary surgical treatment, whereas type B dissections generally are treated medically as initial treatment with surgery reserved for any complications.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The main indication for surgical repair of type A dissections is the prevention of acute hemorrhagic pericardial tamponade due to leakage of blood through the dissected layers of the intrapericardial proximal aorta. A secondary indication is acute aortic valve insufficiency (regurgitation): ascending aortic dissections often involve the aortic valve, which, having lost its suspensory support, telescopes down into the aortic root, resulting in aortic incompetence. The valve must be resuspended to be reseated, as well as to repair or prevent coronary artery injury. Also, the area of dissection is removed and replaced with a Dacron graft to prevent further dissection from occurring. However, type B dissections are not improved, from a mortality point of view, by the operation, unless leaking, rupture, or compromise to other organs, e.g. kidneys, occurs.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Among the recognized risk factors for aortic dissection, hypertension, abnormally high levels of lipids (such as cholesterol) in the blood, and smoking tobacco are considered preventable risk factors.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Repair of an enlargement of the ascending aorta from an aneurysm or previously unrecognized and untreated aortic dissections is recommended when greater than in size to decrease the risk of dissection. Repair may be recommended when greater than in size if the person has one of the several connective-tissue disorders or a family history of a ruptured aorta.


title: Aortic dissection

text: In an acute dissection, treatment choice depends on its location. For Stanford type A (ascending aortic) dissection, surgical management is superior to medical management. For uncomplicated Stanford type B (distal aortic) dissections (including abdominal aortic dissections), medical management is preferred over surgery. Complicated Stanford type B aortic dissections require surgical intervention after initiation of medical therapy.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The risk of death due to aortic dissection is highest in the first few hours after the dissection begins, and decreases afterward. Because of this, the therapeutic strategies differ for the treatment of an acute dissection compared to a chronic dissection. An acute dissection is one in which the individual presents within the first two weeks. If the individual has managed to survive this window period, their prognosis is improved. About 66% of all dissections present in the acute phase. Individuals who present two weeks after the onset of the dissection are said to have chronic aortic dissections. These individuals have been self-selected as survivors of the acute episode and can be treated with medical therapy as long as they are stable.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Aortic dissection generally presents as a hypertensive emergency, and the prime consideration of medical management is to decrease the shear stress in the aortic wall (dP/dt (force of ejection of blood from the left ventricle)) by decreasing blood pressure and the heart rate. The target blood pressure should be a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 60 to 75 mmHg, or the lowest blood pressure tolerated. Initial decreases should be by about 20%. The target heart rate is less than 65 beats per minute. Long-term blood pressure control is required for every person who has experienced aortic dissection.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Beta blockers are the first-line treatment for patients with acute and chronic aortic dissection. In acute dissection, fast-acting agents can be given intravenously and have doses that are easier to adjust (such as esmolol, propranolol, or labetalol) is preferred. Vasodilators such as sodium nitroprusside can be considered for people with ongoing high blood pressure, but they should never be used alone, as they often stimulate a reflexive increase in the heart rate.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Calcium channel blockers can be used in the treatment of aortic dissection, particularly if a contraindication to the use of beta-blockers exists. The calcium channel blockers typically used are verapamil and diltiazem, because of their combined vasodilator and negative inotropic effects.


title: Aortic dissection

text: If the individual has refractory hypertension (persistent hypertension on the maximum doses of three different classes of antihypertensive agents), involvement of the renal arteries in the aortic dissection plane should be considered.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Indications for the surgical treatment of aortic dissection include an acute proximal aortic dissection and an acute distal aortic dissection with one or more complications. Complications include compromise of a vital organ, rupture or impending rupture of the aorta, retrograde dissection into the ascending aorta. These are more common with a history of Marfan syndrome or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The objective in the surgical management of aortic dissection is to resect (remove) the most severely damaged segments of the aorta and to obliterate the entry of blood into the false lumen (both at the initial intimal tear and any secondary tears along the vessel). While excision of the intimal tear may be performed, it does not significantly change mortality.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The particular treatment used depends on the segment or segments of the aorta involved. Some treatments are:


title: Aortic dissection

text: A number of comorbid conditions increase the surgical risk of repair of an aortic dissection. These conditions include the following:


title: Aortic dissection

text: The long-term follow-up in individuals who survive aortic dissection involves strict blood pressure control. The relative risk of late rupture of an aortic aneurysm is 10 times higher in individuals who have uncontrolled hypertension, compared to individuals with a systolic pressure below 130 mmHg.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The risk of death is highest in the first two years after the acute event, and individuals should be followed closely during this time period. About 29% of late deaths following surgery are due to rupture of either a dissecting aneurysm or another aneurysm. In addition, a 17% to 25% incidence exists of new aneurysm formation, typically due to dilatation of the residual false lumen. These new aneurysms are more likely to rupture, due to their thinner walls.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Of all people with aortic dissection, 40% die immediately and do not reach a hospital in time. Of the remainder, 1% die every hour, making prompt diagnosis and treatment a priority. Even after diagnosis, 5–20% die during surgery or in the immediate postoperative period. In ascending aortic dissection, if surgery is decided to be not appropriate, 75% die within 2 weeks. With aggressive treatment, 30-day survival for thoracic dissections may be as high as 90%.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Establishing the incidence of aortic dissection has been difficult because many cases are only diagnosed after death (which may have been attributed to another cause), and is often initially misdiagnosed. Aortic dissection affects an estimated 2.0–3.5 people per every 100,000 every year. Studies from Sweden suggest that the incidence of aortic dissection may be rising. Men are more commonly affected than women: 65% of all people with aortic dissection are male. The mean age at diagnosis is 63 years. In females before the age of 40, half of all aortic dissections occur during pregnancy (typically in the third trimester or early postpartum period). Dissection occurs in about 0.6% of pregnancies.


title: Aortic dissection

text: The earliest fully documented case of aortic dissection is attributed to Frank Nicholls in his autopsy report of King George II of Great Britain, who had been found dead on 25 October 1760; the report describes a dissection of the aortic arch and into the pericardium. The term "aortic dissection" was introduced by the French physician J. P. Maunoir in 1802, and René Laennec labeled the condition "dissecting aneurysm". London cardiologist Thomas Bevill Peacock contributed to the understanding of the condition by publishing two series of the cases described in the literature so far: 19 cases in an 1843 review, and 80 in 1863. The characteristic symptom of tearing pain in the chest was recognized in 1855 when a case was diagnosed in life.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Surgery for aortic dissection was first introduced and developed by Michael E. DeBakey, Denton Cooley, and Oscar Creech, cardiac surgeons associated with the Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, in 1954. DeBakey developed aortic dissection himself at age 97 in 2005, and underwent surgery in 2006. Endovascular treatment of aortic dissection was developed in the 1990s.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Ritter Rules are a compilation of reminders, symptoms, and risk factors designed to prevent the misdiagnosis of thoracic aortic dissection. The rules were named after "Three's Company" star John Ritter, who died from a thoracic aortic dissection in 2003 after he was misdiagnosed and accidentally treated for a heart attack by his two doctors. The rules were developed by Dianna Milewicz of the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston seven years after Ritter's premature death, and were jointly published by the non-profit organization in Ritter's honor and the Thoracic Aortic Disease Coalition.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Lucille Ball was diagnosed with dissecting aortic aneurysm and underwent surgery to repair her aorta and a successful seven-hour aortic valve replacement, but died days later. A greater incidence of aortic aneurysm is seen in cigarette smokers; Ball had been a heavy smoker most of her life.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Playwright Jonathan Larson, best known for the musical "Rent", died in 1996 of an aortic dissection believed to be due to undiagnosed Marfan Syndrome.


title: Aortic dissection

text: "Days of Our Lives" and "Babylon 5" actor Richard Biggs died on May 22, 2004 at the age of 44 due to complications from aortic dissection.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Lux Interior of The Cramps died at the Glendale Memorial Hospital on February 4, 2009, at the age of 62, following an aortic dissection which, contrary to initial reports about a pre-existing condition, was "sudden, shocking and unexpected".


title: Aortic dissection

text: Alan Thicke died in 2016 of type-A aortic dissection at the Providence Saint Joseph Medical Center in Burbank, at the age of 69.


title: Aortic dissection

text: Kentaro Miura, writer and artist of the manga "Berserk", died from aortic dissection in 2021 at the age of 54.


title: Aortic dissection

text: In August 2021, New Zealand cricketer Chris Cairns was put on full life support following an aortic dissection in his home in Canberra, Australia. He was transferred to Sydney, and became paralysed from the waist down due to sustaining a stroke during surgery.


title: Aortic dissection

text: 41-year-old guitarist Richie Faulkner of the heavy metal band Judas Priest had an aortic aneurysm on September 27, 2021, in the middle of the final song of their 50-minute set at a music festival. He underwent hours of open heart surgery to repair the aortic dissection.


title: Aortic dissection

text: In May 2022, keyboardist Andy Fletcher, a founding member of the UK band Depeche Mode, died unexpectedly at home from an aortic dissection, at the age of 60.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817May 6, 1862) was an American naturalist, essayist, poet, and philosopher. A leading transcendentalist, he is best known for his book "Walden", a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay "Civil Disobedience" (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his writings on natural history and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern-day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and attention to practical detail. He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and illusion in order to discover life's true essential needs.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the fugitive slave law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips and defending the abolitionist John Brown. Thoreau's philosophy of civil disobedience later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an anarchist. In "Civil Disobedience", Thoreau wrote: "I heartily accept the 'That government is best which governs least;' and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I 'That government is best which governs not at all;' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have. ... But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but "at once" a better government."


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Amos Bronson Alcott and Thoreau's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau" is pronounced like the word "thorough" ( —in General American, but more precisely —in 19th-century New England). Edward Waldo Emerson wrote that the name should be pronounced "Thó-row", with the "h" sounded and stress on the first syllable. Among modern-day American English speakers, it is perhaps more commonly pronounced —with stress on the second syllable.


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: Thoreau had a distinctive appearance, with a nose that he called his "most prominent feature". Of his appearance and disposition, Ellery Channing wrote:


title: Henry David Thoreau

text: His face, once seen, could not be forgotten. The features were quite marked: the nose aquiline or very Roman, like one of the portraits of Caesar (more like a beak, as was said); large overhanging brows above the deepest set blue eyes that could be seen, in certain lights, and in others gray,—eyes expressive of all shades of feeling, but never weak or near-sighted; the forehead not unusually broad or high, full of concentrated energy and purpose; the mouth with prominent lips, pursed up with meaning and thought when silent, and giving out when open with the most varied and unusual instructive sayings.