title: Godzilla

text: is a portmanteau of the Japanese words and , owing to the fact that in one planning stage, Godzilla was described as "a cross between a gorilla and a whale", due to its size, power and aquatic origin. According to an episode of the Japanese television documentary series "Project X" entitled "The Birth of Godzilla", special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya met Toho contract actor Shiro Amikura in the Toho Studios cafeteria and nicknamed him "Gojira," combining the Japanese words for gorilla (since he thought Amikura looked like a Gorilla) and whale (since Amikura told Tsuburaya that whale meat was his favorite food). In a 1998 BBC documentary on Godzilla, Kimi Honda, the widow of the 1954 film's director Ishirō Honda, dismissed the employee-name story as a tall tale, believing that Honda, Tanaka, and Tsuburaya gave "considerable thought" to the name of the monster, stating, "the backstage boys at Toho loved to joke around with tall stories, but I don't believe that one".


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla's name was written in ateji as , where the kanji are used for phonetic value and not meaning. The Japanese pronunciation of the name is ; the Anglicized form is , with the first syllable pronounced like the word "god" and the rest rhyming with "gorilla".


title: Godzilla

text: During the development of the American version of "Godzilla Raids Again" (1955), Godzilla's name was changed to "Gigantis" by producer Paul Schreibman, who wanted to create a character distinct from Godzilla.


title: Godzilla

text: Within the context of the Japanese films, Godzilla's exact origins vary, but it is generally depicted as an enormous, violent, prehistoric sea monster awakened and empowered by nuclear radiation. Although the specific details of Godzilla's appearance have varied slightly over the years, the overall impression has remained consistent. Inspired by the fictional "Rhedosaurus" created by animator Ray Harryhausen for the film "The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms", Godzilla's character design was conceived as that of an amphibious reptilian monster based around the loose concept of a dinosaur with an erect standing posture, scaly skin, an anthropomorphic torso with muscular arms, lobed bony plates along its back and tail, and a furrowed brow.


title: Godzilla

text: Art director Akira Watanabe combined attributes of a "Tyrannosaurus", an "Iguanodon", a "Stegosaurus" and an alligator to form a sort of blended chimera, inspired by illustrations from an issue of "Life" magazine. To emphasise the monster's relationship with the atomic bomb, its skin texture was inspired by the keloid scars seen on the survivors of Hiroshima. The basic design has a reptilian visage, a robust build, an upright posture, a long tail and three rows of serrated plates along the back. In the original film, the plates were added for purely aesthetic purposes, in order to further differentiate Godzilla from any other living or extinct creature. Godzilla is sometimes depicted as green in comics, cartoons and movie posters, but the costumes used in the movies were usually painted charcoal grey with bone-white dorsal plates up until the film "Godzilla 2000: Millennium".


title: Godzilla

text: In the original Japanese films, Godzilla and all the other monsters are referred to with gender-neutral pronouns equivalent to "it", while in the English dubbed versions, Godzilla is explicitly described as a male. In his book, Godzilla co-creator Tomoyuki Tanaka suggested that the monster was probably male. In the 1998 film "Godzilla", the monster is referred to as a male and is depicted laying eggs through parthenogenesis. In the Legendary "Godzilla" films, Godzilla is referred to as a male.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla's allegiance and motivations have changed from film to film to suit the needs of the story. Although Godzilla does not like humans, it will fight alongside humanity against common threats. However, it makes no special effort to protect human life or property and will turn against its human allies on a whim. It is not motivated to attack by predatory instinct: it does not eat people and instead sustains itself on nuclear radiation and an omnivorous diet. When inquired if Godzilla was "good or bad", producer Shōgo Tomiyama likened it to a Shinto "God of Destruction" which lacks moral agency and cannot be held to human standards of good and evil. "He totally destroys everything and then there is a rebirth. Something new and fresh can begin."


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla's signature weapon is its "atomic heat beam" (also known as "atomic breath"), nuclear energy that it generates inside of its body, uses electromagnetic force to concentrate it into a laser-like high velocity projectile and unleashes it from its jaws in the form of a blue or red radioactive beam. Toho's special effects department has used various techniques to render the beam, from physical gas-powered flames to hand-drawn or computer-generated fire. Godzilla is shown to possess immense physical strength and muscularity. Haruo Nakajima, the actor who played Godzilla in the original films, was a black belt in judo and used his expertise to choreograph the battle sequences.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla is amphibious: it has a preference for traversing Earth's hydrosphere when in hibernation or migration, can breathe underwater and is described in the original film by the character Dr. Yamane as a transitional form between a marine and a terrestrial reptile. Godzilla is shown to have great vitality: it is immune to conventional weaponry thanks to its rugged hide and ability to regenerate, and as a result of surviving a nuclear explosion, it cannot be destroyed by anything less powerful. One incarnation possesses an electromagnetic pulse-producing organ in its body which generates an asymmetrical permeable shield, making it impervious to all damage except for a short period when the organ recycles.


title: Godzilla

text: Various films, non-canonical television shows, comics and games have depicted Godzilla with additional powers, such as an atomic pulse, magnetism, precognition, fireballs, convert electromagnetic energy into intensive body heat, converting shed blood into temporary tentacle limbs, an electric bite, superhuman speed, laser beams emitted from its eyes and even flight.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla has a distinctive disyllabic roar (transcribed in several comics as "Skreeeonk!"), which was created by composer Akira Ifukube, who produced the sound by rubbing a pine tar-resin-coated glove along the string of a contrabass and then slowing down the playback. In the American version of "Godzilla Raids Again" (1955) titled "Gigantis the Fire Monster" (1959), Godzilla's roar was mostly substituted with that of the monster Anguirus. From "The Return of Godzilla" (1984) to "Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah" (1991), Godzilla was given a deeper and more threatening-sounding roar than in previous films, though this change was reverted from "Godzilla vs. Mothra" (1992) onward. For the 2014 American film, sound editors Ethan Van der Ryn and Erik Aadahl refused to disclose the source of the sounds used for their Godzilla's roar. Aadahl described the two syllables of the roar as representing two different emotional reactions, with the first expressing fury and the second conveying the character's soul.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla's size is inconsistent, changing from film to film and even from scene to scene for the sake of artistic license. The miniature sets and costumes were typically built at a – scale and filmed at 240 frames per second to create the illusion of great size. In the original 1954 film, Godzilla was scaled to be tall. This was done so Godzilla could just peer over the largest buildings in Tokyo at the time. In the 1956 American version, Godzilla is estimated to be tall, because producer Joseph E. Levine felt that 50 m did not sound "powerful enough".


title: Godzilla

text: As the series progressed, Toho would rescale the character, eventually making Godzilla as tall as . This was done so that it would not be dwarfed by the newer, bigger buildings in Tokyo's skyline, such as the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building which Godzilla destroyed in the film "Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah" (1991). Supplementary information, such as character profiles, would also depict Godzilla as weighing between .


title: Godzilla

text: In the American film "Godzilla" (2014) from Legendary Pictures, Godzilla was scaled to be and weighing , making it the largest film version at that time. Director Gareth Edwards wanted Godzilla "to be so big as to be seen from anywhere in the city, but not too big that he couldn't be obscured". For "Shin Godzilla" (2016), Godzilla was made even taller than the Legendary version, at . In "" (2017), Godzilla's height was increased further still to . In "" (2019) and "Godzilla vs. Kong" (2020), Godzilla's height was increased to from the 2014 incarnation.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla's appearance has traditionally been portrayed in the films by an actor wearing a latex costume, though the character has also been rendered in animatronic, stop-motion and computer-generated form. Taking inspiration from "King Kong", special effects artist Eiji Tsuburaya had initially wanted Godzilla to be portrayed via stop-motion, but prohibitive deadlines and a lack of experienced animators in Japan at the time made suitmation more practical.


title: Godzilla

text: The first suit consisted of a body cavity made of thin wires and bamboo wrapped in chicken wire for support and covered in fabric and cushions, which were then coated in latex. The first suit was held together by small hooks on the back, though subsequent Godzilla suits incorporated a zipper. Its weight was in excess of . Prior to 1984, most Godzilla suits were made from scratch, thus resulting in slight design changes in each film appearance. The most notable changes from 1962 to 1975 were the reduction in Godzilla's number of toes and the removal of the character's external ears and prominent fangs, features which would all later be reincorporated in the Godzilla designs from "The Return of Godzilla" (1984) onward. The most consistent Godzilla design was maintained from "Godzilla vs. Biollante" (1989) to "Godzilla vs. Destoroyah" (1995), when the suit was given a cat-like face and double rows of teeth.


title: Godzilla

text: Several suit actors had difficulties in performing as Godzilla due to the suits' weight, lack of ventilation and diminished visibility. Haruo Nakajima, who portrayed Godzilla from 1954 to 1972, said the materials used to make the 1954 suit (rubber, plastic, cotton, and latex) were hard to find after World War II. The suit weighed 100 kilograms after its completion and required two men to help Nakajima put it on. When he first put it on, he sweated so heavily that his shirt was soaked within seconds.


title: Godzilla

text: Kenpachiro Satsuma in particular, who portrayed Godzilla from 1984 to 1995, described how the Godzilla suits he wore were even heavier and hotter than their predecessors because of the incorporation of animatronics. Satsuma himself suffered numerous medical issues during his tenure, including oxygen deprivation, near-drowning, concussions, electric shocks and lacerations to the legs from the suits' steel wire reinforcements wearing through the rubber padding.


title: Godzilla

text: The ventilation problem was partially solved in the suit used in 1994's "Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla", which was the first to include an air duct that allowed suit actors to last longer during performances. In "The Return of Godzilla" (1984), some scenes made use of a 16-foot high robotic Godzilla (dubbed the "Cybot Godzilla") for use in close-up shots of the creature's head. The Cybot Godzilla consisted of a hydraulically-powered mechanical endoskeleton covered in urethane skin containing 3,000 computer operated parts which permitted it to tilt its head and move its lips and arms.


title: Godzilla

text: In "Godzilla" (1998), special effects artist Patrick Tatopoulos was instructed to redesign Godzilla as an incredibly fast runner. At one point, it was planned to use motion capture from a human to create the movements of the computer-generated Godzilla, but it was said to have ended up looking too much like a man in a suit. Tatopoulos subsequently reimagined the creature as a lean, digitigrade bipedal, iguana-like creature that stood with its back and tail parallel to the ground, rendered via CGI.


title: Godzilla

text: Several scenes had the monster portrayed by stuntmen in suits. The suits were similar to those used in the Toho films, with the actors' heads being located in the monster's neck region and the facial movements controlled via animatronics. However, because of the creature's horizontal posture, the stuntmen had to wear metal leg extenders, which allowed them to stand off the ground with their feet bent forward. The film's special effects crew also built a scale animatronic Godzilla for close-up scenes, whose size outmatched that of Stan Winston's "T. rex" in "Jurassic Park". Kurt Carley performed the suitmation sequences for the adult Godzilla.


title: Godzilla

text: In "Godzilla" (2014), the character was portrayed entirely via CGI. Godzilla's design in the reboot was intended to stay true to that of the original series, though the film's special effects team strove to make the monster "more dynamic than a guy in a big rubber suit." To create a CG version of Godzilla, the Moving Picture Company (MPC) studied various animals such as bears, Komodo dragons, lizards, lions and wolves, which helped the visual effects artists visualize Godzilla's body structure, like that of its underlying bone, fat and muscle structure, as well as the thickness and texture of its scales. Motion capture was also used for some of Godzilla's movements. T. J. Storm provided the performance capture for Godzilla by wearing sensors in front of a green screen. Storm reprised the role of Godzilla in "", portraying the character through performance capture. In "Shin Godzilla", a majority of the character was portrayed via CGI, with Mansai Nomura portraying Godzilla through motion capture.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla is one of the most recognizable symbols of Japanese popular culture worldwide and remains an important facet of Japanese films, embodying the "kaiju" subset of the "tokusatsu" genre. Godzilla's vaguely humanoid appearance and strained, lumbering movements endeared it to Japanese audiences, who could relate to Godzilla as a sympathetic character, despite its wrathful nature. Audiences respond positively to the character because it acts out of rage and self-preservation and shows where science and technology can go wrong.


title: Godzilla

text: In 1967, the Keukdong Entertainment Company of South Korea, with production assistance from Toei Company, produced "Yongary, Monster from the Deep", a reptilian monster who invades South Korea to consume oil. The film and character has often been branded as an imitation of Godzilla.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla has been considered a filmographic metaphor for the United States, as well as an allegory of nuclear weapons in general. The earlier "Godzilla" films, especially the original, portrayed Godzilla as a frightening nuclear-spawned monster. Godzilla represented the fears that many Japanese held about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the possibility of recurrence.


title: Godzilla

text: As the series progressed, so did Godzilla, changing into a less destructive and more heroic character. "Ghidorah" (1964) was the turning point in Godzilla's transformation from villain to hero, by pitting him against a greater threat to humanity, King Ghidorah. Godzilla has since been viewed as an anti-hero. Roger Ebert cites Godzilla as a notable example of a villain-turned-hero, along with King Kong, Jaws ("James Bond"), the Terminator and John Rambo.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla is considered "the original radioactive superhero" due to his accidental radioactive origin story predating Spider-Man (1962 debut), though Godzilla did not become a hero until "Ghidorah" in 1964. By the 1970s, Godzilla came to be viewed as a superhero, with the magazine "King of the Monsters" in 1977 describing Godzilla as "Superhero of the '70s." Godzilla had surpassed Superman and Batman to become "the most universally popular superhero of 1977" according to Donald F. Glut. Godzilla was also voted the most popular movie monster in "The Monster Times" poll in 1973, beating Count Dracula, King Kong, the Wolf Man, the Mummy, the Creature from the Black Lagoon and the Frankenstein Monster.


title: Godzilla

text: In 1996, Godzilla received the MTV Lifetime Achievement Award, as well as being given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2004 to celebrate the premiere of the character's 50th anniversary film, "". Godzilla's pop-cultural impact has led to the creation of numerous parodies and tributes, as seen in media such as "Bambi Meets Godzilla", which was ranked as one of the "50 greatest cartoons", two episodes of "Mystery Science Theater 3000" and the song "Godzilla" by Blue Öyster Cult. Godzilla has also been used in advertisements, such as in a commercial for Nike, where Godzilla lost an oversized one-on-one game of basketball to a giant version of NBA player Charles Barkley. The commercial was subsequently adapted into a comic book illustrated by Jeff Butler. Godzilla has also appeared in a commercial for Snickers candy bars, which served as an indirect promo for the 2014 film. Godzilla's success inspired the creation of numerous other monster characters, such as Gamera, Reptilicus of Denmark, Yonggary of South Korea, Pulgasari of North Korea, Gorgo of the United Kingdom and the Cloverfield monster of the United States.


title: Godzilla

text: "Dakosaurus" is an extinct sea crocodile of the Jurassic Period, which researchers informally nicknamed "Godzilla". Paleontologists have written tongue-in-cheek speculative articles about Godzilla's biology, with Ken Carpenter tentatively classifying it as a ceratosaur based on its skull shape, four-fingered hands and dorsal scutes and paleontologist Darren Naish expressing skepticism, while commenting on Godzilla's unusual morphology.


title: Godzilla

text: Godzilla's ubiquity in pop-culture has led to the mistaken assumption that the character is in the public domain, resulting in litigation by Toho to protect their corporate asset from becoming a generic trademark. In April 2008, Subway depicted a giant monster in a commercial for their Five Dollar Footlongs sandwich promotion. Toho filed a lawsuit against Subway for using the character without permission, demanding $150,000 in compensation. In February 2011, Toho sued Honda for depicting a fire-breathing monster in a commercial for the Honda Odyssey. The monster was never mentioned by name, being seen briefly on a video screen inside the minivan. The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society christened a vessel the "MV Gojira". Its purpose is to target and harass Japanese whalers in defense of whales in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary. The "MV Gojira" was renamed the in May 2011, due to legal pressure from Toho. Gojira is the name of a French death metal band, formerly known as Godzilla; legal problems forced the band to change their name. In May 2015, Toho launched a lawsuit against Voltage Pictures over a planned picture starring Anne Hathaway. Promotional material released at the Cannes Film Festival used images of Godzilla.


title: Godzilla

text: Steven Spielberg cited "Godzilla" as an inspiration for "Jurassic Park" (1993), specifically "Godzilla, King of the Monsters!" (1956), which he grew up watching. Spielberg described "Godzilla" as "the most masterful of all the dinosaur movies because it made you believe it was really happening." "Godzilla" also influenced the Spielberg film "Jaws" (1975). "Godzilla" has also been cited as an inspiration by filmmakers Martin Scorsese and Tim Burton.


title: Godzilla

text: The main-belt asteroid 101781 Gojira, discovered by American astronomer Roy Tucker at the Goodricke-Pigott Observatory in 1999, was named in honor of the creature. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 11 July 2018 ().


title: Godzilla

text: In April 2015, the Shinjuku ward of Tokyo named Godzilla a special resident and official tourism ambassador to encourage tourism. During an unveiling of a giant Godzilla bust at Toho headquarters, Shinjuku mayor Kenichi Yoshizumi stated "Godzilla is a character that is the pride of Japan." The mayor extended a residency certificate to an actor in a rubber suit representing Godzilla, but as the suit's hands were not designed for grasping, it was accepted on Godzilla's behalf by a Toho executive. Reporters noted that Shinjuku ward has been flattened by Godzilla in three Toho movies.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park Shin-hye (, born February 18, 1990) is a South Korean actress and singer. She gained recognition as a child on TV shows such as "Stairway to Heaven" (2003), and "Tree of Heaven" (2006). Later on, she would achieve further success when she starred in the film "Miracle in Cell No. 7", one of the highest grossing Korean films of all-time. Considered one of the most prolific actresses of her age, Park has also received recognition for her roles in the romances "You're Beautiful" (2009), "The Heirs" (2013), "Pinocchio" (2014–2015), "Doctors" (2016), "Memories of the Alhambra" (2018–2019), and action thrillers "#Alive" (2020) "and (2021)".


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park ranked 33rd in "Forbes" Korea Power Celebrity list in 2015, 12th in 2017, 40th in 2021, and 33rd in 2022.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park was born on February 18, 1990, in Gwangju and grew up in Songpa District, Seoul. She has an older brother, Park Shin-won, a guitarist and composer. In 2001 and 2003 respectively, Park made her first two appearances in music videos for "...Do You Love Me!" and "Flower", both by singer Lee Seung-hwan. She then underwent formal training in singing, dancing and acting under his supervision at Dream Factory.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: After graduating from Youngpa Girls' High School, Park attended Chung-Ang University. She studied there for eight years, then graduated with a degree in Theater in February 2016. Park received a service award at the convocation ceremony for her achievement as an artist ambassador for the university.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park became known when she played the younger version of Choi Ji-woo's character in the popular Korean drama "Stairway to Heaven" in 2003. Thereafter she expanded her filmography through supporting roles in several television series, most notably as a rebellious teenager in the drama special "Very Merry Christmas" in 2004.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park was cast in her first adult leading role in the South Korean-Japanese melodrama "Tree of Heaven" (2006), where she received praise from critics for her performance. The series was also aired in Japan, thus giving Park more exposure abroad.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park made her film debut in the movie "Evil Twin" (2007), a summer horror flick where she portrayed two roles: one as the main character, and the other as the ghost of the main character's sister, who haunts the other sister after her death. She then played her first antagonist role in romance comedy series "Prince Hours", a spin-off to "Princess Hours" (2006); and starred in the weekend drama "Kimcheed Radish Cubes" as the female lead.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Aside from acting, Park also hosted the variety program "Fantastic Partner" from 2006 to 2007, for which she was awarded Best Newcomer in a Variety Show at the MBC Entertainment Awards.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park gained more recognition after starring as a cross-dressing heroine in the romance comedy music drama "You're Beautiful" (2009) alongside Jang Keun-suk. Despite average ratings in South Korea, the series gained a cult following, and earned high ratings in Japan. She released the songs "Lovely Day" and "Without Words" for the drama's original soundtrack.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2010, Park starred in the low-budget romantic comedy film "Cyrano Agency", which revolved around a dating agency that helps its customers win the hearts of the people they desire. The sleeper hit became a critical and commercial success, attracting 2.7 million admissions nationwide, becoming the 8th best selling film of the year. Park won the "Most Popular Actress" award in film category at the Baeksang Arts Awards. Park also voiced the main character of the animation film "", which premiered at the 15th Busan International Film Festival and received positive reviews.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park then starred in MBC's youth melodrama "Heartstrings" (2011) opposite Jung Yong-hwa. With "You're Beautiful" and "Heartstrings", Park experienced a rise in popularity in Japan, and signed an exclusive contract with Japanese management agency IMX. The same year, Park starred in her first Taiwanese drama, "Hayate The Combat Butler", based on the Japanese shōnen manga of the same name. She received the Popular Asian Star award at the LeTV Movie and Drama Awards.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2012, Park was cast in the third season of KBS drama special, "Don't Worry, I'm a Ghost" which was broadcast on July 15. Her performance in the drama won her the Best One-Act Special Actress Award at the 2012 KBS Drama Awards. The same year, Park joined the reality show "Music and Lyrics", where she collaborated with singer Yoon Gun to compose a song titled "I Think of You". Park was then cast in the third installment of tvN's "Flower Boy" series entitled "My Cute Guys" along with actor Yoon Shi-yoon, which premiered in January 2013.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2013, Park featured in the comedy drama film, "Miracle in Cell No. 7", which became one of the highest grossing Korean films. She went on to win the "Best Supporting Actress" award at the 33rd Korean Association of Film Critics Awards.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: To celebrate her 10th anniversary as an actress, Park held the "2013 Park Shin Hye Asia Tour: Kiss Of Angel" in four Asian countries, becoming the first actress to hold a tour spanning across Asia. She then starred in actor and singer So Ji-sub's music video "Eraser" for his album "Two'clock… Playground", alongside former child actor Yoo Seung-ho.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: The same year, Park co-starred alongside Lee Min-ho in "The Heirs", a teen drama written by Kim Eun-sook. "The Heirs" enjoyed immense popularity both locally, with a peak rating of 28.6%, and internationally, having over one billion cumulative views on the Chinese streaming website iQiyi. Park experienced a surge in popularity domestically and internationally, and became a Hallyu star. She was given the "Popular Foreign Actress" award at the 2013 Anhui TV Drama Awards.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2014, Park played the role of the Queen in historical film "The Royal Tailor". The same year, Park starred in "Pinocchio" opposite actor Lee Jong-suk, playing the heroine of the drama which has a chronic symptom called "Pinocchio complex", breaking into violent hiccups when she tells lies. "Pinocchio" became a hit, earning an estimated US$5.62 million for broadcasting rights in just one year.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: With "The Heirs" at the end of 2013 and "Pinocchio" in 2014, she was included "Forbes" Korea's Korea Power Celebrity list where she placed 33rd. In the same year, MBC's "Section TV Entertainment Relay" dubbed her "Nation's Little Sister". Park also received the Prime Minister's Commendation at the Korea Popular Culture Awards for her contribution to Hallyu.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2016, Park made her small-screen comeback in SBS' medical drama "Doctors", where she played a troubled teenager who later transformed to become a successful doctor. The drama was a hit and topped viewership ratings and popularity charts during its 10-week broadcast. She then featured in the comedy film "My Annoying Brother" as a judo coach, alongside actor Jo Jung-suk and Do Kyung-soo of Exo.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: The same year, Park was chosen as the Most Favored Korean Actress by fans of the Korean Wave in the United States.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park next starred in the crime thriller film "Heart Blackened", a Korean remake of the Hong Kong film "Silent Witness" alongside Choi Min-sik, which was released in 2017.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2018, Park became a cast member of the reality show "Little Cabin in the Woods" produced by Na Young-seok, where she and fellow actor So Ji-sub documented their daily activities in a little house located in the Jeju forest. The same year, she starred in tvN's fantasy suspense drama "Memories of the Alhambra" alongside Hyun Bin, playing double roles as a hostel owner, and a guitar-player NPC. The series was a commercial success and became one of the highest rated Korean dramas in cable television history.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2020, Park starred in the disaster film "#Alive", based on the original script of Hollywood screenwriter Matt Naylor, alongside Yoo Ah-in. The film was commercially successful, being the 7th highest grossing in South Korea for the year 2020. The same year, she starred in the thriller film "The Call" directed by Lee Chung-hyun, which revolves around two women living in different time periods who are connected through a mysterious phone call.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park has become one of the most in demand endorsers after her hit drama "Pinocchio" (2014–2015). Brands like Mamonde and Bruno Magli reportedly saw a surge in sales due to Park. Park also endorses several international brands, including Italian luxury brand Bruno Magli, French outdoor clothing brand Millet and Filipino clothing brand Bench.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park is the first Korean star to be chosen as a model for Visa, and the first Korean celebrity to be chosen as a global ambassador for Austrian jewelry brand Swarovski. British jewellery brand Olivia Burton also chose Park as its first ever brand ambassador for Korea.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: On March 7, 2018, it was confirmed that Park had been in a relationship with actor Choi Tae-joon since late 2017.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: On November 23, 2021, it was announced that Park was pregnant and preparing for marriage with Choi. They got married on January 22, 2022, in presence of friends and family in a church ceremony in Seoul. She gave birth to their first child, a boy, on May 31, 2022.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Park has participated regularly in charitable causes; such as the 'Hopes, Dreams, Happy Trip to Korea' fund raising event hosted by non-profit organization 'Good Friends Save Children' (GFSC) and Lovely Hands campaign by Lotte Department Store.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: Since 2011, Park has set up the "Starlight Angel Project", spearheading activities to help children both at home and abroad. In 2009, Park established the "Shinhye's Centre" in Ghana, which included a library and audio visual hall. A second center was built in Manila, Philippines in 2016. She has a sponsored child named Abanne.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: On November 24, 2016, Park became the 36th inductee of the Korea Food for the Hungry International's Philanthropy Club, a select group of donors who have given at least US$85 thousand to the organization.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: On December 20, 2018, Park donated 20 washing machines that were built to wash fire-retardant clothing which were worth a total of around 50 million won. Upon hearing this news, LG Electronics has also pledged to match Park's donation by installing a dryer for fire-retardant clothing with every washing machine she donated.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2019, Park was awarded the Philanthropic Celebrity of the year at the 2019 Asia Philanthropy Awards.


title: Park Shin-hye

text: In 2022, Park donated money million to Hope Bridge Disaster Relief Association to help those damaged by large forest fire at the beginning in Uljin, Gyeongbuk And still spread to Samcheok, Gangwon.


title: Developing country

text: A developing country is a sovereign state with a lesser developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category. The term low and middle-income country (LMIC) is often used interchangeably but refers only to the economy of the countries. The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita: high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low income countries. Least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries.


title: Developing country

text: There are controversies over this term's use, which some feel it perpetuates an outdated concept of "us" and "them". In 2015, the World Bank declared that the "developing/developed world categorization" had become less relevant and that they will phase out the use of that descriptor. Instead, their reports will present data aggregations for regions and income groups. The term "Global South" is used by some as an alternative term to developing countries.


title: Developing country

text: Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common often due to their histories or geographies. For example, with regards to colonialism, health risks, and compared to high income countries they commonly have: lower levels of access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, energy poverty, higher levels of pollution (e.g. air pollution, littering, water pollution, open defecation), higher proportions of people with tropical and infectious diseases (neglected tropical diseases), more road traffic accidents, and generally poorer quality infrastructure.


title: Developing country

text: In addition, there are also often high unemployment rates, widespread poverty, widespread hunger, extreme poverty, child labour, malnutrition, homelessness, substance abuse, prostitution, overpopulation, civil disorder, human capital flight, a large informal economy, high crime rates (extortion, robbery, burglary, murder, homicide, arms trafficking, sex trafficking, drug trafficking, kidnapping, rape), low education levels, economic inequality, school desertion, inadequate access to family planning services, teenage pregnancy, many informal settlements and slums, corruption at all government levels, and political instability.


title: Developing country

text: Access to healthcare is often low. People in developing countries usually have lower life expectancies than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health. The burden of infectious diseases, maternal mortality, child mortality and infant mortality are typically substantially higher in those countries. The effects of climate change are expected to impact developing countries more than high-income countries, as most of them have a high climate vulnerability or low climate resilience.


title: Developing country

text: Population ageing is even rare in developing countries. Developing countries often have lower median ages than developed countries.


title: Developing country

text: Development aid or development cooperation is financial aid given by foreign governments and other agencies to support developing countries' economic, environmental, social, and political development. If the Sustainable Development Goals which were set up by the United Nations for the year 2030 are achieved, they would overcome many of these problems.


title: Developing country

text: There are several terms used to classify countries into rough levels of development. Classification of any given country differs across sources, and sometimes, these classifications or the specific terminology used is considered disparaging.


title: Developing country

text: The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on Gross National Income per capita, re-set each year on July 1:


title: Developing country

text: The three groups that are not "high income" are together referred to as "low and middle income countries" (LMICs). This classification is based on Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (current US$) calculated using the Atlas method. The classification is updated each year on July 1. For example, for 2022 fiscal year, a low income country is defined as one with the GNI per capita less than 1,045 in current US$; a lower middle-income country is one with the GNI per capita between 1,046 to 4,095 in current US$; an upper middle-income country is one with the GNI per capita between 4,096 to 12,695 in current US$, and a high income country is one with the GNI per capita of more than 12,696 in current US$. Historical thresholds are documented.


title: Developing country

text: Use of the term "market" instead of "country" usually indicates specific focus on the characteristics of the countries' capital markets as opposed to the overall economy.


title: Developing country

text: Under other criteria, some countries are at an intermediate stage of development, or, as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) put it, following the fall of the Soviet Union, "countries in transition": all those of Central and Eastern Europe (including Central European countries that still belonged to the "Eastern Europe Group" in the UN institutions); the former Soviet Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan); and Mongolia. By 2009, the IMF's World Economic Outlook classified countries as advanced, emerging, or developing, depending on "(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification—so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70% of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system".


title: Developing country

text: In general, the WTO accepts any country's claim of itself being "developing". Certain countries that have become "developed" in the last 20 years by almost all economic metrics, still insist to be classified as "developing country", as it entitles them to a preferential treatment at the WTO, countries such as Brunei, Hong Kong, Kuwait, Macao, Qatar, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates have been cited and criticized for this self-declared status.


title: Developing country

text: Development can be measured by economic or human factors. Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of industrialization relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low standard of living. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The development of a country is measured with statistical indices such as income per capita (per person), gross domestic product per capita, life expectancy, the rate of literacy, freedom index and others. The UN has developed the Human Development Index (HDI), a compound indicator of some of the above statistics, to gauge the level of human development for countries where data is available. The UN had set Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the world's countries and leading development institutions, in order to evaluate growth. These goals ended in 2015, to be superseded by the Sustainable Development Goals.


title: Developing country

text: The concept of the developing nation is found, under one term or another, in numerous theoretical systems having diverse orientations – for example, theories of decolonization, liberation theology, Marxism, anti-imperialism, modernization, social change and political economy.


title: Developing country

text: Another important indicator is the sectoral changes that have occurred since the stage of development of the country. On an average, countries with a 50% contribution from the secondary sector (manufacturing) have grown substantially. Similarly countries with a tertiary sector stronghold also see a greater rate of economic development.


title: Developing country

text: The term "developing countries" has many research theories associated with it (in chronological order):


title: Developing country

text: There is criticism for using the term "developing country". The term could imply inferiority of this kind of country compared with a developed country. It could assume a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan, choose not to follow. Alternative measurements such as gross national happiness have been suggested as important indicators.


title: Developing country

text: One of the early criticisms that questioned the use of the terms "developing" and "underdeveloped" countries was voiced in 1973 by prominent historian and academic Walter Rodney who compared the economic, social and political parameters between the United States and countries in Africa and Asia.


title: Developing country

text: There is "no established convention" for defining "developing country". According to economist Jeffrey Sachs, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. The late global health expert Hans Rosling has argued against the terms, calling the concept "outdated" since the terms are used under the prerequisite that the world is divided in rich and poor countries, while the fact is that the vast majority of countries are middle-income. Given the lack of a clear definition, sustainability expert Mathis Wackernagel and founder of Global Footprint Network, emphasizes that the binary labeling of countries is "neither descriptive nor explanatory". Wackernagel and Rosling both argue that in reality, there are not two types of countries, but over 200 countries, all faced with the same laws of nature, yet each with unique features.


title: Developing country

text: The term "developing" refers to a current situation and not a changing dynamic or expected direction of development. Since the late 1990s, countries identified by the UN as developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than those in the developed countries category.


title: Developing country

text: To moderate the euphemistic aspect of the word "developing", international organizations have started to use the term less economically developed country for the poorest nations – which can, in no sense, be regarded as developing. This highlights that the standard of living across the entire developing world varies greatly.


title: Developing country

text: In 2015, the World Bank declared that the "developing / developed world categorization" had become less relevant, due to worldwide improvements in indices such as child mortality rates, fertility rates and extreme poverty rates. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators (WDI), the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between "developed" and "developing" countries in the presentation of its data, considering the two-category distinction outdated. Accordingly, World Bank is phasing out use of that descriptor. Instead, the reports by Worldbank (such as the WDI and the Global Monitoring Report) now include data aggregations for the whole world, for regions, and for income groups – but not for the "developing world".


title: Developing country

text: The term low and middle-income country (LMIC) is often used interchangeably with "developing country" but refers only to the economy of the countries. Least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries.


title: Developing country

text: The term "Global South" began to be used more widely since about 2004. It can also include poorer "southern" regions of wealthy "northern" countries. The Global South refers to these countries' "interconnected histories of colonialism, neo-imperialism, and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained".


title: Developing country

text: Many developing countries have only attained full self-determination and democracy after the second half of the 20th century. Many were governed by an imperial European power until decolonization. Political systems in developing countries are diverse, but most states had established some form of democratic governments by the early 21st century, with varying degrees of success and political liberty. The inhabitants of developing countries were introduced to democratic systems later and more abruptly than their Northern counterparts and were sometimes targeted by governmental and non-governmental efforts to encourage participation. 'Effective citizenship' is defined by sociologist Patrick Heller as: "closing [the] gap between formal legal rights in the civil and political arena, and the actual capability to meaningfully practice those rights".


title: Developing country

text: Beyond citizenship, the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in developing countries has also shed valuable light in migration debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus on developed countries. Some political scientists identify a 'typology of nationalizing, developmental, and neoliberal migration management regimes' across developing countries.


title: Developing country

text: Following independence and decolonization in the 20th century, most developing countries had dire need of new infrastructure, industry and economic stimulation. Many relied on foreign investment. This funding focused on improving infrastructure and industry, but led to a system of systemic exploitation. They exported raw materials, such as rubber, for a bargain. Companies based in the Western world have often used the cheaper labor in developing countries for production. The West benefited significantly from this system, but left developing countries undeveloped.


title: Developing country

text: This arrangement is sometimes called neocolonialism, meaning a system in which less-developed countries are taken advantage of by developed countries. It does not necessarily mean that former colonies are still controlled by their former colonizer; it refers to colonial-like exploitation. Developing countries are often helping further develop rich countries, rather than being developed themselves. Several institutions have been established with the goal of putting an end to this system. One of these institutions is the New International Economic Order. They have a 'no-strings-attached' policy that promotes developing countries remaining or becoming self-sufficient. More specifically, they advocate sovereignty over natural resources and industrialization.


title: Developing country

text: Coalitions of developing nations, like the NIEO, frequently lobby for parity in the world stage. The rise of China might imply the rise of the BRIC countries.


title: Developing country

text: The global issues most often discussed by developing countries include globalisation, global health governance, health, and prevention needs. This is contrasted by issues developed nations tend to address, such as innovations in science and technology.


title: Developing country

text: According to UN-Habitat, around 33% of the urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in slums. In 2012, the proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (62%), followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%) and East Asia (28%).


title: Developing country

text: The UN-Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries are slum dwellers.


title: Developing country

text: Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many different reasons. Causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration, economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment, poverty, informal economy, forced or manipulated ghettoization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts. For example, as populations expand in poorer countries, rural people are moving to cities in an extensive urban migration that is resulting in the creation of slums.


title: Developing country

text: In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called "slum cities".


title: Developing country

text: Several forms of violence against women are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of the world. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with South Asia. Acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of bride price (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.


title: Developing country

text: Female genital mutilation (FGM) is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Developing countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98% of women affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leone (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso (76%), and Ethiopia (74%). Due to globalization and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.


title: Developing country

text: The Istanbul Convention prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38). As of 2016, FGM has been legally banned in many African countries.


title: Developing country

text: According to UN Women facts and figures on ending violence against women, it is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and sexual violence by intimate partners or sexual violence by a non-partner (not including sexual harassment) at some point in their lives. Evidence shows women who have had experienced physical or sexual intimate partner violence report higher rates of depression, having an abortion and acquiring HIV, compared to women who have not had experienced any physical or sexual violence.


title: Developing country

text: Data from the Middle East and North Africa shows that men who witnessed their fathers against their mothers, and men who experienced some form of violence as children, more likely have reported perpetrating intimate partner violence in their adult relationships.


title: Developing country

text: The status of healthcare that the general public can access is substantially different between developing countries and developed countries. People in developing countries usually have a lower life expectancy than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health. The burden of infectious diseases, maternal mortality, child mortality and infant mortality are typically substantially higher in those countries. Developing countries also have less access to medical health services generally, and are less likely to have the resources to purchase, produce and administer vaccines, even though vaccine equity worldwide is important to combatting pandemics, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Developing country

text: Undernutrition is more common in developing countries. Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women – in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding – children under five years of age, and the elderly. Malnutrition in children and stunted growth of children is the cause for more than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries not reaching their developmental potential. About 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013. In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition.


title: Developing country

text: The following list shows the further significant environmentally-related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component:


title: Developing country

text: Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that "1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities" while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water. The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. The majority of these people live in developing countries.


title: Developing country

text: About 892 million people or 12 percent of the global population, practiced open defecation instead of using toilets in 2016. Seventy-six percent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries. Countries with a high number of people openly defecating are India (348 million), followed by Nigeria (38.1 million), Indonesia (26.4 million), Ethiopia (23.1 million), Pakistan (19.7 million), Niger (14.6 million) and Sudan (9.7 million).


title: Developing country

text: Sustainable Development Goal 6 is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN in 2015. It calls for clean water and sanitation for all people. This is particularly relevant for people in developing countries.


title: Developing country

text: In 2009, about 1.4 billion of people in the world lived without electricity. 2.7 billion relied on wood, charcoal, and dung (dry animal dung fuel) for home energy requirements. This lack of access to modern energy technology limits income generation, blunts efforts to escape poverty, affects people's health due to indoor air pollution, and contributes to global deforestation and climate change. Small-scale renewable energy technologies and distributed energy options, such as onsite solar power and improved cookstoves, offer rural households modern energy services.


title: Developing country

text: Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.


title: Developing country

text: Renewable energy can directly contribute to poverty alleviation by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting.


title: Developing country

text: Water pollution is a major problem in many developing countries. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.


title: Developing country

text: India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution: An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness (including waterborne diseases) every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.


title: Developing country

text: However, after a series of reforms, China's environment began to demonstrate enormous improvements around the 2010s. Under the leadership of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, a sizable fraction of high-pollution industries have been gradually phased out and many illegally polluting factories were sanctioned or closed. A considerable amount of effort went to enforce environmental regulations at regional levels and holding persons of malpractice accountable, including officials and firm managers. The slogan "clear waters and green mountains are as valuable as gold and silver mountains" proposed by Chinese leader Xi Jinping in 2005 signifies China's determination in amending environmental burdens created during industrialization while shifting to more sustainable modes of development and adopting high-end industries. Water bodies around the country are much cleaner than a decade ago and steadily approaching natural levels in pollutants.


title: Developing country

text: In 2021, China introduced the "coal to gas" policy as one of many policies directed towards achieving peak carbon emissions in 2060. Coal combustion in homes, power stations and production industries constitutes 60% of total energy consumption in China and is the main source of water and air pollution. It is speculated that pollution sources will be progressively eliminated as China reaches the upper tiers of developing countries.


title: Developing country

text: Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a major health hazard. A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass. Three billion people in developing countries across the globe rely on biomass in the form of wood, charcoal, dung, and crop residue, as their domestic cooking fuel. Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks.


title: Developing country

text: Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa. An earlier estimate from 2000 put the death toll between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths.


title: Developing country

text: Finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of indoor air pollution is complex. Strategies include improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability.


title: Developing country

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has confirmed that warming of the climate system due to human intervention is 'unequivocal'. The effects of climate change will be felt around the globe and will result in events such as extreme weather events, droughts, floods, biodiversity loss, disease and sea level rise, which are dangerous for societies and the environment.


title: Developing country

text: Although 79% of carbon emissions is produced by developed countries, and developing countries have not been the major cause of climate change, they are the most at risk from the effects of these changes and may face challenges in adapting to climate change due to the intersecting issues of high climate vulnerability, low economic status, restricted access to technology, failing infrastructure and limited access to financial resources. Where a country is particularly vulnerable to climate change they are called "highly climate vulnerable". This applies to many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, fragile states or failed states like Afghanistan, Haiti, Myanmar, and Somalia, as well as to Small Island Developing States. In the cases where developing countries produce only small quantities of greenhouse gas emissions per capita but are very vulnerable to the negative effects of global warming, the term "forced riders" as opposed to the "free riders" has been used as a descriptor. Such countries include Comoros, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.


title: Developing country

text: Climate vulnerability has been quantified in the Climate Vulnerability Monitor reports of 2010 and 2012. Climate vulnerability in developing countries occurs in four impact areas: health, extreme weather, habitat loss, and economic stress. A report by the Climate Vulnerability Monitor in 2012 estimated that climate change causes 400,000 deaths on average each year, mainly due to hunger and communicable diseases in developing countries. These effects are most severe for the world's poorest countries. Internationally there is recognition of the mismatch between those that have caused climate change and those which will suffer the most from climate change, termed "climate justice". It has been a topic for discussion at some of the United Nations Climate Change Conferences (COP).


title: Developing country

text: "When we think about livelihoods at risk from climate change impacts, we know that people living in developing countries, and especially the least-developed countries and small island states, often have the least financial resources to adapt," says Nancy Saich, the European Investment Bank’s chief climate change expert.


title: Developing country

text: A changing climate also results in economic burdens. The economies in Least Developed Countries have lost an average of 7% of their gross domestic product for the year 2010, mainly due to reduced labor productivity. Rising sea levels cost 1% of GDP to the least developed countries in 2010 – 4% in the Pacific – with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the world economy. Another example is the impact on fisheries: approximately 40 countries are acutely vulnerable to the impact of greenhouse gas emissions on fisheries. Developing countries with large fisheries sectors are particularly affected. During the Cancún COP16 in 2010, donor countries promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming. Emmanuel Macron (President of France) said at the 2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bonn (COP 23): "Climate change adds further injustice to an already unfair world". Economic development and climate are inextricably linked, particularly around poverty, gender equality, and energy.


title: Developing country

text: Tackling climate change will only be possible if the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are met, in particular Sustainable Development Goal 13 on climate action.


title: Developing country

text: Climate stress is likely to add to existing migration patterns in developing countries and beyond but is not expected to generate entirely new flows of people. A report by the World Bank in 2018 estimated that around 143 million people in three regions (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America) could be forced to move within their own countries to escape the slow-onset impacts of climate change. They will migrate from less viable areas with lower water availability and crop productivity and from areas affected by rising sea level and storm surges.


title: Developing country

text: In spite of the cumulative stressors and challenges faced by developing countries in adapting to the effects of climate change, there are those that are world leaders in the field such as Bangladesh. Bangladesh created a national programme in 2009 focused on how the country would adapt to climate change (the first country to do so). It established a fund to support these plans, spending on average $1 billion annually in this regard.


title: Developing country

text: Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been driven by developing countries, which often have higher birth rates (higher fecundity rate) than developed countries. According to the United Nations, family planning can help to slow population growth and decrease poverty in these countries.


title: Developing country

text: The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, the March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders in Mali, the Sudanese nomadic conflicts and other conflicts in the countries of the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, land degradation, and population growth. Droughts and food shortages have been also linked to the Northern Mali conflict.


title: Developing country

text: Many developing countries are considered un-free or flawed democracies by freedom indices such as the Democracy Index, Freedom in the World and Index of Freedom in the World and Following decolonization and independence, elites have often had oligarchic control of the government.


title: Developing country

text: The establishment of a healthy democratic state has often been challenged by widespread corruption and nepotism and a low confidence and participation in democratic process. Political instability and political corruption are common problems. To fully reach the goal of a low level of corruption, developing countries are usually using special steps for different establishments inside their territories, such as :


title: Developing country

text: Other common challenges include: Increased and intensified industrial and agricultural production and emission of toxic chemicals directly into the soil, air, and water, unsustainable use of energy resources; high dependency on natural resources for livelihood, leading to unsustainable exploitation or depletion of those resources; child marriage, indebtedness (see Debt of developing countries) and under performing civil service (see Civil service reform in developing countries), food insecurity, illiteracy and unemployment.The economies of many developing nations are tried to primary products and a majority of their exports go to advanced nations. When advanced nations encounter economic downturns, they can quickly transmitted to their developing country trading partners as seen in global economic downturn of 2008–2009.


title: Developing country

text: The following are considered developing economies according to the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook Database, .


title: Developing country

text: The following list, including the Four Asian Tigers and new Eurozone European Union countries (except for Czech Republic), were historically considered developing countries and regions until the 1990s, and are now listed as advanced economies (developed countries and regions) by the IMF. Time in brackets is the time to be listed as advanced economies.


title: Developing country

text: Three economies lack data before being listed as advanced economies. However, because of the lack of data, it is difficult to judge whether they were advanced economies or developing economies before being listed as advanced economies.


title: Developing country

text: Ten countries belong to the "newly industrialized country" classification. They are countries whose economies have not yet reached a developed country's status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts:


title: Developing country

text: When looking at media coverage of developing countries, a generalized view has developed through Western media. Negative images and coverage of the poverty are frequent in the mass media when talking about developing countries. This common coverage has created a dominant stereotype of developing countries as: "the 'South' is characterized by socioeconomic and political backwardness, measured against Western values and standards." Mass media's role often compares the Global South to the North and is thought to be an aid in the divide.


title: Developing country

text: Mass media has also played a role in what information the people in developing countries receive. The news often covers developed countries and creates an imbalance of information flow. The people in developing countries do not often receive coverage of the other developing countries but instead gets generous amounts of coverage about developed countries.


title: Calisthenics

text: Calisthenics (American English) or callisthenics (British English) () is a form of strength training consisting of a variety of movements that exercise large muscle groups (gross motor movements), such as standing, grasping, pushing, etc. These exercises are often performed rhythmically and with minimal equipment, as bodyweight exercises. They are intended to increase strength, fitness, and flexibility, through movements such as pulling, pushing, bending, jumping, or swinging, using one's body weight for resistance. Calisthenics can provide the benefits of muscular and aerobic conditioning, in addition to improving psychomotor skills such as balance, agility, and coordination.


title: Calisthenics

text: Urban calisthenics is a form of street workout; calisthenics groups perform exercise routines in urban areas. Individuals and groups train to perform advanced calisthenics skills such as muscle-ups, levers, and various freestyle moves such as spins and flips.


title: Calisthenics

text: Sports teams and military units often perform leader-directed group calisthenics as a form of synchronized physical training (often including a customized "call and response" routine) to increase group cohesion and discipline. Calisthenics is also popular as a component of physical education in primary and secondary schools over much of the globe.


title: Calisthenics

text: In addition to general fitness, calisthenics exercises are often used as baseline physical evaluations for military organizations around the world. For example, they are used in the U.S. Army Physical Fitness Test and the U.S.M.C. Physical Fitness Test.


title: Calisthenics

text: The Oxford English Dictionary describes callisthenics as "gymnastic exercises to achieve fitness and grace of movement". The word "calisthenics" comes from the ancient Greek words "kállos" (κάλλος), which means "beauty" and "" (σθένος), meaning "strength". It is the art of using one's body weight as resistance in order to develop physique.


title: Calisthenics

text: The practice was recorded in use in Ancient Greece, including the armies of Alexander the Great and the Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae.


title: Calisthenics

text: Calisthenics was also recorded to have been in use in Ancient China. Along with dieting, Han Dynasty physicians prescribed calisthenics as one of the methods of maintaining one's health.


title: Calisthenics

text: Another variant of the squat where the movement is performed with 1 leg and the other pointed in front of the body. This exercise requires balance, coordination, and strength to push your body weight back up.


title: Calisthenics

text: Where the hands are placed close together on the ground with the fingers touching at a slight angle. This works the triceps and inner chest muscles while requiring more strength than the normal pushup.


title: Calisthenics

text: A harder variation of the pushup and a stepping stone to the one arm pushup. The archer pushups are performed with arms spread wide on the ground and when you do the pushup lean to the left or the right so the opposite arm is straight out and the side you lean to is bent.


title: Calisthenics

text: Co-operative calisthenics refers to calisthenic exercises that involve two or more participants helping each other to perform the exercise. Such exercises may also be known as partner exercises, partner resisted exercises, partner carrying, or bodyweight exercises with a partner. They have been used for centuries as a way of building physical strength, endurance, mobility, and co-ordination. Usually, one person performs the exercise and the other person adds resistance. For example, a person performing squats with someone on their back, or someone holding another person in their arms and walking around. Some exercises also involve the use of equipment. Two people may hold onto different ends of a rope and pull in different directions. One person would deliberately provide a lesser amount of resistance, which adds resistance to the exercise whilst also allowing the other person to move through a full range of motion as their superior level of force application pulls the rope along. A disadvantage such exercises have is that it can be hard to measure how much resistance is being added by the partner when considered in comparison to free weights or machines. An advantage they have is that they allow for relatively high levels of resistance to be added with equipment being optional. On this basis, co-operative calisthenics can be just as easily performed on a playing field as in a gym. They are also versatile enough to allow them to be used for training goals other than simply strength. For example, a squat with a partner can be turned into a power-focused exercise by jumping or hopping with the partner instead, or even lifting them up on one knee.


title: Calisthenics

text: A 2017 study: "The effects of a calisthenics training intervention on posture, strength and body composition" found that calisthenics training is an "effective training solution to improve posture, strength and body composition without the use of any major training equipment".


title: Calisthenics

text: Catharine Esther Beecher (1800–1878) was an American educator and author who popularized and shaped a conservative ideological movement to both elevate and entrench women's place in the domestic sphere of American culture. She introduced calisthenics in a course of physical education and promoted it.


title: Calisthenics

text: Disciples of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn brought their version of gymnastics to the United States, while Beecher and Dio Lewis set up physical education programs for women in the 19th century. Organized systems of calisthenics in America took a back seat to competitive sports after the Battle of the Systems, when the states mandated physical education systems. The Royal Canadian Air Force's calisthenics program published in the 1960s helped to launch modern fitness culture.


title: Calisthenics

text: Calisthenics is associated with the rapidly growing international sport called street workout. The street workout consists of athletes performing calisthenics routines in timed sessions in front of a panel of judges. The World Street Workout & Calisthenics Federation (WSWCF) based in Riga, Latvia, orchestrates the annual national championships and hosts the world championships for all the national champions to compete at one competition. The World Calisthenics Organization (WCO) based in Los Angeles, California, promotes a series of competitions known globally as the Battle of the Bars. The WCO created the first-ever set of rules for formal competitions, including weight classes, timed round system, original judging criteria and a 10-point must system—giving an increasing number of athletes worldwide an opportunity to compete in these global competitions.


title: Calisthenics

text: Street workout competitions have also popularised 'freestyle calisthenics', which is a style of calisthenics where the athlete uses their power and momentum to perform dynamic skills and tricks on the bar, often as part of a routine where each trick is linked together in a consistent flow. Freestyle calisthenics requires great skill to control one's momentum and understanding the mechanics of the body and the bar.


title: Calisthenics

text: An increasing number of outdoor fitness training areas and outdoor gyms are being built around the world. Some are designed especially for calisthenics training and most are free to use by the public. Calisthenics parks have equipment like pull-up bars, monkey bars, parallel bars, and box jumps at one location. Freely accessible online maps exist that show the location and sample photos of calisthenics parks around the world.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Milton Friedman (; July 31, 1912 – November 16, 2006) was an American economist and statistician who received the 1976 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his research on consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and the complexity of stabilization policy. With George Stigler and others, Friedman was among the intellectual leaders of the Chicago school of economics, a neoclassical school of economic thought associated with the work of the faculty at the University of Chicago that rejected Keynesianism in favor of monetarism until the mid-1970s, when it turned to new classical macroeconomics heavily based on the concept of rational expectations. Several students, young professors and academics who were recruited or mentored by Friedman at Chicago went on to become leading economists, including Gary Becker, Robert Fogel, Thomas Sowell and Robert Lucas Jr.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman's challenges to what he called "naive Keynesian theory" began with his interpretation of consumption, which tracks how consumers spend. He introduced a theory which would later become part of the mainstream and among the first to propagate the theory of consumption smoothing. During the 1960s, he became the main advocate opposing Keynesian government policies, and described his approach (along with mainstream economics) as using "Keynesian language and apparatus" yet rejecting its initial conclusions. He theorized that there existed a natural rate of unemployment and argued that unemployment below this rate would cause inflation to accelerate. He argued that the Phillips curve was in the long run vertical at the "natural rate" and predicted what would come to be known as stagflation. Friedman promoted a macroeconomic viewpoint known as monetarism and argued that a steady, small expansion of the money supply was the preferred policy, as compared to rapid, and unexpected changes. His ideas concerning monetary policy, taxation, privatization and deregulation influenced government policies, especially during the 1980s. His monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserve's monetary policy in response to the global financial crisis of 2007–2008.


title: Milton Friedman

text: After retiring from the University of Chicago in 1977, and becoming Emeritus professor in economics in 1983, Friedman was an advisor to Republican President Ronald Reagan and Conservative British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. His political philosophy extolled the virtues of a free market economic system with minimal government intervention in social matters. He once stated that his role in eliminating conscription in the United States was his proudest achievement. In his 1962 book "Capitalism and Freedom", Friedman advocated policies such as a volunteer military, freely floating exchange rates, abolition of medical licenses, a negative income tax, school vouchers and opposition to the war on drugs and support for drug liberalization policies. His support for school choice led him to found the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, later renamed EdChoice.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman's works cover a broad range of economic topics and public policy issues. His books and essays have had global influence, including in former communist states. A 2011 survey of economists commissioned by the EJW ranked Friedman as the second-most popular economist of the 20th century, following only John Maynard Keynes. Upon his death, "The Economist" described him as "the most influential economist of the second half of the 20th century ... possibly of all of it".


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman was born in Brooklyn, New York on July 31, 1912. His parents, Sára Ethel (née Landau) and Jenő Saul Friedman, were Jewish working-class immigrants from Beregszász in Carpathian Ruthenia, Kingdom of Hungary (now Berehove in Ukraine). They emigrated to America in their early teens. They both worked as dry goods merchants. Friedman was their fourth child and only son, as well as the youngest of the children. Shortly after his birth, the family relocated to Rahway, New Jersey.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman's family experienced financial troubles, and financial uncertainty caused stability of income to be low. Friedman described his family's situation in the following manner:


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman's father, Jenő Saul Friedman, died during Friedman's senior year of high school, leaving Friedman and two older sisters to care for his mother, Sára Ethel Friedman.


title: Milton Friedman

text: In his early teens, Friedman was injured in a car accident, which scarred his upper lip. A talented student and an avid reader, Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928, just before his 16th birthday. Although no family members had gone to university before Milton, Friedman was awarded a competitive scholarship to Rutgers University (then a private university receiving limited support from the State of New Jersey, e.g., for such scholarships). Friedman was expected to finance the cost of university himself. He graduated from Rutgers in 1932.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman initially intended to become an actuary or mathematician, however, the state of the economy, which was at this point in a deep depression, convinced him to become an economist. He was offered two scholarships to do graduate work, one in mathematics at Brown University and the other in economics at the University of Chicago, where he would later teach. Friedman chose the latter, earning a Master of Arts degree in 1933. He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner, Frank Knight, and Henry Simons. Friedman met his future wife, economist Rose Director, while at the University of Chicago.


title: Milton Friedman

text: During the 1933–1934 academic year, he had a fellowship at Columbia University, where he studied statistics with statistician and economist Harold Hotelling. He was back in Chicago for the 1934–1935 academic year, working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz, who was then working on "Theory and Measurement of Demand".


title: Milton Friedman

text: During the aforementioned 1934–35 academic year, Friedman formed what would later prove to be lifetime friendships with George Stigler and W. Allen Wallis, both of whom taught with Friedman at the University of Chicago. Milton Friedman was also influenced by two lifelong friends, Arthur Burns and Homer Johnson. They helped Milton Friedman better understand the depth of economic thinking.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman was unable to find academic employment, so in 1935 he followed his friend W. Allen Wallis to Washington, D.C., where Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal was "a lifesaver" for many young economists. At this stage, Friedman said he and his wife "regarded the job-creation programs such as the WPA, CCC, and PWA appropriate responses to the critical situation," but not "the price- and wage-fixing measures of the National Recovery Administration and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration." Foreshadowing his later ideas, he believed price controls interfered with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources be used where they were most valued. Indeed, Friedman later concluded that all government intervention associated with the New Deal was "the wrong cure for the wrong disease," arguing the Federal Reserve was to blame, and that they should have expanded the money supply in reaction to what he later described in "A Monetary History of the United States" as "The Great Contraction." Later, Friedman and his colleague Anna Schwartz wrote "A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960", which argued that the Great Depression was caused by a severe monetary contraction due to banking crises and poor policy on the part of the Federal Reserve. Robert J. Shiller describes the book as the "most influential account" of the Great Depression.


title: Milton Friedman

text: During 1935, he began working for the National Resources Planning Board, which was then working on a large consumer budget survey. Ideas from this project later became a part of his "Theory of the Consumption Function," a book which first described consumption smoothing and the Permanent Income Hypothesis. Friedman began employment with the National Bureau of Economic Research during the autumn of 1937 to assist Simon Kuznets in his work on professional income. This work resulted in their jointly authored publication "Incomes from Independent Professional Practice", which introduced the concepts of permanent and transitory income, a major component of the Permanent Income Hypothesis that Friedman worked out in greater detail in the 1950s. The book hypothesizes that professional licensing artificially restricts the supply of services and raises prices.


title: Milton Friedman

text: "Incomes from Independent Professional Practice" remained quite controversial within the economics community because of Friedman's hypothesis that barriers to entry, which were exercised and enforced by the American Medical Association, led to higher than average wages for physicians, compared to other professional groups. Barriers to entry are a fixed cost which must be incurred regardless of any outside factors such as work experience, or other factors of human capital.


title: Milton Friedman

text: During 1940, Friedman was appointed as an assistant professor teaching Economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, but encountered anti semitism in the Economics department and returned to government service. From 1941 to 1943 Friedman worked on wartime tax policy for the federal government, as an advisor to senior officials of the United States Department of the Treasury. As a Treasury spokesman during 1942, he advocated a Keynesian policy of taxation. He helped to invent the payroll withholding tax system, since the federal government needed money to fund the war. He later said, "I have no apologies for it, but I really wish we hadn't found it necessary and I wish there were some way of abolishing withholding now." In Milton and Rose Friedman's jointly-written memoir, he wrote, "Rose has repeatedly chided me over the years about the role that I played in making possible the current overgrown government we both criticize so strongly."


title: Milton Friedman

text: In 1940, Friedman accepted a position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, but left because of differences with faculty regarding United States involvement in World War II. Friedman believed the United States should enter the war. In 1943, Friedman joined the Division of War Research at Columbia University (headed by W. Allen Wallis and Harold Hotelling), where he spent the rest of World War II working as a mathematical statistician, focusing on problems of weapons design, military tactics, and metallurgical experiments.


title: Milton Friedman

text: In 1945, Friedman submitted "Incomes from Independent Professional Practice" (co-authored with Kuznets and completed during 1940) to Columbia as his doctoral dissertation. The university awarded him a PhD in 1946. Friedman spent the 1945–1946 academic year teaching at the University of Minnesota (where his friend George Stigler was employed). On February 12, 1945, his only son, David D. Friedman, who would later follow in his father's footsteps as an economist was born.


title: Milton Friedman

text: In 1946, Friedman accepted an offer to teach economic theory at the University of Chicago (a position opened by departure of his former professor Jacob Viner to Princeton University). Friedman would work for the University of Chicago for the next 30 years. There he contributed to the establishment of an intellectual community that produced a number of Nobel Memorial Prize winners, known collectively as the Chicago school of economics.


title: Milton Friedman

text: At the time, Arthur F. Burns, who was then the head of the National Bureau of Economic Research, and later chairman of the Federal Reserve, asked Friedman to rejoin the Bureau's staff. He accepted the invitation, and assumed responsibility for the Bureau's inquiry into the role of money in the business cycle. As a result, he initiated the "Workshop in Money and Banking" (the "Chicago Workshop"), which promoted a revival of monetary studies. During the latter half of the 1940s, Friedman began a collaboration with Anna Schwartz, an economic historian at the Bureau, that would ultimately result in the 1963 publication of a book co-authored by Friedman and Schwartz, "A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960".


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman spent the 1954–1955 academic year as a Fulbright Visiting Fellow at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. At the time, the Cambridge economics faculty was divided into a Keynesian majority (including Joan Robinson and Richard Kahn) and an anti-Keynesian minority (headed by Dennis Robertson). Friedman speculated he was invited to the fellowship because his views were unacceptable to both of the Cambridge factions. Later his weekly columns for "Newsweek" magazine (1966–84) were well read and increasingly influential among political and business people, and helped earn the magazine a Gerald Loeb Special Award in 1968. From 1968 to 1978, he and Paul Samuelson participated in the Economics Cassette Series, a biweekly subscription series where the economist would discuss the days' issues for about a half-hour at a time.


title: Milton Friedman

text: One of Milton Friedman's most popular works, "A Theory of the Consumption Function", challenged traditional Keynesian viewpoints about the household. This work was originally published in 1957 by Princeton University Press, and it reanalyzed the relationship displayed "between aggregate consumption or aggregate savings and aggregate income."


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman's counterpart Keynes believed people would modify their household consumption expenditures to relate to their existing income levels. Friedman's research introduced the term "permanent income" to the world, which was the average of a household's expected income over several years, and he also developed the permanent income hypothesis. Friedman thought income consisted of several components, namely transitory and permanent. He established the formula formula_1 in order to calculate income, with "p" representing the permanent component, and "t" representing the transitory component.Milton Friedman's research changed how economists interpreted the consumption function, and his work pushed the idea that current income was not the only factor affecting people's adjustment household consumption expenditures. Instead, expected income levels also affected how households would change their consumption expenditures. Friedman's contributions strongly influenced research on consumer behavior, and he further defined how to predict consumption smoothing, which contradicts Keynes' marginal propensity to consume. Although this work presented many controversial points of view which differed from existing viewpoints established by Keynes, "A Theory of the Consumption Function" helped Friedman gain respect in the field of economics. His work on the Permanent Income Hypothesis is among the many contributions which were listed as reasons for his Sveriges-Riskbank Prize in Economic Sciences. His work was later expanded on by Christopher D. Carroll, especially in regards to the absence of liquidity constraints.


title: Milton Friedman

text: The Permanent Income Hypothesis faces some criticism, mainly from Keynesian economists. The primary criticism of the hypothesis is based on a lack of liquidity constraints.


title: Milton Friedman

text: His book "Capitalism and Freedom", inspired by a series of lectures he gave at Wabash College, brought him national and international attention outside academia. It was published in 1962 by the University of Chicago Press and consists of essays that used non-mathematical economic models to explore issues of public policy. It sold over 400,000 copies in the first eighteen years and more than half a million since 1962. "Capitalism and Freedom" was translated into eighteen languages. Friedman talks about the need to move to a classically liberal society, that free markets would help nations and individuals in the long-run and fix the efficiency problems currently faced by the United States and other major countries of the 1950s and 1960s. He goes through the chapters specifying an issue in each respective chapter from the role of government and money supply to social welfare programs to a special chapter on occupational licensure. Friedman concludes "Capitalism and Freedom" with his "classical liberal" stance that government should stay out of matters that do not need and should only involve itself when absolutely necessary for the survival of its people and the country. He recounts how the best of a country's abilities come from its free markets while its failures come from government intervention.


title: Milton Friedman

text: In 1977, at the age of 65, Friedman retired from the University of Chicago after teaching there for 30 years. He and his wife moved to San Francisco, where he became a visiting scholar at the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. From 1977 on, he was affiliated with the Hoover Institution at Stanford University.


title: Milton Friedman

text: During 1977, Friedman was approached by Bob Chitester and the Free to Choose Network. They asked him to create a television program presenting his economic and social philosophy.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman and his wife Rose worked on this project for the next three years, and during 1980, the ten-part series, titled "Free to Choose", was broadcast by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). The companion book to the series (co-authored by Milton and his wife, Rose Friedman), also titled "Free To Choose", was the bestselling nonfiction book of 1980.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman served as an unofficial adviser to Ronald Reagan during his 1980 presidential campaign, and then served on the President's Economic Policy Advisory Board for the rest of the Reagan Administration. Ebenstein says Friedman was "the 'guru' of the Reagan administration." In 1988 he received the National Medal of Science and Reagan honored him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman is known now as one of the most influential economists of the 20th century. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Friedman continued to write editorials and appear on television. He made several visits to Eastern Europe and to China, where he also advised governments. He was also for many years a Trustee of the Philadelphia Society.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman had two children, David and Jan. He first met his wife, Rose Friedman (née Director), at the University of Chicago in 1932, and wed six years later, in 1938.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman was noticeably shorter than some of his colleagues; he measured , and has been described as an "Elfin Libertarian" by Binyamin Appelbaum.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Rose Friedman, when asked about Friedman's successes, said that “I have never had the desire to compete with Milton professionally (perhaps because I was smart enough to recognize I couldn't). On the other hand, he has always made me feel that his achievement is my achievement."


title: Milton Friedman

text: During the 1960s, Friedman built, and subsequently maintained a cottage in Fairlee, Vermont. Friedman also had an apartment in Russian Hill, San Francisco, where he lived from 1977 until his death.


title: Milton Friedman

text: According to a 2007 article in "Commentary" magazine, his "parents were moderately observant Jews, but Friedman, after an intense burst of childhood piety, rejected religion altogether." He described himself as an agnostic. Friedman wrote extensively of his life and experiences, especially in 1998 in his memoirs with his wife, Rose, titled "Two Lucky People". In this book, Rose Friedman describes how she and Milton Friedman raised their two children, Janet and David, with a Christmas Tree in the home. "Orthodox Jews of course, do not celebrate Christmas. However, just as, when I was a child, my mother had permitted me to have a Christmas tree one year when my friend had one, she not only tolerated our having a Christmas tree, she even strung popcorn to hang on it."


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman died of heart failure at the age of 94 years in San Francisco on November 16, 2006. He was still a working economist performing original economic research; his last column was published in "The Wall Street Journal" the day after his death. He was survived by his wife, Rose Friedman (who would die on August 18, 2009) and their two children, David D. Friedman, known for "The Machinery of Freedom," as well as his unique anarcho-capitalism from a Chicago School perspective, and attorney and bridge player Jan Martel.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman was best known for reviving interest in the money supply as a determinant of the nominal value of output, that is, the quantity theory of money. Monetarism is the set of views associated with modern quantity theory. Its origins can be traced back to the 16th-century School of Salamanca or even further; however, Friedman's contribution is largely responsible for its modern popularization. He co-authored, with Anna Schwartz, "A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960" (1963), which was an examination of the role of the money supply and economic activity in the U.S. history.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman was the main proponent of the monetarist school of economics. He maintained that there is a close and stable association between inflation and the money supply, mainly that inflation could be avoided with proper regulation of the monetary base's growth rate. He famously used the analogy of "dropping money out of a helicopter", in order to avoid dealing with money injection mechanisms and other factors that would overcomplicate his models.


title: Milton Friedman

text: Friedman's arguments were designed to counter the popular concept of cost-push inflation, that the increased general price level at the time was the result of increases in the price of oil, or increases in wages; as he wrote: