title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Ferrari's decision to continue racing in the "Mille Miglia" brought the company new victories and greatly increased public recognition. However, increasing speeds, poor roads, and nonexistent crowd protection eventually spelled disaster for both the race and Ferrari. During the 1957 "Mille Miglia", near the town of Guidizzolo, a 4.0-litre Ferrari 335 S driven by Alfonso de Portago was traveling at 250 km/h when it blew a tyre and crashed into the roadside crowd, killing de Portago, his co-driver and nine spectators, five of whom were children. In response, Enzo Ferrari and Englebert, the tyre manufacturer, were charged with manslaughter in a lengthy criminal prosecution that was finally dismissed in 1961.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Deeply unsatisfied with the way motorsports were covered in the Italian press, in 1961 Ferrari supported Bologna-based publisher Luciano Conti's decision to start a new publication, "Autosprint". Ferrari himself regularly contributed to the magazine for a few years.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Many of Ferrari's greatest victories came at Le Mans (nine victories, including six in a row in 1960–1965) and in Formula One during the 1950s and 1960s, with the successes of Juan Manuel Fangio (1956), Mike Hawthorn (1958), and Phil Hill (1961).


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Enzo Ferrari's strong personality and controversial management style became notorious in 1962. Following a rather weak title defence of Phil Hill's 1961 world title, sales manager Girolamo Gardini, together with manager Romolo Tavoni, chief engineer Carlo Chiti, sports car development chief Giotto Bizzarrini and other key figures in the company left Ferrari to found the rival car manufacturer and racing team Automobili Turismo e Sport (ATS). Based in Bologna, and financially supported by Count Giovanni Volpi, ATS managed to lure away Phil Hill and Giancarlo Baghetti from Ferrari, who responded by promoting junior engineers like Mauro Forghieri, Sergio Scaglietti and Gian Paolo Dallara, and hiring Ludovico Scarfiotti, Lorenzo Bandini, Willy Mairesse and John Surtees to drive his Formula One cars.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: The "great walkout" came at an especially difficult time for Ferrari. At the urging of Chiti, the company was developing a new 250-based model. Even if the car would be finished, it was unclear if it could be raced successfully. Ferrari's shakeup proved to be successful. The mid-engined Dino racers laid the foundation for Forghieri's dominant 250-powered 250 P. John Surtees won the world title in 1964 following a tense battle with Jim Clark and Graham Hill. The Dino road cars sold well, and other models like the 275 and Daytona were on the way. Conversely, ATS, following a troubled Formula One 1963 campaign, with both cars retiring four times in five races, folded at the end of the year.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: In 1998, Tavoni declared in an interview that he and the remainder of Ferrari's senior figures did not leave on their own initiative, but were ousted following a disagreement with Ferrari over the role of his wife in the company. He said: "Our mistake was to go to a lawyer and write him a letter, instead of openly discussing the issue with him. We knew that his wife wasn't well. We should have been able to deal with it in a different way. When he called the meeting to fire us, he had already nominated our successors".


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: By the end of the 1960s, increasing financial difficulties as well as the problem of racing in many categories and having to meet new safety and clean air emissions requirement for road car production and development, caused Ferrari to start looking for a business partner. In 1969 Ferrari sold 50% of his company to Fiat S.p.A., with the caveat that he would remain 100% in control of the racing activities and that Fiat would pay a sizable subsidy until his death for use by his Maranello and Modena production plants. Ferrari had previously offered Ford the opportunity to buy the firm in 1963 for US$18 million ($ in dollars ) but, late in negotiations, Ferrari withdrew once he realized that Ford would not agree to grant him independent control of the company racing department. Ferrari became a joint-stock company, and Fiat took a small share in 1965. In 1969, Fiat increased their holding to 50% of the company. In 1988 Fiat's holding rose to 90%.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Following the agreement with Fiat, Ferrari stepped down as managing director of the road car division in 1971. In 1974, Ferrari appointed Luca Cordero di Montezemolo as Sporting Director/Formula One Team manager. Montezemolo eventually assumed the presidency of Ferrari in 1992, a post he held until September 2014. Clay Regazzoni was runner-up in 1974, while Niki Lauda won the championship in 1975 and 1977. In 1977, Ferrari was criticized in the press for replacing World Champion Lauda with newcomer Gilles Villeneuve. Ferrari claimed that Villeneuve's aggressive driving style reminded him of Tazio Nuvolari. These feelings were reinforced after the 1979 French Grand Prix when Villeneuve finished second after an intense battle with René Arnoux. According to technical director Mauro Forghieri, "When we returned to Maranello, Ferrari was ecstatic. I have never seen him so happy for a second place".


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: In the early 1970s, Ferrari, aided by fellow Modena constructors Maserati and Automobili Stanguellini, demanded that the Modena Town Council and Automobile Club d'Italia upgrade the Modena Autodrome, the reasoning being that the race track was obsolete and inadequate to test modern racing cars. The proposal was initially discussed with interest, but eventually stalled due to lack of political will. Ferrari then proceeded to buy the land adjacent to his factory and build the Fiorano Circuit, a 3 km track still in use to test Ferrari racing and road cars.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: After Jody Scheckter won the title in 1979, the team experienced a disastrous 1980 campaign. In 1981 Ferrari attempted to revive his team's fortunes by switching to turbo engines. In 1982, the second turbo-powered Ferrari, the 126C2, showed great promise. However, driver Gilles Villeneuve was killed in an accident during the last session of free practice for the Belgian Grand Prix in Zolder in May. In August, at Hockenheim, teammate Didier Pironi had his career cut short in a violent end over end flip on the misty back straight after hitting the Renault F1 driven by Alain Prost. Pironi was leading the driver's championship at the time; he would lose the lead and the championship by five points as he sat out the remaining five races. The Scuderia went on to win the Constructors Championship at the end of the season and in 1983, with driver René Arnoux in contention for the championship until the very last race. Michele Alboreto finished second in 1985 but the team would not see championship glory again before Ferrari's death in 1988. The final race win for the team he saw was when Gerhard Berger and Alboreto scored a 1-2 finish at the final round of the 1987 season in Australia.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Ferrari's management style was autocratic and he was known to pit drivers against each other in the hope of improving their performance. Some critics believe that Ferrari deliberately increased psychological pressure on his drivers, encouraging intra-team rivalries and fostering an atmosphere of intense competition for the position of number one driver. "He thought that psychological pressure would produce better results for the drivers," said Ferrari team driver Tony Brooks. "He would expect a driver to go beyond reasonable limits... You can drive to the maximum of your ability, but once you start psyching yourself up to do things that you don't feel are within your ability it gets stupid. There was enough danger at that time without going over the limit." According to Mario Andretti, "[Ferrari] just demanded results. But he was a guy that also understood when the cars had shortcomings. He was one that could always appreciate the effort that a driver made, when you were just busting your butt, flat out, flinging the car, and all that. He knew and saw that. He was all-in. Had no other interest in life outside of motor racing and all of the intricacies of it. Somewhat misunderstood in many ways because he was so demanding, so tough on everyone, but at the end of the day he was correct. Always correct. And that’s why you had the respect that you had for him."


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Between 1955 and 1971 eight Ferrari drivers were killed driving Ferrari racing cars: Alberto Ascari, Eugenio Castellotti, Alfonso de Portago, Luigi Musso, Peter Collins, Wolfgang von Trips, Lorenzo Bandini and Ignazio Giunti. Although such a high death toll was not unusual in motor racing in those days, the Vatican newspaper "L’Osservatore Romano" described Ferrari as being like the god Saturn, who consumed his own sons. In Ferrari's defence, contemporary F1 race car driver Stirling Moss commented: "I can't think of a single occasion where a (Ferrari) driver's life was taken because of mechanical failure."


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: In public Ferrari was careful to acknowledge the drivers who risked their life for his team, insisting that praise should be shared equally between car and driver for any race won. However, his longtime friend and company accountant, Carlo Benzi, related that privately Ferrari would say that "the car was the reason for any success."


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Following the deaths of Giuseppe Campari in 1933 and Alberto Ascari in 1955, both of whom he had a strong personal relationship with, he chose not to get too close to his drivers, out of fear of emotionally hurting himself. Later in life, he relented his position and grew very close to Clay Regazzoni and especially Gilles Villeneuve.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Enzo Ferrari spent a reserved life, and rarely granted interviews. He seldom left Modena and Maranello and never went to any Grands Prix outside of Italy after the 1950s. He was usually seen at the Grands Prix at Monza near Milan and/or Imola, not far from the Ferrari factory, where the circuit was named after the late Dino. His last known trip abroad was in 1982 when he went to Paris to broker a compromise between the warring FISA and FOCA parties. He never flew in an aeroplane and never set foot in a lift.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: He married Laura Domenica Garello (c. 1900–1978) on 28 April 1923, and they remained married until her death. They had one son, Alfredo "Dino", who was born in 1932 and groomed as Enzo's successor, but he suffered from ill-health and died from muscular dystrophy in 1956. Enzo had a second son, Piero, with his mistress Lina Lardi in 1945. As divorce was illegal in Italy until 1975, Piero could only be recognized as Enzo's son after Laura's death in 1978. Piero is currently the vice chairman of the Ferrari company with a 10% share ownership.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Ferrari was made a Cavaliere del Lavoro in 1952, to add to his honours of Cavaliere and Commendatore in the 1920s. He also received a number of honorary degrees, including the Hammarskjöld Prize in 1962, the Columbus Prize in 1965, and the De Gasperi Award in 1987. He was posthumously inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame (1994) and the Automotive Hall of Fame (2000).


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: Ferrari died on 14 August 1988 in Maranello at the age of 90. No cause of death was given. His death was not made public until two days later, as by Enzo's request, to compensate for the late registration of his birth. He witnessed the launch of the Ferrari F40 shortly before his death, which was dedicated as a symbol of his achievements. In 2002 Ferrari began production of the Ferrari Enzo, named after its founder.


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: The Italian Grand Prix was held just weeks after Ferrari's death, and the result was a 1–2 finish for Ferrari, with the Austrian Gerhard Berger leading home Italian and Milan native Michele Alboreto; it was the only race that McLaren did not win that season. Since Ferrari's death, the Scuderia Ferrari team has remained successful. The team won the Constructors' Championship every year from to , and in both and . Michael Schumacher won the World Drivers' Championship with Scuderia Ferrari every year from to , and Kimi Räikkönen won the title with the team in .


title: Enzo Ferrari

text: A popular joke among fans of association football holds that German footballer Mesut Özil is the reincarnation of Enzo Ferrari. Özil bears a striking resemblance to Ferrari, and was born two months after Ferrari's death.


title: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives

text: The speaker of the United States House of Representatives, commonly known as the speaker of the House, is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives. The office was established in 1789 by of the U.S. Constitution. The speaker is the political and parliamentary leader of the House and is simultaneously its presiding officer, "de facto" leader of the body's majority party, and the institution's administrative head. Speakers also perform various other administrative and procedural functions. Given these several roles and responsibilities, the speaker usually does not personally preside over debates. That duty is instead delegated to members of the House from the majority party. Nor does the speaker regularly participate in floor debates.


text: The Constitution does not require the speaker to be an incumbent member of the House of Representatives, although every speaker thus far has been. The speaker is second in the United States presidential line of succession, after the vice president and ahead of the president "pro tempore" of the Senate.


text: The current House speaker is Democrat Nancy Pelosi of California. She was elected to a fourth (second consecutive) term as speaker on January 3, 2021, the first day of the 117th Congress. She has led the Democratic Party in the House since 2003, and is the first woman to serve as speaker.


text: The House elects its speaker at the beginning of a new Congress (i.e. , after a general election) or when a speaker dies, resigns or is removed from the position intra-term. Since 1839, the House has elected speakers by roll call vote. Traditionally, each party's caucus or conference selects a candidate for the speakership from among its senior leaders prior to the roll call. Representatives are not restricted to voting for the candidate nominated by their party, but generally do, as the outcome of the election effectively determines which party has the majority and consequently will organize the House. As the Constitution does not explicitly state that the speaker must be an incumbent member of the House, it is permissible for representatives to vote for someone who is not a member of the House at the time, and non-members have received a few votes in various speaker elections over the past several years. Every person elected speaker, however, has been a member.


text: Representatives who choose to vote for someone other than their party's nominated candidate usually vote for someone else in their party or vote "present". Anyone who votes for the other party's candidate would face serious consequences, as was the case when Democrat James Traficant voted for Republican Dennis Hastert in 2001 (107th Congress). In response, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority and he lost all of his committee posts.


text: To be elected speaker, a candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast. If no candidate wins a majority, the roll call is repeated until a speaker is elected. Multiple roll calls have been necessary only 14 times (out of 126 speakership elections) since 1789; and not since 1923 (68th Congress), when a closely divided House needed nine ballots to elect Frederick H. Gillett speaker. Upon winning election the new speaker is immediately sworn in by the dean of the United States House of Representatives, the chamber's longest-serving member.


text: The first speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, was elected to office on April 1, 1789, the day the House organized itself at the start of the 1st Congress. He served two non-consecutive terms in the speaker's chair, 1789–1791 (1st Congress) and 1793–1795 (3rd Congress).


text: As the Constitution does not state the duties of the speaker, the speaker's role has largely been shaped by traditions and customs that evolved over time. Scholars are divided as to whether early speakers played largely ceremonial and impartial roles or whether they were more active partisan actors.


text: From early in its existence, the speaker's primary function had been to keep order and enforce rules. The speakership was transformed into a position with power over the legislative process under Henry Clay (1811–1814, 1815–1820, and 1823–1825). In contrast to many of his predecessors, Clay participated in several debates and used his influence to procure the passage of measures he supported—for instance, the declaration of the War of 1812, and various laws relating to Clay's "American System" economic plan. Furthermore, when no candidate received an Electoral College majority in the 1824 presidential election, causing the president to be elected by the House, Speaker Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams instead of Andrew Jackson, thereby ensuring Adams' victory. Following Clay's retirement in 1825, the power of the speakership once again began to decline, despite speakership elections becoming increasingly bitter. As the Civil War approached, several sectional factions nominated their own candidates, often making it difficult for any candidate to attain a majority. In 1855 and again in 1859, for example, the contest for speaker lasted for two months before the House achieved a result. Speakers tended to have very short tenures during this period. For example, from 1839 to 1863 there were eleven speakers, only one of whom served for more than one term. To date, James K. Polk is the only speaker of the House who was later elected president of the United States.


text: Toward the end of the 19th century, the office of speaker began to develop into a very powerful one. At the time, one of the most important sources of the speaker's power was his position as Chairman of the Committee on Rules, which, after the reorganization of the committee system in 1880, became one of the most powerful standing committees of the House. Furthermore, several speakers became leading figures in their political parties; examples include Democrats Samuel J. Randall, John Griffin Carlisle, and Charles F. Crisp, and Republicans James G. Blaine, Thomas Brackett Reed, and Joseph Gurney Cannon.


text: The power of the speaker was greatly augmented during the tenure of the Republican Thomas Brackett Reed (1889–1891, 1895–1899). "Czar Reed", as he was called by his opponents, sought to end the obstruction of bills by the minority, in particular by countering the tactic known as the "disappearing quorum". By refusing to vote on a motion, the minority could ensure that a quorum would not be achieved and that the result would be invalid. Reed, however, declared that members who were in the chamber but refused to vote would still count for the purposes of determining a quorum. Through these and other rulings, Reed ensured that the Democrats could not block the Republican agenda.


text: The speakership reached its apogee during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (1903–1911). Cannon exercised extraordinary control over the legislative process. He determined the agenda of the House, appointed the members of all committees, chose committee chairmen, headed the Rules Committee, and determined which committee heard each bill. He vigorously used his powers to ensure that Republican proposals were passed by the House. In 1910, however, Democrats and several dissatisfied Republicans joined together to strip Cannon of many of his powers, including the ability to name committee members and his chairmanship of the Rules Committee. Fifteen years later, Speaker Nicholas Longworth restored much, but not all, of the lost influence of the position.


text: One of the most influential speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn. Rayburn had the most cumulative time as speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman.


text: Rayburn's successor, Democrat John W. McCormack (served 1962–1971), was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert. The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the speaker was granted the authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the speaker.


text: Albert's successor, Democrat Tip O'Neill, was a prominent speaker because of his public opposition to the policies of President Ronald Reagan. O'Neill is the longest continuously serving speaker, from 1977 through 1987. He challenged Reagan on domestic programs and on defense expenditures. Republicans made O'Neill the target of their election campaigns in 1980 and 1982 but Democrats managed to retain their majorities in both years.


text: The roles of the parties reversed in 1994 when, after spending forty years in the minority, the Republicans regained control of the House with the "Contract with America", an idea spearheaded by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich. Speaker Gingrich would regularly clash with Democratic President Bill Clinton, leading to the United States federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996, in which Clinton was largely seen to have prevailed. Gingrich's hold on the leadership was weakened significantly by that and several other controversies, and he faced a caucus revolt in 1997. After the Republicans lost House seats in 1998 (although retaining a majority) he did not stand for a third term as speaker. His successor, Dennis Hastert, had been chosen as a compromise candidate since the other Republicans in the leadership were more controversial. Hastert played a much less prominent role than other contemporary speakers, being overshadowed by House Majority Leader Tom DeLay and President George W. Bush. The Republicans came out of the 2000 elections with a further reduced majority but made small gains in 2002 and 2004. The periods of 2001–2002 and 2003–2007 were the first times since 1953–1955 that there was single-party Republican leadership in Washington, interrupted from 2001 to 2003 as Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become independent and caucused with Senate Democrats to give them a 51–49 majority.


text: In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democrats won a majority in the House. Nancy Pelosi became speaker when the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, making her the first woman to hold the office. With the election of Barack Obama as president and Democratic gains in both houses of Congress, Pelosi became the first speaker since Tom Foley to hold the office during single-party Democratic leadership in Washington. During the 111th Congress, Pelosi was the driving force behind several of Obama's major initiatives that proved controversial, and the Republicans campaigned against the Democrats' legislation by staging a "Fire Pelosi" bus tour and regained control of the House in the 2010 midterm elections.


text: John Boehner was elected speaker when the 112th Congress convened on January 5, 2011, and was subsequently re-elected twice, at the start of the 113th and 114th Congresses. On both of those occasions his remaining in office was threatened by the defection of several members from his own party who chose not to vote for him. Boehner's tenure as speaker, which ended when he resigned from Congress in October 2015, was marked by multiple battles with the conservatives in his own party related to "Obama Care", appropriations, among other political issues. This intra-party discord continued under Boehner's successor, Paul Ryan.


text: Following the 2018 midterm elections which saw the election of a Democratic Party majority in the House of Representatives, Nancy Pelosi was elected speaker when the 116th Congress convened on January 3, 2019. When Republican leader John Boehner succeeded her as speaker in 2011, Pelosi remained the leader of the Democratic Party in the House of Representatives and served as House minority leader for eight years before she led her party to victory in the 2018 elections. In addition to being the first woman to hold the office, Pelosi became the first speaker to return to power since Sam Rayburn in the 1950s.


text: Historically, there have been several controversial elections to the speakership, such as the contest of 1839. In that case, even though the 26th United States Congress convened on December 2, the House could not begin the speakership election until December 14 because of an election dispute in New Jersey known as the "Broad Seal War". Two rival delegations, one Whig and the other Democrat, had been certified as elected by different branches of the New Jersey government. The problem was compounded by the fact that the result of the dispute would determine whether the Whigs or the Democrats held the majority. Neither party agreed to permit a speakership election with the opposite party's delegation participating. Finally, it was agreed to exclude both delegations from the election and a speaker was finally chosen on December 17.


text: Another, more prolonged fight occurred in 1855 in the 34th United States Congress. The old Whig Party had collapsed but no single party had emerged to replace it. Candidates opposing the Democrats had run under a bewildering variety of labels, including Whig, Republican, American (Know Nothing), and simply "Opposition". By the time Congress actually met in December 1855, most of the northerners were concentrated together as Republicans, while most of the southerners and a few northerners used the American or Know Nothing label. Opponents of the Democrats held a majority in House, with the party makeup of the 234 representatives being 83 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Know Nothings (primarily southern oppositionists). The Democratic minority nominated William Alexander Richardson of Illinois as speaker, but because of sectional distrust, the various oppositionists were unable to agree on a single candidate for speaker. The Republicans supported Nathaniel Prentice Banks of Massachusetts, who had been elected as a Know Nothing but was now largely identified with the Republicans. The southern Know Nothings supported first Humphrey Marshall of Kentucky, and then Henry M. Fuller of Pennsylvania. The voting went on for almost two months with no candidate able to secure a majority, until it was finally agreed to elect the speaker by plurality vote, and Banks was elected. The House found itself in a similar dilemma when the 36th Congress met in December 1859. Although the Republicans held a plurality, the Republican candidate, John Sherman, was unacceptable to southern oppositionists due to his anti-slavery views, and once again the House was unable to elect a speaker. After Democrats allied with southern oppositionists to nearly elect the North Carolina oppositionist William N. H. Smith, Sherman finally withdrew in favor of compromise candidate William Pennington of New Jersey, a former Whig of unclear partisan loyalties, who was finally elected speaker on February 1, 1860.


text: The last time that an election for speaker went beyond one ballot was in December 1923 at the start of the 68th Congress, when Republican Frederick H. Gillett needed nine ballots to win reelection. Progressive Republicans had refused to support Gillett in the first eight ballots. Only after winning concessions from Republican conference leaders (a seat on the House Rules Committee and a pledge that requested House rules changes would be considered) did they agree to support him.


text: In 1997, several Republican congressional leaders tried to force Speaker Newt Gingrich to resign. However, Gingrich refused since that would have required a new election for speaker, which could have led to Democrats along with dissenting Republicans voting for Democrat Dick Gephardt (then minority leader) as speaker. After the 1998 midterm elections where the Republicans lost seats, Gingrich did not stand for re-election. The next two figures in the House Republican leadership hierarchy, Majority Leader Richard Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay chose not to run for the office. The chairman of the House Appropriations Committee, Bob Livingston, declared his bid for the speakership, which was unopposed, making him speaker-designate. It was then revealed, by Livingston himself, who had been publicly critical of President Bill Clinton's perjury during his sexual harassment trial, that he had engaged in an extramarital affair. He opted to resign from the House, despite being urged to stay on by House Democratic leader Gephardt. Subsequently, the chief deputy whip Dennis Hastert was selected as speaker. The Republicans retained their majorities in the 2000, 2002, and 2004 elections.


text: The Democrats won a majority of seats in the 2006 midterm elections. On November 16, 2006, Nancy Pelosi, who was then minority leader, was selected as speaker-designate by House Democrats. When the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, she was elected as the 52nd speaker by a vote of 233–202, becoming the first woman elected speaker of the House. Pelosi remained speaker through the 111th Congress.


text: The most recent election for House speaker took place January 3, 2021, on the opening day of the 117th United States Congress, two months after the 2020 House elections in which the Democrats won a majority of the seats. Incumbent speaker, Democrat Nancy Pelosi, secured a narrow majority of the 427 votes cast and was elected to a fourth (second consecutive) term. She received 216 votes to Republican Kevin McCarthy's 209 votes, with two votes going to other persons; also, three representatives answered "present" when their names were called.


text: The Constitution does not spell out the political role of the speaker. As the office has developed historically, however, it has taken on a clearly partisan cast, very different from the speakership of most Westminster-style legislatures, such as the speaker of the United Kingdom's House of Commons, which is meant to be scrupulously non-partisan. The speaker in the United States, by tradition, is the head of the majority party in the House of Representatives, outranking the majority leader. However, despite having the right to vote, the speaker usually does not participate in debate.


text: The speaker is responsible for ensuring that the House passes legislation supported by the majority party. In pursuing this goal, the speaker may use their power to determine when each bill reaches the floor. They also chair the majority party's steering committee in the House. While the speaker is the functioning head of the House majority party, the same is not true of the president "pro tempore" of the Senate, whose office is primarily ceremonial and honorary.


text: When the speaker and the president belong to the same party, the speaker tends to play the role in a more ceremonial light, as seen when Dennis Hastert played a very restrained role during the presidency of fellow Republican George W. Bush. Nevertheless, when the speaker and the president belong to the same party, there are also times that the speaker plays a much larger role, and the speaker is tasked, e.g., with pushing through the agenda of the majority party, often at the expense of the minority opposition. This can be seen, most of all, in the speakership of Democratic-Republican Henry Clay, who personally ensured the presidential victory of fellow Democratic-Republican John Quincy Adams. Democrat Sam Rayburn was a key player in the passing of New Deal legislation under the presidency of fellow Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (under Theodore Roosevelt) was particularly infamous for his marginalization of the minority Democrats and centralizing of authority to the speakership. In more recent times, Speaker Nancy Pelosi played a role in continuing the push for health care reform during the presidency of fellow Democrat Barack Obama and in pushing for increases in infrastructure and climate spending during the presidency of Democrat Joe Biden.


text: On the other hand, when the speaker and the president belong to opposite parties, the public role and influence of the speaker tend to increase. As the highest-ranking member of the opposition party (and "de facto" leader of the opposition), the speaker is normally the chief public opponent of the president's agenda. In this scenario, the speaker is known for undercutting the president's agenda by blocking measures by the minority party or rejecting bills by the Senate. One famous instance came in the form of Thomas Brackett Reed (under Grover Cleveland), a speaker notorious for his successful attempt to force the Democrats to vote on measures where the Republicans had clear majorities, which ensured that Cleveland's Democrats were in no position to challenge the Republicans in the House. Joseph Cannon was particularly unique in that he led the conservative "Old Guard" wing of the Republican Party, while his president – Theodore Roosevelt – was of the more progressive clique, and more than just marginalizing the Democrats, Cannon used his power to punish the dissidents in his party and obstruct the progressive wing of the Republican Party.


text: More modern examples include Tip O'Neill, who was a vocal opponent of President Ronald Reagan's economic and defense policies; Newt Gingrich, who fought a bitter battle with President Bill Clinton for control of domestic policy; Nancy Pelosi, who argued with President George W. Bush over the Iraq War; John Boehner, who clashed with President Barack Obama over budget issues and health care; and once again, Nancy Pelosi, who refused to support Donald Trump over funding for a border wall.


text: As presiding officer of the House of Representatives, the speaker holds a variety of powers over the House and is ceremonially the highest-ranking legislative official in the US government. The speaker may delegate their powers to a member of the House to act as speaker "pro tempore" and to preside over the House in the speaker's absence; when this has occurred the delegation has always been to a member of the same party. During important debates, the speaker "pro tempore" is ordinarily a senior member of the majority party who may be chosen for his or her skill in presiding. At other times, more junior members may be assigned to preside to give them experience with the rules and procedures of the House. The speaker may also designate, with approval of the House, a speaker "pro tempore" for special purposes, such as designating a representative whose district is near Washington, D.C. to sign enrolled bills during long recesses.


text: Under the rules of the House, the speaker, "as soon as practicable after the election of the speaker and whenever appropriate thereafter", must deliver to the clerk of the House a confidential list of members who are designated to act as speaker in the case of a vacancy or physical inability of the speaker to perform their duties.


text: On the floor of the House, the presiding officer is always addressed as "Mister Speaker" or "Madam Speaker", even if that person is serving as speaker "pro tempore". When the House resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole, the speaker designates a member to preside over the committee, who is addressed as "Mister Chairman" or "Madam Chairwoman". To speak, members must seek the presiding officer's recognition. The presiding officer also rules on all points of order but such rulings may be appealed to the whole House. The speaker is responsible for maintaining decorum in the House and may order the Sergeant-at-Arms to enforce House rules.


text: The speaker's powers and duties extend beyond presiding in the chamber. In particular, the speaker has great influence over the committee process. The speaker selects nine of the thirteen members of the powerful Committee on Rules, subject to the approval of the entire majority party. The leadership of the minority party chooses the remaining four members. Furthermore, the speaker appoints all members of select committees and conference committees. Moreover, when a bill is introduced, the speaker determines which committee will consider it. As a member of the House, the speaker is entitled to participate in debate and to vote. Ordinarily, the speaker votes only when the speaker's vote would be decisive or on matters of great importance, such as constitutional amendments or major legislation. Under the early rules of the House, the speaker was generally barred from voting, but today the speaker has the same right as other members to vote but only occasionally exercises it. The speaker may vote on any matter that comes before the House, and they are required to vote where their vote would be decisive or where the House is engaged in voting by ballot.


text: In addition to being the political and parliamentary leader of the House of Representatives and representing their congressional district, the speaker also performs various other administrative and procedural functions, such as:


text: Additionally, the speaker is second in the presidential line of succession under the Presidential Succession Act of 1947, immediately after the vice president and before the president pro tempore of the Senate (who is followed by members of the president's Cabinet). Thus, if both the presidency and vice-presidency were vacant simultaneously, then the speaker would become acting president, after resigning from the House and as speaker.


text: Ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, with its mechanism for filling an intra-term vice-presidential vacancy, has made calling on the speaker, president pro tempore, or a cabinet member to serve as acting president unlikely to happen, except in the aftermath of a catastrophic event. However, only a few years after it went into effect, in October 1973, at the height of Watergate, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned. With Agnew's unexpected departure and the state of Richard Nixon's presidency, Speaker Carl Albert was suddenly first in line to become acting president. The vacancy continued until Gerald Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973. Albert was also next in line from the time Ford assumed the presidency on August 9, 1974, following Nixon's resignation from office, until Ford's choice to succeed him as vice president, Nelson Rockefeller, was confirmed by Congress four months later.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Yevgeny Viktorovich Prigozhin (; born 1 June 1961) is a Russian oligarch and close confidant of Russian president Vladimir Putin. Prigozhin was called "Putin's chef" because his restaurants and catering businesses hosted dinners which Putin attended with foreign dignitaries.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Prigozhin controls a network of companies including Wagner Group, a Russian state-backed mercenary group accused of war crimes in Africa, Syria, and Ukraine; and three companies accused of interference in the 2016 and 2018 U.S. elections. Prigozhin has long denied any connection to Wagner, however, a video in September 2022 showed Prigozhin in a Mari El prison recruiting inmates, promising them freedom if they served six months with the Wagner Group. On 26 September 2022, Prigozhin further admitted that he had founded the Wagner Group specifically to support Russian forces in the War in Donbas, in May 2014. Prigozhin has also long denied his role in Russian interference in U.S. elections, but in November 2022, he admitted his role in such operations, saying they would continue.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Prigozhin himself spent nine years as a convict in prisons in the Soviet Union. According to an investigation by Bellingcat, "The Insider", and "Der Spiegel", Prigozhin's operations "are tightly integrated with Russia's Defence Ministry and its intelligence arm, the GRU". Prigozhin, his companies and associates face economic sanctions and criminal charges in the United States.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Prigozhin was born in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) 1 June 1961, to Violetta Prigozhina (), who raised him as a single mother and worked at a local hospital, as his father died early. Trained by his stepfather, Samuil Zharkoy, an instructor in cross-country skiing, he attended a prestigious athletics boarding school from which he graduated in 1977. However his career in sport did not work out.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In November 1979, Prigozhin was given a suspended sentence for stealing (in Leningrad). In 1981, he was sentenced to twelve years imprisonment under articles of robbery, fraud, and involving teenagers in crime, but was pardoned in 1988, and was released in 1990. Prigozhin spent nine years in detention.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In 1990, after his release, he and his stepfather set up a network to sell hot dogs. Soon, according to a "New York Times" interview with him, "the rubles were piling up faster than his mother could count them." He also became a 15% stakeholder and manager of a Contrast, started by Boris Spektor, a classmate from his boarding school, which was the first grocery store chain in Saint Petersburg. With Prigozhin as CEO and Spektor and Igor Gorbenko, they founded the first casinos in Saint Petersburg under Spectrum CJSC (). They founded Viking CJSC (), too. In 1995, when revenues began to fall, Prigozhin persuaded a director at Contrast, Kiril Ziminov, to open a restaurant with him. The two men opened the Old Customs House () in Saint Petersburg. In 1997, inspired by waterfront restaurants on the Seine in Paris, Prigozhin and Ziminov spent $400,000 remodeling a rusting boat on the Vyatka River and started the floating restaurant called New Island, which became one of the most fashionable dining spots in Saint Petersburg. He said his patrons "wanted to see something new in their lives and were tired of just eating cutlets with vodka." In 2001, Prigozhin personally served food to Vladimir Putin and French president Jacques Chirac when they dined at New Island. He also hosted US President George W. Bush in 2002. In 2003, Putin celebrated his birthday at New Island. By 2003, Prigozhin had left his business partners, established his own independent restaurants, and had become a confidant of Putin, apparently free to engage in illicit activities without fear of prosecution.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: His company, Concord Catering, received hundreds of millions in government contracts for feeding school children and government workers. In 2012, he received a contract to supply meals to the Russian military worth US$1.2 billion over one year. Some of the profits from this contract are alleged to have been used to start and fund the Internet Research Agency.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In 2012 he moved his family into a Saint Petersburg compound with a basketball court and a helicopter pad. He has a private jet and a 115-foot yacht.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: The Anti-Corruption Foundation accused Prigozhin of corrupt business practices. They estimated his illegal wealth to be worth more than one billion rubles. Alexei Navalny has alleged that Prigozhin was linked to a company called Moskovsky Shkolnik (Moscow schoolboy) that had supplied poor quality food to Moscow schools which had caused a dysentery outbreak.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: According to "Novaya Gazeta" in October 2018, Evgeny Gulyaev is the head of the security service for Prigozhin.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: On 11 December 2019, which is "Heroes Day" or "Heroes of the Fatherland Day", Msk LLC () which has the same phone number as Concord Catering, was paid 4.1 million rubles for a Kremlin banquet. In 2018, Msk LLC was paid only 2.5 million rubles from the Presidential Administration for the same banquet at the Kremlin.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Prigozhin has been linked to a mercenary group known as the Wagner Group which has been involved in various actions as a private military contractor. In February 2018, Wagner attacked US-backed Kurdish forces in Syria in an attempt to take an oil field. Wagner and their allies suffered dozens of casualties when the US responded with airpower.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: "The Washington Post" reported Prigozhin was in close contact with Russian and Syrian military officials before the 7 February action. The connections between Prigozhin and Wagner have been the subject of press coverage in Russia and the United States. Wagner is led by Dmitry Utkin, who was once head of security for Prigozhin. A person by the name of Dmitry Utkin was also listed as director general of Prigozhin's Concord Management. Since 2011, Prigozhin's mother Violetta Prigozhina has been the owner of Concord. Concord and Prigozhin denied any connection to Wagner, however in November 2016 the company confirmed to Russian media that the same Dmitry Utkin leading the Wagner Group was now in charge of Prigozhin's food businesses. Wagner has also been reported to be fighting in eastern Ukraine with pro-Russia forces. In November 2022, a Russian ex-prisoner who was released contingent on his joining the Wagner Group attacking Ukraine deserted to the Ukrainian forces. After his capture by Wagner elements, his execution via a sledgehammer blow to the skull was featured in a propaganda video, characterized as an effort to curry Putin's favor. Prigozhin commented, "It seems to me that this film should be called: "A dog dies a dog's death'." "It was an excellent directional piece of work, watched in one breath. I hope no animals were harmed during filming.”


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In July 2018, three Russian journalists working for a news organization often critical of the Russian government were murdered in the Central African Republic, where they had been attempting to investigate the activities of the Wagner Group in that country. The Russian government had begun a collaboration with the president of the Central African Republic in October 2017. In its response to the killings, Russia's foreign ministry stressed that the dead journalists had been traveling without official accreditation.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In April 2022, during Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine, it was reported that Prigozhin travelled to the Donbas to oversee personally Wagner Group's campaign. He was pictured wearing military fatigues with Russian Duma member Vitaly Milonov who had travelled to the front line.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In August 2022, Wagner Group began using billboards to recruit new members in Russia. Former journalist and observer of the Group, Denis Korotkov said "It looks like they have decided that they will no longer try to hide their existence"


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In September 2022, a leaked video exposed Prigozhin attempting to recruit convicts to bolster the Russian forces on the front lines in the war against Ukraine. He said to the convicts "nobody goes back behind bars" and to those uncomfortable with the idea "it's either prisoners or your children - you decide". While the video was filmed at a penal colony in Yoshkar-Ola to recruit shock troops, there is evidence that convicts from a penal colony in Saint Petersburg had been recruited previously. On the 26th of September, Prigozhin directly walked back his previous claims that he had no connection with the group, releasing a statement on the Russian social media website VK wherein he admitted that he had, in fact, founded it in May 2014 to "protect the Russians" when "the genocide of the Russian population of Donbas began." He explained that he played a personal role from the start, claiming that he "found specialists who could help" after "[cleaning] the old weapons and [sorting out] the bulletproof vests" himself. He also confirmed allegations, previously denied by the Russian government, that the group had been involved in other countries aligned with Russian overseas interests, stating that the Wagner mercenaries who "defended the Syrian people, other people of Arab countries, destitute Africans and Latin Americans have become the pillars of our motherland".


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: On 1 October 2022, he said about the commanders of the Russian army that "All these bastards ought to be sent to the front barefoot with just a submachine gun." He called members of the Putin-controlled Russian parliament "useless" and said that the "deputies should go to the front", adding that "Those people who have been talking from tribunes for years need to start doing something." The "Washington Post" reported that Prigozhin was one of the few people who dared to tell Putin about the "mistakes" of Russian military commanders in the war in Ukraine.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: On 23 October 2022, Prigozhin said his forces are making advances of per day, which he claimed is the norm for modern warfare. He praised the Ukrainian defenders of Bakhmut, saying that "Our units are constantly meeting with the most fierce enemy resistance, and I note that the enemy is well prepared, motivated, and works confidently and harmoniously." In November 2022, he welcomed the murder of a former member of Wagner's group who had defected to the Ukrainian side.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Prigozhin is alleged to have financed and directed a network of companies including a company called the Internet Research Agency Ltd. (), Concord Management and Consulting Company and one other related company. The three companies are accused of Internet trolling and attempting to influence the 2016 US presidential elections and other activity to influence political events outside Russia.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Russian journalist Andrey Soshnikov reported that Alexey Soskovets, who had participated in Russian youth political community, was directly connected to the offices of Internet Research in Olgino. His company, North-Western Service Agency, won 17 or 18 (according to different sources) contracts for organizing celebrations, forums and sport competitions for authorities of Saint Petersburg. The agency was the only participant in half of those bids. In the summer of 2013, the agency won a tender for providing freight services for participants of Seliger camp.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Campaigns against opposition in 2013 involved Dmitry Bykov and the then head of RIA Novosti, Svetlana Mironyuk, while a homepage claiming to fight fake news ("Gazeta O Gazetah") was used to spread fake news.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In December 2016, the US Treasury Department designated Prigozhin pursuant to E.O.13661 for sanctions for providing support to senior officials of the Russian Federation.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In June 2017, US sanctions were imposed on one of Prigozhin's companies, Concord Management and Consulting, in connection with the war in Eastern Ukraine.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In January 2018, the US Treasury Department also designated Evro Polis Ltd for sanctions. Evro Polis is a Russian company that has contracted with the Government of Syria to protect Syrian oil fields in exchange for a 25 percent share in oil and gas production from the fields. The company was designated for being owned or controlled by Prigozhin. The sanctions require that any property or interests in property of the designated persons in the possession or control of US persons or within the United States must be blocked. Additionally, transactions by US persons involving these persons (including companies) are generally prohibited.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In September 2019, three more Prigozhin companies (Autolex Transport, Beratex Group and Linburg Industries) were sanctioned in connection with the Russian interference in the 2016 United States election.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In February 2022, the Internet Research Agency was added to the European Union sanctions list for running disinformation campaigns to manipulate public opinion and "actively supporting actions which undermine and threaten the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of Ukraine."


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: According to The United States Prigozhin's activities of interfering in elections and subverting public opinion are extended to Asian and African countries. The EU, Canada, United Kingdom, and Australia have also designated him.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: On 16 February 2018, Prigozhin, the Internet Research Agency, Concord Management, another related company, and other connected Russian individuals were indicted by a US grand jury. He was charged with funding and organizing operations for the purpose of interference with the U.S. political and electoral processes, including the 2016 presidential election, and other crimes including identity theft. Charges were dismissed with prejudice on March 16, 2020.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In February 2021, Prigozhin was added to the wanted list of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In February 2022, the United States imposed visa restrictions and froze assets of Prigozhin, his wife, son, and daughter, due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In July 2022, the U.S. State Department offered a reward of up to $10 million for information about Prigozhin, the Internet Research Agency, and other entities involved in 2016 U.S. election interference.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: On 7 November 2022, Prigozhin said he had interfered in U.S. elections and would continue to interfere in the future.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: During 2018 through both 100 to 200 political consultants and Prigozhin's mercenaries in his Wagner Group, Prigozhin established numerous interests in Africa especially in Madagascar and Central Africa Republic (CAR) along with other countries: Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Senegal, Rwanda, Sudan, Libya, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Mozambique, Nigeria, Chad, South Sudan, and South Africa. Pyotr Bychkov () is responsible for coordinating the "Africa expansion". According to a 20 April 2018 "Kommersant" article, Yaroslov Ignatovsky (; born 1983, Leningrad) heads Politgen () and is a political strategist that has coordinated the trolls' efforts for Prigozhin in Africa.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In the Central African Republic (CAR) southwest prefecture of Lobaye and west of Bangui, the Prigozhin associated company "Lobaye Invest" has been engaged in the mining of diamonds, gold, and other minerals starting in early 2018. After traveling to Russia in the fall of 2017 to meet with Sergey Lavrov in Sochi and in June 2018 to meet with Vladimir Putin in Saint Petersburg, Faustin-Archange Touadera, the President of the Central African Republic, under advice from his national security advisor Valery Zakharov () increased the Russian presence in CAR by allowing 5 Russian military advisors and 170 Russian contractors to work starting in January 2018 near Bobangui at Berengo, which is the former palace of Jean-Bédel Bokassa and is 60 kilometres southwest of Bangui. Since December 2017, the Kimberley Process allowed diamonds to be mined in the southwest of CAR. Under managing director Evgeny Khodotov () who is associated with security for Touadera through the firm "Sewa Security Service", Lobaye Invest was founded through M-Invest by Dmitry Syty () and is a subsidiary of M-Finance which were founded by Prigozhin. On the night of 31 July 2018, three Russian journalists, Alexander Rastorguev (), Orhan Dzhemal (), and Kirill Radchenko (), who were sent by the Mikhail Khodorkovsky-sponsored Investigation Management Center (SDG) (), were killed north of Sibut while they were investigating the operations of Lobaye Invest and Russians interests in the east of CAR at the Ndassima gold field for an upcoming film. On 15 April 2019, Putin sent 30 Russian troops as part of a UN mission in CAR to support Lobaye Invest interests. Beginning 18 December 2020, several hundred Russians with heavy weapons supported an offensive on Bangui which included contingents of troops from Rwanda. On 27 May 2021, three Russians were killed when a roadside bomb exploded. From 2012 until May 2021 according to DW, an estimated 800 to 2,000 Russian mercenaries have fought in CAR.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: During May 2019, Maria Butina (charged with acting in the United States as an agent of a foreign government; specifically the Russian Federation) appealed for help in paying her lawyer fees. In February 2019 Valery Butin, Butina's father, told "Izvestia" that she owed her U.S. attorneys 40 million rubles ($US 659,000). Through Prigozhin's Fund for the Protection of National Values, which is managed by Petr Bychkov, 5 million rubles were donated to Butina's defence lawyer costs.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: In March 2020, it was revealed that Prigozhin had financially assisted Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, son of the late overthrown Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, in a bid to win the Libyan presidency in 2019.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: Prigozhin is married to Lyubov Valentinovna Prigozhina, a pharmacist who owns a network of boutique stores known as the "Chocolate Museum" () in Saint Petersburg. In 2012, she started her first "luxury day spa", the "Crystal Spa & Lounge" which won a third place award in 2013 for the Perfect Urban Day Spa. Her Crystal Spa & Lounge, located along in Saint Petersburg, received design support from Valery Uvarov. She owns a wellness center in the Leningrad region and a boutique hotel called the "Crystal Spa & Residence" which won the Perfect Spa Project award in 2013. She owns the New Technologies SPA LLC () which is located at plot 1, in Lakhta Park, Sestroretsk, Kurortny District, Saint Petersburg, Also, she is the legal owner of Agat (). In 2022, Prigozhina was sanctioned by the European Union, the United States, New Zealand, Switzerland, Japan, Ukraine and Canada, in connection with her husband's activities in Russia's invasion of Ukraine.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: They have a daughter Polina and son Pavel. The United States, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Ukraine and the United Kingdom have designated them for their association in their father's activities.


title: Yevgeny Prigozhin

text: His mother, Violetta Prigozhina, who is a former teacher and doctor, is the legal owner of Concord Management and Consulting LLC () since 2011, Etalon LLC () since 2010, and Credo LLC () since 2011. The Prigozhin's "Bay of Islands" project () near Lakhta is being developed by Singer-Development LLC (), which as of January 2018 has the same phone number as Violetta Prigozhina's Etalon LLC. She has been sanctioned by the European Union, Switzerland, Ukraine the United Kingdom, Japan and New Zealand in connection with her son's activities in Russia's invasion of Ukraine.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter ( or , from Proto-Italic "day, sky" + "father", thus "sky father" Greek: Δίας or Ζεύς), also known as Jove (gen. "Iovis" ), is the god of the sky and thunder, and king of the gods in ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras, until Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as offering, or sacrifice.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god. His identifying implement is the thunderbolt and his primary sacred animal is the eagle, which held precedence over other birds in the taking of auspices and became one of the most common symbols of the Roman army (see Aquila). The two emblems were often combined to represent the god in the form of an eagle holding in its claws a thunderbolt, frequently seen on Greek and Roman coins. As the sky-god, he was a divine witness to oaths, the sacred trust on which justice and good government depend. Many of his functions were focused on the Capitoline Hill, where the citadel was located. In the Capitoline Triad, he was the central guardian of the state with Juno and Minerva. His sacred tree was the oak.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus, and in Latin literature and Roman art, the myths and iconography of Zeus are adapted under the name "Iuppiter". In the Greek-influenced tradition, Jupiter was the brother of Neptune and Pluto, the Roman equivalents of Poseidon and Hades respectively. Each presided over one of the three realms of the universe: sky, the waters, and the underworld. The Italic Diespiter was also a sky god who manifested himself in the daylight, usually identified with Jupiter. Tinia is usually regarded as his Etruscan counterpart.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Romans believed that Jupiter granted them supremacy because they had honoured him more than any other people had. Jupiter was "the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested." He personified the divine authority of Rome's highest offices, internal organization, and external relations. His image in the Republican and Imperial Capitol bore regalia associated with Rome's ancient kings and the highest consular and Imperial honours.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The consuls swore their oath of office in Jupiter's name, and honoured him on the annual "feriae" of the Capitol in September. To thank him for his help, and to secure his continued support, they sacrificed a white ox "(bos mas)" with gilded horns. A similar sacrificial offering was made by triumphal generals, who surrendered the tokens of their victory at the feet of Jupiter's statue in the Capitol. Some scholars have viewed the "triumphator" as embodying (or impersonating) Jupiter in the triumphal procession.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter's association with kingship and sovereignty was reinterpreted as Rome's form of government changed. Originally, Rome was ruled by kings; after the monarchy was abolished and the Republic established, religious prerogatives were transferred to the "patres", the patrician ruling class. Nostalgia for the kingship "(affectatio regni)" was considered treasonous. Those suspected of harbouring monarchical ambitions were punished, regardless of their service to the state. In the 5th century BC, the "triumphator" Camillus was sent into exile after he drove a chariot with a team of four white horses "(quadriga)"—an honour reserved for Jupiter himself. When Marcus Manlius, whose defense of the Capitol against the invading Gauls had earned him the name "Capitolinus", was accused of regal pretensions, he was executed as a traitor by being cast from the Tarpeian Rock. His house on the Capitoline Hill was razed, and it was decreed that no patrician should ever be allowed to live there. Capitoline Jupiter represented a continuity of royal power from the Regal period, and conferred power to the magistrates who paid their respects to him.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: During the Conflict of the Orders, Rome's plebeians demanded the right to hold political and religious office. During their first "secessio" (similar to a general strike), they withdrew from the city and threatened to found their own. When they agreed to come back to Rome they vowed the hill where they had retreated to Jupiter as symbol and guarantor of the unity of the Roman "res publica". Plebeians eventually became eligible for all the magistracies and most priesthoods, but the high priest of Jupiter "(Flamen Dialis)" remained the preserve of patricians.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter was served by the patrician Flamen Dialis, the highest-ranking member of the "flamines," a college of fifteen priests in the official public cult of Rome, each of whom was devoted to a particular deity. His wife, the Flaminica Dialis, had her own duties, and presided over the sacrifice of a ram to Jupiter on each of the "nundinae", the "market" days of a calendar cycle, comparable to a week. The couple were required to marry by the exclusive patrician ritual "confarreatio", which included a sacrifice of spelt bread to Jupiter Farreus (from "far", "wheat, grain").


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The office of Flamen Dialis was circumscribed by several unique ritual prohibitions, some of which shed light on the sovereign nature of the god himself. For instance, the "flamen" may remove his clothes or "apex" (his pointed hat) only when under a roof, in order to avoid showing himself naked to the sky—that is, "as if under the eyes of Jupiter" as god of the heavens. Every time the Flaminica saw a lightning bolt or heard a clap of thunder (Jupiter's distinctive instrument), she was prohibited from carrying on with her normal routine until she placated the god.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Some privileges of the "flamen" of Jupiter may reflect the regal nature of Jupiter: he had the use of the curule chair, and was the only priest "(sacerdos)" who was preceded by a lictor and had a seat in the senate. Other regulations concern his ritual purity and his separation from the military function; he was forbidden to ride a horse or see the army outside the sacred boundary of Rome "(pomerium)." Although he served the god who embodied the sanctity of the oath, it was not religiously permissible "(fas)" for the Dialis to swear an oath. He could not have contacts with anything dead or connected with death: corpses, funerals, funeral fires, raw meat. This set of restrictions reflects the fulness of life and absolute freedom that are features of Jupiter.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The "augures publici", augurs were a college of "sacerdotes" who were in charge of all inaugurations and of the performing of ceremonies known as "auguria". Their creation was traditionally ascribed to Romulus. They were considered the only official interpreters of Jupiter's will, thence they were essential to the very existence of the Roman State as Romans saw in Jupiter the only source of state authority.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The fetials were a college of 20 men devoted to the religious administration of international affairs of state. Their task was to preserve and apply the fetial law "(ius fetiale)", a complex set of procedures aimed at ensuring the protection of the gods in Rome's relations with foreign states. Iuppiter Lapis is the god under whose protection they act, and whom the chief fetial "(pater patratus)" invokes in the rite concluding a treaty. If a declaration of war ensues, the fetial calls upon Jupiter and Quirinus, the heavenly, earthly and chthonic gods as witnesses of any potential violation of the "ius". He can then declare war within 33 days.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The action of the fetials falls under Jupiter's jurisdiction as the divine defender of good faith. Several emblems of the fetial office pertain to Jupiter. The "silex" was the stone used for the fetial sacrifice, housed in the Temple of Iuppiter Feretrius, as was their sceptre. Sacred herbs "(sagmina)", sometimes identified as vervain, had to be taken from the nearby citadel "(arx)" for their ritual use.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The role of Jupiter in the conflict of the orders is a reflection of the religiosity of the Romans. On one side, the patricians were able to naturally claim the support of the supreme god as they held the auspices of the State. On the other side, the plebs (plebeians) argued that, as Jupiter was the source of justice, they had his favor because their cause was just.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The first secession was caused by the excessive debt burden on the plebs. The legal institute of the "nexum" permitted a debtor to become a slave of his creditor. The plebs argued the debts had become unsustainable because of the expenses of the wars wanted by the patricians. As the senate did not accede to the proposal of a total debt remission advanced by dictator and augur Manius Valerius Maximus the plebs retired on the Mount Sacer, a hill located three Roman miles to the North-northeast of Rome, past the Nomentan bridge on river Anio. The place is windy and was usually the site of rites of divination performed by haruspices. The senate in the end sent a delegation composed of ten members with full powers of making a deal with the plebs, of which were part Menenius Agrippa and Manius Valerius. It was Valerius, according to the inscription found at Arezzo in 1688 and written on the order of Augustus as well as other literary sources, that brought the plebs down from the Mount, after the secessionists had consecrated it to "Jupiter Territor" and built an altar ("ara") on its summit. The fear of the wrath of Jupiter was an important element in the solution of the crisis. The consecration of the Mount probably referred to its summit only. The ritual requested the participation of both an augur (presumably Manius Valerius himself) and a pontifex.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The second secession was caused by the autocratic and arrogant behaviour of the "decemviri", who had been charged by the Roman people with writing down the laws in use till then kept secret by the patrician magistrates and the "sacerdotes". All magistracies and the tribunes of the plebs had resigned in advance. The task resulted in the XII Tables, which though concerned only private law. The plebs once again retreated to the Sacer Mons: this act besides recalling the first secession was meant to seek the protection of the supreme god. The secession ended with the resignation of the "decemviri" and an amnesty for the rebellious soldiers who had deserted from their camp near Mount Algidus while warring against the Volscians, abandoning the commanders. The amnesty was granted by the senate and guaranteed by the "pontifex maximus" Quintus Furius (in Livy's version) (or Marcus Papirius) who also supervised the nomination of the new tribunes of the plebs, then gathered on the Aventine Hill. The role played by the "pontifex maximus" in a situation of vacation of powers is a significant element underlining the religious basis and character of the "tribunicia potestas".


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: A dominant line of scholarship has held that Rome lacked a body of myths in its earliest period, or that this original mythology has been irrecoverably obscured by the influence of the Greek narrative tradition. After the influence of Greek culture on Roman culture, Latin literature and iconography reinterpreted the myths of Zeus in depictions and narratives of Jupiter. In the legendary history of Rome, Jupiter is often connected to kings and kingship.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter is depicted as the twin of Juno in a statue at Praeneste that showed them nursed by Fortuna Primigenia. An inscription that is also from Praeneste, however, says that Fortuna Primigenia was Jupiter's first-born child. Jacqueline Champeaux sees this contradiction as the result of successive different cultural and religious phases, in which a wave of influence coming from the Hellenic world made Fortuna the daughter of Jupiter. The childhood of Zeus is an important theme in Greek religion, art and literature, but there are only rare (or dubious) depictions of Jupiter as a child.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Faced by a period of bad weather endangering the harvest during one early spring, King Numa resorted to the scheme of asking the advice of the god by evoking his presence. He succeeded through the help of Picus and Faunus, whom he had imprisoned by making them drunk. The two gods (with a charm) evoked Jupiter, who was forced to come down to earth at the Aventine (hence named "Iuppiter Elicius", according to Ovid). After Numa skilfully avoided the requests of the god for human sacrifices, Jupiter agreed to his request to know how lightning bolts are averted, asking only for the substitutions Numa had mentioned: an onion bulb, hairs and a fish. Moreover, Jupiter promised that at the sunrise of the following day he would give to Numa and the Roman people pawns of the "imperium". The following day, after throwing three lightning bolts across a clear sky, Jupiter sent down from heaven a shield. Since this shield had no angles, Numa named it "ancile"; because in it resided the fate of the "imperium", he had many copies made of it to disguise the real one. He asked the smith Mamurius Veturius to make the copies, and gave them to the Salii. As his only reward, Mamurius expressed the wish that his name be sung in the last of their "carmina". Plutarch gives a slightly different version of the story, writing that the cause of the miraculous drop of the shield was a plague and not linking it with the Roman "imperium".


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Throughout his reign, King Tullus had a scornful attitude towards religion. His temperament was warlike, and he disregarded religious rites and piety. After conquering the Albans with the duel between the Horatii and Curiatii, Tullus destroyed Alba Longa and deported its inhabitants to Rome. As Livy tells the story, omens "(prodigia)" in the form of a rain of stones occurred on the Alban Mount because the deported Albans had disregarded their ancestral rites linked to the sanctuary of Jupiter. In addition to the omens, a voice was heard requesting that the Albans perform the rites. A plague followed and at last the king himself fell ill. As a consequence, the warlike character of Tullus broke down; he resorted to religion and petty, superstitious practices. At last, he found a book by Numa recording a secret rite on how to evoke "Iuppiter Elicius". The king attempted to perform it, but since he executed the rite improperly the god threw a lightning bolt which burned down the king's house and killed Tullus.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: When approaching Rome (where Tarquin was heading to try his luck in politics after unsuccessful attempts in his native Tarquinii), an eagle swooped down, removed his hat, flew screaming in circles, replaced the hat on his head and flew away. Tarquin's wife Tanaquil interpreted this as a sign that he would become king based on the bird, the quadrant of the sky from which it came, the god who had sent it and the fact it touched his hat (an item of clothing placed on a man's most noble part, the head).


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Elder Tarquin is credited with introducing the Capitoline Triad to Rome, by building the so-called Capitolium Vetus. Macrobius writes this issued from his Samothracian mystery beliefs.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Sacrificial victims ("hostiae") offered to Jupiter were the ox (castrated bull), the lamb (on the Ides, the "ovis idulis") and the wether (a castrated goat or castrated ram) (on the Ides of January). The animals were required to be white. The question of the lamb's gender is unresolved; while a sacrificial lamb for a male deity was usually male, for the vintage-opening festival the flamen Dialis sacrificed a ewe lamb to Jupiter. This rule seems to have had many exceptions, as the sacrifice of a ram on the Nundinae by the "flaminica Dialis" demonstrates.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus stood on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. Jupiter was worshiped there as an individual deity, and with Juno and Minerva as part of the Capitoline Triad. The building was supposedly begun by king Tarquinius Priscus, completed by the last king (Tarquinius Superbus) and inaugurated in the early days of the Roman Republic (September 13, 509 BC). It was topped with the statues of four horses drawing a quadriga, with Jupiter as charioteer. A large statue of Jupiter stood within; on festival days, its face was painted red. In (or near) this temple was the "Iuppiter Lapis": the Jupiter Stone, on which oaths could be sworn.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: When Hadrian built Aelia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem, a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected in the place of the destroyed Temple in Jerusalem.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: There were two temples in Rome dedicated to "Iuppiter Stator"; the first one was built and dedicated in 294 BC by Marcus Atilius Regulus after the third Samnite War. It was located on the "Via Nova", below the "Porta Mugonia", ancient entrance to the Palatine. Legend attributed its founding to Romulus. There may have been an earlier shrine "(fanum)", since the Jupiter cult is attested epigraphically. Ovid places the temple's dedication on June 27, but it is unclear whether this was the original date, or the rededication after the restoration by Augustus.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: A second temple of "Iuppiter Stator" was built and dedicated by Quintus Caecilus Metellus Macedonicus after his triumph in 146 BC near the Circus Flaminius. It was connected to the restored temple of "Iuno Regina" with a portico ("porticus Metelli").


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: "Iuppiter Victor" had a temple dedicated by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges during the third Samnite War in 295 BC. Its location is unknown, but it may be on the Quirinal, on which an inscription reading "Diovei Victore" has been found, or on the Palatine according to the "Notitia" in the "Liber Regionum" (regio X), which reads: "aedes Iovis Victoris". Either might have been dedicated on April 13 or June 13 (days of "Iuppiter Victor" and of "Iuppiter Invictus", respectively, in Ovid's "Fasti").


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Inscriptions from the imperial age have revealed the existence of an otherwise-unknown temple of "Iuppiter Propugnator" on the Palatine.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The cult of "Iuppiter Latiaris" was the most ancient known cult of the god: it was practised since very remote times near the top of the "Mons Albanus" on which the god was venerated as the high protector of the Latin League under the hegemony of Alba Longa.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: After the destruction of Alba by king Tullus Hostilius the cult was forsaken. The god manifested his discontent through the prodigy of a rain of stones: the commission sent by the Roman senate to inquire was also greeted by a rain of stones and heard a loud voice from the grove on the summit of the mount requesting the Albans perform the religious service to the god according to the rites of their country. In consequence of this event the Romans instituted a festival of nine days ("nundinae"). Nonetheless a plague ensued: in the end Tullus Hostilius himself was affected and lastly killed by the god with a lightning bolt. The festival was reestablished on its primitive site by the last Roman king Tarquin the Proud under the leadership of Rome.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The "feriae Latinae", or "Latiar" as they were known originally, were the common festival ("panegyris") of the so-called Priscan Latins and of the Albans. Their restoration aimed at grounding Roman hegemony in this ancestral religious tradition of the Latins. The original cult was reinstated unchanged as is testified by some archaic features of the ritual: the exclusion of wine from the sacrifice the offers of milk and cheese and the ritual use of rocking among the games. Rocking is one of the most ancient rites mimicking ascent to Heaven and is very widespread. At the "Latiar" the rocking took place on a tree and the winner was of course the one who had swung the highest. This rite was said to have been instituted by the Albans to commemorate the disappearance of king Latinus, in the battle against Mezentius king of Caere: the rite symbolised a search for him both on earth and in heaven. The rocking as well as the customary drinking of milk was also considered to commemorate and ritually reinstate infancy. The Romans in the last form of the rite brought the sacrificial ox from Rome and every participant was bestowed a portion of the meat, rite known as "carnem petere". Other games were held in every participant borough. In Rome a race of chariots ("quadrigae") was held starting from the Capitol: the winner drank a liquor made with absynth. This competition has been compared to the Vedic rite of the vajapeya: in it seventeen chariots run a phoney race which must be won by the king in order to allow him to drink a cup of "madhu", i. e. "soma". The feasting lasted for at least four days, possibly six according to Niebuhr, one day for each of the six Latin and Alban "decuriae". According to different records 47 or 53 boroughs took part in the festival (the listed names too differ in Pliny NH III 69 and Dionysius of Halicarnassus AR V 61). The "Latiar" became an important feature of Roman political life as they were "feriae conceptivae", i. e. their date varied each year: the consuls and the highest magistrates were required to attend shortly after the beginning of the administration, originally on the Ides of March: the Feriae usually took place in early April. They could not start campaigning before its end and if any part of the games had been neglected or performed unritually the "Latiar" had to be wholly repeated. The inscriptions from the imperial age record the festival back to the time of the decemvirs.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Wissowa remarks the inner linkage of the temple of the Mons Albanus with that of the Capitol apparent in the common association with the rite of the triumph: since 231 BC some triumphing commanders had triumphed there first with the same legal features as in Rome.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Ides (the midpoint of the month, with a full moon) was sacred to Jupiter, because on that day heavenly light shone day and night. Some (or all) Ides were "Feriae Iovis", sacred to Jupiter. On the Ides, a white lamb ("ovis idulis") was led along Rome's Sacred Way to the Capitoline Citadel and sacrificed to him. Jupiter's two "epula Iovis" festivals fell on the Ides, as did his temple foundation rites as "Optimus Maximus", "Victor", "Invictus" and (possibly) "Stator".


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The "nundinae" recurred every ninth day, dividing the calendar into a market cycle analogous to a week. Market days gave rural people "(pagi)" the opportunity to sell in town and to be informed of religious and political edicts, which were posted publicly for three days. According to tradition, these festival days were instituted by the king Servius Tullius. The high priestess of Jupiter "(Flaminica Dialis)" sanctified the days by sacrificing a ram to Jupiter.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: During the Republican era, more fixed holidays on the Roman calendar were devoted to Jupiter than to any other deity.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Festivals of viniculture and wine were devoted to Jupiter, since grapes were particularly susceptible to adverse weather. Dumézil describes wine as a "kingly" drink with the power to inebriate and exhilarate, analogous to the Vedic Soma.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The rustic "Vinalia altera" on August 19 asked for good weather for ripening the grapes before harvest. When the grapes were ripe, a sheep was sacrificed to Jupiter and the "flamen Dialis" cut the first of the grape harvest.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Meditrinalia on October 11 marked the end of the grape harvest; the new wine was pressed, tasted and mixed with old wine to control fermentation. In the "Fasti Amiternini", this festival is assigned to Jupiter. Later Roman sources invented a goddess "Meditrina", probably to explain the name of the festival.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: At the "Vinalia urbana" on April 23, new wine was offered to Jupiter. Large quantities of it were poured into a ditch near the temple of Venus Erycina, which was located on the Capitol.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The "Regifugium" ("King's Flight") on February 24 has often been discussed in connection with the "Poplifugia" on July 5, a day holy to Jupiter. The "Regifugium" followed the festival of "Iuppiter Terminus" (Jupiter of Boundaries) on February 23. Later Roman antiquarians misinterpreted the "Regifugium" as marking the expulsion of the monarchy, but the "king" of this festival may have been the priest known as the "rex sacrorum" who ritually enacted the waning and renewal of power associated with the New Year (March 1 in the old Roman calendar). A temporary vacancy of power (construed as a yearly "interregnum") occurred between the "Regifugium" on February 24 and the New Year on March 1 (when the lunar cycle was thought to coincide again with the solar cycle), and the uncertainty and change during the two winter months were over. Some scholars emphasize the traditional political significance of the day.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The "Poplifugia" ("Routing of Armies"), a day sacred to Jupiter, may similarly mark the second half of the year; before the Julian calendar reform, the months were named numerically, "Quintilis" (the fifth month) to "December" (the tenth month). The "Poplifugia" was a "primitive military ritual" for which the adult male population assembled for purification rites, after which they ritually dispelled foreign invaders from Rome.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: There were two festivals called "epulum Iovis" ("Feast of Jove"). One was held on September 13, the anniversary of the foundation of Jupiter's Capitoline temple. The other (and probably older) festival was part of the Plebeian Games "(Ludi Plebei)", and was held on November 13. In the 3rd century BC, the "epulum Iovis" became similar to a lectisternium.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The most ancient Roman games followed after one day (considered a "dies ater", or "black day", i. e. a day which was traditionally considered unfortunate even though it was not "nefas", see also article Glossary of ancient Roman religion) the two "Epula Iovis" of September and November.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The games of September were named "Ludi Magni"; originally they were not held every year, but later became the annual "Ludi Romani" and were held in the Circus Maximus after a procession from the Capitol. The games were attributed to Tarquinius Priscus, and linked to the cult of Jupiter on the Capitol. Romans themselves acknowledged analogies with the triumph, which Dumézil thinks can be explained by their common Etruscan origin; the magistrate in charge of the games dressed as the "triumphator" and the "pompa circensis" resembled a triumphal procession. Wissowa and Mommsen argue that they were a detached part of the triumph on the above grounds (a conclusion which Dumézil rejects).


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Mommsen argued that the "epulum" of the Ludi Plebei was the model of the Ludi Romani, but Wissowa finds the evidence for this assumption insufficient. The "Ludi Plebei" were probably established in 534 BC. Their association with the cult of Jupiter is attested by Cicero.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The "feriae" of December 23 were devoted to a major ceremony in honour of Acca Larentia (or "Larentina"), in which some of the highest religious authorities participated (probably including the Flamen Quirinalis and the pontiffs). The Fasti Praenestini marks the day as "feriae Iovis", as does Macrobius. It is unclear whether the rite of "parentatio" was itself the reason for the festival of Jupiter, or if this was another festival which happened to fall on the same day. Wissowa denies their association, since Jupiter and his "flamen" would not be involved with the underworld or the deities of death (or be present at a funeral rite held at a gravesite).


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Latin name "Iuppiter" originated as a vocative compound of the Old Latin vocative *"Iou" and "pater" ("father") and came to replace the Old Latin nominative case *"Ious". Jove is a less common English formation based on "Iov-", the stem of oblique cases of the Latin name. Linguistic studies identify the form *"Iou-pater" as deriving from the Proto-Italic vocable *"Djous Patēr", and ultimately the Indo-European vocative compound *"Dyēu-pəter" (meaning "O Father Sky-god"; nominative: *"Dyēus-pətēr").


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Older forms of the deity's name in Rome were "Dieus-pater" ("day/sky-father"), then "Diéspiter". The 19th-century philologist Georg Wissowa asserted these names are conceptually- and linguistically-connected to "Diovis" and "Diovis Pater"; he compares the analogous formations "Vedius"-"Veiove" and "fulgur Dium", as opposed to "fulgur Summanum" (nocturnal lightning bolt) and "flamen Dialis" (based on "Dius", "dies"). The Ancient later viewed them as entities separate from Jupiter. The terms are similar in etymology and semantics ("dies", "daylight" and "Dius", "daytime sky"), but differ linguistically. Wissowa considers the epithet "Dianus" noteworthy. "Dieus" is the etymological equivalent of ancient Greece's "Zeus" and of the Teutonics' "Ziu" (genitive "Ziewes"). The Indo-European deity is the god from which the names and partially the theology of Jupiter, Zeus and the Indo-Aryan Vedic Dyaus Pita derive or have developed.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The Roman practice of swearing by Jove to witness an oath in law courts is the origin of the expression "by Jove!"—archaic, but still in use. The name of the god was also adopted as the name of the planet Jupiter; the adjective "jovial" originally described those born under the planet of Jupiter (reputed to be jolly, optimistic, and buoyant in temperament).


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jove was the original namesake of Latin forms of the weekday now known in English as Thursday (originally called "Iovis Dies" in Latin). These became "jeudi" in French, "jueves" in Spanish, "joi" in Romanian, "giovedì" in Italian, "dijous" in Catalan, "Xoves" in Galician, "Joibe" in Friulian and "Dijóu" in Provençal.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The epithets of a Roman god indicate his theological qualities. The study of these epithets must consider their origins (the historical context of an epithet's source).


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter's most ancient attested forms of cult belong to the State cult: these include the mount cult (see section above note n. 22). In Rome this cult entailed the existence of particular sanctuaries the most important of which were located on "Mons Capitolinus" (earlier "Tarpeius"). The mount had two tops that were both destined to the discharge of acts of cult related to Jupiter. The northern and higher top was the "arx" and on it was located the observation place of the augurs "(auguraculum)" and to it headed the monthly procession of the "sacra Idulia". On the southern top was to be found the most ancient sanctuary of the god: the shrine of "Iuppiter Feretrius" allegedly built by Romulus, restored by Augustus. The god here had no image and was represented by the sacred flintstone ("silex"). The most ancient known rites, those of the "spolia opima" and of the fetials which connect Jupiter with Mars and Quirinus are dedicated to "Iuppiter Feretrius" or "Iuppiter Lapis". The concept of the sky god was already overlapped with the ethical and political domain since this early time. According to Wissowa and Dumézil "Iuppiter Lapis" seems to be inseparable from "Iuppiter Feretrius" in whose tiny templet on the Capitol the stone was lodged.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Another most ancient epithet is "Lucetius": although the Ancients, followed by some modern scholars such as Wissowa, interpreted it as referring to sunlight, the "carmen Saliare" shows that it refers to lightning. A further confirmation of this interpretation is provided by the sacred meaning of lightning which is reflected in the sensitivity of the "flaminica Dialis" to the phenomenon. To the same atmospheric complex belongs the epithet "Elicius": while the ancient erudites thought it was connected to lightning, it is in fact related to the opening of the rervoirs of rain, as is testified by the ceremony of the "Nudipedalia", meant to propitiate rainfall and devoted to Jupiter. and the ritual of the "lapis manalis", the stone which was brought into the city through the "Porta Capena" and carried around in times of drought, which was named "Aquaelicium". Other early epithets connected with the atmospheric quality of Jupiter are "Pluvius", "Imbricius", "Tempestas", "Tonitrualis", "tempestatium divinarum potens", "Serenator", "Serenus" and, referred to lightning, "Fulgur", "Fulgur Fulmen", later as nomen agentis "Fulgurator", "Fulminator": the high antiquity of the cult is testified by the neutre form "Fulgur" and the use of the term for the "bidental", the lightning well dug on the spot hit by a lightning bolt.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: A group of epithets has been interpreted by Wissowa (and his followers) as a reflection of the agricultural or warring nature of the god, some of which are also in the list of eleven preserved by Augustine. The agricultural ones include "Opitulus", "Almus", "Ruminus", "Frugifer", "Farreus", "Pecunia", "Dapalis", "Epulo". Augustine gives an explanation of the ones he lists which should reflect Varro's: "Opitulus" because he brings "opem" (means, relief) to the needy, "Almus" because he nourishes everything, "Ruminus" because he nourishes the living beings by breastfeeding them, "Pecunia" because everything belongs to him.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Dumézil maintains the cult usage of these epithets is not documented and that the epithet Ruminus, as Wissowa and Latte remarked, may not have the meaning given by Augustine but it should be understood as part of a series including "Rumina", " Ruminalis ficus", "Iuppiter Ruminus", which bears the name of Rome itself with an Etruscan vocalism preserved in inscriptions, series that would be preserved in the sacred language (cf. "Rumach" Etruscan for Roman). However many scholars have argued that the name of Rome, "Ruma", meant in fact woman's breast. Diva Rumina, as Augustine testifies in the cited passage, was the goddess of suckling babies: she was venerated near the "ficus ruminalis" and was offered only libations of milk. Here moreover Augustine cites the verses devoted to Jupiter by Quintus Valerius Soranus, while hypothesising "Iuno" (more adept in his view as a breastfeeder), i.e. Rumina instead of Ruminus, might be nothing else than "Iuppiter": ""Iuppiter omnipotens regum rerumque deumque Progenitor genetrixque deum..."".


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: In Dumézil's opinion "Farreus" should be understood as related to the rite of the "confarreatio" the most sacred form of marriage, the name of which is due to the spelt cake eaten by the spouses, rather than surmising an agricultural quality of the god: the epithet means the god was the guarantor of the effects of the ceremony, to which the presence of his flamen is necessary and that he can interrupt with a clap of thunder.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: The epithet "Dapalis" is on the other hand connected to a rite described by Cato and mentioned by Festus. Before the sowing of autumn or spring the peasant offered a banquet of roast beef and a cup of wine to Jupiter : it is natural that on such occasions he would entreat the god who has power over the weather, however Cato' s prayer of s one of sheer offer and no request. The language suggests another attitude: Jupiter is invited to a banquet which is supposedly abundant and magnificent. The god is honoured as "summus". The peasant may hope he shall receive a benefit, but he does not say it. This interpretation finds support in the analogous urban ceremony of the "epulum Iovis", from which the god derives the epithet of "Epulo" and which was a magnificent feast accompanied by flutes.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Epithets related to warring are in Wissowa's view "Iuppiter Feretrius", "Iuppiter Stator", "Iuppiter Victor" and "Iuppiter Invictus". "Feretrius" would be connected with war by the rite of the first type of "spolia opima" which is in fact a dedication to the god of the arms of the defeated king of the enemy that happens whenever he has been killed by the king of Rome or his equivalent authority. Here too Dumézil notes the dedication has to do with regality and not with war, since the rite is in fact the offer of the arms of a king by a king: a proof of such an assumption is provided by the fact that the arms of an enemy king captured by an officer or a common soldier were dedicated to Mars and Quirinus respectively.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: "Iuppiter Stator" was first attributed by tradition to Romulus, who had prayed to the god for his almighty help at a difficult time during the battle with the Sabines of king Titus Tatius. Dumézil opines the action of Jupiter is not that of a god of war who wins through fighting: Jupiter acts by causing an inexplicable change in the morale of the fighters of the two sides. The same feature can be detected also in the certainly historical record of the battle of the third Samnite War in 294 BC, in which consul Marcus Atilius Regulus vowed a temple to "Iuppiter Stator" if "Jupiter will stop the rout of the Roman army and if afterwards the Samnite legions shall be victouriously massacred...It looked as if the gods themselves had taken side with Romans, so much easily did the Roman arms succeed in prevailing...". In a similar manner one can explain the epithet "Victor", whose cult was founded in 295 BC on the battlefield of Sentinum by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and who received another vow again in 293 by consul Lucius Papirius Cursor before a battle against the Samnite "legio linteata". The religious meaning of the vow is in both cases an appeal to the supreme god by a Roman chief at a time of need for divine help from the supreme god, albeit for different reasons: Fabius had remained the only political and military responsible of the Roman State after the "devotio" of P. Decius Mus, Papirius had to face an enemy who had acted with impious rites and vows, i.e. was religiously reprehensible.