title: Huey Long

text: When Long arrived in the Senate, America was in the throes of the Great Depression. With this backdrop, Long made characteristically fiery speeches that denounced wealth inequality. He criticized the leaders of both parties for failing to address the crisis adequately, notably attacking conservative Senate Democratic Leader Joseph Robinson of Arkansas for his apparent closeness with President Herbert Hoover and big business.


title: Huey Long

text: In the 1932 presidential election, Long was a vocal supporter of New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt. At that year's Democratic National Convention, Long kept the delegations of several wavering Southern states in the Roosevelt camp. Due to this, Long expected to be featured prominently in Roosevelt's campaign but was disappointed with a peripheral speaking tour limited to four Midwestern states.


title: Huey Long

text: Not discouraged after being snubbed, Long found other venues for his populist message. He endorsed Senator Hattie Caraway of Arkansas, a widow and the underdog candidate in a crowded field and conducted a whirlwind, seven-day tour of that state. During the campaign, Long gave 39 speeches, traveled , and spoke to over 200,000 people. In an upset win, Caraway became the first woman elected to a full term in the Senate.


title: Huey Long

text: Returning to Washington, Long gave theatrical speeches which drew wide attention. Public viewing areas were crowded with onlookers, among them a young Lyndon B. Johnson, who later said he was "simply entranced" by Long. Long obstructed bills for weeks, launching hour-long filibusters and having the clerk read superfluous documents. Long's antics, one editorial claimed, had made the Senate "impotent". In May 1932, "The Washington Post" called for his resignation. Long's behavior and radical rhetoric did little to endear him to his fellow senators. None of his proposed bills, resolutions, or motions were passed during his three years in the Senate.


title: Huey Long

text: During the first 100 days of Roosevelt's presidency in spring 1933, Long's attitude towards Roosevelt and the New Deal was tepid. Aware that Roosevelt had no intention of radically redistributing the country's wealth, Long became one of the few national politicians to oppose Roosevelt's New Deal policies from the left. He considered them inadequate in the face of the escalating economic crisis but still supported some of Roosevelt's programs in the Senate, explaining: "Whenever this administration has gone to the left I have voted with it, and whenever it has gone to the right I have voted against it."


title: Huey Long

text: Long opposed the National Recovery Act, claiming it favored industrialists. In an attempt to prevent its passage, Long held a lone filibuster, speaking for 15 hours and 30 minutes, the second longest filibuster at the time. He also criticized Social Security, calling it inadequate and expressing his concerns that states would administer it in a way discriminatory to blacks. In 1933, he was a leader of a three-week Senate filibuster against the Glass banking bill, which he later supported as the Glass–Steagall Act after provisions extended government deposit insurance to state banks as well as national banks.


title: Huey Long

text: Roosevelt considered Long a radical demagogue and stated that Long, along with General Douglas MacArthur, "was one of the two most dangerous men in America". In June 1933, in an effort to undermine Long's political dominance, Roosevelt cut him out of consultations on the distribution of federal funds and patronage in Louisiana and placed Long's opponents in charge of federal programs in the state. Roosevelt supported a Senate inquiry into the election of Long ally John H. Overton to the Senate in 1932. The Long machine was accused of election fraud and voter intimidation, but the inquiry came up empty, and Overton was seated. To discredit Long and damage his support base, Roosevelt had Long's finances investigated by the Internal Revenue Service in 1934. Although they failed to link Long to any illegality, some of his lieutenants were charged with income tax evasion. Roosevelt's son, Elliott, would later note that in this instance, his father "may have been the originator of the concept of employing the IRS as a weapon of political retribution".


title: Huey Long

text: On May 30, 1934, Long took to the Senate floor to debate the abrogation of the Platt amendment. But instead of debating the amendment, Long declared his support for Paraguay against Bolivia in the Chaco War. He maintained that U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes had awarded the oil-rich Chaco region to Paraguay in 1878. He attested Standard Oil had corrupted the Bolivian government and organized the war and that Wall Street orchestrated American foreign policy in Latin America. For his speech, Long received praise in Paraguay: after capturing a Bolivian fort in July 1934, they renamed it Fort Long. Long's allegations were widely publicized in Latin American newspapers. This drew the concern of the State Department, who believed that Long was damaging the reputation of the United States. Throughout the summer of 1934, they waged a sustained public relations campaign against Long throughout Latin America. This speech and others established Long as one of the most ardent isolationists in the Senate. He further argued that American involvement in the Spanish–American War and the First World War had been deadly mistakes conducted on behalf of Wall Street. Consequently, Long demanded the immediate independence of the Philippines, which the United States had occupied since 1898. He also opposed American entry into the World Court.


title: Huey Long

text: In March 1933, Long revealed a series of bills collectively known as "the Long plan" to redistribute wealth. Together, they would cap fortunes at $100 million, limit annual income to $1 million, and cap individual inheritances at $5 million.


title: Huey Long

text: In a nationwide February 1934 radio broadcast, Long introduced his Share Our Wealth plan. The legislation would use the wealth from the Long plan to guarantee every family a basic household grant of $5,000 and a minimum annual income of one-third of the average family homestead value and income. Long supplemented his plan with proposals for free college and vocational training, veterans' benefits, federal assistance to farmers, public works projects, greater federal economic regulation, a $30 monthly elderly pension, a month's vacation for every worker, a thirty-hour workweek, a $10 billion land reclamation project to end the Dust Bowl, and free medical service and a "war on disease" led by the Mayo brothers. These reforms, Long claimed, would end the Great Depression. The plans were widely criticized and labeled impossible by economists.


title: Huey Long

text: With the Senate unwilling to support his proposals, in February 1934 Long formed the Share Our Wealth Society, a national network of local clubs that operated in opposition to the Democratic Party and Roosevelt. By 1935, the society had over 7.5 million members in 27,000 clubs. Long's Senate office received an average of 60,000 letters a week, resulting in Long hiring 48 stenographers to type responses. Of the two trucks that delivered mail to the Senate, one was devoted solely to mail for Long. Long's newspaper, now renamed "American Progress", averaged a circulation of 300,000, some issues reaching over 1.5 million. Long drew international attention: English writer H. G. Wells interviewed Long, noting he was "like a Winston Churchill who has never been at Harrow. He abounds in promises."


title: Huey Long

text: Some historians believe that pressure from Share Our Wealth contributed to Roosevelt's "turn to the left" in the Second New Deal (1935), which consisted of the Social Security Act, the Works Progress Administration, the National Labor Relations Board, Aid to Dependent Children, and the Wealth Tax Act of 1935. Roosevelt reportedly admitted in private to trying to "steal Long's thunder".


title: Huey Long

text: Long continued to maintain effective control of Louisiana while he was a senator, blurring the boundary between federal and state politics. Long chose his childhood friend, Oscar K. Allen, to succeed King in the January 1932 election. With the support of Long's voter base, Allen won easily, permitting Long to resign as governor and take his seat in the U.S. Senate in January 1932. Allen, widely viewed as a puppet, dutifully enacted Long's policies. When Long visited Louisiana, Allen would relinquish his office for the Senator, working instead at his receptionist's desk. Though he had no constitutional authority, Long continued to draft and press bills through the Louisiana State Legislature. One of the laws passed was what Long called "a tax on lying"—a 2 percent tax on newspaper advertising revenue.


title: Huey Long

text: In 1934, Long and James A. Noe, an independent oilman and member of the Louisiana State Senate from Ouachita Parish, formed the controversial Win or Lose Oil Company. The firm was established to obtain leases on state-owned lands so that its directors might collect bonuses and sublease the mineral rights to the major oil companies. Although ruled legal, these activities were done in secret, and the stockholders were unknown to the public. Long made a profit on the bonuses and the resale of those state leases and used the funds primarily for political purposes.


title: Huey Long

text: Popular support for Long's Share Our Wealth program raised the possibility of a 1936 presidential bid against incumbent Franklin D. Roosevelt. When questioned by the press, Long gave conflicting answers on his plans for 1936. Long's son Russell believed his father would have run on a third-party ticket. This is evidenced by Long's writing of a speculative book, "My First Days in the White House", which laid out his plans for the presidency after the 1936 election.


title: Huey Long

text: In spring 1935, Long undertook a national speaking tour and regular radio appearances, attracting large crowds and increasing his stature. At a well-attended Long rally in Philadelphia, a former mayor told the press, "There are 250,000 Long votes" in this city. Regarding Roosevelt, Long boasted to the "New York Times" Arthur Krock: "He's scared of me. I can out-promise him, and he knows it."


title: Huey Long

text: As the 1936 election approached, the Roosevelt Administration grew increasingly concerned by Long's popularity. Democratic National Committee chairman James Farley commissioned a secret poll in early 1935. Farley's poll revealed that if Long ran on a third-party ticket, he would win about four million votes, 10% of the electorate. In a memo to Roosevelt, Farley expressed his concern that Long could split the vote, allowing the Republican nominee to win. Diplomat Edward M. House warned Roosevelt, "many people believe that he can do to your administration what Theodore Roosevelt did to the Taft Administration in '12". Many, including Hair, Roosevelt, and Williams speculated that Long expected to lose in 1936, allowing the Republicans to take the White House. They believed the Republicans would worsen the Great Depression, deepening Long's appeal. According to Roosevelt, "That would bring the country to such a state by 1940 that Long thinks he would be made dictator."


title: Huey Long

text: By 1935, Long's consolidation of power led to talk of armed opposition from his enemies in Louisiana. Opponents increasingly invoked the memory of the Battle of Liberty Place (1874), in which the White League staged an uprising against Louisiana's Reconstruction-era government. In January 1935, an anti-Long paramilitary organization called the Square Deal Association was formed. Its members included former governors John M. Parker and Ruffin Pleasant and New Orleans Mayor T. Semmes Walmsley. Standard Oil threatened to leave the state when Long finally passed the five-cent per barrel oil tax for which he had been impeached in 1929. Concerned Standard Oil employees formed a Square Deal association in Baton Rouge, organizing themselves in militia companies and demanding "direct action".


title: Huey Long

text: On January 25, 1935, these Square Dealers, now armed, seized the East Baton Rouge Parish courthouse. Long had Governor Allen execute emergency measures in Baton Rouge: he called in the National Guard, declared martial law, banned public gatherings of two or more persons, and forbade the publication of criticism of state officials. The Square Dealers left the courthouse, but there was a brief armed skirmish at the Baton Rouge Airport. Tear gas and live ammunition were fired; one person was wounded, but there were no fatalities. At a legal hearing, an alleged spy within the Square Dealers testified they were conspiring to assassinate Long.


title: Huey Long

text: In summer 1935, Long called two special legislative sessions in Louisiana; bills were passed in rapid-fire succession without being read or discussed. The new laws further centralized Long's control over the state by creating new Long-appointed state agencies: a state bond and tax board holding sole authority to approve loans to local governments, a new state printing board which could withhold "official printer" status from uncooperative newspapers, a new board of election supervisors which would appoint all poll watchers, and a State Board of Censors. They stripped away the remaining powers of the Mayor of New Orleans. Long boasted he had "taken over every board and commission in New Orleans except the Community Chest and the Red Cross". A September 7 special session passed 42 bills. The most extreme, likely aimed at Roosevelt and his federal agents, authorized Louisiana to fine and imprison anyone who infringed on the powers reserved to the state in the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.


title: Huey Long

text: On September 8, 1935, Long traveled to the State Capitol to pass a bill that would gerrymander the district of an opponent, Judge Benjamin Pavy, who had held his position for 28 years. At 9:20 p.m., just after passage of the bill effectively removing Pavy, Pavy's son-in-law, Carl Weiss, approached Long, and, according to the generally accepted version of events, fired a single shot with a handgun from four feet (1.2 m) away, striking Long in the torso. Long's bodyguards, nicknamed the "Cossacks" or "skullcrushers", then fired at Weiss with their pistols, killing him. An autopsy found Weiss had been shot at least 60 times. Long ran down a flight of stairs and across the capitol grounds, hailing a car to take him to Our Lady of the Lake Hospital. He was rushed to the operating room where surgery closed perforations in his intestines but failed to stop internal bleeding. Long died at 4:10 a.m. on September 10, 31 hours after being shot. According to different sources, his last words were either, "I wonder what will happen to my poor university boys", or "God, don't let me die. I have so much to do."


title: Huey Long

text: Over 200,000 people traveled to Baton Rouge to attend Long's September 12 funeral. His remains were buried on the grounds of the Capitol; a statue depicting Long was constructed on his grave. Although Long's allies alleged he was assassinated by political opponents, a federal probe found no evidence of conspiracy. Long's death brought relief to the Roosevelt Administration, which would win in a landslide in the 1936 election. Farley publicly admitted his apprehension of campaigning against Long: "I always laughed Huey off, but I did not feel that way about him." Roosevelt's close economic advisor Rexford Tugwell wrote that, "When he was gone it seemed that a beneficent peace had fallen on the land. Father Coughlin, Reno, Townsend, et al., were after all pygmies compared with Huey. He had been a major phenomenon." Tugwell also said that Roosevelt regarded Long's assassination as a "providential occurrence".


title: Huey Long

text: Evidence later surfaced that suggests Long was accidentally shot by his bodyguards. Proponents of this theory assert Long was caught in the crossfire as his bodyguards shot Weiss, and a bullet that ricocheted off the marble walls hit him.


title: Huey Long

text: Long's assassination turned him into a legendary figure in parts of Louisiana. In 1938, Swedish sociologist Gunnar Myrdal encountered rural children who not only insisted Long was alive, but that he was president. Although no longer governing, Long's policies continued to be enacted in Louisiana by his political machine, which supported Roosevelt's re-election to prevent further investigation into their finances. The machine remained a powerful force in state politics until the 1960 elections. Within the Louisiana Democratic Party, Long set in motion two durable factions—"pro-Long" and "anti-Long"—which diverged meaningfully in terms of policies and voter support. For decades after his death, Long's political style inspired imitation among Louisiana politicians who borrowed his rhetoric and promises of social programs.


title: Huey Long

text: After Long's death, a family dynasty emerged: his brother Earl was elected lieutenant-governor in 1936 and governor in 1948 and 1956. Long's widow, Rose Long, replaced him in the Senate, and his son, Russell, was a U.S. senator from 1948 to 1987. As chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, Russell shaped the nation's tax laws, advocating low business taxes and passing legislation beneficial to the poor like the Earned Income Credit. Other relatives, including George, Gillis, and Speedy, have represented Louisiana in Congress.


title: Huey Long

text: Academics and historians have found difficulty categorizing Long and his ideology. His platform has been compared to ideologies ranging from McCarthyism to European Fascism and Stalinism. When asked about his own philosophy, Long simply replied: "Oh, hell, say that I'm "sui generis" and let it go at that." Robert Penn Warren described him as a "remarkable set of contradictions".


title: Huey Long

text: A majority of academics, biographers, and writers who have examined Long view him negatively, typically as a demagogue or dictator. Reinhard H. Luthin said that he was the epitome of an American demagogue. David Kennedy wrote that Long's regime in Louisiana was "the closest thing to a dictatorship that America has ever known". Journalist Hodding Carter described him as "the first true dictator out of the soil of America" and his movement the "success of fascism in one American state". Peter Viereck categorized Long's movement as "chauvinist thought control"; Victor Ferkiss called it "incipient fascism".


title: Huey Long

text: One of the few biographers to praise Long was T. Harry Williams, who classified Long's ideas as neo-populist. He labeled Long a democratic "mass leader", rather than a demagogue. Besides Williams, intellectual Gore Vidal expressed admiration for Long, even naming him as his favorite contemporary U.S. politician. Long biographer Thomas O. Harris espoused a more nuanced view of Long: "neither saint nor devil, he was a complex and heterogenous mixture of good and bad, genius and craft, hypocrisy and candor, buffoonery and seriousness".


title: Huey Long

text: In popular culture, Long has served as a template for multiple dictatorial politicians in novels. Notable works include Sinclair Lewis's novel "It Can't Happen Here" (1935), Robert Penn Warren's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel "All the King's Men" (1946), and Adria Locke Langley's 1945 novel "A Lion Is in the Streets". The latter two were adapted into films. As well as two television docudramas, Long was the subject of a 1985 Ken Burns-directed documentary. In music, Randy Newman featured Long in two songs on the 1974 album "Good Old Boys" (the song "Every Man A King" was used in the Robin Williams comedy, The Survivors).


title: Huey Long

text: Long has been the subject of dozens of biographies and academic texts. In fact, more has been written about Long than any other Louisianan. Most notable is the 1969 biography "Huey Long" by Williams, which won both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award. Alan Brinkley won the National Book Award in 1983 for "", a study of Long, Coughlin, and populist opposition to Roosevelt.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: , also known as Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was a large Mexican in what is now the historic center of Mexico City. The exact date of the founding of the city is unclear. The date 13 March 1325 was chosen in 1925 to celebrate the 600th anniversary of the city. The city was built on an island in what was then Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. The city was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century until it was captured by the Spanish in 1521.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: At its peak, it was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a "cabecera" of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Today, the ruins of are in the historic center of the Mexican capital. The World Heritage Site of contains what remains of the geography (water, boats, floating gardens) of the Mexica capital.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Traditionally, the name was thought to come from Nahuatl ("rock") and ("prickly pear") and is often thought to mean, "Among the prickly pears [growing among] rocks." However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as "the Bancroft dialogues" suggest the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain.Another view is that the city was named after Tenoch.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both and . The city extended from north to south, from the north border of to the swamps, which by that time were gradually disappearing to the west; the city ended more or less at the present location of .


title: Tenochtitlan

text: The city was connected to the mainland by bridges and causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to protect the city. The city was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Lake was the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the "levee of " was constructed, reputedly designed by . Estimated to be in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring-fed water in the waters around and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Two double aqueducts, each more than long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water from the springs at . This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing. For drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day; was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called ("Saponaria americana"), and to clean their clothes they used the root of ("Agave americana"). Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a , similar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: The city was divided into four zones, or "camps"; each "camp" was divided into 20 districts ("calpullis", , , meaning "large house"); and each "calpulli", or 'big house', was crossed by streets or . There were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of , , and . Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that they were wide enough for ten horses. Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees. The "calpullis" were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Each "calpulli" had its own (marketplace), but there was also a main marketplace in – 's sister city. Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading daily. Bernardino de Sahagún provides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in the other central Mexican cities.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, to a side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including: the Templo Mayor, which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity and the Rain God ; the temple of ; the (ball game court) with the or rack of skulls; the Sun Temple, which was dedicated to ; the Eagle's House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers; the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice; and some minor temples.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was the , or house of the songs, and the .


title: Tenochtitlan

text: The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the , a functionary in charge of the city planning.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: The palace of Moctezuma II also had two houses or zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium. The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed in , , (now called Oaxtepec), and .


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica in regard to social stratification. The complex system involved many social classes. The were commoners who lived outside the island city of Tenochtitlan. The were noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders, and lived in the confines of the island. , or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess, and were treated as nobles. were the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king. were slaves or indentured servants. Finally, the were merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading. The membership of this class was based on heredity. could become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Status was displayed by location and type of house where a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs. The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes that were arranged around the inner court. The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was the . is a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners. Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Mexican civilization of the Mexica people, founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle with a snake in its beak perched atop a cactus ("Opuntia"), which had grown from the heart of Copil.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: The Mexica saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in Lake , a vision that is now immortalized in Mexico's coat of arms and on the Mexican flag. Not deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set about building their city, using the system (misnamed as "floating gardens") for agriculture and to dry and expand the island.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged as grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica. Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean and perhaps even the Inca Empire.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: After a flood of Lake Texcoco, the city was rebuilt under the rule of in a style that made it one of the grandest ever in Mesoamerica.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on 8 November 1519. Although there are not precise numbers, the city's population has been estimated at between 200,000–400,000 inhabitants, placing Tenochtitlan among the largest cities in the world at that time. Compared to the cities of Europe, only Paris, Venice and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It was five times the size of the London of Henry VIII. In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote that was as large as Seville or Córdoba. Cortes' men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000, the most common estimates of the population are of over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic surveys of Mesoamerican city and town sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on . It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had rule over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: When Cortés and his men invaded , Moctezuma II chose to welcome Cortés as an ambassador rather than risk a war which might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: As Cortés approached , the celebrated Toxcatl. At this event the most prominent warriors of would dance in front of a huge statue of . The Spanish leader, Pedro de Alvarado, who was left in charge, worried that the natives planned a surprise attack. He captured three natives and tortured them until they said that this was indeed true. During the festival, the Spaniards came heavily armed and closed off every exit from the courtyard so that no one would escape. This happened during their last days in Tenochtitlan.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Nobles lined each side of the city's main causeway, which extended about a league. Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, with two lords at his side, one his brother, the ruler of . Cortés dismounted and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but forbidden to touch him. Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés. The great ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have. He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature. Although the Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he desired it.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Soon after arriving in , Cortés came up against problems. At Vera Cruz, the officer left in charge received a letter from , the leader of Nueva Almería, asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards. He requested that officials be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach the province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and led troops to storm Almería. Here they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one who ordered the officers executed. Back in , Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him. Though no serious conclusions were reached, this negatively affected the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés subsequently besieged for over 90 days, causing a famine. Having gained control, he then directed the systematic destruction and leveling of the city; and began its rebuilding, despite opposition. The reconstruction involved the creation of a central area designated for Spanish use (the "traza"). The outer Indian section, now dubbed "San Juan Tenochtitlan", continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: The people of were soon exposed to diseases to which they had no immunity. Symptoms were often delayed for up to ten days, when the infection would spread throughout the body, causing sores, pain, and high fever. People were weak to the point that they could not move, nor obtain food and water. Burial of the dead become difficult to impossible, due to the pervasiveness of the people's illness. The people of Tenochtitlan began to starve and weaken. The death toll rose steadily over the course of the next 60 days.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés founded the Spanish capital of Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Despite the extensive damage to the built environment, the site retained symbolic power and legitimacy as the capital of the Aztec empire, which Cortés sought to appropriate. For a time this , the highest rank in the Spanish hierarchy of settlement designation, was called Mexico–Tenochtitlan. Charles Gibson devotes the final chapter of his classic work, "The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule", to what he called "The City," with later historians building on his work. The Spaniards established a or town council, which had jurisdiction over the Spanish residents. The Spanish established a Europeans-only zone in the center of the city, an area of 13 blocks in each direction of the central plaza, which was the . Although many native residents died during the siege of Tenochtitlan, the indigenous still had a strong presence in the city, and were settled in two main areas of the island, designated San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco, each with a municipal council that functioned the entire colonial period. San Juan Tenochtitlan was a Spanish administrative creation, which amalgamated four indigenous sections, with each losing territory to the Spanish . The Spanish laid out the streets of the in a checker board pattern, with straight streets and plazas at intervals, whereas the indigenous portions of the city were irregular in layout and built of modest materials. In the colonial period both San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco retained jurisdiction over settlements on the mainland that they could draw on for labor and tribute demanded by the Spanish, but increasingly those subordinate settlements () were able to gain their autonomy with their own rulers and separate relationship with the Spanish rulers. Concern about the health of the indigenous population in early post-conquest Mexico–Tenochtitlan led to the founding of a royal hospital for indigenous residents.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: There are a number of colonial-era pictorial manuscripts dealing with Tenochtitlan–Tlatelolco, which shed light on litigation between Spaniards and indigenous over property. An account with information about the war of Tenochtitlan against its neighbor Tlatelolco in 1473 and the Spanish conquest in 1521 is the . Anthropologist Susan Kellogg has studied colonial-era inheritance patterns of Nahuas in Mexico City, using Nahuatl- and Spanish-language testaments.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Tenochtitlan's main temple complex, the Templo Mayor, was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978–1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui. The disc is in diameter, and is held at the Templo Mayor Museum.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other. The resulting weight of the structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco; the ruins now rest at an angle instead of horizontally.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: Mexico City's Zócalo, the Plaza de la Constitución, is located at the site of Tenochtitlan's original central plaza and market, and many of the original "calzadas" still correspond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone was located in the ruins. This stone is in diameter and weighs over . It was once located half-way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was carved around 1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl, the predecessor of Tizoc, and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and to prophesy the future.


title: Tenochtitlan

text: In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones below street level in Mexico City. The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from children, teenagers and adults. A complete skeleton of a young woman was also found at the site.


title: Logistics

text: Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general business sense, logistics manages the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics may include tangible goods such as materials, equipment, and supplies, as well as food and other consumable items.


title: Logistics

text: In military science, logistics is concerned with maintaining army supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy, since an armed force without resources and transportation is defenseless. Military logistics was already practiced in the ancient world and as the modern military has a significant need for logistics solutions, advanced implementations have been developed. In military logistics, logistics officers manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed.


title: Logistics

text: Logistics management is the part of supply chain management and supply chain engineering that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward, and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and point of consumption to meet customers' requirements. The complexity of logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized, and optimized by dedicated simulation software. The minimization of the use of resources is a common motivation in all logistics fields. A professional working in the field of logistics management is called a logistician.


title: Logistics

text: The term "" is attested in English from 1846, and is from , where it was either coined or popularized by Swiss military officer and writer Antoine-Henri Jomini, who defined it in his "Summary of the Art of War" (). The term appears in the 1830 edition, then titled "Analytic Table" ("Tableau Analytique"), and Jomini explains that it is derived from (cognate to English ), in the terms and :


title: Logistics

text: The is a homonym of the existing mathematical term, from , a traditional division of Greek mathematics; the mathematical term is presumably the origin of the term "logistic" in logistic growth and related terms. Some sources give this instead as the source of "logistics", either ignorant of Jomini's statement that it was derived from , or dubious and instead believing it was in fact of Greek origin, or influenced by the existing term of Greek origin.


title: Logistics

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines logistics as "the branch of military science relating to procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities". However, the "New Oxford American Dictionary" defines logistics as "the detailed coordination of a complex operation involving many people, facilities, or supplies", and the Oxford Dictionary on-line defines it as "the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation". As such, logistics is commonly seen as a branch of engineering that creates "people systems" rather than "machine systems".


title: Logistics

text: According to the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (previously the Council of Logistics Management), logistics is the process of planning, implementing and controlling procedures for the efficient and effective


title: Logistics

text: transportation and storage of goods including services and related information from the point of origin to the point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements and includes inbound, outbound, internal and external movements.


title: Logistics

text: Academics and practitioners traditionally refer to the terms operations or production management when referring to physical transformations taking place in a single business location (factory, restaurant or even bank clerking) and reserve the term logistics for activities related to distribution, that is, moving products on the territory. Managing a distribution center is seen, therefore, as pertaining to the realm of logistics since, while in theory, the products made by a factory are ready for consumption they still need to be moved along the distribution network according to some logic, and the distribution center aggregates and processes orders coming from different areas of the territory. That being said, from a modeling perspective, there are similarities between operations management and logistics, and companies sometimes use hybrid professionals, with for example a "Director of Operations" or a "Logistics Officer" working on similar problems. Furthermore, the term "supply chain management" originally referred to, among other issues, having an integrated vision of both production and logistics from point of origin to point of production. All these terms may suffer from semantic change as a side effect of advertising.


title: Logistics

text: Inbound logistics is one of the primary processes of logistics concentrating on purchasing and arranging the inbound movement of materials, parts, or unfinished inventory from suppliers to manufacturing or assembly plants, warehouses, or retail stores.


title: Logistics

text: Outbound logistics is the process related to the storage and movement of the final product and the related information flows from the end of the production line to the end user.


title: Logistics

text: Given the services performed by logisticians, the main fields of logistics can be broken down as follows:


title: Logistics

text: Procurement logistics consists of activities such as market research, requirements planning, make-or-buy decisions, supplier management, ordering, and order controlling. The targets in procurement logistics might be contradictory: maximizing efficiency by concentrating on core competences, outsourcing while maintaining the autonomy of the company, or minimizing procurement costs while maximizing security within the supply process.


title: Logistics

text: Advance Logistics consists of the activities required to set up or establish a plan for logistics activities to occur.


title: Logistics

text: Global Logistics is technically the process of managing the "flow" of goods through what is called a supply chain, from its place of production to other parts of the world. This often requires an intermodal transport system, transport via ocean, air, rail, and truck. The effectiveness of global logistics is measured in the Logistics Performance Index.


title: Logistics

text: Distribution logistics has, as main tasks, the delivery of the finished products to the customer. It consists of order processing, warehousing, and transportation. Distribution logistics is necessary because the time, place, and quantity of production differ with the time, place, and quantity of consumption.


title: Logistics

text: Disposal logistics has as its main function to reduce logistics cost(s) and enhance service(s) related to the disposal of waste produced during the operation of a business.


title: Logistics

text: Reverse logistics denotes all those operations related to the reuse of products and materials. The reverse logistics process includes the management and the sale of surpluses, as well as products being returned to vendors from buyers. Reverse logistics stands for all operations related to the reuse of products and materials. It is "the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, finished goods and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing value or proper disposal. More precisely, reverse logistics is the process of moving goods from their typical final destination for the purpose of capturing value, or proper disposal. The opposite of reverse logistics is forward logistics."


title: Logistics

text: Green Logistics describes all attempts to measure and minimize the ecological impact of logistics activities. This includes all activities of the forward and reverse flows. This can be achieved through intermodal freight transport, path optimization, vehicle saturation and city logistics.


title: Logistics

text: RAM Logistics (see also Logistic engineering) combines both business logistics and military logistics since it is concerned with highly complicated technological systems for which Reliability, Availability and Maintainability are essential, ex: weapon systems and military supercomputers.


title: Logistics

text: Asset Control Logistics: companies in the retail channels, both organized retailers and suppliers, often deploy assets required for the display, preservation, promotion of their products. Some examples are refrigerators, stands, display monitors, seasonal equipment, poster stands & frames.


title: Logistics

text: Emergency logistics (or Humanitarian Logistics) is a term used by the logistics, supply chain, and manufacturing industries to denote specific time-critical modes of transport used to move goods or rapidly in the event of an emergency. The reason for enlisting emergency logistics services could be a production delay or anticipated production delay, or an urgent need for specialized equipment to prevent events such as aircraft being grounded (also known as "aircraft on ground"—AOG), ships being delayed, or telecommunications failure. Humanitarian logistics involves governments, the military, aid agencies, donors, non-governmental organizations and emergency logistics services are typically sourced from a specialist provider.


title: Logistics

text: The term production logistics describes logistic processes within a value-adding system (ex: factory or a mine). Production logistics aims to ensure that each machine and workstation receives the right product in the right quantity and quality at the right time. The concern is with production, testing, transportation, storage, and supply. Production logistics can operate in existing as well as new plants: since manufacturing in an existing plant is a constantly changing process, machines are exchanged and new ones added, which gives the opportunity to improve the production logistics system accordingly. Production logistics provides the means to achieve customer response and capital efficiency. Production logistics becomes more important with decreasing batch sizes. In many industries (e.g. mobile phones), the short-term goal is a batch size of one, allowing even a single customer's demand to be fulfilled efficiently. Track and tracing, which is an essential part of production logistics due to product safety and reliability issues, is also gaining importance, especially in the automotive and medical industries.


title: Logistics

text: Construction Logistics has been employed by civilizations for thousands of years. As the various human civilizations tried to build the best possible works of construction for living and protection. Now construction logistics has emerged as a vital part of construction. In the past few years, construction logistics has emerged as a different field of knowledge and study within the subject of supply chain management and logistics.


title: Logistics

text: ..is a popular concept used to enforce best practices in Logistics Management which consists of following:


title: Logistics

text: In military science, maintaining one's supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy is a crucial—some would say the most crucial—element of military strategy, since an armed force without resources and transportation is defenseless. The historical leaders Hannibal, Alexander the Great, and the Duke of Wellington are considered to have been logistical geniuses: Alexander's expedition benefited considerably from his meticulous attention to the provisioning of his army, Hannibal is credited to have "taught logistics" to the Romans during the Punic Wars and the success of the Anglo-Portuguese army in the Peninsula War was due to the effectiveness of Wellington's supply system, despite the numerical disadvantage. The defeat of the British in the American War of Independence and the defeat of the Axis in the African theater of World War II are attributed by some scholars to logistical failures.


title: Logistics

text: Militaries have a significant need for logistics solutions and so have developed advanced implementations. Integrated Logistics Support (ILS) is a discipline used in military industries to ensure an easily supportable system with a robust customer service (logistic) concept at the lowest cost and in line with (often high) reliability, availability, maintainability, and other requirements, as defined for the project.


title: Logistics

text: In military logistics, Logistics Officers manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed.


title: Logistics

text: Supply chain management in military logistics often deals with a number of variables in predicting cost, deterioration, consumption, and future demand. The United States Armed Forces' categorical supply classification was developed in such a way that categories of supply with similar consumption variables are grouped together for planning purposes. For instance, peacetime consumption of ammunition and fuel will be considerably lower than wartime consumption of these items, whereas other classes of supply such as subsistence and clothing have a relatively consistent consumption rate regardless of war or peace.


title: Logistics

text: Some classes of supply have a linear demand relationship: as more troops are added, more supply items are needed; or as more equipment is used, more fuel and ammunition are consumed. Other classes of supply must consider a third variable besides usage and quantity: time. As equipment ages, more and more repair parts are needed over time, even when usage and quantity stay consistent. By recording and analyzing these trends over time and applying them to future scenarios, the US Armed Forces can accurately supply troops with the items necessary at the precise moment they are needed. History has shown that good logistical planning creates a lean and efficient fighting force. The lack thereof can lead to a clunky, slow, and ill-equipped force with too much or too little supply.


title: Logistics

text: One definition of business logistics speaks of "having the right item in the right quantity at the right time at the right place for the right price in the right condition to the right customer". Business logistics incorporates all industry sectors and aims to manage the fruition of project life cycles, supply chains, and resultant efficiencies.


title: Logistics

text: The term "business logistics" has evolved since the 1960s due to the increasing complexity of supplying businesses with materials and shipping out products in an increasingly globalized supply chain, leading to a call for professionals called "supply chain logisticians".


title: Logistics

text: In business, logistics may have either an internal focus (inbound logistics) or an external focus (outbound logistics), covering the flow and storage of materials from point of origin to point of consumption (see supply-chain management). The main functions of a qualified logistician include inventory management, purchasing, transportation, warehousing, consultation, and the organizing and planning of these activities. Logisticians combine professional knowledge of each of these functions to coordinate resources in an organization.


title: Logistics

text: There are two fundamentally different forms of logistics: One optimizes a steady flow of material through a network of transport links and storage nodes, while the other coordinates a sequence of resources to carry out some project (e.g., restructuring a warehouse).


title: Logistics

text: There may be some intermediaries operating for representative matters between nodes such as sales agents or brokers.


title: Logistics

text: A logistic family is a set of products that share a common characteristic: weight and volumetric characteristics, physical storing needs (temperature, radiation...), handling needs, order frequency, package size, etc. The following metrics may be used by the company to organize its products in different families:


title: Logistics

text: Other metrics may present themselves in both physical or monetary form, such as the standard Inventory turnover.


title: Logistics

text: Unit loads are combinations of individual items which are moved by handling systems, usually employing a pallet of normed dimensions.


title: Logistics

text: Handling systems include: trans-pallet handlers, counterweight handler, retractable mast handler, bilateral handlers, trilateral handlers, AGV and other handlers.


title: Logistics

text: Storage systems include: pile stocking, cell racks (either static or movable), cantilever racks and gravity racks.


title: Logistics

text: Order processing is a sequential process involving: processing withdrawal list, picking (selective removal of items from loading units), sorting (assembling items based on the destination), package formation (weighting, labeling, and packing), order consolidation (gathering packages into loading units for transportation, control and bill of lading).


title: Logistics

text: Picking can be both manual or automated. Manual picking can be both man to goods, i.e. operator using a cart or conveyor belt, or goods to man, i.e. the operator benefiting from the presence of a mini-load ASRS, vertical or horizontal carousel or from an Automatic Vertical Storage System (AVSS). Automatic picking is done either with dispensers or depalletizing robots.


title: Logistics

text: Cargo, i.e. merchandise being transported, can be moved through a variety of transportation means and is organized in different shipment categories. Unit loads are usually assembled into higher standardized units such as: ISO containers, swap bodies or semi-trailers. Especially for very long distances, product transportation will likely benefit from using different transportation means: multimodal transport, intermodal transport (no handling) and combined transport (minimal road transport). When moving cargo, typical constraints are maximum weight and volume.


title: Logistics

text: Operators involved in transportation include: all train, road vehicles, boats, airplanes companies, couriers, freight forwarders and multi-modal transport operators.


title: Logistics

text: Merchandise being transported internationally is usually subject to the Incoterms standards issued by the International Chamber of Commerce.


title: Logistics

text: Similarly to production systems, logistic systems need to be properly configured and managed. Actually a number of methodologies have been directly borrowed from operations management such as using Economic Order Quantity models for managing inventory in the nodes of the network. Distribution resource planning (DRP) is similar to MRP, except that it doesn't concern activities inside the nodes of the network but planning distribution when moving goods through the links of the network.


title: Logistics

text: Traditionally in logistics configuration may be at the level of the warehouse (node) or at level of the distribution system (network).


title: Logistics

text: Regarding a single warehouse, besides the issue of designing and building the warehouse, configuration means solving a number of interrelated technical-economic problems: dimensioning rack cells, choosing a palletizing method (manual or through robots), rack dimensioning and design, number of racks, number and typology of retrieval systems (e.g. stacker cranes). Some important constraints have to be satisfied: fork and load beams resistance to bending and proper placement of sprinklers. Although picking is more of a tactical planning decision than a configuration problem, it is important to take it into account when deciding the layout of the racks inside the warehouse and buying tools such as handlers and motorized carts since once those decisions are taken they will work as constraints when managing the warehouse, the same reasoning for sorting when designing the conveyor system or installing automatic dispensers.


title: Logistics

text: Configuration at the level of the distribution system concerns primarily the problem of location of the nodes in geographic space and distribution of capacity among the nodes. The first may be referred to as facility location (with the special case of site selection) while the latter to as capacity allocation. The problem of outsourcing typically arises at this level: the nodes of a supply chain are very rarely owned by a single enterprise. Distribution networks can be characterized by numbers of levels, namely the number of intermediary nodes between supplier and consumer:


title: Logistics

text: This distinction is more useful for modeling purposes, but it relates also to a tactical decision regarding safety stocks: considering a two-level network, if safety inventory is kept only in peripheral warehouses then it is called a dependent system (from suppliers), if safety inventory is distributed among central and peripheral warehouses it is called an independent system (from suppliers). Transportation from producer to the second level is called primary transportation, from the second level to a consumer is called secondary transportation.


title: Logistics

text: Although configuring a distribution network from zero is possible, logisticians usually have to deal with restructuring existing networks due to presence of an array of factors: changing demand, product or process innovation, opportunities for outsourcing, change of government policy toward trade barriers, innovation in transportation means (both vehicles or thoroughfares), the introduction of regulations (notably those regarding pollution) and availability of ICT supporting systems (e.g. ERP or e-commerce).


title: Logistics

text: Once a logistic system is configured, management, meaning tactical decisions, takes place, once again, at the level of the warehouse and of the distribution network. Decisions have to be made under a set of constraints: internal, such as using the available infrastructure, or external, such as complying with the given product shelf lifes and expiration dates.


title: Logistics

text: At the warehouse level, the logistician must decide how to distribute merchandise over the racks. Three basic situations are traditionally considered: shared storage, dedicated storage (rack space reserved for specific merchandise) and class-based storage (class meaning merchandise organized in different areas according to their access index).


title: Logistics

text: Picking efficiency varies greatly depending on the situation. For a man to goods situation, a distinction is carried out between high-level picking (vertical component significant) and low-level picking (vertical component insignificant). A number of tactical decisions regarding picking must be made:


title: Logistics

text: At the level of the distribution network, tactical decisions involve mainly inventory control and delivery path optimization. Note that the logistician may be required to manage the reverse flow along with the forward flow.


title: Logistics

text: Although there is some overlap in functionality, warehouse management systems (WMS) can differ significantly from warehouse control systems (WCS). Simply put, a WMS plans a weekly activity forecast based on such factors as statistics and trends, whereas a WCS acts like a floor supervisor, working in real-time to get the job done by the most effective means. For instance, a WMS can tell the system that it is going to need five of stock-keeping unit (SKU) A and five of SKU B hours in advance, but by the time it acts, other considerations may have come into play or there could be a logjam on a conveyor. A WCS can prevent that problem by working in real-time and adapting to the situation by making a last-minute decision based on current activity and operational status. Working synergistically, WMS and WCS can resolve these issues and maximize efficiency for companies that rely on the effective operation of their warehouse or distribution center.


title: Logistics

text: Logistics outsourcing involves a relationship between a company and an LSP (logistic service provider), which, compared with basic logistics services, has more customized offerings, encompasses a broad number of service activities, is characterized by a long-term orientation, and thus has a strategic nature.


title: Logistics

text: Third-party logistics (3PL) involves using external organizations to execute logistics activities that have traditionally been performed within an organization itself. According to this definition, third-party logistics includes any form of outsourcing of logistics activities previously performed in house. For example, if a company with its own warehousing facilities decides to employ external transportation, this would be an example of third-party logistics. Logistics is an emerging business area in many countries. External 3PL providers have evolved from merely providing logistics capabilities to becoming real orchestrators of supply chains that create and sustain a competitive advantage, thus bringing about new levels of logistics outsourcing.


title: Logistics

text: The concept of a fourth-party logistics (4PL) provider was first defined by Andersen Consulting (now Accenture) as an integrator that assembles the resources, planning capabilities, and technology of its own organization and other organizations to design, build, and run comprehensive supply chain solutions. Whereas a third-party logistics (3PL) service provider targets a single function, a 4PL targets management of the entire process. Some have described a 4PL as a general contractor that manages other 3PLs, truckers, forwarders, custom house agents, and others, essentially taking responsibility of a complete process for the customer.


title: Logistics

text: Horizontal business alliances often occur between logistics service providers, i.e., the cooperation between two or more logistics companies that are potentially competing. In a horizontal alliance, these partners can benefit twofold. On one hand, they can "access tangible resources which are directly exploitable". In this example extending common transportation networks, their warehouse infrastructure and the ability to provide more complex service packages can be achieved by combining resources. On the other hand, partners can "access intangible resources, which are not directly exploitable". This typically includes know-how and information and, in turn, innovation.


title: Logistics

text: Logistics automation is the application of computer software or automated machinery to improve the efficiency of logistics operations. Typically, this refers to operations within a warehouse or distribution center with broader tasks undertaken by supply chain engineering systems and enterprise resource planning systems.


title: Logistics

text: Industrial machinery can typically identify products through either barcode or RFID technologies. Information in traditional bar codes is stored as a sequence of black and white bars varying in width, which when read by laser is translated into a digital sequence, which according to fixed rules can be converted into a decimal number or other data. Sometimes information in a bar code can be transmitted through radio frequency, more typically radio transmission is used in RFID tags. An RFID tag is a card containing a memory chip and an antenna that transmits signals to a reader. RFID may be found on merchandise, animals, vehicles, and people as well.


title: Logistics

text: A logistician is a professional logistics practitioner. Professional logisticians are often certified by professional associations. One can either work in a pure logistics company, such as a shipping line, airport, or freight forwarder, or within the logistics department of a company. However, as mentioned above, logistics is a broad field, encompassing procurement, production, distribution, and disposal activities. Hence, career perspectives are broad as well.


title: Logistics

text: A new trend in the industry is the 4PL, or fourth-party logistics, firms, consulting companies offering logistics services.


title: Logistics

text: Some universities and academic institutions train students as logisticians, offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs. A university with a primary focus on logistics is Kühne Logistics University in Hamburg, Germany. It is non-profit and supported by Kühne-Foundation of the logistics entrepreneur Klaus Michael Kühne.


title: Logistics

text: The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT), established in the United Kingdom in 1919, received a Royal Charter in 1926. The Chartered Institute is one of the professional bodies or institutions for the logistics and transport sectors that offer professional qualifications or degrees in logistics management. CILT programs can be studied at centers around the UK, some of which also offer distance learning options. The institute also have overseas branches namely The Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia and Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong. In the UK, Logistics Management programs are conducted by many universities and professional bodies such as CILT. These programs are generally offered at the postgraduate level.


title: Logistics

text: The Global Institute of Logistics established in New York in 2003 is a Think tank for the profession and is primarily concerned with intercontinental maritime logistics. It is particularly concerned with container logistics and the role of the seaport authority in the maritime logistics chain.


title: Logistics

text: The International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL) is a professional network that promotes the professional development of supply chain managers and others working in the field of public health logistics and commodity security, with particular focus on developing countries. The association supports logisticians worldwide by providing a community of practice, where members can network, exchange ideas, and improve their professional skills.


title: Logistics

text: There are many museums in the world which cover various aspects of practical logistics. These include museums of transportation, customs, packing, and industry-based logistics. However, only the following museums are fully dedicated to logistics:


title: Ali Larter

text: Alison Elizabeth Larter (born February 28, 1976) is an American actress and model. She portrayed fictional model Allegra Coleman in a 1996 "Esquire" magazine hoax and took on guest roles on several television shows in the 1990s. She made her film debut in "Varsity Blues" (1999), which was followed by the horror film "House on Haunted Hill" (1999). Her role as Clear Rivers in the first two films of the "Final Destination" franchise earned her a reputation as a scream queen.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter played supporting roles in the comedy "Legally Blonde" (2001) and the romantic comedy "A Lot Like Love" (2005), and led the Bollywood movie "Marigold" (2007) and the thriller "Obsessed" (2009). She played the dual roles of Niki Sanders and Tracy Strauss on the NBC science fiction drama "Heroes" (2006–2010), and achieved wider recognition for her portrayal of video game heroine Claire Redfield in the "" (2007), "" (2010), and "" (2016).


title: Ali Larter

text: As of April 2017, Larter's films have grossed over US$1.31 billion worldwide. Her presence in the media is reinforced by her appearances in lists compiled by "Maxim", "FHM", and "Stuff", as well as "People" magazine's "Best Dressed List" in 2007. She released her cookbook, "Kitchen Revelry: A Year of Festive Menus from My Home to Yours", in September 2013.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter was born in the suburb of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, the daughter of Margaret, a realtor, and Danforth Larter, a trucking executive. She attended Carusi Middle School and later graduated from Cherry Hill High School West during her time as a model, but she didn't finish her senior year of high school because of modeling. Her mom accompanied her everywhere until she turned 18. Her parents have since moved to Allentown, Pennsylvania. Larter said she was a tomboy until she turned 13.


title: Ali Larter

text: She began her modeling career at the age of 14 when a modeling scout discovered her on the street and was asked to star in a "Phillies" commercial; this led to a modeling contract with the prestigious Ford Modeling Agency in New York. Larter subsequently skipped her senior year to model in Australia, Italy, and Japan, the latter a country she would temporarily settle in at the age of seventeen. While modeling in Italy, Larter met fellow model and aspiring actress Amy Smart and the two "became instant friends", according to Larter.


title: Ali Larter

text: In November 1996, Larter portrayed fictional actress Allegra Coleman in an "Esquire" magazine hoax. When speaking about the cover and her subsequent fame, Larter said, "When the door opens for you in Hollywood, you need to run with it. You know?" Larter is currently signed to IMG Models. She landed her first professional acting roles in 1997 when she appeared in several television programs. She appeared in an episode of the Brooke Shields television series "Suddenly Susan", and the short-lived series "Chicago Sons". These roles were followed by a number of other appearances on "Dawson's Creek", "Chicago Hope", and "Just Shoot Me!"


title: Ali Larter

text: In 1999, Larter made her film debut in the coming-of-age dramedy "Varsity Blues", which re-united her with "Dawson's Creek" star James Van Der Beek and close friend Amy Smart. Smart had persuaded Larter to audition for the movie, in which she played Darcy Sears, a love interest for one of the main characters. "Varsity Blues" drew a domestic box office gross of US$53 million. Also in 1999, she made supporting appearances in the teen comedies "Giving It Up" and "Drive Me Crazy", and starred in the remake "House on Haunted Hill" which was made for around US$20 million. The horror film, following a group of strangers invited to a party at an abandoned asylum, was panned by critics, but grossed US$15 million on its opening weekend and went on to earn over US$40 million overall.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter starred as Clear Rivers, one of the main characters in the teen supernatural horror film "Final Destination" (2000). Also starring Devon Sawa and Kerr Smith, the movie's premise followed several teenagers who survive a plane crash but are stalked and killed by Death itself. "Final Destination" made US$112 million by the end of its theatrical run. In 2001, she appeared in the comedy "Legally Blonde" with Reese Witherspoon. She played Brooke Taylor Windham, a widow accused of her husband's murder. The film earned the top spot with US$20 million in its opening weekend and ended up grossing $141 million worldwide. With US$96 million of its total gross deriving from domestic markets, "Legally Blonde" is Larter's highest-grossing film domestically.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter next appeared as Zerelda Mimms in the western comedy "American Outlaws". Directed by Les Mayfield and co-starring Colin Farrell and Scott Caan, the film was poorly received by critics and at the box office, garnering US$13 million at the end of its theatrical run. She also starred in Kevin Smith's "Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back." That year, Larter appeared on the cover of "Maxim" magazine and performed in the stage play "The Vagina Monologues" in New York City. In Spring 2002, Larter moved from Los Angeles to New York. "I was too young and impressionable to handle the pressures of L.A." Larter recalled in an interview: "I'm a woman now. I am no longer the little girl who could be easily influenced."


title: Ali Larter

text: Her first project there was to reprise her role as Clear Rivers in the sequel to "Final Destination" entitled "Final Destination 2". In an interview with IGN, Larter explained her return to the franchise: "When New Line asked me to come back, I thought it was great. They showed me the script and let me have some input, and it was really terrific." The film made US$90 million worldwide, to a mixed critical reception. A year later, Larter served as an associate producer of and starred in the thriller "Three Way". After doing so, Larter commented about future producing endeavors during an interview for "": "I definitely have many ideas and different avenues that I want to take as my career goes on." In 2005, she appeared in the independent political thriller "Confess", and had a role in the romantic comedy "A Lot Like Love", starring Amanda Peet and Ashton Kutcher.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter moved back to Los Angeles in 2005. Her first audition was for the NBC science fiction drama television series "Heroes". Larter played the characters of Niki Sanders, who suffered from DID, and Tracy Strauss on the show created by Tim Kring. Larter's initial character Niki Sanders, was a wife, mother, and a former internet stripper from Las Vegas who exhibits superhuman strength and alternate personalities who go by the names of Jessica and Niki. "Ali read for the part and just owned it from the second she walked in," Kring said to the "Chicago Tribune", "It was a very impressive audition." As of the third season, Larter began to play the new character of Tracy Strauss, who possessed the ability to freeze objects; and later, turn her body into water.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter took on the title role in "Marigold" (2007), alongside Salman Khan. The film was released in August 2007 and revolved around an American actress (Larter) who goes to India and gets caught up in the exotic world of Bollywood. Filming took place in North India and London, commencing in June 2004. In an interview with the BBC, Larter remarked this role was "an opportunity to overcome my fear of singing and dancing because I have no professional training [...] I really focused on the character and loved this journey she went on and the experiences she had." She was paid a seven-figure salary for her part in the film.


title: Ali Larter

text: In 2007, she appeared opposite Milla Jovovich in "", portraying the character of Claire Redfield, who in the film, is the leader of a convoy of zombie apocalypse survivors who go to Alaska in search of a safe haven. Her role sent her to Mexicali, Mexico for filming from May to late July, and required her hair to be dyed a light red. Larter explained her character Claire: "She became the leader of this convoy. She's incredibly strong, patient. I think she serves a role for everyone within this convoy, let it be a mother to someone, a buddy, a best friend." Despite negative reviews, the film made a total of US$147 million worldwide. Also in the same year, she appeared with Hayes McArthur in the comedy "Homo Erectus" and appeared as Evelyn Garland in the biographical drama "Crazy", based on guitarist Hank Garland.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter starred opposite Beyoncé and Idris Elba in the Screen Gems-produced thriller "Obsessed" (2009). The film follows an office executive (Elba) whose marriage to Knowles' character is threatened by the aggressive interests of a co-worker, portrayed by Larter. In an interview with Glam, Larter said that she "was excited to get the chance to play a femme fatale. I love playing women that are dark and vulnerable and sort of filled with a little bit of crazy emotion." While the film was released to mixed reviews, Larter was critically praised for her performance. Derek Malcolm of "The London Evening Standard" felt that the movie was a "dim reworking of "Fatal Attraction"" and noted: "Larter as the pathological minx is the best thing about it." "Obsessed" opened at top spot in its opening weekend with US$28 million, and made a total domestic gross of US$68 million, becoming Larter's second highest-grossing film in North-America. It resulted in Larter's third Teen Choice Award nomination and an MTV Movie Award for Best Fight with Beyonce.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter reprised her role of Claire Redfield in "" (2010), which was filmed in 3D and saw her character ambushed and mentally manipulated by the fictional Umbrella Corporation, before she is rescued by Alice (Milla Jovovich). Like the previous "Resident Evil" entries, the film received negative reviews but became a major commercial success, earning US$296 million worldwide. On returning to the role of Claire, she stated in an interview with JoBlo.com: "I guess people liked me as her [...] I'm excited that they brought me back [...] To work with the man [Paul W. S. Anderson] who really created this world and this vision was what excited me about joining this next installment". In 2010, Larter appeared as the title character in a short film for Absolut Vodka entitled "Lemon Drop". Following the release of "Afterlife", Larter took a career hiatus to focus on her family.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter returned to the big screen playing the love interest of a successful but psychotic man (Matt LeBlanc) in the comedy "Lovesick" (2014). The film screened at the 15th annual Newport Beach Film Festival and was released for VOD and selected theaters. She portrayed the "fair-weather" friend of a woman with ALS in the independent drama "You're Not You" (2014), directed by George C. Wolfe and starring Hilary Swank, Emmy Rossum and Josh Duhamel.


title: Ali Larter

text: In 2014, Larter obtained a regular part in the first season of TNT's drama series "Legends", appearing as Crystal Quest, an operative with the FBI's Deep Cover Operations. Larter starred in the supernatural thriller "The Diabolical" as Madison, a single mother who battles evil forces in her house. Released the following year at South by Southwest, it was distributed for a VOD and limited release in certain parts of United States only. The film received largely mixed reviews; Gary Goldstein of "Los Angeles Times" felt that her "fraught, more seemingly complex [character] remains underdeveloped" in what he described as a "weak horror-thriller".


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter starred in "" (2016), where her role of Claire teams up with Alice (Jovovich) and the Red Queen to save the remnants of humanity. Despite a largely mixed critical response, with a worldwide gross of over US$312 million, the film emerged as her biggest box office success. She played the role of Amelia Slater in the Fox series "Pitch", about a young black woman who makes history by becoming the first woman to play Major League Baseball. The series ran for one season, which was released in 2016. From 2019 to 2020, Larter played the recurring role of Grace Sawyer in the police procedural series "The Rookie".


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter first appeared in the media when she portrayed the fictional character of Allegra Coleman in the November 1996 issue of "Esquire". The magazine, which billed Coleman as the movies' next dream girl, told of Allegra's relationship with David Schwimmer, how Quentin Tarantino broke up with Mira Sorvino to date her, and how Woody Allen overhauled a film to give her a starring role. When the magazine was published, "Esquire" received hundreds of phone calls about the non-existent Coleman and various talent agencies sought to represent her, even after the hoax was revealed. Larter herself received a considerable amount of attention after the cover; she received phone calls from morning TV shows and others for interviews.


title: Ali Larter

text: The "Esquire" cover led Larter to a role on "Varsity Blues". One particular scene where Larter's character, Darcy Sears, wears nothing but whipped cream to cover herself has become a media favorite. It has been referenced a number of times in the media including on MTV's "Jersey Shore", where one character refers to it as the "Varsity Blues outfit". Larter has been acknowledged as a Scream queen by MSN due to her appearances in horror/thriller films. After the success of "Heroes", Larter appeared on "People" "Ten Best Dressed List" as "The Newcomer" in 2007. In 2009, Larter was named "Cosmopolitan" magazine's Fun Fearless Female of the year at a ceremony held in Beverly Hills.


title: Ali Larter

text: Larter has appeared on the cover of numerous magazines, including "Cosmopolitan" (France, Indonesia, Ecuador, Germany, Greece, Turkey and U.S.), "Glamour", "Health", "Seventeen", "Self", "Shape", "Maxim", "Esquire", "Lucky", "Allure" and "Philadelphia Style". She has appeared in print ads and commercials throughout her career. In 2004, she appeared in print ads for Estee Lauder cosmetics. She has appeared in commercials for Parfums de Coeur Designer Imposter Body Sprays and Stolichnaya vodka.


title: Ali Larter

text: In June 2010, Larter was one of thousands of delegates from 130 countries who participated in a United Nations conference, 'Women Deliver' in Washington, D.C. Larter, along with her husband Hayes MacArthur, hosted The Art of Elysium Gala in 2013 and are to be recipients of the Spirit of Elysium Award at the January 2014 ceremony. She has appeared on the covers of "Shape", "Cosmopolitan", "Allure", "Glamour", "Lucky", "InStyle", "Maxim", and "Entertainment Weekly".


title: Ali Larter

text: During her time as a model, Larter moved to Los Angeles to pursue acting. In 2002, she moved to New York for a period of three years. In an interview with "Phillymag", Larter gave reason for the move:


title: Ali Larter

text: In January 2005, she moved back to Los Angeles for a role in "Heroes". In December 2007, Larter and her then longtime boyfriend, Hayes MacArthur, were engaged to marry. They had met on the set of National Lampoon's "Homo Erectus". In a 2007 interview with "Cosmo", Larter said: "I told my boyfriend after three weeks that I wanted to marry him and that we could do it tomorrow." On August 1, 2009, Larter married MacArthur at MacArthur's parents' estate in Kennebunkport, Maine; among the invited was Larter's close friend Amy Smart. The couple later purchased a three-story home in the Hollywood Hills for $2.9 million.


title: Ali Larter

text: On July 20, 2010, Larter announced that she and MacArthur were expecting their first child and later, on the September 10 episode of "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon", announced that she was expecting a boy. Larter gave birth to the couple's son, Theodore Hayes MacArthur, on December 20, 2010. In August 2014, Larter confirmed that she and MacArthur were expecting their second child that winter. She gave birth to a girl named Vivienne Margaret on January 15, 2015. Larter has two dogs, Jackpot and Ella.


title: Hittites

text: The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-central Anatolia (around 1650 BC). This empire reached its height during the mid-14th century BC under Šuppiluliuma I, when it encompassed an area that included most of Anatolia as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia.


title: Hittites

text: Between the 15th and 13th centuries BC, the Empire of Hattusa—in modern times conventionally called the Hittite Empire—came into conflict with the New Kingdom of Egypt, the Middle Assyrian Empire and the empire of Mitanni for control of the Near East. The Middle Assyrian Empire eventually emerged as the dominant power and annexed much of the Hittite Empire, while the remainder was sacked by Phrygian newcomers to the region. After BC, during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Hittites splintered into several independent Syro-Hittite states, some of which survived until the eighth century BC before succumbing to the Neo-Assyrian Empire.


title: Hittites

text: The Hittite language was a distinct member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. Along with the closely related Luwian language, Hittite is the oldest historically attested Indo-European language, referred to by its speakers as "in the language of Nesa". The Hittites called their country the "Kingdom of Hattusa" ("Hatti" in Akkadian), a name received from the Hattians, an earlier people who had inhabited and ruled the central Anatolian region until the beginning of the second millennium BC and who spoke an unrelated language known as Hattic. The modern conventional name "Hittites" is due to the initial identification of the people of Hattusa with the Biblical Hittites by 19th-century archaeologists.


title: Hittites

text: The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt and the Middle East, the decipherment of which was also a key event in the history of Indo-European studies.


title: Hittites

text: Scholars once attributed the development of iron-smelting to the Hittites of Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age, with their success seen as largely based on the advantages of a monopoly on ironworking at the time. But the view of such a "Hittite monopoly" has come under scrutiny and no longer has scholarly consensus-support. As part of the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age, the Late Bronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of ironworking technology in the region. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to that of iron objects found in Egypt and in other places from the same period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons. Hittites did not use smelted iron, but rather meteorites. The Hittite military made successful use of chariots.


title: Hittites

text: In classical times, ethnic Hittite dynasties survived in small kingdoms scattered around the areas of present-day Syria, Lebanon and the Levant. Lacking a unifying continuity, their descendants scattered and ultimately merged into the modern populations of the Levant, Turkey and Mesopotamia.


title: Hittites

text: During the 1920s, interest in the Hittites increased with the founding in 1923 of the Republic of Turkey. The Hittites attracted the attention of Turkish archaeologists such as Halet Çambel and Tahsin Özgüç. During this period, the new field of Hittitology also influenced the naming of Turkish institutions, such as the state-owned "Etibank" ("Hittite bank"),


title: Hittites

text: and the foundation of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, which is 200 kilometers (124 miles) west of the Hittite capital of Hattusa and houses the most comprehensive exhibition of Hittite art and artifacts in the world.


title: Hittites

text: Before the archeological discoveries that revealed the Hittite civilization, the only source of information about the Hittites had been the Old Testament. Francis William Newman expressed the critical view, common in the early 19th century, that, "no Hittite king could have compared in power to the King of Judah...".


title: Hittites

text: As the discoveries in the second half of the 19th century revealed the scale of the Hittite kingdom, Archibald Sayce asserted that, rather than being compared to Judah, the Anatolian civilization "[was] worthy of comparison to the divided Kingdom of Egypt", and was "infinitely more powerful than that of Judah". Sayce and other scholars also noted that Judah and the Hittites were never enemies in the Hebrew texts; in the Book of Kings, they supplied the Israelites with cedar, chariots, and horses, and in the Book of Genesis were friends and allies to Abraham. Uriah the Hittite was a captain in King David's army and counted as one of his "mighty men" in 1 Chronicles 11.


title: Hittites

text: French scholar Charles Texier found the first Hittite ruins in 1834 but did not identify them as such.


title: Hittites

text: The first archaeological evidence for the Hittites appeared in tablets found at the "karum" of Kanesh (now called Kültepe), containing records of trade between Assyrian merchants and a certain "land of "Hatti"". Some names in the tablets were neither Hattic nor Assyrian, but clearly Indo-European.


title: Hittites

text: The script on a monument at Boğazkale by a "People of Hattusas" discovered by William Wright in 1884 was found to match peculiar hieroglyphic scripts from Aleppo and Hama in Northern Syria. In 1887, excavations at Amarna in Egypt uncovered the diplomatic correspondence of Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his son, Akhenaten. Two of the letters from a "kingdom of "Kheta""—apparently located in the same general region as the Mesopotamian references to "land of "Hatti""—were written in standard Akkadian cuneiform, but in an unknown language; although scholars could interpret its sounds, no one could understand it. Shortly after this, Sayce proposed that "Hatti" or "Khatti" in Anatolia was identical with the "kingdom of "Kheta"" mentioned in these Egyptian texts, as well as with the biblical Hittites. Others, such as Max Müller, agreed that "Khatti" was probably "Kheta", but proposed connecting it with Biblical Kittim rather than with the Biblical Hittites. Sayce's identification came to be widely accepted over the course of the early 20th century; and the name "Hittite" has become attached to the civilization uncovered at Boğazköy.


title: Hittites

text: During sporadic excavations at Boğazköy (Hattusa) that began in 1906, the archaeologist Hugo Winckler found a royal archive with 10,000 tablets, inscribed in cuneiform Akkadian and the same unknown language as the Egyptian letters from "Kheta"—thus confirming the identity of the two names. He also proved that the ruins at Boğazköy were the remains of the capital of an empire that, at one point, controlled northern Syria.


title: Hittites

text: Under the direction of the German Archaeological Institute, excavations at Hattusa have been under way since 1907, with interruptions during the world wars. Kültepe was successfully excavated by Professor Tahsin Özgüç from 1948 until his death in 2005. Smaller scale excavations have also been carried out in the immediate surroundings of Hattusa, including the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, which contains numerous rock reliefs portraying the Hittite rulers and the gods of the Hittite pantheon.


title: Hittites

text: The Hittites used a variation of cuneiform called Hittite cuneiform. Archaeological expeditions to Hattusa have discovered entire sets of royal archives on cuneiform tablets, written either in Akkadian, the diplomatic language of the time, or in the various dialects of the Hittite confederation.


title: Hittites

text: The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, Turkey houses the richest collection of Hittite and Anatolian artifacts.


title: Hittites

text: The Hittite kingdom was centered on the lands surrounding Hattusa and Neša (Kültepe), known as "the land Hatti" (). After Hattusa was made capital, the area encompassed by the bend of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite "Marassantiya") was considered the core of the Empire, and some Hittite laws make a distinction between "this side of the river" and "that side of the river". For example, the reward for the capture of an escaped slave after he managed to flee beyond the Halys is higher than that for a slave caught before he could reach the river.


title: Hittites

text: To the west and south of the core territory lay the region known as "Luwiya" in the earliest Hittite texts. This terminology was replaced by the names Arzawa and Kizzuwatna with the rise of those kingdoms. Nevertheless, the Hittites continued to refer to the language that originated in these areas as Luwian. Prior to the rise of Kizzuwatna, the heart of that territory in Cilicia was first referred to by the Hittites as Adaniya. Upon its revolt from the Hittites during the reign of Ammuna, it assumed the name of Kizzuwatna and successfully expanded northward to encompass the lower Anti-Taurus Mountains as well. To the north, lived the mountainous people called the Kaskians. To the southeast of the Hittites lay the Hurrian empire of Mitanni. At its peak, during the reign of Muršili II, the Hittite empire stretched from Arzawa in the west to Mitanni in the east, many of the Kaskian territories to the north including Hayasa-Azzi in the far north-east, and on south into Canaan approximately as far as the southern border of Lebanon, incorporating all of these territories within its domain.


title: Hittites

text: The ancestors of the Hittites came into Anatolia between 4400 and 4100 BC, when the Anatolian language family split from (Proto)-Indo-European, as new genetic and archaeological research confirm that Proto-Anatolian speakers arrived to this region sometime between 5000 and 3000 BC. Later on, Proto-Hittite language was formed around 2100 BC, and Hittite language is known to have taken place in Central Anatolia between 20th and 12th centuries BC.


title: Hittites

text: The Hittites are first associated with the kingdom of Kussara sometime prior to 1750 BC. That name contains the "ku-sar-a" syllabary found in ethnonyms and place-names throughout the Near East and Central Asia. Kassites, Cossaei and Circassians are examples of the former, while Kashmir, Hindu Kush, Cherkessia, and Cissia and Al-Qassim Province are examples of the latter. This suggests a relation between the Hittites and Kassites who appeared in Babylonia at roughly the same time.


title: Hittites

text: Hittites in Anatolia during the Bronze Age coexisted with Hattians and Hurrians, either by means of conquest or by gradual assimilation. In archaeological terms, relationships of the Hittites to the Ezero culture of the Balkans and Maykop culture of the Caucasus had previously been considered within the migration framework.


title: Hittites

text: Although now it's firmly established that the movement was not through Balkans, but through Caucasus, previous analyses by David W. Anthony, concluded years ago that steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BC, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe. He thought their languages "probably included archaic Proto-Indo-European dialects of the kind partly preserved later in Anatolian," and that their descendants later moved into Anatolia at an unknown time but maybe as early as 3000 BC. J. P. Mallory also thought it was likely that the Anatolians reached the Near East from the north either via the Balkans or the Caucasus in the 3rd millennium BC. According to Parpola, the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe into Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite, was related to later migrations of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamnaya culture into the Danube Valley at c. 2800 BC, which was in line with the "customary" assumption that the Anatolian Indo-European language was introduced into Anatolia sometime in the third millennium BC. However, Petra Goedegebuure has shown that the Hittite language has borrowed many words related to agriculture from cultures on their eastern borders, which is strong evidence of having taken a route across the Caucasus.


title: Hittites

text: The dominant indigenous inhabitants in central Anatolia were Hurrians and Hattians who spoke non-Indo-European languages. Some have argued that Hattic was a Northwest Caucasian language, but its affiliation remains uncertain, whilst the Hurrian language was a near-isolate (i.e. it was one of only two or three languages in the Hurro-Urartian family). There were also Assyrian colonies in the region during the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BC); it was from the Assyrian speakers of Upper Mesopotamia that the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script. It took some time before the Hittites established themselves following the collapse of the Old Assyrian Empire in the mid-18th century BC, as is clear from some of the texts included here. For several centuries there were separate Hittite groups, usually centered on various cities. But then strong rulers with their center in Hattusa (modern Boğazkale) succeeded in bringing these together and conquering large parts of central Anatolia to establish the Hittite kingdom.