title: Bhediya (film)

text: The producer of film, Dinesh Vijan, confirmed that "Bhediya" is part of his horror comedy universe consisting of films like "Stree", "Roohi" and "Munjha". Munjha will be the prequel to 2018 film "Stree". The shooting for "Bhediya" is done in the regions of Arunachal Pradesh's Ziro (Lower Subansiri), Sagalee (Papum Pare) and parts of Pakke-Kessang district- over a span of two months, from March to April 2021. Over 70 percent of the artists in "Bhediya" are from Arunachal Pradesh, including a lead character, named Jomin. Besides that, Arunachal rapper K4 Kheko will also feature in the film. He has also sung and written the lyrics for the theme song of the film.


title: Bhediya (film)

text: During the shooting schedule, Varun Dhawan and his wife, designer Natasha Dalal donated to the victims of a massive fire in Arunachal Pradesh's Tirap and Longding districts in April 2021. Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh, Pema Khandu also visited the set in Ziro. The shooting schedule in Arunachal Pradesh completed on 19 April 2021. The film was wrapped up on 10 July 2021.


title: Bhediya (film)

text: The music of the film is composed by Sachin-Jigar while the lyrics are written by Amitabh Bhattacharya. The first single titled "Thumkeshwari" was released on 28 October 2022. The second single audio titled "Apna Bana Le will release on 5 November 2022 while it's video was released on 7 November 2022.


title: Bhediya (film)

text: The film was released theatrically on 25 November 2022 along with dubbed versions in Telugu (titled "Thodelu") and Tamil (titled "Onai"). The Hindi and the Telugu version were a huge commercial success at the box office while the Tamil version fared average at the box office due to lack of promotions and other straight Tamil films like "Kaari", "Pattathu Arasan" and "Agent Kannayiram" being released on the same day.


title: Bhediya (film)

text: "Bhediya" received positive reviews from critics. Amandeep Naang of "ABP News" rated the film 4 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Bhediya" is a mad ride of a horror-comedy which feels different in the current climate of remakes, thrillers and period dramas". Siby Jeyya of "India Herald" rated the film 4 out of 5 stars and wrote "The impact of the film's visuals is by far its most noteworthy aspect. The vfx are incredible, and cinematographer Jishnu Bhattacharjee has masterfully captured the dark and fascinating realm of werewolves with the backdrop of the full moon in the midnight sky, ziro jungles, and mountains". "Bollywood Hungama" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Bhediya" works due to its novel idea, memorable performances, captivating climax, and VFX". Dhaval Roy of "The Times Of India" rated the film 3.5 stars out of 5 and wrote " Director Amar Kaushik handles both genres skillfully in his latest outing and strikes a fine balance to deliver a movie that’s spine chilling in some instances, rib-tickling in almost all, and leaves you with something to think about." Tushar Joshi of "India Today" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Performances feel genuine and Kaushik’s USP of infusing humour and wit at the right moments helps in keeping the narrative engaging and entertaining". Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Bhediya" is both enjoyable and thought-provoking, is helped along by lively performances. Varun Dhawan gives the unconventional role his best shot. Abhishek Banerjee and Paalin Kabak are terrific as much with their comic timing as with their dramatic flourishes". Devesh Sharma of "Filmfare" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "The film’s creature effects and computer generated imagery is excellent. Cinematography and the background score are good as well".Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Varun Dhawan does a good job of aligning with the tone of the film-- the horror is pretty much ‘naam-ke-vaaste’, comedy is what it is interested in and does it well". Rohit Bhatnagar of "The Free Press Journal" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Bhediya" is a good one-time popcorn entertainment and a decent distraction from the monotony". Sonil Dedhia of "News 18" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Bhediya" has a message that resonates with current times. The film has its heart in the right place but it falters in its execution and writing". Sukanya Verma of "Rediff" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Varun Dhawan ups his entertainer game exponentially in "Bhediya"".


title: Bhediya (film)

text: In a less positive review, Anna M. M. Vetticad of Firstpost rated it 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, “Bhediya is not the first film in this world to sideline characters from social groups sidelined in reality, even while purportedly being about those communities... All the noble intentions in the world and even Abhishek Banerjee’s comedic genius cannot compensate for such mindlessness.” Himesh Mankad of "Pinkvilla" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Bhediya" rides primarily on the strength of gags, visual effects, and performances, but warranted a bigger conflict with regard to a hero and villain in the second half". Umesh Punwani of Koimoi rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "You'll come in for Varun Dhawan, but will stay back for Abhishek Banerjee"


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth Ann Hulette (November 19, 1960 – May 1, 2003), best known in professional wrestling circles as Miss Elizabeth, was an American professional wrestling manager, occasional professional wrestler and professional wrestling TV announcer. She gained international fame from 1985 to 1992 in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) and from 1996 to 2000 in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), in her role as the manager to wrestler "Macho Man" Randy Savage, as well as other wrestlers of that period. She died as a result of an acute toxicity on May 1, 2003, in the home she shared with wrestler Lex Luger.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Hulette was born in Frankfort, Kentucky. She graduated from the University of Kentucky with a degree in communications.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Hulette worked at International Championship Wrestling shows as a TV announcer. While there, she met Randall Poffo, who wrestled under the ring name "Macho Man" Randy Savage. They married in December 1984.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: On June 17, 1985, "Macho Man" Randy Savage debuted in the World Wrestling Federation. At that time, the WWF featured an angle in which all the managers in the promotion competed to offer their services to Savage. During a match on July 30, 1985, in Poughkeepsie, New York, several managers were at ringside in hopes that he would name one of them as his new manager. After the match, Savage thanked the managers for their consideration and then asked that his new manager come to ringside. An attractive, unnamed woman then came down to the ring, and announcer Gorilla Monsoon remarked, "She must be some sort of movie star," referring to her glamorous sex appeal. It was later revealed that her name was "Miss Elizabeth". Elizabeth's WWF debut was taped on July 30, 1985, and aired on the August 24, 1985 edition of "WWF Prime Time Wrestling". From that point on, she was the manager of Randy Savage. On February 8, 1986, at the Boston Garden she was in Savage's corner as he defeated Tito Santana for the WWF Intercontinental Championship.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Miss Elizabeth's first major angle was during Savage's feud with George "The Animal" Steele in 1986. In the angle, Steele fell in love with Elizabeth, angering Savage and leading to a series of grudge matches between him and Steele. Their feud was one of the WWF's most popular of the 1980s; it carried on for more than a year, thanks to the feral Steele's continued innocent crush on Elizabeth.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: After "injuring" Ricky Steamboat's larynx, Savage lost his WWF Intercontinental Championship to Steamboat at WrestleMania III on March 29, 1987. Steamboat later lost the title to The Honky Tonk Man, whose insistence that he was "the greatest Intercontinental Champion of all time" instigated a challenge from Savage, the former champion. In their match, which aired on "Saturday Night's Main Event XII" in September 1987, Honky shoved Elizabeth to the mat before assaulting Savage with a guitar. Elizabeth ran backstage and persuaded Hulk Hogan to rescue Savage, running off Honky and his allies, Bret "The Hitman" Hart and Jim "The Anvil" Neidhart. Throughout the Savage-Honky feud, a key point was Honky's claim that Elizabeth secretly wanted him more than Savage. In several of their matches, Honky would try to corner Elizabeth, although Savage would always beat him back. In other Savage-Honky matches, a woman named "Peggy Sue" (usually Sherri Martel, or a dressed-up Jimmy "Mouth of the South" Hart) would harass Elizabeth at ringside, creating an advantage for Honky. At the 1987 Slammy Awards, Honky named Elizabeth "Woman of the Year," but the honor was only to harass her and anger Savage; Savage quickly ran Honky off.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: In February 1988, Hulk Hogan, who had been the champion and the foundation upon which the WWF's popularity was built, lost the WWF World Heavyweight Championship to André the Giant. André then sold the belt to the "Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase due to an arrangement that they had prior to the match. President Jack Tunney declared that the title cannot be forfeited to another individual. A tournament was held at WrestleMania IV to declare a new champion, which Macho Man Randy Savage won, pinning DiBiase (with Hogan's help) in the finals. Throughout mid-1988, Elizabeth accompanied Savage to ringside for his lengthy series of title defences against DiBiase.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: At the inaugural SummerSlam event in August 1988, Savage and Hulk Hogan - dubbed the "Mega Powers" - teamed up against the Mega Bucks (André the Giant and Ted DiBiase) with Jesse "The Body" Ventura. Most of the pre-match build-up centered on Elizabeth, who by this time was at the peak of her popularity. The tease for the match was that if things got bad, Elizabeth, billed as the secret weapon of The Mega Powers, was going to wear an "itsy bitsy teeny weeny bikini" under her fancy clothes. Towards the end of match, André and DiBiase were in control, so Elizabeth got up on the apron and ripped her skirt off to reveal her panties which distracted André, DiBiase and Ventura, giving Savage and Hogan time to recover after being knocked out of the ring.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth became the catalyst in the uneasy – and ultimate breakup of – the Savage–Hogan relationship, particularly due to Hogan's overfriendly, overprotective attitude toward Elizabeth. At his behest, Elizabeth accompanied Hogan to ringside for several matches during the fall of 1988, including matches against King Haku, Akeem, and Bad News Brown that aired on "Saturday Night's Main Event XVII". In the match against Akeem, Elizabeth's safety was endangered by Akeem and his allies, Slick and Akeem's tag team partner, Big Boss Man when they began stalking Elizabeth. During a climactic point in the match where Hogan was being brutally beaten by Akeem, Big Boss Man grabbed Elizabeth and placed her in handcuffs, stopped only when Savage ran out to make the save; although he checked on Elizabeth's well-being, Savage appeared to be unconcerned about Hogan.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Concurrent with the Mega Powers' feud with the Twin Towers was Savage's feud with Bad News Brown. That feud started when Brown, during a guest appearance on "The Brother Love Show" talk segment, alleged that Elizabeth was "doing favors" for WWF President Jack Tunney (implying she wanted to protect Savage and his WWF World Heavyweight Championship reign from Brown). Savage quickly got revenge against Brown.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: The tension between Hogan and Savage continued to build at the 1989 Royal Rumble when Hogan "accidentally" eliminated Savage. An angered Savage then confronted Hogan in the ring, causing Elizabeth to rush to the ring to play the role of peacemaker. After the match was over, Jesse Ventura interviewed Savage and claimed he could see problems between the Mega Powers, something Savage unconvincingly denied.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Meanwhile, tension continued to build within the Mega Powers, and on "The Main Event II", aired live on February 3, 1989, Savage could no longer contain his growing anger toward Hogan. The sequence of events began when Akeem threw Savage onto Elizabeth, who was knocked unconscious from the force of the blow. Hogan immediately ran to Elizabeth's aid and, distraught and fearing the worst, carried her to the backstage area for medical attention; the match continued in the meantime, with Akeem and Big Boss Man working Savage over. Elizabeth eventually regained consciousness and asked Hogan to return to the ring. However, Savage, furious over being left to take a beating, slapped Hogan in the face and, after having some choice words, left him to face the Twin Towers alone (Hogan went on to win the match single handed). Following the match, Savage and Hogan had a loud verbal argument backstage while Elizabeth was receiving medical attention, which culminated with Savage striking Hogan with the championship belt and beating him down, thus splitting the Mega Powers.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: The dissolution of the Mega Powers led Hogan to challenge Savage for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship in the main event of WrestleMania V in April 1989. In the build-up to the event, Savage appeared in a series of televised promos accusing Hogan of "lusting after Elizabeth" with video footage of past incidents, edited in a context to push Hogan as a jealous, sore heel. Hogan responded by defending his behavior (with more complete footage from the same incidents, to push him as the face). After weeks of speculation as to whose corner she would stand in at WrestleMania V, Elizabeth announced she would stand in a "neutral" corner. During the Hogan-Savage match, Elizabeth got in the way of both wrestlers several times and was eventually sent from ringside; Hogan went on to win Savage's WWF World Heavyweight Championship. Following WrestleMania V, Savage ended his partnership with Miss Elizabeth, adopting Sensational Sherri as his new valet.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: For the remainder of 1989, Elizabeth's appearances were sporadic. She continued to mainly appear on the house show circuit managing Hulk Hogan in his matches with Randy Savage from April 1989 through October 1989. Elizabeth appeared at SummerSlam 1989, managing Hogan and Brutus Beefcake as they headlined the show against Savage and Zeus (accompanied by Sensational Sherri); Elizabeth, who rarely became physical with other wrestlers beforehand, tripped Sherri to prevent her from interfering at a critical point in the match. Elizabeth closed out 1989 managing Jim Duggan in his matches against Randy Savage and appearing on the Brother Love Show during house shows with Sherri Martel in November and December 1989. In addition to her appearances at ringside, Elizabeth also briefly co-hosted "WWF Wrestling Spotlight" with Vince McMahon.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: After Savage and Sherri began a heated feud with "The American Dream" Dusty Rhodes and Sapphire near the end of 1989, Miss Elizabeth joined forces with Rhodes and Sapphire at WrestleMania VI in April 1990, where the two couples were engaged in the WWF's first mixed tag team match. When Sherri attempted to help Savage double-team Rhodes, Miss Elizabeth grabbed Sherri by the hair. While the two women faced off, Sapphire took advantage of the situation, kneeling down behind Sherri just as Miss Elizabeth pushed her. Sherri lost her balance and gave Sapphire enough advantage to pin Sherri for the win. Elizabeth continued to appear on the house show circuit with Dusty Rhodes and Sapphire from May 1990 until August 1990 in mixed tag team matches against Randy Savage and Sherri Martel, with Savage and Sherri adding Brother Love to their corner to counteract Elizabeth. From August 1990, she took a hiatus from appearing at WWF events.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Miss Elizabeth did not appear on WWF television until WrestleMania VII in March 1991, where she was ringside for a retirement match between Savage and the Ultimate Warrior. After Savage lost the match, Sherri began beating and kicking the defeated Savage until Elizabeth entered the ring and defended Savage by grabbing Sherri by the hair and throwing her out of the ring. Savage punctuated the reunion by holding down the ring ropes for Elizabeth after years of her doing it for him.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: On June 17, 1991, during the taping of "WWF Superstars of Wrestling" in an in-ring segment with Gene Okerlund announcing, "Macho Man" Randy Savage proposed to Miss Elizabeth, which she accepted. The couple then held a heavily promoted on-air wedding billed as "the Match Made in Heaven" in August 1991, at SummerSlam 1991 (in actuality, the couple had married on December 30, 1984). At the wedding reception, Elizabeth opened a gift package containing a live snake, which frightened her; newly turned-heel Jake "The Snake" Roberts and the Undertaker crashed the reception and attacked Savage. This started a feud between Roberts and Savage, where Elizabeth quickly figured prominently. The first high-profile Savage-Roberts match was on December 3, 1991, at the Tuesday in Texas pay-per-view event, where, after Savage gained a pinfall victory, Roberts beat down Savage, then forced Elizabeth to beg him to stop the beating. Apparently dissatisfied with her begging, Roberts grabbed her by the hair and slapped her across her face. On the February 8, 1992 "Saturday Night's Main Event XXX", Roberts, with a steel chair in tow, was waiting in the backstage area for Elizabeth and Savage to come through the curtain after a match. Roberts was about to strike Elizabeth with the chair, but Undertaker stopped him. This started Undertaker's feud with his former ally.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: In early 1992, WWF Champion Ric Flair began to brag that he dated Elizabeth before Savage met her. Flair's tagline was, "She was mine before she was yours." He showed photos of himself with Elizabeth in casual situations, which were later printed in an issue of "WWF Magazine". It was later revealed that the photos were in fact pictures of Savage and Elizabeth, which Flair had doctored. Flair, with Mr. Perfect as his "executive consultant", said that they were going to show a nude photo of Elizabeth on the screen at WrestleMania VIII, although this did not occur. Nonetheless, Flair's claims set up his WrestleMania VIII match with Savage. During the match on April 5, 1992, Elizabeth made her way to ringside, against the wishes of WWF officials. After Savage pinned Flair to win the WWF Championship, an angry Flair cornered Elizabeth and forcibly began to kiss her; Elizabeth slapped Flair away, and Savage began beating Flair until ring officials separated them.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth's final WWF appearance took place at UK Rampage on April 19, 1992, during an overseas tour of England; in that match, Savage pinned Shawn Michaels after Elizabeth, who had earlier been sent backstage, returned to prevent Sherri's interference on Michaels' behalf. The Savage-Michaels match from England was aired on "WWF Prime Time Wrestling" in June; the publication of the actual Savage-Elizabeth photos in "WWF Magazine" came at about that same time. In August 1992, she and Savage divorced. After the decree was finalized late that summer, Savage issued a statement that was printed in "WWF Magazine" revealing that he and Elizabeth were no longer together and thanking the fans for their support through the years. The publication of Savage's statement marked, at the time, a rare acknowledgement of the wrestlers' private lives for both the WWF and its flagship publication. Savage continued with the WWF for two more years, and except for the statement in "WWF Magazine", his divorce from Elizabeth was neither referred to nor figured into any of Savage's future feuds. Elizabeth retired from wrestling and disappeared from the spotlight for a few years.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: On January 23, 1996, Miss Elizabeth returned to wrestling as manager for Randy Savage and Hulk Hogan at Clash of the Champions XXXII. Only 3 weeks later, on February 11, 1996, Elizabeth turned on Randy Savage by helping Ric Flair defeat him at SuperBrawl VI and then became Flair's co-manager in the Four Horsemen along with Woman.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: In September 1996, Elizabeth joined the New World Order (nWo) alongside Hulk Hogan, but seemed to still care deeply for her ex-husband, and eventually joined his side when he too joined the nWo in February 1997. During much of 1997, Randy Savage and Elizabeth feuded with Diamond Dallas Page and Kimberly Page. In May 1998 at Slamboree, Elizabeth joined nWo Wolfpac. In June 1998, she parted ways with Savage once again by joining nWo Hollywood. Then, she accompanied Eric Bischoff on his way to the ring for the next few months, and derided Savage. Savage coldly reminded her that he "got over her a long time ago" and did not need her.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: On the January 4, 1999 episode of "Nitro", Elizabeth was seen talking to police detectives. According to the storyline, she claimed that Goldberg was stalking her and that he even accosted her by the water cooler. She then filed charges against Goldberg. Goldberg was arrested later that night for aggravated stalking and taken into custody by police. However, later that night, Elizabeth admitted that she was lying. As it turned out, Elizabeth was a pawn for the nWo so that Goldberg would be unable to have his scheduled title match with Kevin Nash later that night. Due to Goldberg's apparent absence, the returning Hulk Hogan took Goldberg's title shot in the match.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth remained part of the New World Order until taking a leave of absence from WCW in April 1999.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: In September 1999, Elizabeth returned to WCW television as the manager of Lex Luger. Lex Luger, who was accompanied by Elizabeth at this time to ringside for single matches, was supposed to get ready for the tag team match against Konnan and Rey Mysterio Jr. with Miss Elizabeth's hair on the line and Rey Mysterio Jr.'s mask on the line at SuperBrawl IX with Kevin Nash as his tag team partner. However, on the February 18, 1999 edition of "WCW Thunder", at the E-Center in Salt Lake City, Utah, a limo pulled up and was driving along with Rey Mysterio Jr. with Lex Luger and Elizabeth inside. As Elizabeth and Lex Luger were getting out of the limo, Rey Mysterio Jr. grabbed the door and slammed it into Lex Luger's biceps, injuring him in the process. Lex Luger was immediately replaced by Scott Hall as Kevin Nash's tag team partner for the tag team match at Superbrawl IX.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: After Lex Luger recovered from his biceps injury, Elizabeth would make her return to WCW programming on the September 27, 1999 edition of "WCW Monday Nitro". Towards the end of 1999, Elizabeth became much more physically involved in the action than she had ever been. Her new vicious side would be ever so apparent at Starrcade 1999 when she struck Sting with his own baseball bat.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: In February 2000, Elizabeth managed the short-lived partnership between Lex Luger and Ric Flair. The three of them were known as Team Package. Shortly thereafter, Team Package went their separate ways as they fought various members of The New Blood.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth engaged in short-lived feuds with Vince Russo and Kimberly Page. On May 8, 2000, Elizabeth wrestled in her first official match against Daffney. Elizabeth worked with Kimberly Page for the remainder of May 2000.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth's final WCW appearance was on the May 29, 2000 edition of "WCW Monday Nitro" and Elizabeth quietly left World Championship Wrestling on August 17, 2000, when her contract with WCW expired.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth briefly married Cary Lubetsky, a South Florida attorney, on December 6, 1997. The wedding was held at the Cuban Hebrew Temple in Miami Beach. The marriage was short-lived, as the couple soon separated and were officially divorced on April 19, 1999.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth and Luger stayed together as a couple after leaving WCW in 2000. After her departure from wrestling, Hulette began working at the front desk at Main Event Fitness in Marietta, Georgia, a gym that Luger had owned for years after he and Steve Borden (Sting) opened it during their wrestling heyday.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Elizabeth was advertised to make her first wrestling appearance on television since her departure from WCW in 2000 during the World Wrestling All-Stars tour of Europe in November 2002 and December 2002 alongside Luger. She accompanied Luger on the tour overseas, but did not appear on a single show. Elizabeth never made another wrestling appearance on television after she left WCW. Lex Luger ended up winning and losing the WWA World Heavyweight Championship in matches with Sting during the tour.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: On April 19, 2003, Elizabeth was involved in a domestic dispute with Luger, who allegedly struck her in the garage of their townhouse in Marietta, Georgia. Cobb County police found Elizabeth with two bruised eyes, a bump on her head, and a cut lip. Luger was charged with a misdemeanor count of battery and released on $2,500 bond. Two days later on April 21, Luger was arrested for driving under the influence after rear-ending another car while driving his Porsche. According to the report on the arrest, Luger had slurred speech and bloodshot eyes and could not locate his driver's license. Luger had a 9mm Luger handgun in the car. Elizabeth was a passenger in the vehicle, and was sent home in a taxicab. Luger was also driving with a suspended license for not appearing in court on March 5, 2003, for a hearing on a previous offense – driving with expired tags and having no proof of vehicle insurance.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: Miss Elizabeth appeared in four WCW video games: "WCW/nWo Revenge", "WCW Nitro", "WCW/nWo Thunder" and "WCW Backstage Assault".


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: She has also appeared in three WWE video games as an NPC and made a cameo in the 1989 arcade game "WWF Superstars", "WWE 2K14" and "WWE 2K16" as a selectable manager.


title: Miss Elizabeth

text: On May 1, 2003, in Marietta, Georgia, Luger called 9-1-1 to report that Hulette was not breathing. She did not respond to mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, and paramedics rushed her to the WellStar Kennestone Hospital Emergency Room, where she was pronounced dead at the age of 42. A medical examiner listed the cause of death as "acute toxicity", brought on by a mix of painkillers and vodka. Her death was ruled an accident. Hulette was buried at Frankfort Cemetery.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Scarlet fever is an infectious disease resulting from a group A streptococcus (group A strep) infection (GAS), also known as "Streptococcus pyogenes". The signs and symptoms include a sore throat, fever, headache, swollen lymph nodes, and a characteristic rash. The rash generally looks red on white and pale skin, and might be difficult to visualise on brown or black skin. It typically feels like sandpaper and the tongue may be red and bumpy. It most commonly affects children between five and 15 years of age.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Scarlet fever affects a small number of people who have strep throat or streptococcal skin infections. The bacteria are usually spread by people coughing or sneezing. It can also be spread when a person touches an object that has the bacteria on it and then touches their mouth or nose. The characteristic rash of scarlet fever occurs as a result of capillary damage by erythrogenic toxin-producing GAS. The diagnosis is typically confirmed by culturing swabs of the throat.


title: Scarlet fever

text: There is no vaccine for scarlet fever. Prevention is by frequent handwashing, not sharing personal items, and staying away from other people when sick. The disease is treatable with antibiotics, which reduce symptoms and spread, and prevent most complications. Outcomes with scarlet fever are typically good if treated. Long-term complications as a result of scarlet fever include kidney disease, rheumatic heart disease, and arthritis. In the early 20th century it was a leading cause of death in children, but its severity was already declining before the Second World War and introduction of antibiotics, possibly as a result of better living conditions, introduction of control measures and a lower virulence of the bacteria.


title: Scarlet fever

text: There have been signs of antibiotic resistance, and there have been outbreaks in Hong Kong in 2011 and in the UK in 2014, with occurrence rising 68% in the UK in the four years up to 2018. Research published in October 2020 has shown that infection of the bacterium by three viruses has led to more virulent strains of the bacterium.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Scarlet fever is a widespread rash that occurs during a group A strep (GAS) infection. It typically presents with a sudden onset of sore throat, fever, headache, body ache, nausea, vomiting and a tummy ache. The characteristic rash usually appears one to two days later but may appear before or up to seven days following feeling sick. It generally hurts to swallow. Not all cases however, present with a fever, the degree of tiredness may vary, the sore throat and tongue changes might be slight or absent, and the rash can be patchy rather than diffuse in some. Cough, hoarseness, runny nose, diarrhea, and conjunctivitis are typically absent in scarlet fever; such symptoms indicate what is more likely a viral infection.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The Strep throat is usually associated with fatigue and a fever of over 39 °C (102.2 °F). The tonsils may appear red and enlarged and are typically covered in exudate. The throat may be red with small red spots on the roof of the mouth. The uvula can look red and swollen. 30% to 60% of cases have associated enlarged and tender lymph nodes in the neck. During the first two days of illness the tongue may have a whitish coating from which red swollen papillae protrude, giving the appearance of a "white strawberry tongue". After four to five days when the white coating sheds it becomes a "red strawberry tongue". The symptomatic appearance of the tongue is part of the rash that is characteristic of scarlet fever.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The characteristic rash has been denoted as "scarlatiniform", and it appears as a diffuse redness of the skin with small bumps resembling goose bumps. It typically appears as small flat spots on the neck or torso before developing into small bumps that spread to the arms and legs. It tends to feel rough like sandpaper. The cheeks might look flushed with a pale area around the mouth. The scarlet fever rash generally looks red on white and pale skin, and might be difficult to visualise on brown or black skin, in whom the bumps are typically larger, the skin less like sandpaper, and the perioral pallor less obvious. The palms and soles are spared. The reddened skin blanches when pressure is applied to it. The skin may feel itchy, but is not painful. A more intense redness on the inside of skin folds and creases might be noticed. These are lines of petechiae, appearing as pink/red areas located in arm pits and elbow pits. It takes around a week for the main rash to disappear. This may be followed by several weeks of peeling of the skin of typically fingers and toes. The desquamation process usually begins on the face and progresses downward on the body. Sometimes, this peeling is the only sign that scarlet fever occurred. If the case of scarlet fever is uncomplicated, recovery from the fever and clinical symptoms, other than the process of desquamation, occurs in 5–10 days. After the desquamation, the skin will be left with a sunburned appearance.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Children younger than five years old may have atypical presentations. Children younger than 3 years old can present with nasal congestion and a lower grade fever. Infants may present with symptoms of increased irritability and decreased appetite.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The complications, which can arise from scarlet fever when left untreated or inadequately treated, can be divided into two categories: suppurative and nonsuppurative.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Suppurative complications: These are rare complications that arise either from direct spread to structures that are close to the primary site of infection, or spread through the lymphatic system or blood. In the first case, scarlet fever may spread to the pharynx. Possible problems from this method of spread include peritonsillar or retropharyngeal abscesses, cellulitis, mastoiditis or sinusitis.


title: Scarlet fever

text: In the second case, the streptococcal infection may spread through the lymphatic system or the blood to areas of the body further away from the pharynx. A few examples of the many complications that can arise from those methods of spread include endocarditis, pneumonia, or meningitis.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Nonsuppurative complications: These complications arise from certain subtypes of group A streptococci that cause an autoimmune response in the body through what has been termed molecular mimicry. In these cases, the antibodies which the person's immune system developed to attack the group A streptococci are also able to attack the person's own tissues. The following complications result, depending on which tissues in the person's body are targeted by those antibodies.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Strep throat spreads by close contact among people, via respiratory droplets (for example, saliva or nasal discharge). A person in close contact with another person infected with group A streptococcal pharyngitis has a 35% chance of becoming infected. One in ten children who are infected with group A streptococcal pharyngitis will develop scarlet fever.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The rash of scarlet fever, which is what differentiates this disease from an isolated group A strep pharyngitis (or strep throat), is caused by specific strains of group A streptococcus which produce a pyrogenic exotoxin, mainly responsible for the skin manifestation of the infection. These toxin-producing strains cause scarlet fever in people who do not already have antitoxin antibodies. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins A, B, and C (speA, speB, and speC) have been identified. The pyrogenic exotoxins are also called erythrogenic toxins and cause the erythematous rash of scarlet fever. The strains of group A streptococcus that cause scarlet fever need specific bacteriophages for there to be pyrogenic exotoxin production. Specifically, bacteriophage T12 is responsible for the production of speA. Streptococcal Pyrogenic Exotoxin A, speA, is the one which is most commonly associated with cases of scarlet fever which are complicated by the immune-mediated sequelae acute rheumatic fever and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.


title: Scarlet fever

text: These toxins are also known as "superantigens" because they are able to cause an extensive immune response within the body through activation of some of the main cells responsible for the person's immune system. The body responds to these toxins by making antibodies to those specific toxins. However, those antibodies do not completely protect the person from future group A streptococcal infections, because there are 12 different pyrogenic exotoxins possible.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The disease is caused by secretion of pyrogenic exotoxins by the infecting "Streptococcus" bacteria. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A ("speA") is probably the best studied of these toxins. It is carried by the bacteriophage T12 which integrates into the streptococcal genome from where the toxin is transcribed. The phage itself integrates into a serine tRNA gene on the chromosome.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The T12 virus itself has not been placed into a taxon by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. It has a double-stranded DNA genome and on morphological grounds appears to be a member of the "Siphoviridae."


title: Scarlet fever

text: The "speA" gene was cloned and sequenced in 1986. It is 753 base pairs in length and encodes a 29.244 kiloDalton (kDa) protein. The protein contains a putative 30-


title: Scarlet fever

text: amino-acid signal peptide; removal of the signal sequence gives a predicted molecular weight of 25.787 kDa for the secreted protein. Both a promoter and a ribosome binding site (Shine-Dalgarno sequence) are present upstream of the gene. A transcriptional terminator is located 69 bases downstream from the translational termination codon. The carboxy terminal portion of the protein exhibits extensive homology with the carboxy terminus of "Staphylococcus aureus" enterotoxins B and C1.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Although the presentation of scarlet fever can be clinically diagnosed, further testing may be required to distinguish it from other illnesses. Also, history of a recent exposure to someone with strep throat can be useful in diagnosis. There are two methods used to confirm suspicion of scarlet fever; rapid antigen detection test and throat culture.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The rapid antigen detection test is a very specific test but not very sensitive. This means that if the result is positive (indicating that the group A strep antigen was detected and therefore confirming that the person has a group A strep pharyngitis), then it is appropriate to treat the people with scarlet fever with antibiotics. But, if the rapid antigen detection test is negative (indicating that they do not have group A strep pharyngitis), then a throat culture is required to confirm, as the first test could have yielded a false negative result. In the early 21st century, the throat culture is the current "gold standard" for diagnosis.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Serologic testing seeks evidence of the antibodies that the body produces against the streptococcal infection, including antistreptolysin-O and antideoxyribonuclease B. It takes the body 2–3 weeks to make these antibodies, so this type of testing is not useful for diagnosing a current infection. But, it is useful when assessing a person who may have one of the complications from a previous streptococcal infection.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Throat cultures done after antibiotic therapy can show if the infection has been removed. These throat swabs, however, are not indicated, because up to 25% of properly treated individuals can continue to carry the streptococcal infection while being asymptomatic.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Scarlet fever might appear similar to Kawasaki disease, which has a characteristic red but not white strawberry tongue, and staphylococcal scarlatina which does not have the strawberry tongue at all. Other conditions that might appear similar include impetigo, erysipelas, measles, chickenpox, and hand-foot-and-mouth disease, and may be distinguished by the pattern of symptoms.


title: Scarlet fever

text: One method is long-term use of antibiotics to prevent future group A streptococcal infections. This method is only indicated for people who have had complications like recurrent attacks of acute rheumatic fever or rheumatic heart disease. Antibiotics are limited in their ability to prevent these infections since there are a variety of subtypes of group A streptococci that can cause the infection.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The vaccine approach has a greater likelihood of effectively preventing group A streptococcal infections because vaccine formulations can target multiple subtypes of the bacteria. A vaccine developed by George and Gladys Dick in 1924 was discontinued due to poor efficacy and the introduction of antibiotics. Difficulties in vaccine development include the considerable strain variety of group A streptococci present in the environment and the amount of time and number of people needed for appropriate trials for safety and efficacy of any potential vaccine. There have been several attempts to create a vaccine in the past few decades. These vaccines, which are still in the development phase, expose the person to proteins present on the surface of the group A streptococci to activate an immune response that will prepare the person to fight and prevent future infections.


title: Scarlet fever

text: There used to be a diphtheria scarlet fever vaccine. It was, however, found not to be effective. This product was discontinued by the end of World War II.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Antibiotics to combat the streptococcal infection are the mainstay of treatment for scarlet fever. Prompt administration of appropriate antibiotics decreases the length of illness. Peeling of the outer layer of skin, however, will happen despite treatment. One of the main goals of treatment is to prevent the child from developing one of the suppurative or nonsuppurative complications, especially acute rheumatic fever. As long as antibiotics are started within nine days, it is very unlikely for the child to develop acute rheumatic fever. Antibiotic therapy has not been shown to prevent the development of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis. Another important reason for prompt treatment with antibiotics is the ability to prevent transmission of the infection between children. An infected individual is most likely to pass on the infection to another person during the first 2 weeks. A child is no longer contagious (able to pass the infection to another child) after 24 hours of antibiotics.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The antibiotic of choice is Penicillin V which is taken by mouth. In countries without a liquid Penicillin V product, children unable to take tablets can be given amoxicillin which comes in a liquid form and is equally effective. Duration of treatment is 10 days. Benzathine penicillin G can be given as a one time intramuscular injection as another alternative if swallowing pills is not possible. If the person is allergic to the family of antibiotics which both penicillin and amoxicillin are a part of (beta-lactam antibiotics), a first generation cephalosporin is used. Cephalosporin antibiotics, however, can still cause adverse reactions in people whose allergic reaction to penicillin is a Type 1 Hypersensitivity reaction. In those cases it is appropriate to choose clindamycin or erythromycin instead. Tonsillectomy, although once a reasonable treatment for recurrent streptococcal pharyngitis, is not indicated, as a person can still be infected with group A streptococcus without their tonsils.


title: Scarlet fever

text: A drug-resistant strain of scarlet fever, resistant to macrolide antibiotics such as erythromycin, but retaining drug-sensitivity to beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin, emerged in Hong Kong in 2011, accounting for at least two deaths in that city—the first such in over a decade. About 60% of circulating strains of the group A streptococcus that cause scarlet fever in Hong Kong are resistant to macrolide antibiotics, says Professor Kwok-yung Yuen, head of Hong Kong University's microbiology department. Previously, observed resistance rates had been 10–30%; the increase is likely the result of overuse of macrolide antibiotics in recent years.


title: Scarlet fever

text: There was also an outbreak in the UK in 2014, and the National Health Service reported a 68% increase in the number of "S. pyogenes" identified in laboratory reports between 2014 and 2018.


title: Scarlet fever

text: New research published in October 2020 in the journal that the bacterium appears to be getting more robust after being infected with viruses, specifically the North-East Asian serotype M12 (emm12) (group A Streptococcus, GAS). They found three new genes, acquired from viruses, leading to the development of "superantigens" targeting white blood cells, leading to a more virulent strain of the bacterium.


title: Scarlet fever

text: A vaccine that will protect against the 180 to 200 types of bacteria causing the disease has been worked on for over 20 years, but a safe one had not yet been developed.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Scarlet fever occurs equally in both males and females. Children are most commonly infected, typically between 5–15 years old. Although streptococcal infections can happen at any time of year, infection rates peak in the winter and spring months, typically in colder climates.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The morbidity and mortality of scarlet fever has declined since the 18th and 19th century when there were epidemics caused by this disease. Around 1900 the mortality rate in multiple places reached 25%. The improvement in prognosis can be attributed to the use of penicillin in the treatment of this disease. The frequency of scarlet fever cases has also been declining over the past century. There have been several reported outbreaks of the disease in various countries in the past decade. The reason for these recent increases remains unclear in the medical community. Between 2013 and 2016 population rates of scarlet fever in England increased from 8.2 to 33.2 per 100,000 and hospital admissions for scarlet fever increased by 97%.


title: Scarlet fever

text: It is unclear when a description of this disease was first recorded. Hippocrates, writing around 400 BC, described the condition of a person with a reddened skin and fever.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The first unambiguous description of the disease in the medical literature appeared in the 1553 book "De Tumoribus praeter Naturam" by the Sicilian anatomist and physician Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia, where he referred to it as "rossalia". He also made a point to distinguish that this presentation had different characteristics from measles. It was redescribed by Johann Weyer during an epidemic in lower Germany between 1564 and 1565; he referred to it as "scarlatina anginosa". The first unequivocal description of scarlet fever appeared in a book by Joannes Coyttarus of Poitiers, , which was published in 1578 in Paris. Daniel Sennert of Wittenberg described the classical 'scarlatinal desquamation' in 1572 and was also the first to describe the early arthritis, scarlatinal dropsy, and ascites associated with the disease.


title: Scarlet fever

text: In 1675 the term that has been commonly used to refer to scarlet fever, "scarlatina", was written by Thomas Sydenham, an English physician.


title: Scarlet fever

text: In 1827, Richard Bright was the first to recognize the involvement of the renal system in scarlet fever.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The association between streptococci and disease was first described in 1874 by Theodor Billroth, discussing people with skin infections. Billroth also coined the genus name "Streptococcus". In 1884 Friedrich Julius Rosenbach edited the name to its current one, "Streptococcus pyogenes," after further looking at the bacteria in the skin lesions. The organism was first cultured in 1883 by the German surgeon Friedrich Fehleisen from erysipelas lesions.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Also in 1884, the German physician Friedrich Loeffler was the first to show the presence of streptococci in the throats of people with scarlet fever. Because not all people with pharyngeal streptococci developed scarlet fever, these findings remained controversial for some time. The association between streptococci and scarlet fever was confirmed by Alphonse Dochez and George and Gladys Dick in the early 1900s.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Also in 1884, the world's first convalescent home for people with scarlet fever was opened at Brockley Hill, Stanmore, founded by Mary Wardell.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Nil Filatov (in 1895) and Clement Dukes (in 1894) described an exanthematous disease which they thought was a form of rubella, but in 1900, Dukes described it as a separate illness which came to be known as Dukes' disease, Filatov's disease, or fourth disease. However, in 1979, Keith Powell identified it as in fact the same illness as the form of scarlet fever which is caused by staphylococcal exotoxin and is known as staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Scarlet fever serum from horses' blood was used in the treatment of children beginning in 1900 and reduced mortality rates significantly.


title: Scarlet fever

text: In 1906, the Austrian pediatrician Clemens von Pirquet postulated that disease-causing immune complexes were responsible for the nephritis that followed scarlet fever.


title: Scarlet fever

text: Bacteriophages were discovered in 1915 by Frederick Twort. His work was overlooked and bacteriophages were later rediscovered by Felix d'Herelle in 1917. The specific association of scarlet fever with the group A streptococci had to await the development of Lancefield's streptococcal grouping scheme in the 1920s. George and Gladys Dick showed that cell-free filtrates could induce the erythematous reaction characteristic of scarlet fever, proving that this reaction was due to a toxin. Karelitz and Stempien discovered that extracts from human serum globulin and placental globulin can be used as lightening agents for scarlet fever and this was used later as the basis for the Dick test. The association of scarlet fever and bacteriophages was described in 1926 by Cantacuzène (Ioan Cantacuzino) and Bonciu.


title: Scarlet fever

text: An antitoxin for scarlet fever was developed in 1924. The discovery of penicillin and its subsequent widespread use significantly reduced the mortality of this once-feared disease. The first toxin which causes this disease was cloned and sequenced in 1986 by Weeks and Ferretti.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The incidence of scarlet fever was reported to be increasing in countries including England, Wales, South Korea, Vietnam, China, and Hong Kong in the 2010s; the cause had not been established as of 2018. Cases were also reported to be increasing after the easing of restrictions due to the covid pandemic that started in 2020.


title: Scarlet fever

text: The Dick test, developed in 1924 by George F. Dick and Gladys Dick, was used to identify those susceptible to scarlet fever. The Dick test involved injecting a diluted strain of the streptococci known to cause scarlet fever; a reaction in the skin at the injection site identified people susceptible to developing scarlet fever. The reaction could be seen four hours after the injection, but was more noticeable after 24 hours. If no reaction was seen in the skin, then the person was assumed not to be at risk from the disease, having developed immunity to it.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: Royal Enfield is an Indian multinational motorcycle manufacturing company headquartered in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. The Royal Enfield brand, including its original English heritage, is the oldest global motorcycle brand in continuous production. The company operates manufacturing plants in Chennai in India. The first Royal Enfield motorcycle was built in 1901 by The Enfield Cycle Company of Redditch, Worcestershire, England, which was responsible for the design and original production of the Royal Enfield Bullet, the longest-lived motorcycle design in history. Licensed from the original English Royal Enfield by the indigenous Indian "Madras Motors", the company is now a subsidiary of Eicher Motors Limited, an Indian automaker. The company makes classic-looking motorcycles including the Royal Enfield Bullet, Classic 350, Royal Enfield Thunderbird, Meteor 350, Classic 500, Interceptor 650, Continental and many more. Royal Enfield also make adventurous and offroading motorcycles like Royal Enfield Himalayan. Their motorcycles are equipped with single-cylinder and twin-cylinder engines.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: After the Indian Independence Act 1947 the new government looked for a suitable motorcycle for its army to patrol the country's border. In 1952 the Royal Enfield Bullet was chosen as the most suitable bike for the job. In 1954, the government ordered 800 in units of the 350 cc model. In 1955, the Redditch company partnered with "Madras Motors" in India to form 'Enfield India' to assemble, under licence, the 350 cc Royal Enfield "Bullet" motorcycle in Madras (now called Chennai). The tooling was sold to Enfield India so that they could manufacture components. By 1962, all components were made in India. The Indian Enfield uses the 1960 engine (with metric bearing sizes), Royal Enfield still makes an essentially similar bike in the 350 cc and 500 cc models, along with several different models for different market segments.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: In 1990, Royal Enfield collaborated with the Eicher Group, an automotive company in India, and merged with it in 1994. Apart from bikes, Eicher Group is involved in the production and sales of commercial vehicles and automotive gears. Although Royal Enfield experienced difficulties in the 1990s, and ceased motorcycle production at their Jaipur factory in 2002, by 2013 the company opened a new primary factory in the Chennai suburb of Oragadam on the strength of increased demand for its motorcycles. This was followed in 2017 by the inauguration of another new factory of a similar size to the facility at Oragadam (capacity 600,000 vehicles per year) at Vallam Vadagal. The original factory at Tiruvottiyur became secondary, and continues to produce some limited-run motorcycle models.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: Flooding, produced by the heaviest rainfall in Chennai in over a century, caused Royal Enfield to cut production by 4,000 motorcycles in November 2015, followed by a shutdown of the plants in Thiruvottiyur and Oragadam on 1 December, as well as the company offices in Chennai. Production resumed at 50% capacity on 7 December and operations at both plants were back to normal on 14 December.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: Royal Enfield announced its first takeover of another company in May, 2015 with the purchase of a UK motorcycle design and manufacturing firm, Harris Performance Products, that had previously developed the chassis of the Royal Enfield Continental GT Cafe Racer. Harris work with the UK-based part of Royal Enfield's development team, who are based at the UK Technology Centre at Bruntingthorpe Proving Ground in Leicestershire. The team was established in January 2015, and moved into their new, purpose-built facility in May 2017. By the end of 2019, the team numbered 155 and carries out the full spectrum of design and development activities, from concept generation and clay design to engineering design, prototyping and validation.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: Royal Enfield currently sells motorcycles in more than 50 countries. Royal Enfield surpassed Harley-Davidson in global sales in 2015.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: In August 2015, Royal Enfield Motors announced it is establishing its North American headquarters and a dealership in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with the intention to offer three bikes, the Bullet 500, Classic 500 and Continental GT 535 Cafe Racer as they feel this engine size represents an under-served market. The dealership will be Royal Enfield's first company-owned store in the U.S., according to Rod Copes, president of Royal Enfield North America. The company wants to establish about 100 dealerships in American cities starting with Milwaukee.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: Later in August 2015, parent-business Eicher announced its entry in Indonesia as a part of its global strategy in the mid-sized (250–750 cc) motorcycle segment, initially starting retail operations from a dealership in Jakarta. From April to September, 2015, Royal Enfield's domestic sales were 50% higher than the previous year, despite a declining motorcycle market in India.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: Royal Enfield unveiled a 650 cc twin-cylinder engine at their Technology Centre, Harris Performance Products, in Leicestershire, England, in November 2017 to power a new generation of Royal Enfield motorcycles. It was showcased at the Milan Motorcycle Show on 7 November 2017 in Italy, where two motorcycles based on the engine, the Interceptor 650 and Continental GT 650 were revealed. Both models were introduced to the US market in November 2018 to positive reviews. The Interceptor is marketed as the INT650 in the United States where Honda has a trademark on the Interceptor name. During the years 2020–2021, the 650cc twins were the best-selling motorcycles in Great Britain.


title: Royal Enfield (India)

text: Royal Enfield launched a new lineup of cruiser motorcycles on 6 November 2020. It replaced the Thunderbird 350 and 350X series which were discontinued earlier that year. It uses a 349 cc single cylinder engine featuring a single overhead camshaft system (SOHC), and a completely new engine with fewer moving parts than the 346 cc of the Classic 350. It is the first Royal Enfield to offer the Tripper Navigation system.


title: Peritonitis

text: Peritonitis is inflammation of the localized or generalized peritoneum, the lining of the inner wall of the abdomen and cover of the abdominal organs. Symptoms may include severe pain, swelling of the abdomen, fever, or weight loss. One part or the entire abdomen may be tender. Complications may include shock and acute respiratory distress syndrome.


title: Peritonitis

text: Causes include perforation of the intestinal tract, pancreatitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, stomach ulcer, cirrhosis, or a ruptured appendix. Risk factors include ascites (the abnormal build-up of fluid in the abdomen) and peritoneal dialysis. Diagnosis is generally based on examination, blood tests, and medical imaging.


title: Peritonitis

text: Treatment often includes antibiotics, intravenous fluids, pain medication, and surgery. Other measures may include a nasogastric tube or blood transfusion. Without treatment death may occur within a few days. About 20% of people with cirrhosis who are hospitalized have peritonitis.


title: Peritonitis

text: The main manifestations of peritonitis are acute abdominal pain, abdominal tenderness, abdominal guarding, rigidity, which are exacerbated by moving the peritoneum, e.g., coughing (forced cough may be used as a test), flexing one's hips, or eliciting the Blumberg sign (meaning that pressing a hand on the abdomen elicits less pain than releasing the hand abruptly, which will aggravate the pain, as the peritoneum snaps back into place). Rigidity is highly specific for diagnosing peritonitis (specificity: 76–100%). The presence of these signs in a person is sometimes referred to as peritonism. The localization of these manifestations depends on whether peritonitis is localized (e.g., appendicitis or diverticulitis before perforation), or generalized to the whole abdomen. In either case, pain typically starts as a generalized abdominal pain (with involvement of poorly localizing visceral innervation of the visceral peritoneal layer), and may become localized later (with involvement of the somatic innervation of the parietal peritoneal layer). Peritonitis is an example of an acute abdomen.


title: Peritonitis

text: A diagnosis of peritonitis is based primarily on the clinical manifestations described above. Rigidity (involuntary contraction of the abdominal muscles) is the most specific exam finding for diagnosing peritonitis. If focal peritonitis is detected, further work-up should be done. If diffuse peritonitis is detected, then urgent surgical consultation should be obtained, and may warrant surgery without further investigations. Leukocytosis, hypokalemia, hypernatremia, and acidosis may be present, but they are not specific findings. Abdominal X-rays may reveal dilated, edematous intestines, although such X-rays are mainly useful to look for pneumoperitoneum, an indicator of gastrointestinal perforation. The role of whole-abdomen ultrasound examination is under study and is likely to expand in the future. Computed tomography (CT or CAT scanning) may be useful in differentiating causes of abdominal pain. If reasonable doubt still persists, an exploratory peritoneal lavage or laparoscopy may be performed. In people with ascites, a diagnosis of peritonitis is made via paracentesis (abdominal tap): More than 250 polymorphonuclear cells per μL is considered diagnostic. In addition, Gram stain is almost always negative, whereas culture of the peritoneal fluid can determine the microorganism responsible and determine their sensitivity to antimicrobial agents.


title: Peritonitis

text: In normal conditions, the peritoneum appears greyish and glistening; it becomes dull 2–4 hours after the onset of peritonitis, initially with scarce serous or slightly turbid fluid. Later on, the exudate becomes creamy and evidently suppurative; in people who are dehydrated, it also becomes very inspissated. The quantity of accumulated exudate varies widely. It may be spread to the whole peritoneum, or be walled off by the omentum and viscera. Inflammation features infiltration by neutrophils with fibrino-purulent exudation.


title: Peritonitis

text: If properly treated, typical cases of surgically correctable peritonitis (e.g., perforated peptic ulcer, appendicitis, and diverticulitis) have a mortality rate of about <10% in otherwise healthy people. The mortality rate rises to 35% in peritonitis patients who develop sepsis, and patients who have underlying renal insufficiency and complications have a higher mortality rate.


title: Peritonitis

text: The term "peritonitis" comes from Greek περιτόναιον "peritonaion" "peritoneum, abdominal membrane" and -itis "inflammation".


title: Pharaoh

text: Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: "pr ꜥꜣ"; ; Biblical Hebrew: "Parʿō") is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the annexation of Egypt by the Roman Empire in 30 BC. However, regardless of gender, "king" was the term used most frequently by the ancient Egyptians for their monarchs through the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty during the New Kingdom. The term "pharaoh" was not used contemporaneously for a ruler until a possible reference to Merneptah, c. 1210 BC during the Nineteenth Dynasty, nor consistently used until the decline and instability that began with the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty.


title: Pharaoh

text: In the early dynasties, ancient Egyptian kings had as many as three titles: the Horus, the Sedge and Bee ("nswt-bjtj"), and the Two Ladies or Nebty ("nbtj") name. The Golden Horus and the nomen and prenomen titles were added later.


title: Pharaoh

text: In Egyptian society, religion was central to everyday life. One of the roles of the king was as an intermediary between the deities and the people. The king thus was deputised for the deities in a role that was both as civil and religious administrator. The king owned all of the land in Egypt, enacted laws, collected taxes, and defended Egypt from invaders as the commander-in-chief of the army. Religiously, the king officiated over religious ceremonies and chose the sites of new temples. The king was responsible for maintaining Maat (mꜣꜥt), or cosmic order, balance, and justice, and part of this included going to war when necessary to defend the country or attacking others when it was believed that this would contribute to Maat, such as to obtain resources.


title: Pharaoh

text: During the early days prior to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Deshret or the "Red Crown", was a representation of the kingdom of Lower Egypt, while the Hedjet, the "White Crown", was worn by the kings of the kingdom of Upper Egypt. After the unification of both kingdoms into one united Egypt, the Pschent, the combination of both the red and white crowns was the official crown of kings. With time new headdresses were introduced during different dynasties such as the Khat, Nemes, Atef, Hemhem crown, and Khepresh. At times, a combination of these headdresses or crowns worn together was depicted.


title: Pharaoh

text: The word "pharaoh" ultimately derives from the Egyptian compound ', * "great house", written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs ' "house" and "" "column", here meaning "great" or "high". It was the title of the royal palace and was used only in larger phrases such as "smr pr-ꜥꜣ" "Courtier of the High House", with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the Twelfth Dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it Live, Prosper, and be in Health", but again only with reference to the royal palace and not a person.


title: Pharaoh

text: Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom, "pharaoh" became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where "pr ꜥꜣ" is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to the eighteenth dynasty king, Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353–1336 BC), that is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord". However, there is a possibility that the title "pr ꜥꜣ" first might have been applied personally to Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BC), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant may be confirmed to refer to that king. During the Eighteenth dynasty (sixteenth to fourteenth centuries BC) the title pharaoh was employed as a reverential designation of the ruler. About the late Twenty-first Dynasty (tenth century BC), however, instead of being used alone and originally just for the palace, it began to be added to the other titles before the name of the king, and from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BC, during the declining Third Intermediate Period) it was, at least in ordinary use, the only epithet prefixed to the royal appellative.


title: Pharaoh

text: From the Nineteenth dynasty onward "pr-ꜥꜣ" on its own, was used as regularly as ḥm, "Majesty". The term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler presiding in that building, particularly by the time of the Twenty-Second Dynasty and Twenty-third Dynasty.


title: Pharaoh

text: The first dated appearance of the title "pharaoh" being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun (tenth century BC) on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals, a religious document. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of "Pharaoh Siamun". This new practice was continued under his successor, Psusennes II, and the subsequent kings of the twenty-second dynasty. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of Amun", whom all Egyptologists concur was Shoshenq I—the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty—including Alan Gardiner in his original 1933 publication of this stela. Shoshenq I was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the traditional custom of referring to the sovereign as, "pr-ˤ3", continued in official Egyptian narratives.


title: Pharaoh

text: The title is reconstructed to have been pronounced in the Late Egyptian language, from which the Greek historian Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, . In the Hebrew Bible, the title also occurs as ; from that, in the Septuagint, , and then in Late Latin "pharaō", both "-n" stem nouns. The Qur'an likewise spells it "firʿawn" with "n" (here, always referring to the one evil king in the Book of Exodus story, by contrast to the good king in surah Yusuf's story). The Arabic combines the original ayin from Egyptian along with the "-n" ending from Greek.


title: Pharaoh

text: In English, the term was at first spelled "Pharao", but the translators of the King James Bible revived "Pharaoh" with "h" from the Hebrew. Meanwhile, in Egypt, evolved into Sahidic Coptic "pərro" and then "ərro" by mistaking "p-" as the definite article "the" (from ancient Egyptian "pꜣ").


title: Pharaoh

text: Other notable epithets are "nswt", translated to "king"; ḥm, "Majesty"; "jty" for "monarch or sovereign"; "nb" for "lord"; and "ḥqꜣ" for "ruler".


title: Pharaoh

text: Sceptres and staves were a general symbol of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos. Kings were also known to carry a staff, and Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called "mks"-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the "heqa"-sceptre, sometimes described as the shepherd's crook. The earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to prehistoric Egypt. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to Naqada III.


title: Pharaoh

text: Another scepter associated with the king is the "was"-sceptre. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head. The earliest known depictions of the "was"-scepter date to the First Dynasty. The "was"-scepter is shown in the hands of both kings and deities.


title: Pharaoh

text: The flail later was closely related to the "heqa"-scepter (the crook and flail), but in early representations the king was also depicted solely with the flail, as shown in a late pre-dynastic knife handle that is now in the Metropolitan museum, and on the Narmer Macehead.


title: Pharaoh

text: The earliest evidence known of the Uraeus—a rearing cobra—is from the reign of Den from the first dynasty. The cobra supposedly protected the king by spitting fire at its enemies.


title: Pharaoh

text: The red crown of Lower Egypt, the Deshret crown, dates back to pre-dynastic times and symbolised chief ruler. A red crown has been found on a pottery shard from Naqada, and later, Narmer is shown wearing the red crown on both the Narmer Macehead and the Narmer Palette.


title: Pharaoh

text: The white crown of Upper Egypt, the Hedjet, was worn in the Predynastic Period by Scorpion II, and, later, by Narmer.


title: Pharaoh

text: This is the combination of the Deshret and Hedjet crowns into a double crown, called the Pschent crown. It is first documented in the middle of the First Dynasty of Egypt. The earliest depiction may date to the reign of Djet, and is otherwise surely attested during the reign of Den.


title: Pharaoh

text: The "khat" headdress consists of a kind of "kerchief" whose end is tied similarly to a ponytail. The earliest depictions of the "khat" headdress comes from the reign of Den, but is not found again until the reign of Djoser.


title: Pharaoh

text: The Nemes headdress dates from the time of Djoser. It is the most common type of royal headgear depicted throughout Pharaonic Egypt. Any other type of crown, apart from the Khat headdress, has been commonly depicted on top of the Nemes. The statue from his Serdab in Saqqara shows the king wearing the "nemes" headdress.


title: Pharaoh

text: Osiris is shown to wear the Atef crown, which is an elaborate Hedjet with feathers and disks. Depictions of kings wearing the Atef crown originate from the Old Kingdom.


title: Pharaoh

text: The Hemhem crown is usually depicted on top of Nemes, Pschent, or Deshret crowns. It is an ornate, triple Atef with corkscrew sheep horns and usually two uraei. The depiction of this crown begins among New Kingdom rulers during the Early Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.


title: Pharaoh

text: Also called the blue crown, the Khepresh crown has been depicted in art since the New Kingdom. It is often depicted being worn in battle, but it was also frequently worn during ceremonies. It used to be called a war crown by many, but modern historians refrain from defining it thus.


title: Pharaoh

text: Egyptologist Bob Brier has noted that despite their widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. The tomb of Tutankhamun that was discovered largely intact, contained such royal regalia as a crook and flail, but no crown was found among his funerary equipment. Diadems have been discovered. It is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties and were used in rituals. Brier's speculation is that crowns were religious or state items, so a dead king likely could not retain a crown as a personal possession. The crowns may have been passed along to the successor, much as the crowns of modern monarchies.


title: Pharaoh

text: During the Early Dynastic Period kings had three titles. The Horus name is the oldest and dates to the late pre-dynastic period. The Nesu Bity name was added during the First Dynasty. The Nebty name (Two Ladies) was first introduced toward the end of the First Dynasty. The Golden falcon ("bik-nbw") name is not well understood. The prenomen and nomen were introduced later and are traditionally enclosed in a cartouche. By the Middle Kingdom, the official titulary of the ruler consisted of five names; Horus, Nebty, Golden Horus, nomen, and prenomen for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known.


title: Pharaoh

text: The Horus name was adopted by the king, when taking the throne. The name was written within a square frame representing the palace, named a serekh. The earliest known example of a serekh dates to the reign of king Ka, before the First Dynasty. The Horus name of several early kings expresses a relationship with Horus. Aha refers to "Horus the fighter", Djer refers to "Horus the strong", etc. Later kings express ideals of kingship in their Horus names. Khasekhemwy refers to "Horus: the two powers are at peace", while Nebra refers to "Horus, Lord of the Sun".


title: Pharaoh

text: The "Nesu Bity" name, also known as prenomen, was one of the new developments from the reign of Den. The name would follow the glyphs for the "Sedge and the Bee". The title is usually translated as king of Upper and Lower Egypt. The "nsw bity" name may have been the birth name of the king. It was often the name by which kings were recorded in the later annals and king lists.


title: Pharaoh

text: The earliest example of a "Nebty" (Two Ladies) name comes from the reign of king Aha from the First Dynasty. The title links the king with the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nekhbet and Wadjet. The title is preceded by the vulture (Nekhbet) and the cobra (Wadjet) standing on a basket (the neb sign).


title: Pharaoh

text: The Golden Horus or Golden Falcon name was preceded by a falcon on a gold or "nbw" sign. The title may have represented the divine status of the king. The Horus associated with gold may be referring to the idea that the bodies of the deities were made of gold and the pyramids and obelisks are representations of (golden) sun-rays. The gold sign may also be a reference to Nubt, the city of Set. This would suggest that the iconography represents Horus conquering Set.


title: Pharaoh

text: The prenomen and nomen were contained in a cartouche. The prenomen often followed the King of Upper and Lower Egypt ("nsw bity") or Lord of the Two Lands ("nebtawy") title. The prenomen often incorporated the name of Re. The nomen often followed the title, Son of Re ("sa-ra"), or the title, Lord of Appearances ("neb-kha").


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Daniel Dae Kim (born Kim Dae-hyun (); August 4, 1968) is an American actor. He is known for his roles as Jin-Soo Kwon in "Lost", Chin Ho Kelly in "Hawaii Five-0", Gavin Park in "Angel", and Johnny Gat in the "Saints Row" video game series. He also runs a production company, 3AD, which is currently producing the television series "The Good Doctor". He portrayed Ben Daimio in the superhero film "Hellboy" (2019) and provides the voice of Chief Benja in the Disney animated film "Raya and the Last Dragon" (2021).


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Kim was born in Busan, South Korea, the son of mother Jung Kim and father Dr. Doo-tae Kim, and moved to the United States with his family when he was one year old. He grew up in New York City, Easton, and Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. He graduated from Freedom High School in Bethlehem in the Lehigh Valley region of eastern Pennsylvania.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: In 1990, Kim graduated from Haverford College in Haverford, Pennsylvania with double bachelor's degrees in theater and political science. He went on to earn an MFA from New York University's Graduate Acting Program in 1996.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: After graduation, Kim made a name for himself playing numerous roles in a wide variety of television programs. He appeared in "" as a treasury agent as well as episodes of "", "", "Charmed", "The Shield", "Seinfeld", "NYPD Blue", and "ER". He was a regular on the short-lived "Babylon 5" spin-off "Crusade" and had recurring roles on "Angel" and "24". He also portrayed Dr. Tsi Chou in a 2008 miniseries based on the acclaimed Michael Crichton novel "The Andromeda Strain".


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Kim's film credits include a Shaolin monk in "American Shaolin" (1992), which enabled him to showcase his skills in Tae Kwon Do. Then came a small part in "Spider-Man 2" (2004) as a scientist working in Doctor Octavius' laboratory, and the drama "Crash" (2004). He also had minor roles in films such as "The Jackal" (1997), "For Love of the Game" (1999), "Hulk" (2003), and "The Cave" (2005).


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: From 2004 to 2010, Kim served as a regular cast member on the ABC series "Lost", in which he played Jin-Soo Kwon, a lowly Korean fisherman-turned-hitman who crashes onto a mysterious island with his wife, Sun-Hwa Kwon (Yunjin Kim). Since the role required him to speak exclusively in Korean, he said he was forced to quickly relearn the language, which he had not spoken with any great frequency since high school. He would go on to play the character up until the 2010 series finale. Throughout the show's run, he, along with his fellow cast members, received numerous accolades, including a 2006 Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Ensemble. He was individually honored with an AZN Asian Excellence Award, a Multicultural Prism Award, and a Vanguard Award from the Korean American Coalition, all for Outstanding Performance by an Actor. Kim was also named one of "People Magazine's" "Sexiest Men Alive" in 2005.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: In February 2010, shortly after "Lost"'s conclusion, it was announced that Kim would join the CBS reboot "Hawaii Five-0" as Chin Ho Kelly, the role originally made famous by actor Kam Fong. He was the first actor to be officially cast on the show. That series premiered on September 20, 2010, to strong ratings and solid critical acclaim.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: In addition to acting, Kim made his directorial debut with the "Hawaii Five-0" season five episode "Kuka'awale". He departed the show in late June 2017 prior to the eighth season due to a salary dispute with CBS. He had been seeking pay equality with co-stars Alex O'Loughlin and Scott Caan, but CBS would not agree to it.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Kim co-starred in "", the sequel to 2014's "Divergent", playing Jack Kang, the leader of the Candor faction.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: As the founder of the film and television production company 3AD, Kim in January 2014 signed a first-look development deal with CBS Television Studios, the first of its kind with an Asian-American actor. 3AD is currently producing the ABC television series "The Good Doctor", based on the 2013 South Korean series of the same name. He is an executive producer on "The Good Doctor" and joined the show during its second season in the role of chief of surgery, Dr. Jackson Han.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: In 2019, Kim played the role of Ben Daimio in the reboot film "Hellboy". He replaced Ed Skrein in the role to avoid a whitewashing controversy, as the character was Asian-American in the original comics. Kim provides the voice of Chief Benja in the Disney animated film "Raya and the Last Dragon", which was released in March 2021.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Kim is the voice of the character Johnny Gat for the "Saints Row" video game series. He provided the voice for Metron in the final two episodes of "Justice League Unlimited".


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: In a return to his theater roots, Kim played the King of Siam in Rodgers & Hammerstein's "The King and I" from June 12–28, 2009 at the Royal Albert Hall in London, England. In January 2016, it was announced Kim would make his Broadway debut as the King of Siam in Rodgers & Hammerstein's "The King and I" from May 3 – June 26, 2016, at the Lincoln Center Theatre in New York.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Kim has continued to split his time between Los Angeles and Hawaii, where he has been living with his wife and two sons. During the later seasons of "Lost", he continued his residency after being cast in "Hawaii Five-0". He served as a speaker at the 2014 University of Hawaii commencement ceremony.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: On March 19, 2020, Kim announced that he had tested positive for COVID-19. On March 30, 2020, Kim announced that he had recovered.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Kim is an avid collector of fine vintage watches. Some of his watches from his personal collection have been featured in some of his films.


title: Daniel Dae Kim

text: Kim has voiced concerns about Asian American discrimination in the United States. After testing positive for COVID-19, he spoke out against the xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic, stating: "Please, please stop the prejudice and senseless violence against Asian people. ... Yes, I'm Asian. And yes, I have coronavirus. But I did not get it from China, I got it in America. In New York City. Despite what certain political leaders want to call it, I don't consider the place where it's from as important as the people who are sick and dying."


title: Wine

text: Wine is an alcoholic drink typically made from fermented grapes. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the grape's growing environment (terroir), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. Wines not made from grapes involve fermentation of other crops including rice wine and other fruit wines such as plum, cherry, pomegranate, currant and elderberry.


title: Wine

text: Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the Caucasus region in today's Georgia (6000 BCE), Persia (5000 BCE), Italy and Armenia (4000 BCE). New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the indigenous peoples of the Americas, but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions in New Spain. Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions. Today, the five countries with the largest wine producing regions are in Italy, Spain, France, the United States, and China.


title: Wine

text: Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the Eucharist. Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spain, and France have heritages in connection to sacramental wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California.


title: Wine

text: The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia ( BCE), Iran (Persia) ( BCE), Armenia (c. 4100 BCE), and Sicily ( BCE). Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects.


title: Wine

text: The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BCE was found on the territory of modern Georgia. Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine elsewhere was relatively later, likely having taken place in the Southern Caucasus (which encompasses Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), or the West Asian region between Eastern Turkey, and northern Iran. The earliest known winery from 4100 BCE is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia.


title: Wine

text: A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce fermented drinks in ancient China in the early years of the seventh millennium BCE. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors of rice wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than "Vitis vinifera", which was introduced 6000 years later.


title: Wine

text: The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Mediterranean coast centered around modern day Lebanon (as well as including small parts of Israel/Palestine and coastal Syria); however, the Nuragic culture in Sardinia already had a custom of consuming wine before the arrival of the Phoenicians. The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with their cargoes of wine still intact, which were discovered by Robert Ballard As the first great traders in wine ("cherem"), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to retsina.


title: Wine

text: The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dating back to 515 BCE include carvings depicting soldiers from Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king, among them Armenians bringing their famous wine.


title: Wine

text: Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8th century BCE, but possibly relating earlier compositions), Alkman (7th century BCE), and others. In ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of Aten. Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE.


title: Wine

text: The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BCE writings of Chanakya, the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known as "madhu".


title: Wine

text: The ancient Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so wine could be produced locally rather than shipped over long distances. Some of these areas are now world-renowned for wine production. The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell. In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy required it for the Mass. Monks in France made wine for years, aging it in caves. An old English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted "bastardo" wine.


title: Wine

text: Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for a more palatable taste. This gave rise to modern viticulture in French wine, Italian wine, Spanish wine, and these wine grape traditions were brought into New World wine. For example, Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks to New Mexico in 1628 beginning the New Mexico wine heritage, these grapes were also brought to California which started the California wine industry. Thanks to Spanish wine culture, these two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, of wine of the United States. Viking sagas earlier mentioned a fantastic land filled with wild grapes and high-quality wine called precisely Vinland. Prior to the Spanish establishing their American wine grape traditions in California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines in Florida and Virginia respectively.


title: Wine

text: In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was Japanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe.


title: Wine

text: The English word "wine" comes from the Proto-Germanic "*winam", an early borrowing from the Latin "vinum", Georgian "ღვინო" ("ghvee-no"), "wine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *"win-o-" (cf. , "gini"; Ancient Greek: "oinos"; Aeolic Greek: "woinos"; Hittite: "wiyana"; Lycian: "oino"). The earliest attested terms referring to wine are the Mycenaean Greek "me-tu-wo ne-wo" (*), meaning "in (the month)" or "(festival) of the new wine", and "wo-no-wa-ti-si", meaning "wine garden", written in Linear B inscriptions. Linear B also includes, inter alia, an ideogram for wine, i.e. .


title: Wine

text: The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g. Armenian "gini", Latin "vinum", Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино ), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian ღვინო ), and Semitic ("*wayn"; Hebrew יין ), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families. The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian *"ɣwino"-, which is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian *"ɣʷeinyo"-, whence Armenian "gini". An alternate hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *"ɣwino"-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *"ɣun"- ('to bend'). See *"ɣwino"- for more. All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location, South Caucasus, that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as the origin of viticulture.


title: Wine

text: The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's sweetness—all may be made sweet or dry.


title: Wine

text: Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, tannins) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes to soak in the extracted juice. Red wine is made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most red grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes from anthocyanins present in the skin of the grape. A notable exception is the family of rare "teinturier" varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.


title: Wine

text: To make white wine, grapes are pressed quickly with the juice immediately drained away from the grape skins. The grapes used are typically white grape varieties, though red grapes may be used if the winemaker is careful not to let the skin stain the wort during the separation of the pulp-juice. For example, pinot noir (a red grape) is commonly used in champagne.


title: Wine

text: Dry (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the juice, however sweet white wines such as Moscato d'Asti are also made.


title: Wine

text: A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. It may be the oldest known type of wine, as it is the most straightforward to make with the skin contact method. The color can range from a pale orange to a vivid near-purple, depending on the varietals used and wine-making techniques.


title: Wine

text: There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to stain the wort), saignée (removing juice from the must early in fermentation and continuing fermentation of the juice separately), and blending of a red and white wine (uncommon and discouraged in most wine growing regions). Rosé wines have a wide range of sweetness levels from dry Provençal rosé to sweet White Zinfandels and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide variety of grapes all over the world.


title: Wine

text: Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to soak during pressing, similar to red and rosé wine production. They are notably tannic, and usually made dry.


title: Wine

text: These are effervescent wines, made in any of the above styles (ie, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide, which creates the bubbles.


title: Wine

text: Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method, used for Cava, Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method, used for Prosecco, Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid "transfer method" is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.


title: Wine

text: The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork, which can be up to .


title: Wine

text: This refers to sweet wines that have a high level of sugar remaining after fermentation. There are various ways of increasing the amount of sugar in a wine, yielding products with different strengths and names. Icewine, Port, Sauternes, Tokaji Aszú, Trockenbeerenauslese, and Vin Santo are some examples.


title: Wine

text: Wines from other fruits, such as apples and berries, are usually named after the fruit from which they are produced, and combined with the word "wine" (for example, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine or country wine (similar to French term "vin de pays"). Other than the grape varieties traditionally used for wine-making, most fruits naturally lack either sufficient fermentable sugars, proper amount of acidity, yeast amounts needed to promote or maintain fermentation, or a combination of these three materials. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types, and why specific types of fruit wines have generally been confined to the regions in which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.


title: Wine

text: Mead, also called honey wine, is created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops. As long as the primary substance fermented is honey, the drink is considered mead. Mead was produced in ancient history throughout Europe, Africa and Asia, and was known in Europe before grape wine.


title: Wine

text: Other drinks called "wine", such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake, huangjiu and cheongju), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than traditional wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process. The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.


title: Wine

text: Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species "Vitis vinifera", such as Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay and Merlot. When one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as minimums of 75% to 85%), the result is a "varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine. Blended wines are not necessarily inferior to varietal wines, rather they are a different style of wine-making.


title: Wine

text: Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species. "V. labrusca" (of which the Concord grape is a cultivar), "V. aestivalis", "V. rupestris", "V. rotundifolia" and "V. riparia" are native North American grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam, or jelly, and only occasionally made into wine.


title: Wine

text: Hybridization is different from grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European "Vitis vinifera" vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except in Argentina and the Canary Islands – the only places not yet exposed to the insect.


title: Wine

text: In the context of wine production, "terroir" is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures. The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique "terroir". However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation,