title: Yaoi

text: While "yaoi" fandom in China traces back to the late 1990s as "danmei" (the Mandarin reading of the Japanese term "tanbi"), state regulations in China made it difficult for "danmei" writers to publish their works online, with a 2009 ordinance by the National Publishing Administration of China banning most "danmei" online fiction. In 2015, laws prohibiting depictions of same-sex relationships in television and film were implemented in China. The growth in streaming service providers in the 2010s is regarded as a driving force behind the production of BL dramas across Asia, as online distribution provides a platform for media containing non heterosexual material, which is frequently not permitted on broadcast television.


title: Yaoi

text: The protagonists of "yaoi" are often , "highly idealised" boys and young men who blend both masculine and feminine qualities. "Bishōnen" as a concept can be found disparately throughout East Asia, but its specific aesthetic manifestation in 1970s "shōjo" manga (and subsequently in "yaoi" manga) drew influence from popular culture of the era, including glam rock artists such as David Bowie, actor Björn Andrésen's portrayal of Thaddeus in the 1971 film adaptation of "Death in Venice", and kabuki "onnagata" Bandō Tamasaburō. Though "bishōnen" are not exclusive to "yaoi", the androgyny of "bishōnen" is often exploited to explore notions of sexuality and gender in "yaoi" works.


title: Yaoi

text: The late 2010s saw the increasing popularity of masculine men in "yaoi" that are reminiscent of the body types typical in gay manga, with growing emphasis on stories featuring muscular bodies and older characters. A 2017 survey by "yaoi" publisher Juné Manga found that while over 80% of their readership previously preferred "bishōnen" body types exclusively, 65% now enjoy both "bishōnen" and muscular body types. Critics and commentators have noted that this shift in preferences among "yaoi" readers, and subsequent creation of works that feature characteristics of both "yaoi" and gay manga, represents a blurring of the distinctions between the genres; anthropologist Thomas Baudinette notes in his fieldwork that gay men in Japan "saw no need to sharply disassociate BL from [gay manga] when discussing their consumption of 'gay media'."


title: Yaoi

text: The two participants in a "yaoi" relationship (and to a lesser extent in "yuri") are often referred to as and . These terms originated in martial arts, and were later appropriated as Japanese LGBT slang to refer to the insertive and receptive partners in anal sex. Aleardo Zanghellini suggests that the martial arts terms have special significance to a Japanese audience, as an archetype of the gay male relationship in Japan includes same-sex love between samurai and their companions. He suggests that the samurai archetype is responsible for age differences and hierarchical variations in power of some relationships portrayed in "yaoi" and boys' love.


title: Yaoi

text: The "seme" is often depicted as restrained, physically powerful, and protective; he is generally older and taller, with a stronger chin, shorter hair, smaller eyes, and a more stereotypically masculine and "macho" demeanour than the "uke". The "seme" usually pursues the "uke", who often has softer, androgynous, feminine features with bigger eyes and a smaller build, and is often physically weaker than the "seme". The roles of "seme" and "uke" can alternatively be established by who is dominant in the relationship; a character can take the "uke" role even if he is not presented as feminine, simply by being juxtaposed against and pursued by a more dominant and masculine character. Anal sex is ubiquitous in "yaoi", and is typically rendered explicitly and not merely implied; Zanghellini notes that illustrations of anal sex almost always position the characters to face each other rather than "doggy style", and that the "uke" rarely fellates the "seme", but instead receives the sexual and romantic attentions of the "seme".


title: Yaoi

text: Though McLelland notes that authors are typically "interested in exploring, not repudiating" the dynamics between the "seme" and "uke", not all works adhere to "seme" and "uke" tropes. The possibility of switching roles is often a source of playful teasing and sexual excitement for the characters, indicating an interest among many genre authors in exploring the performative nature of the roles. , a shorthand for "reversible" (リバーシブル), is used to describe couples where the "seme" and "uke" roles are not strictly defined. Occasionally, authors will forego the stylisations of the "seme" and "uke" to portray both lovers as "equally attractive handsome men", or will subvert expectations of dominance by depicting the active pursuer in the relationship as taking the passive role during sex. In other instances, the "uke" is portrayed as the aggressor in the relationship; in these instances, the roles are sometimes referred to as and .


title: Yaoi

text: Female characters often have minor roles in "yaoi", or are absent altogether. Suzuki notes that mothers in particular are often portrayed in a negative light; she suggests this is because the character and reader alike are seeking to substitute the absence of unconditional maternal love with the "forbidden" all-consuming love presented in "yaoi". In "yaoi" parodies based on existing works that include female characters, the female's role is typically either minimized or the character is killed off. Yukari Fujimoto noted that when "shōnen" manga is used as inspiration for "yaoi", that "it seems that "yaoi" readings and likeable female characters are mutually exclusive." Nariko Enomoto, a "yaoi" author, argues that women are typically not depicted in "yaoi" as their presence adds an element of realism that distracts from the fantasy narrative.


title: Yaoi

text: Since the late 2000s, women have appeared more frequently in "yaoi" works as supporting characters. Lunsing notes that early "shōnen-ai" and "yaoi" were often regarded as misogynistic, with the diminished role of female characters cited as evidence of the internalized misogyny of the genre's largely female readership. He suggests that the decline of these misogynistic representations over time is evidence that female "yaoi" readers "overcame this hate, possibly thanks to their involvement with "yaoi"."


title: Yaoi

text: "Yaoi" stories are often strongly homosocial, giving men freedom to bond and pursue shared goals together (as in "dojinshi" adaptations of "shōnen" manga), or to rival each other (as in "Embracing Love"). This spiritual bond and equal partnership is depicted as overcoming the male-female gender hierarchy. As is typical in romance fiction, couples depicted in "yaoi" stories often must overcome obstacles that are emotional or psychological rather than physical. Akiko Mizoguchi notes that while early "yaoi" stories depicted homosexuality as a source of shame to heighten dramatic tension in this regard, beginning in the mid-2000s the genre began to depict gay identity with greater sensitivity and nuance, with series such as "Brilliant Blue" featuring stories of coming out and the characters' gradual acceptance within the wider community. "Yaoi" typically depicts Japanese society as more accepting of LGBT people than it is in reality, which Mizoguchi contends is a form of activism among "yaoi" authors. Some longer-form stories such as "Fake" and "" have the couple form a family unit, depicting them cohabiting and adopting children. It is also possible that they marry and have children, as in Omegaverse publications. Fujimoto cites "Ossan's Love" (2016–2018) and other BL television dramas that emerged in the 2010s as a "'missing link' to bridge the gap between BL fiction and gay people," arguing that when BL narratives are presented using human actors, it produces a "subconscious change in the perception of viewers" towards acceptance of homosexuality.


title: Yaoi

text: Although gay male characters are empowered in "yaoi", the genre rarely addresses the reality of socio-cultural homophobia. According to Hisako Miyoshi, vice editor-in-chief for Libre Publishing, while earlier "yaoi" focused "more on the homosexual way of life from a realistic perspective", over time the genre has become less realistic and more comedic, and the stories are "simply for entertainment". "Yaoi" manga often have fantastical, historical or futuristic settings, and many fans consider the genre to be escapist fiction. Homophobia, when it is presented as an issue at all, is used as a plot device to heighten drama, or to show the purity of the leads' love. Rachel Thorn has suggested that as "yaoi" is primarily a romance genre, its readers may be turned off by political themes such as homophobia. "Yaoi" author Makoto Tateno expressed scepticism that realistic depictions of gay men's lives would become common in "yaoi" "because girls like fiction more than realism". Alan Williams argues that the lack of a gay identity in "yaoi" is due to "yaoi" being postmodern, stating that "a common utterance in the genre—when a character claims that he is 'not gay, but just in love with a man'—has both homophobic (or modern) temporal undertones but also non-identitarian (postmodern) ones."


title: Yaoi

text: Rape fantasy is a theme commonly associated with "yaoi". Anal sex is understood as a means of expressing commitment to a partner, and in "yaoi", the "apparent violence" of rape is transformed into a "measure of passion". Rape scenes in "yaoi" are rarely presented as crimes with an assaulter and a victim: scenes where a "seme" rapes an "uke" are not depicted as symptomatic of the violent desires of the "seme", but rather as evidence of the uncontrollable attraction felt by the "seme" towards the "uke". Such scenes are often a plot device used to make the "uke" see the "seme" as more than just a good friend, and typically result in the "uke" falling in love with the "seme".


title: Yaoi

text: While Japanese society often shuns or looks down upon women who are raped in reality, the "yaoi" genre depicts men who are raped as still "imbued with innocence" and are typically still loved by their rapists after the act, a trope that may have originated with "Kaze to Ki no Uta". Kristy Valenti of "The Comics Journal" notes that rape narratives typically focus on how "irresistible" the "uke" is and how the "seme" "cannot control himself" in his presence, thus absolving the "seme" of responsibility for his rape of the "uke". She notes this is likely why the narrative climax of many "yaoi" stories depicts the "seme" recognizing, and taking responsibility for, his sexual desires. Conversely, some "yaoi" stories such as "Under Grand Hotel" subvert the rape fantasy trope entirely by presenting rape as a negative and traumatic act.


title: Yaoi

text: A 2012 survey of English-language "yaoi" fans found that just 15 percent of respondents reported that the presence of rape in "yaoi" media made them uncomfortable, as the majority of respondents could distinguish between the "fantasy, genre-driven rape" of "yaoi" and rape as a crime in reality. This "surprisingly high tolerance" for depictions of rape is contextualized by a content analysis, which found that just 13 percent of all original Japanese "yaoi" available commercially in English contains depictions of rape. These findings are argued as "possibly belying the perception that rape is almost ubiquitous in BL/"yaoi"."


title: Yaoi

text: Tragic narratives that focused on the suffering of the protagonists were popular early "June" stories, particularly stories that ended in one or both members of the central couple dying from suicide. By the mid-1990s, happy endings were more common; when tragic endings are shown, the cause is typically not an interpersonal conflict between the couple, but "the cruel and intrusive demands of an uncompromising outside world". Thorn theorizes that depictions of tragedy and abuse in "yaoi" exist to allow the audience "to come to terms in some way with their own experiences of abuse."


title: Yaoi

text: , also known as or is a genre focused on male same-sex love, as created primarily by gay men for a gay male audience. Gay manga typically focuses on masculine men with varying degrees of muscle, body fat, and body hair, in contrast to the androgynous "bishōnen" of "yaoi". Graham Kolbeins writes in "" that while "yaoi" can be understood as a primarily feminist phenomenon, in that it depicts sex that is free of the patriarchal trappings of heterosexual pornography, gay manga is primarily an expression of gay male identity. The early 2000s saw a degree of overlap between "yaoi" and gay manga in BDSM-themed publications: the "yaoi" BDSM anthology magazine had several male contributors, while several female "yaoi" authors have contributed stories to BDSM-themed gay manga anthologies or special issues, occasionally under male pen names.


title: Yaoi

text: Omegaverse is a male-male romance subgenre that originated in American "Star Trek" fandom that later emerged in the 2010s as a subgenre of both commercial and non-commercial "yaoi". Stories in the genre are premised on societies wherein humans are divided into a dominance hierarchy of dominant "alphas", neutral "betas", and submissive "omegas". These terms are derived from those used in ethology to describe social hierarchies in animals.


title: Yaoi

text: The dom/sub universe subgenre was introduced in 2017 and gained popularity in 2021. The subgenre uses BDSM elements and also drew influences from Omegaverse, particularly the caste system.


title: Yaoi

text: In 2003, 3.8% of weekly Japanese manga magazines were dedicated exclusively to BL. Notable ongoing and defunct magazines include "Be × Boy", "June", "Craft", "Chara", "Dear+", "Opera", "", and "Gush". Several of these magazines were established as companion publications to "shōjo" manga magazines, as they include material considered too explicit for an all-ages audience; "Ciel" was established as a companion to "Monthly Asuka", while "Dear+" was established as a companion to "Wings". A 2008 assessment estimated that the Japanese commercial BL market grossed approximately annually, with novel sales generating per month, manga generating per month, CDs generating per month, and video games generating per month. A 2010 report estimated that the Japanese BL market was worth approximately in both 2009 and 2010.


title: Yaoi

text: The (i.e., self-published fan works) subculture emerged contemporaneously with "yaoi" subculture and Western fan fiction culture in the 1970s. Characteristic similarities of fan works in both Japan and the West include non-adherence to a standard narrative structures and a particular popularity of science fiction themes. Early "yaoi" "dōjinshi" were amateur publications that were not controlled by media restrictions, were typically derivative works based on existing manga and anime, and were often written by teenagers for an adolescent audience. Several legitimate manga artists produce or produced "dōjinshi": the manga artist group Clamp began as an amateur "dōjinshi" circle creating "yaoi" works based on "Saint Seiya", while Kodaka Kazuma and Fumi Yoshinaga have produced "dōjinshi" concurrently with professionally-published works. Many publishing companies review "yaoi" "dōjinshi" to recruit talented amateurs; this practice has led to careers in mainstream manga for Youka Nitta, Shungiku Nakamura, and others.


title: Yaoi

text: Typically, "yaoi" "dōjinshi" feature male-male pairings from non-romantic manga and anime. Much of the material derives from male-oriented "shōnen" and "seinen" works, which contain close male-male friendships perceived by fans to imply elements of homoeroticism, such as with "Captain Tsubasa" and "Saint Seiya", two titles which popularized "yaoi" in the 1980s. "Weekly Shonen Jump" is known to have a large female readership who engage in "yaoi" readings; publishers of "shōnen" manga may create "homoerotic-themed" merchandise as fan service to their BL fans. "Yaoi" fans may ship any male-male pairing, sometimes pairing off a favourite character, or create a story about two original male characters and incorporate established characters into the story. Any male character may become the subject of a "yaoi" "dōjinshi", including characters from non-manga titles such as "Harry Potter" or "The Lord of the Rings", video games such as "Final Fantasy", or real people such as actors and politicians. Amateur authors may also create characters out of personifications of abstract concepts (as in the personification of countries in "") or complementary objects like salt and pepper. In Japan, the labeling of "yaoi" "dōjinshi" is typically composed of the two lead characters' names, separated by a multiplication sign, with the "seme" being first and the "uke" being second.


title: Yaoi

text: Outside of Japan, the 2000 broadcast of "Mobile Suit Gundam Wing" in North America on Cartoon Network is noted as crucial to the development of Western "yaoi" fan works, particularly fan fiction. As "yaoi" fan fiction is often compared to the Western fan practice of slash, it is important to understand the subtle differences between them. Levi notes that "the youthful teen look that so easily translates into androgyny in boys' love manga, and allows for so many layered interpretations of sex and gender, is much harder for slash writers to achieve."


title: Yaoi

text: The first officially-licensed English-language translations of "yaoi" manga were published in the North American market in 2003; by 2006, there were roughly 130 English-translated "yaoi" works commercially available, and by 2007, over 10 publishers in North America published "yaoi". Notable current English-language publishers of "yaoi" include Viz Media under their SuBLime imprint, Digital Manga Publishing under their 801 Media and Juné imprints, Media Blasters under their Kitty Media imprint, Seven Seas Entertainment, and Tokyopop. Notable defunct English-language publishers of "yaoi" include Central Park Media under their Be Beautiful imprint, Broccoli under their Boysenberry imprint, and Aurora Publishing under their Deux Press imprint.


title: Yaoi

text: Among the 135 "yaoi" manga published in North America between 2003 and 2006, 14% were rated for readers aged 13 years or over, 39% were rated for readers aged 15 or older, and 47% were rated for readers age 18 and up. Restrictions among American booksellers often led publishers to label books conservatively, often rating books originally intended for a mid-teen readership as 18+ and distributing them in shrinkwrap. Diamond Comic Distributors valued the sales of "yaoi" manga in the United States at approximately US$6 million in 2007.


title: Yaoi

text: Marketing was significant in the transnational travel of "yaoi" from Japan to the United States, and led to "yaoi" to attract a following of LGBT fans in the United States. The 1994 original video animation adaptation of "" was distributed by Ariztical Entertainment, which specializes in LGBT cinema and marketed the title as "the first gay male anime to be released on DVD in the US." The film was reviewed in the American LGBT magazine "The Advocate", which compared the film to gay art house cinema.


title: Yaoi

text: A large portion of Western fans choose to pirate "yaoi" material because they are unable or unwilling to obtain it through sanctioned methods. Scanlations and other fan translation efforts of both commercially published Japanese works and amateur "dojinshi" are common.


title: Yaoi

text: When "yaoi" initially gained popularity in the United States in the early 2000s, several American artists began creating original English-language manga for female readers featuring male-male couples referred to as "American "yaoi"". The first known commercially published original English-language "yaoi" comic is "Sexual Espionage #1" by Daria McGrain, published by Sin Factory in May 2002. As international artists began creating "yaoi" works, the term "American "yaoi"" fell out of use and was replaced by terms like "original English language "yaoi"", "global "yaoi"", and "global BL". The majority of publishers creating original English-language "yaoi" manga are now defunct, including Yaoi Press, DramaQueen, and Iris Print. Digital Manga Publishing last published original English-language "yaoi" manga in 2012; outside of the United States, German publisher Carlsen Manga also published original "yaoi" works.


title: Yaoi

text: "Yaoi" audio dramas, occasionally referred to as "drama CDs", "sound dramas", or "BLCDs", are recorded voice performances of male-male romance scenarios performed by primarily male voice actors. They are typically adaptations of original "yaoi" manga and novels. The first "yaoi" audio dramas were released in the 1980s, beginning with "Tsuzumigafuchi" in 1988, which was published as a ""June" cassette". With the introduction of CDs, "yaoi" audio dramas continued to proliferate, peaking at 289 total "yaoi" CDs released in 2008, which dropped to 108 CDs in 2013.


title: Yaoi

text: While Japanese BL manga has been adapted into live action films and television dramas since the early 2000s, these works were marketed towards a niche audience of BL fans rather than towards a general audience. When these works were adapted for a general audience, same-sex romance elements were typically downplayed or removed entirely, as in the live-action television adaption of "Antique Bakery" that aired on Fuji TV in 2001. The development of Japanese live-action television dramas that focus on BL and same-sex romance themes explicitly was spurred by the critical and commercial success of the TV Asahi television drama "Ossan's Love" (2016), which features an all-male love triangle as its central plot conceit. While "Ossan's Love" is an original series, it influenced the creation of live-action BL works adpated from manga that are marketed towards mass audiences; notable examples include the television dramas "" (2018) on Fuji TV, "What Did You Eat Yesterday?" (2019) on TV Tokyo, and "Cherry Magic! Thirty Years of Virginity Can Make You a Wizard?!" (2020) on TV Tokyo, and the live-action film adaptation of "The Cornered Mouse Dreams of Cheese" (2020).


title: Yaoi

text: The Thai romantic drama film "Love of Siam" (2007), which features a gay male romance storyline, found unexpected mainstream success upon its release and grossed over TH฿40 million at the box office. This was followed by "" (2014–2015), the first Thai television series to feature two gay characters as the lead roles. Cultural anthropologist Thomas Baudinette argues that "Love Sick: The Series" represented a "watershed moment" in the depiction of queer romance in Thai media, exploring how the series adapted tropes from Japanese BL to create a new genre of media. While Japanese BL manga attracted an audience in Thailand as early as the 1990s, the success of "Love of Siam" and "Love Sick" kick-started the production of domestic BL dramas: between 2014 and 2020, 57 television series in the BL genre were produced and released in Thailand. Beginning in 2020, Thai BL dramas gained international recognition after the release of , which attracted widespread acclaim for its family-friendly themes, lighthearted plot, and positive depictions of gay men.


title: Yaoi

text: Major producers of Thai BL include GMMTV, a subsidiary of GMM Grammy, which has produced "2gether", "" (2016–2017), "Dark Blue Kiss" (2019), and "Theory of Love" (2019); and Line Corporation, which produces BL dramas in Thailand for distribution on its Line TV platform. The genre has seen some backlash from conservative elements in Thai society: in 2020, the National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission introduced new guidelines around material containing "sexually explicit or suggestive" scenes, while public broadcaster MCOT cancelled the BL series "Love by Chance" in 2018. Thai BL dramas are noted as having gained popularity in Indonesia, where LGBT representation in domestic television is less common; as well as in the Philippines, where many fans view BL as an originally Thai form of popular culture. It has been suggested that BL dramas could become a source of Thai cultural soft power in Southeast Asia and beyond.


title: Yaoi

text: Homosexuality is neither prohibited nor legally recognized in mainland China, and laws regarding the censorship of LGBT material are unevenly enforced; regardless, such content is "deemed sensitive and is inconsistently but regularly removed" from distribution. "Addicted" (2016), the first Chinese BL web series, accumulated 10 million views before being pulled from the streaming platform iQiyi. In reaction to state censorship, Chinese BL works typically depict male-male romance as homoerotic subtext: the web novel "Guardian" (2012) depicted a romance between its two lead male characters, though when it was adapted into a television drama on the streaming platform Youku in 2018, the relationship was rendered as a close, homoerotic friendship. The BL Xianxia novel "Mo Dao Zu Shi" (2015) was adapted into an animated series in 2018 and the live-action television series "The Untamed" in 2019, which similarly revise the nature of the relationship between the lead male characters. Despite this, "The Untamed" was praised for avoiding censorship while maintaining the "slow-burn heat" of the source material; fans of both "Guardian" and "The Untamed" discussed the series' gay content under the hashtag "socialist brotherhood" to avoid detection from state censors.


title: Yaoi

text: Boys' love and "yaoi" video games typically consist of visual novels or "eroge" oriented around male-male couples. The first "yaoi" game to receive an officially-licensed English-language release was "", published by JAST USA in 2006. That same year, the company published "Zettai Fukujuu Meirei" under the title "Absolute Obedience", while Hirameki International licensed "Animamundi"; the later game, although already nonexplicit, was censored for US release to achieve a "mature" rather than "adults only" ESRB rating, removing some of both the sexual and the violent content. Compared to "yaoi" manga, fewer "yaoi" games have been officially translated into English; the lack of interest by publishers in licensing further titles has been attributed to widespread copyright infringement of both licensed and unlicensed games.


title: Yaoi

text: Suzuki notes that "demographic analyses of BL media are underdeveloped and thus much needed in "yaoi"/BL studies," but acknowledges that "the overwhelming majority of BL readers are women." 80% of the "yaoi" audience is female, while the membership of Yaoi-Con, a now-defunct American "yaoi" convention, was 85% female. It is usually assumed that all female fans are heterosexual, but in Japan there is a presence of lesbian manga authors and lesbian, bisexual or questioning female readers. A 2008 survey of English-speaking readers of "yaoi" indicated that 50-60% of female readers self-identify as heterosexual.


title: Yaoi

text: Although the genre is marketed to and consumed primarily by girls and women, there is a gay, bisexual, and heterosexual male readership as well. A 2007 survey of "yaoi" readers among patrons of a United States library found about one quarter of respondents were male; two online surveys found approximately ten percent of the broader English-speaking "yaoi" readership were male. Lunsing suggests that younger Japanese gay men who are offended by "pornographic" content in gay men's magazines may prefer to read "yaoi" instead. Some gay men, however, are put off by the feminine art style or unrealistic depictions of LGBT culture in Japan and instead prefer gay manga, which some perceive to be more realistic. Lunsing notes that some of the "yaoi" narrative elements criticized by homosexual men, such as rape fantasies, misogyny, and characters' non-identification as gay, are also present in gay manga.


title: Yaoi

text: In the mid-1990s, estimates of the size of the Japanese "yaoi" fandom ranged from 100,000 to 500,000 people. By April 2005, a search for non-Japanese websites resulted in 785,000 English, 49,000 Spanish, 22,400 Korean, 11,900 Italian, and 6,900 Chinese sites. In January 2007, there were approximately five million hits for "yaoi".


title: Yaoi

text: Female fans of "yaoi" are often referred to as , a derogatory insult that was later reappropriated as a self-descriptive term. The male equivalent is or , both of which are puns of similar construction to "fujoshi".


title: Yaoi

text: "Yaoi" has received considerable critical attention, especially after translations of "yaoi" became commercially available outside Japan in the 21st century. In "Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics", the 1983 book by Frederik L. Schodt that was the first substantial English-language work on manga, Schodt observes that portrayals of gay male relationships had used and further developed bisexual themes already extant in manga to appeal to their female audience. Japanese critics have viewed boys' love as a genre that permits their audience to avoid adult female sexuality by distancing sex from their own bodies, as well as to create fluidity in perceptions of gender and sexuality and rejects "socially mandated" gender roles as a "first step toward feminism". Kazuko Suzuki, for example, believes that the audience's aversion to or contempt for masculine heterosexism is something which has consciously emerged as a result of the genre's popularity.


title: Yaoi

text: Mizoguchi, writing in 2003, feels that BL is a "female-gendered space", as the writers, readers, artists and most of the editors of BL are female. BL has been compared to romance novels by English-speaking librarians. In 2004, Paul Gravett summarized the dominant theories for the popularity of with a female audience: that Japanese women were disillusioned or bored with classic male-female relationships in fiction, that the populating the genre were a backlash against male sex fantasies of a feminized ideal of adolescent girls, that the genre offered a safe space for sexual fantasies with the free choice of identification figure in the relationship, and the boys of are interpreted by female readers as girls, thus making the stories expressions of readers' same-sex fantasies.


title: Yaoi

text: Other commentators have suggested that more radical gender-political issues underlie "yaoi". Parallels have been noted in the popularity of lesbianism in pornography, and "yaoi" has been called a form of "female fetishism". While early approaches to the popularity of the genre often referred to the role of women in patriarchal Japanese society, to which the genre offers a resistance and escape, this approach has been rejected by others who note that "yaoi" and "yaoi"-like media became popular outside of Japan in other social circumstances, such as slash fiction in the west. Against this background, theories emphasizing pleasure gained support: "yaoi" could be compared to pornography or even considered a specifically female form of pornography, appealing to desires for eroticism, voyeurism, or a desire to push against established gender roles. Mariko Ōhara, a science fiction writer, has said that she wrote "yaoi" Kirk/Spock fiction as a teen because she could not enjoy "conventional pornography, which had been made for men", and that she had found a "limitless freedom" in "yaoi", much like in science fiction.


title: Yaoi

text: In 1998, Shihomi Sakakibara asserted that "yaoi" fans, including himself, were gay transgender men. Sandra Buckley believes that "bishōnen" narratives champion "the imagined potentialities of alternative [gender] differentiations", while James Welker described the "bishōnen" character as "queer", commenting that manga critic Akiko Mizoguchi saw "shōnen-ai" as playing a role in how she herself had become a lesbian. Dru Pagliassotti sees this and the "yaoi ronsō" as indicating that for Japanese gay and lesbian readers, BL is not as far removed from reality as heterosexual female readers like to claim. Welker has also written that boys' love titles liberate the female audience "not just from patriarchy, but from gender dualism and heteronormativity".


title: Yaoi

text: Some gay and lesbian commentators have criticized how gay identity is portrayed in BL, most notably in the "yaoi ronsō" or ""yaoi" debate" of 1992–1997 (see above). A trope of "yaoi" that has attracted criticism is male protagonists who do not identify as gay, but are rather simply in love with each other, with Comiket co-founder Yoshihiro Yonezawa once describing "yaoi" "dōjinshi" as akin to "girls playing with dolls". This is said to heighten the theme of all-conquering love, but is also condemned as a means of avoiding acknowledgement of homophobia. Criticism of the stereotypically feminine behaviour of the "uke" has also been prominent.


title: Yaoi

text: Much of the criticism of "yaoi" originally rendered in the Japanese "yaoi" debate has similarly been voiced in the English-language fandom. Rachel Thorn has suggested that "yaoi" and slash fiction fans are discontented with "the standards of femininity to which they are expected to adhere and a social environment that does not validate or sympathize with that discontent".


title: Yaoi

text: "Yaoi" has been the subject of disputes on legal and moral grounds. Mark McLelland suggests that BL may become "a major battlefront for proponents and detractors of 'gender free' policies in employment, education and elsewhere", while "yaoi" artist Youka Nitta has said that "even in Japan, reading boys' love isn't something that parents encourage." In Thailand, the sale of unauthorized reproductions of "shōnen-ai" manga to teenagers in 2001 led to media coverage and a moral panic. In 2006, an email campaign pressuring the Sakai City Central Library to remove BL works from circulation attracted national media attention, and promoted a debate over removal of BL works constituted a form of discrimination. In 2010, the Osaka Prefectural Government included boys' love manga among with other books deemed potentially "harmful to minors" due to its sexual content, which resulted in several magazines prohibited from being sold to people under 18 years of age.


title: Yaoi

text: Anhui TV reported that in China, at least 20 young female authors writing "danmei" novels on an online novel website were arrested in 2014. In 2018, the pseudonymous Chinese BL novel author Tianyi was sentenced to ten-and-a-half years in prison under laws prohibiting the production of "obscene material for profit." Zanghellini notes that due to the "characteristics of the "yaoi"/BL genre" of showing characters who are often underage engaging in romantic and sexual situations, child pornography laws in Australia and Canada "may lend themselves to targeting "yaoi"/BL work". He notes that in the UK, cartoons are exempt from child pornography laws unless they are used for child grooming.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The chancellor of the Exchequer, often abbreviated to chancellor, is a senior minister of the Crown within the Government of the United Kingdom, and head of His Majesty's Treasury. As one of the four Great Offices of State, the Chancellor is a high-ranking member of the British Cabinet.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: Responsible for all economic and financial matters, the role is equivalent to that of a finance minister in other countries. The chancellor is now always Second Lord of the Treasury as one of at least six lords commissioners of the Treasury, responsible for executing the office of the Treasurer of the Exchequer the others are the prime minister and Commons government whips. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, it was common for the prime minister also to serve as Chancellor of the Exchequer if he sat in the Commons; the last Chancellor who was simultaneously prime minister and Chancellor of the Exchequer was Stanley Baldwin in 1923. Formerly, in cases when the chancellorship was vacant, the Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench would act as chancellor "pro tempore". The last Lord Chief Justice to serve in this way was Lord Denman in 1834.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The chancellor is the third-oldest major state office in English and British history, and in recent times has come to be the most powerful office in British politics after the prime minister. They originally carried responsibility for the Exchequer, the medieval English institution for the collection and auditing of royal revenues. The earliest surviving records which are the results of the exchequer's audit, date from 1129 to 1130 under King Henry I and show continuity from previous years. The Chancellor has oversight of fiscal policy, therefore of taxation and public spending across government departments. It previously controlled monetary policy as well until 1997, when the Bank of England was granted independent control of its interest rates.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: Since 1718, all chancellors of the exchequer, except at times the lord chief justice as interim holders, have been members of the House of Commons with Lord Stanhope being the last chancellor from the House of Lords.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The office holder works alongside the other Treasury ministers and the permanent secretary to the Treasury. The corresponding shadow minister is the shadow chancellor of the Exchequer, and the chancellor is also scrutinised by the Liberal Democrat Treasury spokesperson and the Treasury Select Committee.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The holder of the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer is "ex officio" Second Lord of the Treasury as a member of the commission exercising the ancient office of Treasurer of the Exchequer. As Second Lord, his official residence is 11 Downing Street in London, next door to the residence of the first lord of the Treasury (a title that has for many years been held by the prime minister), who resides in 10 Downing Street. While in the past both houses were private residences, today they serve as interlinked offices, with the occupant living in an apartment made from attic rooms previously resided in by servants.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: Since 1827, the chancellor has almost always held the office of Second Lord of the Treasury when that person has not also been the prime minister. A notable recent exception is Kwasi Kwarteng, whom Charles III appointed Second Lord on 18 October 2022, four days after Kwarteng had resigned the chancellorship.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: A previous chancellor, Robert Lowe, described the office in the following terms in the House of Commons, on 11 April 1870: "The Chancellor of the Exchequer is a man whose duties make him more or less of a taxing machine. He is entrusted with a certain amount of misery which it is his duty to distribute as fairly as he can."


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The chancellor has considerable control over other departments as it is the Treasury that sets Departmental Expenditure Limits. The amount of power this gives to an individual chancellor depends on their personal forcefulness, their status within their party and their relationship with the prime minister. Gordon Brown, who became chancellor when Labour came into Government in 1997, had a large personal power base in the party. Perhaps as a result, Tony Blair chose to keep him in the same position throughout his ten years as prime minister; making Brown an unusually dominant figure and the longest-serving chancellor since the Reform Act of 1832. This has strengthened a pre-existing trend towards the chancellor occupying a clear second position among government ministers, elevated above his traditional peers, the foreign secretary and home secretary.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: One part of the chancellor's key roles involves the framing of the annual year budget. As of 2017, the first is the Autumn Budget, also known as Budget Day which forecasts government spending in the next financial year and also announces new financial measures. The second is a Spring Statement, also known as a "mini-Budget". Britain's tax year has retained the old Julian end of year: 24 March (Old Style) / 5 April (New Style, i.e. Gregorian). From 1993, the Budget was in spring, preceded by an annual autumn statement. This was then called Pre-Budget Report. The Autumn Statement usually took place in November or December. The 1997, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2012 and 2016 budgets were all delivered on a Wednesday, summarised in a speech to the House of Commons.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The budget is a state secret until the chancellor reveals it in his speech to Parliament. Hugh Dalton, on his way to giving the budget speech in 1947, inadvertently blurted out key details to a newspaper reporter, and they appeared in print before he made his speech. Dalton was forced to resign.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: Although the Bank of England is responsible for setting interest rates, the chancellor also plays an important part in the monetary policy structure. He sets the inflation target which the Bank must set interest rates to meet. Under the Bank of England Act 1998 the chancellor has the power of appointment of four out of nine members of the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee – the so-called 'external' members. He also has a high level of influence over the appointment of the Bank's Governor and Deputy Governors, and has the right of consultation over the appointment of the two remaining MPC members from within the Bank. The Act also provides that the Government has the power to give instructions to the Bank on interest rates for a limited period in extreme circumstances. This power has never been officially used.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: At HM Treasury the chancellor is supported by a political team of four junior ministers and by permanent civil servants. The most important junior minister is the chief secretary to the Treasury, a member of the Cabinet, to whom the negotiations with other government departments on the details of government spending are delegated, followed by the paymaster general, the financial secretary to the Treasury and the economic secretary to the Treasury. Whilst not continuously in use, there can also be appointed a commercial secretary to the Treasury and an exchequer secretary to the Treasury. Two other officials are given the title of a secretary to the Treasury, although neither is a government minister in the Treasury: the parliamentary secretary to the Treasury is the Government Chief Whip in the House of Commons; the permanent secretary to the Treasury is not a minister but the senior civil servant in the Treasury.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The chancellor is obliged to be a member of the Privy Council, and thus is styled the Right Honourable (Rt. Hon.). Because the House of Lords is excluded from financial matters by tradition confirmed by the Parliament Acts, the office is effectively limited to members of the House of Commons; apart from the occasions when the lord chief justice of the King's Bench has acted as interim Chancellor. The last peer to hold the office was Henry Booth, 2nd Baron Delamer (created Earl of Warrington shortly after leaving office) from 9 April 1689 to 18 March 1690. The chancellor holds the formerly independent office of Master of the Mint as a subsidiary office.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The chancellor of the Exchequer has no official London residence as such but since 1828 in his role as Second Lord of the Treasury he lives in the second lord's official residence, No. 11 Downing Street. In 1997, the then first and second Lords, Tony Blair and Gordon Brown respectively, swapped apartments, as the Chancellor's apartment in No. 11 was bigger and thus better suited to the needs of Blair (who had children living with him, including one born during his tenure) than Brown who was at that stage unmarried.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: Dorneywood is the summer residence that is traditionally made available to the chancellor, though it is the prime minister who ultimately decides who may use it. Gordon Brown, on becoming chancellor in 1997, refused to use it and the house, which is set in of parkland, was allocated to Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott. It reverted to the chancellor in 2007, then Alistair Darling.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The chancellor traditionally carries his budget speech to the House of Commons in a particular red despatch Box. The chancellor's red briefcase is identical to the briefcases used by all other government ministers (known as ministerial boxes or "despatch boxes") to transport their official papers but is better known because the chancellor traditionally displays the briefcase, containing the budget speech, to the press in the morning before delivering the speech.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The original budget briefcase was first used by William Ewart Gladstone in 1853 and continued in use until 1965 when James Callaghan was the first chancellor to break with tradition when he used a newer box. Prior to Gladstone, a generic red despatch box of varying design and specification was used. The practice is said to have begun in the late 16th century, when Queen Elizabeth I's representative Francis Throckmorton presented the Spanish Ambassador, Bernardino de Mendoza, with a specially constructed red briefcase filled with black puddings.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: In July 1997, Gordon Brown became the second chancellor to use a new box for the Budget. Made by industrial trainees at Babcock Rosyth Defence Ltd ship and submarine dockyard in Fife, the new box is made of yellow pine, with a brass handle and lock, covered in scarlet leather and embossed with the Royal cypher and crest and the Chancellor's title. In his first Budget, in March 2008, Alistair Darling reverted to using the original budget briefcase and his successor, George Osborne, continued this tradition for his first budget, before announcing that it would be retired due to its fragile condition. The key to the original budget box has been lost.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: By tradition, the chancellor has been allowed to drink whatever they wish while making the annual budget speech to Parliament. This includes alcohol, which is otherwise banned under parliamentary rules.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: Previous chancellors have opted for whisky (Kenneth Clarke), gin and tonic (Geoffrey Howe), brandy and water (Benjamin Disraeli and John Major), spritzer (Nigel Lawson) and sherry and beaten egg (William Gladstone).


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The recent chancellors, Philip Hammond, George Osborne, Alistair Darling and Gordon Brown, opted for water. In fact Darling drank what was named "Standard Water" in reference to, and support of, the London "Evening Standard" newspaper's campaign to have plain tap water available in restaurants at no charge to customers.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: The chancellor, as Master of the Mint, has a robe of office, similar to that of the lord chancellor (as seen in several of the portraits depicted below). In recent times, it has only regularly been worn at coronations, but some chancellors (at least until the 1990s) have also worn it when attending the Trial of the Pyx as Master of the Mint. According to George Osborne, the robe (dating from Gladstone's time in office, and worn by the likes of Lloyd George and Churchill) 'went missing' during Gordon Brown's time as chancellor.


title: Chancellor of the Exchequer

text: Although the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland had been united by the Acts of Union 1800 (39 & 40 Geo. III c. 67), the Exchequers of the two Kingdoms were not consolidated until 1817 under 56 Geo. III c. 98. For the holders of the Irish office before this date, see Chancellor of the Exchequer of Ireland.


title: Carnival Row

text: Carnival Row is an American neo-noir fantasy television series created by René Echevarria and Travis Beacham, based on Beacham's unproduced film spec script, "A Killing on Carnival Row". The series stars Orlando Bloom, Cara Delevingne, Simon McBurney, Tamzin Merchant, David Gyasi, Andrew Gower, Karla Crome, Arty Froushan, Indira Varma, and Jared Harris. In the show, mythological beings must survive as oppressed refugees in human society as a detective works to solve murders.


title: Carnival Row

text: "Carnival Row" premiered its first season on Amazon Prime Video on August 30, 2019 in its entirety. In July 2019, Amazon renewed "Carnival Row" for a second season, which is set to premiere on February 17, 2023, and will serve as the series' final season.


title: Carnival Row

text: In "Carnival Row," "mythical creatures who have fled their war-torn homeland and gathered in the city as tensions are simmering between citizens and the growing immigrant population." There is an investigation into a string of unsolved murders, questions of madness of power, unresolved love, and social adjustments eating away at whatever uneasy peace exists.


title: Carnival Row

text: On January 9, 2015, Amazon signed a development deal for the series which, at the time had Guillermo del Toro on board as a co-writer, executive producer, and director. The series, set to be co-written by del Toro, Travis Beacham, and Rene Echeverria, is based on a feature film spec script written by Beacham, entitled "A Killing on Carnival Row". The company ordered three scripts with the expectation that if the series went into production del Toro would direct the first episode. On June 6, 2016, the production was given a pilot order with the previously announced creative team still set to be involved.


title: Carnival Row

text: On May 10, 2017, the production was given a series order with Beacham and Echeverria still executive producing, and with Echeverria expected to act as showrunner. Filmmaker Paul McGuigan was set to direct the series. By this point, del Toro had stepped away from the project, as his feature film schedule did not permit him to stay on as an executive producer as the project moved forward. On November 10, 2017, filmmaker Jon Amiel replaced McGuigan as director.


title: Carnival Row

text: In July 2019, Amazon renewed the series for a second season. In November 2022, Amazon announced that the second season would serve as the series' final.


title: Carnival Row

text: In August 2017, Orlando Bloom and Cara Delevingne were cast in the series' two lead roles. On September 22, 2017, it was reported that David Gyasi, Karla Crome, Indira Varma, and Tamzin Merchant had joined the main cast. In October 2017, it was announced that Simon McBurney, Alice Krige, and Jared Harris had been cast in recurring roles. On November 3, 2017, it was reported Ariyon Bakare was joining the series in a recurring capacity. On December 15, 2017, it was announced that Andrew Gower and Jamie Harris had been cast in recurring roles. On January 30, 2018, it was reported that Scott Reid had joined the cast as a series regular. On October 8, 2018, it was reported that Anna Rust had joined the cast in a recurring capacity.


title: Carnival Row

text: The series spent almost five months in pre-production before filming began. The series was shot entirely in the Czech Republic throughout 108 shooting days. Principal photography began in October 2017. Much of the work was done at the Barrandov Studios in Prague, while locations included the city of Liberec, the chateaux in Frýdlant and Krnsko, and at the Prachov Rocks (Prachovské skály) area. Filming for the first season concluded on March 14, 2018.


title: Carnival Row

text: Production on the second season commenced in November 2019, but was halted in March 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic. As of the first week of May, preparations for resumption of production were underway. However, by June 2020, Amazon had yet to resume production on the series. Upon production halting due to the pandemic, the production team were reportedly three weeks away from concluding filming for the season. Filming for the second season continued in August 2020 in the Czech Republic. Production for the second season again resumed in May 2021 in the Czech Republic to film the remaining scenes which involve Orlando Bloom, who was not available in 2020 due to the birth of his child.


title: Carnival Row

text: In a February 2021 interview, Tamzin Merchant revealed that only five out of eight episodes were wrapped up. Filming for the second season officially wrapped in September 2021.


title: Carnival Row

text: On June 3, 2019, it was announced that the series would premiere on August 30, 2019. The second season is set to premiere on February 17, 2023, with episodes releasing weekly in batches of two episodes.


title: Carnival Row

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Carnival Row" holds a 57% approval rating based on 68 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Beautiful, but bloated, "Carnival Row" boasts meticulously crafted mythology and luscious world building—unfortunately its story of haves and have nots simply has too much going on to create anything cohesive." On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Carnival Row

text: Sam Brooks of the New Zealand-based "The Spinoff" noted that the premise of the show is "a mish-mash of influences and inspirations, from Neil Gaiman to "Mortal Engines" (the novels not the film)".


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Timothy Treadwell (born Timothy William Dexter; April 29, 1957 – October 5, 2003) was an American bear enthusiast, environmentalist, documentary filmmaker, and founder of the bear-protection organization Grizzly People. He lived among coastal brown bears or grizzlies ("Ursus arctos") in Katmai National Park, Alaska for 13 summers.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: On October 5, 2003, Treadwell and his girlfriend Amie Huguenard were killed and almost fully eaten by a 28-year-old male bear, named "The Machine", whose stomach was later found to contain human remains and clothing.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Treadwell's life, work, and death were the subject of Werner Herzog's critically acclaimed documentary film "Grizzly Man" (2005).


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Treadwell was born in Mineola, Long Island, New York, one of five children of Valentine Dexter and Carol Ann (née Bartell). His father was of Lithuanian-Polish and Irish descent, the surname 'Dexter' having been anglicized from "Dukszta". His mother was of English background.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: He attended Connetquot High School, where he was the swimming team's star diver. He was very fond of animals and kept a squirrel named Willie as a pet. In an interview in "Grizzly Man" (2005), his parents say he was an ordinary young man until he went away to college. There, he claimed to be a British orphan and on another occasion that he was from Australia. According to this account, his father said Timothy "spiraled down" and became an alcoholic after he lost the role of Woody Boyd to Woody Harrelson in the sitcom "Cheers". In 1987, he legally changed his surname from Dexter to Treadwell, a name from his mother's family that he had used informally for some years.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: A lover of animals since he was a child, Treadwell decided to travel to Alaska to watch bears after a close friend convinced him to do so. He wrote that after his first encounter with a wild bear, he knew he had found his calling in life, and that now his destiny was entwined with those of the bears. Treadwell studied the bears during summer seasons for 13 years, before being killed by one of them. According to his book, "Among Grizzlies: Living with Wild Bears in Alaska", his mission to protect bears began in the late 1980s after surviving a near-fatal heroin overdose. He claims in his book that his drug addiction grew from his alcoholism and attributed his recovery from drug and alcohol addictions entirely to his relationship with bears.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Treadwell spent the early part of each season camping on the "Big Green", an open area of bear grass in Hallo Bay on the Katmai Coast. He called the area the "Grizzly Sanctuary". Treadwell was known for getting extremely close to the bears he observed, sometimes even touching them and playing with bear cubs. In his book, though, he claimed that he was always careful with the bears and actually developed a sense of mutual trust and respect with the animals. He habitually named the bears he encountered, and consistently saw many of the same bears each summer, so claimed to build a standing relationship with them.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: In contrast, Tom Smith, a research ecologist with the Alaska Science Center of the U.S. Geological Service declared that Treadwell "...was breaking every park rule that there was, in terms of distance to the bears, harassing wildlife, and interfering with natural processes. Right off the bat, his personal mission was at odds with the park service. He had been warned repeatedly." Referring to Treadwell's death, Smith concluded, "It's a tragic thing, but it's not unpredictable."


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: During the later part of each summer he would move to Kaflia Bay and camp in an area of especially thick brush he called the "Grizzly Maze". Here, the chances of crossing paths with wild bears were much higher, since the location intersected bear trails. Treadwell recorded almost 100 hours of video footage (some of which was later used to create the documentary "Grizzly Man") and produced a large collection of still photographs.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Treadwell claimed to be alone with the wildlife on several occasions in his videos. However, his girlfriend Amie was with him during parts of the last three summers (the documentary says two summers) and at the time of their deaths. Other women Treadwell dated who remain anonymous, also accompanied him on some expeditions.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: By 2001, Treadwell became sufficiently notable to receive extensive media attention both on television and in environmental circles, and he made frequent public appearances as an environmental activist. He traveled throughout the United States to educate school children about bears and appeared on the Discovery Channel, the "Late Show with David Letterman," and "Dateline NBC" to discuss his experiences.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: He also co-wrote "Among Grizzlies: Living with Wild Bears in Alaska" with Jewel Palovak (his co-worker with whom he lived for 20 years), which describes Treadwell's adventures on the Alaska Peninsula. Treadwell and Palovak founded Grizzly People, an organization devoted to protecting bears and preserving their wilderness habitat.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Naturalist Charlie Russell, who studied bears, raised them, and lived with them in Kamchatka, Russia, for a decade, worked with Treadwell. Russell advised Treadwell to carry pepper spray and use electric fences. He originally refrained from commenting on Treadwell after he was killed, but after "Grizzly Man" was released, he wrote a lengthy critique of Treadwell's failure to follow basic safety precautions. In spite of his criticism of Treadwell, Russell praised him for his devotion to bears and his ability to remain alive for so long. He defended him against people who criticized his work, writing, "If Timothy had spent those 13 years killing bears and guiding others to do the same, eventually being killed by one, he would have been remembered in Alaska with great admiration." Russell was critical of "Grizzly Man", saying it was unfair to Treadwell, and if Palovak "really was a protector of bears, she should have looked for a filmmaker who would have been sympathetic towards them."


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: According to the organization Treadwell founded, Grizzly People, five bears were poached in the year following his death, while none had been poached while he was present in Katmai. According to court records as reported by the "Anchorage Daily News", though, the guilty parties were charged with poaching wildlife along Funnel Creek in the preserve, an area open to hunting that borders the national park. According to several sources, including Nick Jans' book, "The Grizzly Maze", Treadwell camped only near the Katmai Coast, mainly in areas around Hallo Bay and Kaflia Bay, and never in or near the preserve. The only effective way to patrol all of Katmai National Park is by airplane, the method used by authorities.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Treadwell's years with the bears were not without disruption. Almost from the start, the National Park Service (NPS) expressed their worries about his behavior. The park's restrictions made him increasingly irate. According to the file kept on Treadwell by the NPS, rangers reported he had at least six violations from 1994 to 2003. Included among these violations were guiding tourists without a license, camping in the same area longer than the NPS's seven-day limit, improper food storage, wildlife harassment, and conflicts with visitors and their guides. Treadwell also frustrated authorities by refusing to install an electric fence around his camp and refusing to carry bear spray to use as a deterrent. However in his 1997 book, Treadwell relayed a story where he resorted to using bear mace on one occasion, but added that he had felt terrible grief over the pain he perceived it had caused the bear, and refused to use it on subsequent occasions.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: In October 2003, Treadwell and his girlfriend, physician assistant Amie Huguenard (born October 23, 1965, in Buffalo, New York), visited Katmai National Park, which is on the Alaska Peninsula across Shelikof Strait from Kodiak Island. In "Grizzly Man", Werner Herzog states that according to Treadwell's diaries, Huguenard feared bears and felt very uncomfortable in their presence. Her final journal entries indicated that she wanted to be away from Katmai. Treadwell set his campsite near a salmon stream where wild bears commonly feed in autumn. Treadwell was in the park later in the year than normal, at a time when bears attempt to gain as much fat as possible before winter. Food was scarce that autumn, causing the bears to be even more aggressive than usual.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Treadwell and Huguenard were to leave the park at his usual time of year, and had actually returned to Kodiak on September 26 to store their gear for the season and catch a connecting flight to return to their home in California. After an argument with the airline ticketer over the price of altering his return ticket, Treadwell and Huguenard made the decision to return to their campsite on September 29 for an additional week. Treadwell also wanted to locate a favorite female brown bear that he was concerned about. He said he hated modern civilization and felt better in nature with the bears than he did in big cities around humans. The bears he had been used to during the summer had already gone into hibernation, and bears that Treadwell did not know from other parts of the park were moving into the area. Some of the last footage taken by Treadwell, hours before his death, includes video of a bear diving into the river repeatedly for a piece of dead salmon. Treadwell mentioned in the footage that he did not feel entirely comfortable around that particular bear. In "Grizzly Man", Herzog speculates on whether Treadwell filmed the very bear that killed him.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: Around noon on Sunday, October 5, 2003, Treadwell spoke with an associate in Malibu, California, by satellite phone; Treadwell mentioned no problems with any bears. The next day, October 6, Willy Fulton, a Kodiak air taxi pilot, arrived at Treadwell and Huguenard's campsite to pick them up but found the area abandoned, except for a bear, and contacted the local park rangers. The couple's mangled remains were discovered quickly upon investigation. Treadwell's disfigured head, partial spine, and right forearm and hand, with his wristwatch still on, were recovered a short distance from the camp. Huguenard's partial remains were found next to the torn and collapsed tents, partially buried in a mound of twigs and dirt. A large male bear (tagged Bear 141) protecting the campsite was killed by park rangers during their attempt to retrieve the bodies. A second adolescent bear was also killed a short time later, when it charged the park rangers. An on-site necropsy of Bear 141 revealed human body parts such as fingers and limbs. The younger bear was consumed by other animals before it could be necropsied. In the 85-year history of Katmai National Park, this was the first known incident of a person being killed by a bear.


title: Timothy Treadwell

text: A video camera recovered at the site proved to have been operating during the attack, but police said that the six-minute tape contained only voices and cries as a brown bear mauled Treadwell to death. The tape begins with Treadwell yelling that he is being attacked. "Come out here; I'm being killed out here," he screams. The fact that the tape contained only sound led troopers to believe the attack might have happened while the camera was stuffed in a duffel bag or during the dark of night. In "Grizzly Man", filmmaker Herzog claims that the lens cap of the camera was left on, suggesting that Treadwell and Huguenard were in the process of setting up for another video sequence when the attack happened. The camera had been turned on just before the attack, but recorded only six minutes of audio before running out of tape. This, however, was enough time to record the bear's initial attack on Treadwell and his agonized screams, its retreat after Huguenard tells Treadwell to play dead, and when she attacked it, and its return to carry Treadwell off into the forest.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption may involve many activities which include bribery, influence peddling and the embezzlement and it may also involve practices which are legal in many countries. Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts with an official capacity for personal gain. Corruption is most common in kleptocracies, oligarchies, narco-states, and mafia states.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degrees and proportions. Each individual nation allocates domestic resources for the control and regulation of corruption and the deterrence of crime. Strategies which are undertaken in order to counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption. Additionally, global initiatives like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 also have a targeted goal which is supposed to substantially reduce corruption in all of its forms.


title: Corruption

text: Stephen D. Morris, a professor of politics, wrote that political corruption is the illegitimate use of public power to benefit a private interest. Economist Ian Senior defined corruption as an action to secretly provide a good or a service to a third party to influence certain actions which benefit the corrupt, a third party, or both in which the corrupt agent has authority.


title: Corruption

text: World Bank economist Daniel Kaufmann extended the concept to include "legal corruption" in which power is abused within the confines of the law—as those with power often have the ability to make laws for their protection. The effect of corruption in infrastructure is to increase costs and construction time, lower the quality and decrease the benefit.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption is a complex phenomenon and can occur on different scales. Corruption ranges from small favors between a small number of people (petty corruption), to corruption that affects the government on a large scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of society, including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime (systemic corruption).


title: Corruption

text: A number of indicators and tools have been developed which can measure different forms of corruption with increasing accuracy; but when those are impractical, one study suggests looking at bodyfat as a rough guide after finding that obesity of cabinet ministers in post-Soviet states was highly correlated with more accurate measures of corruption.


title: Corruption

text: Petty corruption occurs at a smaller scale and takes place at the implementation end of public services when public officials meet the public. For example, in many small places such as registration offices, police stations, state licensing boards, and many other private and government sectors.


title: Corruption

text: Grand corruption is defined as corruption occurring at the highest levels of government in a way that requires significant subversion of the political, legal and economic systems. Such corruption is commonly found in countries with authoritarian or dictatorial governments but also in those without adequate policing of corruption.


title: Corruption

text: The government system in many countries is divided into the legislative, executive and judicial branches in an attempt to provide independent services that are less subject to grand corruption due to their independence from one another.


title: Corruption

text: Systemic corruption (or endemic corruption) is corruption which is primarily due to the weaknesses of an organization or process. It can be contrasted with individual officials or agents who act corruptly within the system.


title: Corruption

text: Factors which encourage systemic corruption include conflicting incentives, discretionary powers; monopolistic powers; lack of transparency; low pay; and a culture of impunity. Specific acts of corruption include "bribery, extortion, and embezzlement" in a system where "corruption becomes the rule rather than the exception." Scholars distinguish between centralized and decentralized systemic corruption, depending on which level of state or government corruption takes place; in countries such as the Post-Soviet states both types occur.


title: Corruption

text: Some scholars argue that there is a negative duty of western governments to protect against systematic corruption of underdeveloped governments.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption has been a major issue in China, where society depends heavily on personal relationships. By the late 20th century that combined with the new lust for wealth, produced escalating corruption. Historian Keith Schoppa says that bribery was only one of the tools of Chinese corruption, which also included, "embezzlement, nepotism, smuggling, extortion, cronyism, kickbacks, deception, fraud, squandering of public money, illegal business transactions, stock manipulation and real estate fraud." Given the repeated anti-corruption campaigns it was a prudent precaution to move as much of the fraudulent money as possible overseas.


title: Corruption

text: As a Post-Soviet Union country - Armenia is also facing corruption-related issues. This has been transferred to Armenia as well as other Soviet Union Member Republics as a heritage. Armenia was a pleasant exception. After the Armenian Velvet Revolution in 2018 new government made the fight against corruption an official top priority. 'Anti-corruption Strategy' seemed to give results as it upgraded from 105th place in CPI score to 60th in just two years.


title: Corruption

text: In Latin American countries, corruption is permitted as a result of the cultural norms of the institution. In countries like the United States, there is a relatively strong sense of trust among strangers, one that is not found in Latin American countries. In Latin American countries, this trust does not exist, whereas the social norms imply that no stranger is responsible for the wellbeing or happiness of another stranger. Instead, the trust is found in acquaintances. Acquaintances are treated with trust and respect—a level of trust that is not found among acquaintances in countries like the United States. This is what permits for corruption in Latin American countries. If there is a strong enough trust within an administration that no one will betray the rest, corruptive policies will take place with ease. In the United States, this could not occur, as there is not a strong enough trust among the members of an administration to allow for corruption. In Latin American countries, there is a stronger value in individuality, which includes that of acquaintances, unlike in countries like the United States, which fails to include acquaintances.


title: Corruption

text: Per R. Klitgaard corruption will occur if the corrupt gain is greater than the penalty multiplied by the likelihood of being caught and prosecuted.


title: Corruption

text: Since a high degree of monopoly and discretion accompanied by a low degree of transparency does not automatically lead to corruption, a fourth variable of "morality" or "integrity" has been introduced by others. The moral dimension has an intrinsic component and refers to a "mentality problem", and an extrinsic component referring to circumstances like poverty, inadequate remuneration, inappropriate work conditions and inoperable or over-complicated procedures which demoralize people and let them search for "alternative" solutions.


title: Corruption

text: According to a 2017 survey study, the following factors have been attributed as causes of corruption:


title: Corruption

text: It has been noted that in a comparison of the most corrupt with the least corrupt countries, the former group contains nations with huge socio-economic inequalities, and the latter contains nations with a high degree of social and economic justice.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption can occur in many sectors, whether they be public or private industry or even NGOs (especially in public sector). However, only in democratically controlled institutions is there an interest of the public (owner) to develop internal mechanisms to fight active or passive corruption, whereas in private industry as well as in NGOs there is no public control. Therefore, the owners' investors' or sponsors' profits are largely decisive.


title: Corruption

text: Public corruption includes corruption of the political process and of government agencies such as tax collectors and the police, as well as corruption in processes of allocating public funds for contracts, grants, and hiring. Recent research by the World Bank suggests that who makes policy decisions (elected officials or bureaucrats) can be critical in determining the level of corruption because of the incentives different policy-makers face.


title: Corruption

text: Judicial corruption refers to the corruption-related misconduct of judges, through the receiving or giving of bribes, the improper sentencing of convicted criminals, bias in the hearing and judgement of arguments and other forms of misconduct. Judicial corruption can also be conducted by prosecutors and defense attorneys. An example of prosecutorial misconduct, occurs when a politician or a crime boss bribes a prosecutor to open investigations and file charges against an opposing politician or a rival crime boss, in order to hurt the competition.


title: Corruption

text: Governmental corruption of the judiciary is broadly known in many transitional and developing countries because the budget is almost completely controlled by the executive. The latter critically undermines the separation of powers, because it fosters financial dependence on the judiciary. The proper distribution of a nation's wealth, including its government's spending on the judiciary, is subject to constitutional economics.


title: Corruption

text: The judiciary may be corrupted by acts of the government, such as through budget planning and various privileges, and by private acts. Corruption in judiciary may also involve the government using its judicial arm to oppress opposition parties. Judicial corruption is difficult to completely eradicate, even in developed countries.


title: Corruption

text: Military corruption refers to the abuse of power by members in the armed forces, in order for career advancement or for personal gain by a soldier or soldiers. One form of military corruption in the United States Armed Forces, is a military soldier being promoted in rank or being given better treatment than their colleagues by their officers, due to their race, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, religious beliefs, social class or personal relationships with higher-ranking officers in spite of their merit. In addition to that, the US military has also had many instances of officers sexually assaulting fellow officers and in many cases, there were allegations that many of the attacks were covered up and victims were coerced to remain silent by officers of the same rank or of higher rank.


title: Corruption

text: Another example of military corruption, is a military officer or officers using the power of their positions to commit activities that are illegal, such as skimming logistical supplies such as food, medicine, fuel, body armor or weapons to sell on the local black market. There have also been instances of military officials, providing equipment and combat support to criminal syndicates, private military companies and terrorist groups, without approval from their superiors. As a result, many countries have a military police force to ensure that the military officers follow the laws and conduct of their respective countries but sometimes the military police have levels of corruption themselves.


title: Corruption

text: Within less democratic countries, the presence of resources such as diamonds, gold, oil, and forestry increases the prevalence of corruption. Corruption includes industrial corruption, consisting of large bribes, as well as petty corruption such as a poacher paying off a park ranger to ignore poaching. The presence of fuel extraction and export is unambiguously associated with corruption, whereas mineral exports only increased corruption in poorer countries. In wealthier countries, mineral exports such as gold and diamonds are actually associated with reduced corruption. The international Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative seeks to create best practices for good governance of gas, oil, and minerals, particularly focusing on the state management of revenue from these resources. Any valued natural resource can be affected by corruption, including water for irrigation, land for livestock grazing, forests for hunting and logging, and fisheries.


title: Corruption

text: The presence or perception of corruption also undermines environmental initiatives. In Kenya, farmers blame poor agricultural productivity on corruption, and thus are less likely to undertake soil conservation measures to prevent soil erosion and loss of nutrients. In Benin, mistrust of government due to perceived corruption led small farmers to reject the adaptation of measures to combat climate change.


title: Corruption

text: Political corruption is the abuse of public power, office, or resources by elected government officials for personal gain, by extortion, soliciting or offering bribes. It can also take the form of office holders maintaining themselves in office by purchasing votes by enacting laws which use taxpayers' money. Evidence suggests that corruption can have political consequences- with citizens being asked for bribes becoming less likely to identify with their country or region.


title: Corruption

text: The political act of graft (American English), is a well known and now global form of political corruption, being the unscrupulous and illegal use of a politician's authority for personal gain, when funds intended for public projects are intentionally misdirected in order to maximize the benefits to illegally private interests of the corrupted individual(s) and their cronies. In some cases government institutions are "repurposed" or shifted away from their official mandate to serve other, often corrupt purposes.


title: Corruption

text: The Kaunas golden toilet case was a major Lithuanian scandal. In 2009, the municipality of Kaunas (led by mayor Andrius Kupčinskas) ordered that a shipping container was to be converted into an outdoor toilet at a cost of 500,000 litai (around 150,000 euros). It was to also require 5,000 litai (1,500 euros) in monthly maintenance costs. At the same time when Kaunas's "Golden Toilet" was built, Kėdainiai tennis club acquired a very similar, but more advanced solution for 4,500 euros. Because of the inflated cost of the outdoor toilet, it was nicknamed the "Golden Toilet". Despite the investment, the "Golden Toilet" remained closed for years due to the dysfunctionality and was a subject of a lengthy anti-corruption investigation into those who had created it and the local municipality even considered demolishing the building at one point. The group of public servants involved in the toilet's procurement received various prison sentences for recklessness, malfeasance, misuse of power and document falsifications in a 2012 court case, but were cleared of their corruption charges and received compensation, which pushed the total construction cost and subsequent related financial losses to 352,000 euros.


title: Corruption

text: On 7 July 2020, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, a global think tank, released a report claiming the Emirati city, Dubai, of being an enabler of global corruption, crime and illicit financial flows. It stated that the global corrupt and criminal actors either operated through or from Dubai. The city was also called a haven for trade-based money laundering, as it gives space to free trade zones, with minimal regulatory laws and customs enforcement.


title: Corruption

text: A report in September 2022 revealed that the British MPs received a total of £828,211 over the period of eight years from countries forming the Saudi-led coalition, which was waging a war in Yemen. The money was granted in the form of all-expenses-paid trips to 96 MPs by Saudi Arabia (at least £319,406), Bahrain (£197,985), the United Arab Emirates (£187,251), Egypt (£66,695) and Kuwait (£56,872). MPs also received gifts, including a £500 food hamper, tickets for a Burns Supper, an expensive watch and a day out at the Royal Windsor Horse Show. The Saudi-led coalition was alleged of attempting to buy influence in the UK. While the MPs registered the trips and gifts at Westminster as per the rules, critics called it “absolutely shameful” to accept donations from countries with poor human rights records.


title: Corruption

text: Police corruption is a specific form of police misconduct designed to obtain financial benefits, personal gain, career advancement for a police officer or officers in exchange for not pursuing or selectively pursuing an investigation or arrest or aspects of the "thin blue line" itself where force members collude in lies to protect their precincts, unions and/or other law enforcement members from accountability. One common form of police corruption is soliciting or accepting bribes in exchange for not reporting organized drug or prostitution rings or other illegal activities. When civilians become witnesses to police brutality, officers are often known to respond by harassing and intimidating the witnesses as retribution for reporting the misconduct. Whistleblowing is not common in law enforcement, one of the main reasons being because officers who do so, normally face reprisal by being fired, being forced to transfer to another department, being demoted, being shunned, losing friends, not being given back-up during emergencies, receiving professional or even physical threats as well as having threats be made against friends or relatives of theirs or having their own misconduct exposed, in response to reporting the misconduct of other officers. In America another common form of police corruption, is when white supremacist groups, such as Neo-Nazi Skinheads or Neo-Confederates (such as the Ku Klux Klan), recruit members of law enforcement into their ranks or encourage their members to join local police departments to repress minorities and covertly promote white supremacy.


title: Corruption

text: Another example is police officers flouting the police code of conduct in order to secure convictions of suspects—for example, through the use of surveillance abuse, false confessions, police perjury and/or falsified evidence. Police officers have also been known to sell forms of contraband that were taken during seizers (such as confiscated drugs, stolen property or weapons). Corruption and misconduct can also be done by prison officers, such as the smuggling of contraband (such as drugs or electronics) into jails and prisons for inmates or the abuse of prisoners. Another form of misconduct is probation officers taking bribes in exchange for allowing paroles to violate the terms of their probation or abusing their paroles. More rarely, police officers may deliberately and systematically participate in organized crime themselves, either while on the job or during off hours. In most major cities, there are internal affairs sections to investigate suspected police corruption or misconduct. Similar entities include the British Independent Police Complaints Commission.


title: Corruption

text: Private sector corruption occurs when any institution, entity or person that is not controlled by the public sector company, household and institution that is not controlled by the public sector engages in corrupt acts. Private sector corruption may overlap with public sector corruption, for example when a private entity operates in conjunction with corrupt government officials, or where the government involves itself in activity normally performed by private entities.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption facilitated by lawyers is a well known form of judicial misconduct. Such abuse is called Attorney misconduct. Attorney misconduct can be either conducted by individuals acting on their own accord or by entire law firms. A well know example of such corruption are mob lawyers. Mob lawyers are attorneys who seek to protect the leaders of criminal enterprises as well as their criminal organizations, with the use of unethical and/or illegal conduct such as making false or misleading statements, hiding evidence from prosecutors, failing to disclose all relevant facts about the case, or even giving clients advice on how to commit crimes in ways that would make prosecution more difficult for any investigating authorities.


title: Corruption

text: In criminology, corporate crime refers to crimes committed either by a corporation (i.e., a business entity having a separate legal personality from the natural persons that manage its activities), or by individuals acting on behalf of a corporation or other business entity (see vicarious liability and corporate liability). Some negative behaviours by corporations may not be criminal; laws vary between jurisdictions. For example, some jurisdictions allow insider trading.


title: Corruption

text: Petróleo Brasileiro S.A. — Petrobras, more commonly known as simply Petrobras (), is a semi-public Brazilian multinational corporation in the petroleum industry headquartered in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The company's name translates to Brazilian Petroleum Corporation – Petrobras. The company was ranked No. 58 in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list. From 2014 to 2021, an investigation known as Operation Car Wash examined allegations of corporate and political collusion and corruption by Petrobras.


title: Corruption

text: Odebrecht is a privately held Brazilian conglomerate consisting of businesses in the fields of engineering, real estate, construction, chemicals and petrochemicals. The company was founded in 1944 in Salvador da Bahia by Norberto Odebrecht, and the firm is now present in South America, Central America, North America, the Caribbean, Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Its leading company is . Odebrecht is one of the 25 largest international construction companies and led by Odebrecht family.


title: Corruption

text: In 2016, the firm's executives were examined during Operation Car Wash part of an investigation over Odebrecht Organization bribes to executives of Petrobras, in exchange for contracts and influence. Operation Car Wash is an ongoing criminal money laundering and bribes related corporate crime investigation being carried out by the Federal Police of Brazil, Curitiba Branch, and judicially commanded by Judge Sérgio Moro since 17 March 2014.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption in education is a worldwide phenomenon. Corruption in admissions to universities is traditionally considered one of the most corrupt areas of the education sector. Recent attempts in some countries, such as Russia and Ukraine, to curb corruption in admissions through the abolition of university entrance examinations and introduction of standardized computer-graded tests have met backlash from part of society, while other appreciate changes. Vouchers for university entrants have never materialized. The cost of corruption is in that it impedes sustainable economic growth.


title: Corruption

text: Endemic corruption in educational institutions leads to the formation of sustainable corrupt hierarchies. While higher education in Russia is distinct with widespread bribery, corruption in the US and the UK features a significant amount of fraud. The US is distinct with grey areas and institutional corruption in the higher education sector. Authoritarian regimes, including those in the former Soviet republics, encourage educational corruption and control universities, especially during the election campaigns. This is typical for Russia, Ukraine, and Central Asian regimes, among others. The general public is well aware of the high level of corruption in colleges and universities, including thanks to the media. Doctoral education is no exception, with dissertations and doctoral degrees available for sale, including for politicians. Russian Parliament is notorious for "highly educated" MPs High levels of corruption are a result of universities not being able to break away from their Stalinist past, over bureaucratization, and a clear lack of university autonomy. Both quantitative and qualitative methodologies are employed to study education corruption, but the topic remains largely unattended by the scholars. In many societies and international organizations, education corruption remains a taboo.


title: Corruption

text: In some countries, such as certain eastern European countries, some Balkan countries and certain Asian countries, corruption occurs frequently in universities. This can include bribes to bypass bureaucratic procedures and bribing faculty for a grade. The willingness to engage in corruption such as accepting bribe money in exchange for grades decreases if individuals perceive such behavior as very objectionable, i.e. a violation of social norms and if they fear sanctions regarding the severity and probability of sanctions.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption, the abuse of entrusted power for private gain, as defined by Transparency International is systemic in the health sector.


title: Corruption

text: The characteristics of health systems with their concentrated supply of a service, high discretionary power of its members controlling the supply, and low accountability to others are the exact constellation of the variables described by Klitgaard, on which corruption depends.


title: Corruption

text: Corruption in health care poses a significant danger to the public welfare. It is widespread and yet, little has been published in medical journals about this topic and as of 2019 there is no evidence on what might reduce corruption in the health sector. Corruption occurs within the private and public health sectors and may appear as theft, embezzlement, nepotism, bribery up til extortion, or as undue influence. and occurs anywhere within the sector, be it in service provision, purchasing, construction and hiring. In 2019, Transparency International has described the 6 most common ways of service corruption as follows: absenteeism, informal payments from patients, embezzlement, inflating services also the costs of services, favouritism and manipulation of data (billing for goods and services that were never sent or done).


title: Corruption

text: Labor unions leaders may be involved in corrupt action or be influenced or controlled by criminal enterprises. For example, for many years


title: Corruption

text: "Arms for cash" can be done by either a state-sanctioned arms dealer, firm or state itself to another party it just regards as only a good business partner and not political kindred or allies, thus making them no better than regular gun runners. Arms smugglers, who are already into arms trafficking may work for them on the ground or with shipment. The money is often laundered and records are often destroyed.


title: Corruption

text: Payment can also be in strange or indirect ways like arms paid for in post-war oil contracts, post-war hotel ownership, conflict diamonds, corporate shares or the long term post-war promises of superfus future contracts between the parties involved in it, etc...


title: Corruption

text: In 2006 Transparency International ranked Angola a lowly 142 out of 163 countries in the Corruption Perception Index just after Venezuela and before the Republic of the Congo with a 2.2 rating. Angola was at 168th place (out of 178 countries) on Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), receiving a 1.9 on a scale from 0 to 10. On the World Bank's 2009 Worldwide Governance Index, Angola had done very poorly on all six aspects of governance assessed. While its score for political stability improved to 35.8 in 2009 (on a 100-point scale) from 19.2 in 2004, Angola earned especially low scores for accountability, regulatory standards, and rule of law. The score for corruption declined from an extremely low 6.3 in 2004 to 5.2 in 2009.


title: Corruption

text: The country is regarded poorly and that corruption is wounding the economy badly despite the emerging oil industries wealth.


title: Corruption

text: The Mitterrand–Pasqua affair, also known informally as Angolagate, was an international political scandal over the secret and illegal sale and shipment of arms from the nations of Central Europe to the government of Angola by the Government of France in the 1990s. It led to arrests and judiciary actions in the 2000s, involved an illegal arms sale to Angola despite a UN embargo, with business interests in France and elsewhere improperly obtaining a share of Angolan oil revenues. The scandal has subsequently been tied to several prominent figures in French politics.


title: Corruption

text: 42 individuals, including: 42 people, including Jean-Christophe Mitterrand, Jacques Attali, Charles Pasqua and Jean-Charles Marchiani, Pierre Falcone. Arcadi Gaydamak, Paul-Loup Sulitzer, Union for a Popular Movement deputy Georges Fenech, the son of François Mitterrand and a former French Minister of the Interior, were charged, accused, indicted or convicted with illegal arms trading, tax fraud, embezzlement, money laundering and other crimes. "


title: Corruption

text: The 19th-century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer acknowledged that academics, including philosophers, are subject to the same sources of corruption as the societies which they inhabit. He distinguished the corrupt "university" philosophers, whose "real concern is to earn with credit an honest livelihood for themselves and ... to enjoy a certain prestige in the eyes of the public" from the genuine philosopher, whose sole motive is to discover and bear witness to the truth.


title: Corruption

text: The history of religion includes numerous examples of religious leaders calling attention to the corruption which existed in the religious practices and institutions of their time. The Jewish prophets Isaiah and Amos berate the rabbinical establishment of Ancient Judea for failing to live up to the ideals of the Torah. In the New Testament, Jesus accuses the rabbinical establishment of his time of hypocritically following only the ceremonial parts of the Torah and neglecting the more important elements of justice, mercy and faithfulness. Corruption was one of the important issues which led to the Investiture Controversy. In 1517, Martin Luther accused the Catholic Church of widespread corruption, including the selling of indulgences.


title: Corruption

text: In 2015, Princeton University professor Kevin M. Kruse advances the thesis that business leaders in the 1930s and 1940s collaborated with clergymen, including James W. Fifield Jr., in order to develop and promote a new hermeneutical approach to Scripture which would de-emphasize the social Gospel and emphasize themes, such as individual salvation, which were more congenial to free enterprise.


title: Corruption

text: In systemic corruption and grand corruption, multiple methods of corruption are used concurrently with similar aims.


title: Corruption

text: Bribery involves the improper use of gifts and favours in exchange for personal gain. This is also known as kickbacks or, in the Middle East, as baksheesh. It is a common form of corruption. The types of favors given are diverse and may include money, gifts, real estate, promotions, sexual favors, employee benefits, company shares, privileges, entertainment, employment and political benefits. The personal gain that is given can be anything from actively giving preferential treatment to having an indiscretion or crime overlooked.


title: Corruption

text: Bribery can sometimes form a part of the systemic use of corruption for other ends, for example to perpetrate further corruption. Bribery can make officials more susceptible to blackmail or to extortion.


title: Corruption

text: Embezzlement and theft involve someone with access to funds or assets illegally taking control of them. Fraud involves using deception to convince the owner of funds or assets to give them up to an unauthorized party.


title: Corruption

text: Examples include the misdirection of company funds into "shadow companies" (and then into the pockets of corrupt employees), the skimming of foreign aid money, scams, electoral fraud and other corrupt activity.