title: Republic of Venice

text: War with the Ottomans resumed from 1499 to 1503. In 1499, Venice allied itself with Louis XII of France against Milan, gaining Cremona. In the same year, the Ottoman sultan moved to attack Lepanto by land, and sent a large fleet to support his offensive by sea. Antonio Grimani, more a businessman and diplomat than a sailor, was defeated in the sea battle of Zonchio in 1499. The Turks once again sacked Friuli. Preferring peace to total war both against the Turks and by sea, Venice surrendered the bases of Lepanto, Durazzo, Modon, and Coron.


title: Republic of Venice

text: Venice's attention was diverted from its usual maritime position by the delicate situation in Romagna, then one of the richest lands in Italy, which was nominally part of the Papal States, but effectively divided into a series of small lordships which were difficult for Rome's troops to control. Eager to take some of Venice's lands, all neighbouring powers joined in the League of Cambrai in 1508, under the leadership of Pope Julius II. The pope wanted Romagna; Emperor Maximilian I: Friuli and Veneto; Spain: the Apulian ports; the king of France: Cremona; the king of Hungary: Dalmatia, and each one some of another's part. The offensive against the huge army enlisted by Venice was launched from France.


title: Republic of Venice

text: On 14 May 1509, Venice was crushingly defeated at the battle of Agnadello, in the Ghiara d'Adda, marking one of the most delicate points in Venetian history. French and imperial troops were occupying Veneto, but Venice managed to extricate itself through diplomatic efforts. The Apulian ports were ceded in order to come to terms with Spain, and Pope Julius II soon recognized the danger brought by the eventual destruction of Venice (then the only Italian power able to face kingdoms like France or empires like the Ottomans).


title: Republic of Venice

text: The citizens of the mainland rose to the cry of "Marco, Marco", and Andrea Gritti recaptured Padua in July 1509, successfully defending it against the besieging imperial troops. Spain and the pope broke off their alliance with France, and Venice regained Brescia and Verona from France, also. After seven years of ruinous war, the Serenissima regained its mainland dominions west to the Adda River. Although the defeat had turned into a victory, the events of 1509 marked the end of the Venetian expansion.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In 1489, the first year of Venetian control of Cyprus, Turks attacked the Karpasia Peninsula, pillaging and taking captives to be sold into slavery. In 1539, the Turkish fleet attacked and destroyed Limassol. Fearing the ever-expanding Ottoman Empire, the Venetians had fortified Famagusta, Nicosia, and Kyrenia, but most other cities were easy prey. By 1563, the population of Venice had dropped to about 168,000 people.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In the summer of 1570, the Turks struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed near Limassol on 2 July 1570, and laid siege to Nicosia. In an orgy of victory on the day that the city fell – 9 September 1570 – 20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Word of the massacre spread, and a few days later, Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however, resisted and put up a defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571.


title: Republic of Venice

text: The fall of Famagusta marked the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus. Two months later, the naval forces of the Holy League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and papal ships under the command of Don John of Austria, defeated the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Lepanto. Despite victory at sea over the Turks, Cyprus remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries. By 1575, the population of Venice was about 175,000 people, but partly as a result of the plague of 1575–76 dropped to 124,000 people by 1581.


title: Republic of Venice

text: According to economic historian Jan De Vries, Venice's economic power in the Mediterranean had declined significantly by the start of the 17th century. De Vries attributes this decline to the loss of the spice trade, a declining uncompetitive textile industry, competition in book publishing due to a rejuvenated Catholic Church, the adverse impact of the Thirty Years' War on Venice's key trade partners, and the increasing cost of cotton and silk imports to Venice.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In 1606, a conflict between Venice and the Holy See began with the arrest of two clerics accused of petty crimes, and with a law restricting the Church's right to enjoy and acquire landed property. Pope Paul V held that these provisions were contrary to canon law, and demanded that they be repealed. When this was refused, he placed Venice under an interdict which forbade clergymen from exercising almost all priestly duties. The Republic paid no attention to the interdict or the act of excommunication, and ordered its priests to carry out their ministry. It was supported in its decisions by the Servite monk Paolo Sarpi, a sharp polemical writer who was nominated to be the Signoria's adviser on theology and canon law in 1606. The interdict was lifted after a year, when France intervened and proposed a formula of compromise. Venice was satisfied with reaffirming the principle that no citizen was superior to the normal processes of law.


title: Republic of Venice

text: Rivalry with Hapsburg Spain and the Holy Roman Empire led to Venice's last significant wars in Italy and the northern Adriatic. Between 1615 and 1618 Venice fought Archduke Ferdinand of Austria in the Uskok war in the northern Adriatic and on the Republic's eastern border, while in Lombardy, to the west, Venetian troops skirmished with the forces of Don Pedro de Toledo Osorio, Spanish governor of Milan, around Crema in 1617 and in the countryside of Romano di Lombardia in 1618. A fragile peace did not last, and in 1629 the Most Serene Republic returned to war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in the War of the Mantuan succession. During the brief war a Venetian army led by provveditore Zaccaria Sagredo and reinforced by French allies was disastrously routed by Imperial forces at the battle of Villabuona and Venice's closest ally Mantua was sacked, but reversals elsewhere for the Holy Roman empire and Spain ensured the Republic suffered no territorial loss and the duchy of Mantua was restored to the candidate backed by Venice and France, Charles II Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers.


title: Republic of Venice

text: The latter half of the 17th century also had prolonged wars with the Ottoman Empire; in the Cretan War (1645–1669), after a heroic siege that lasted 21 years, Venice lost its major overseas possession—the island of Crete (although it kept the control of the bases of Spinalonga and Suda)—while it made some advances in Dalmatia. In 1684, however, taking advantage of the Ottoman involvement against Austria in the Great Turkish War, the republic initiated the Morean War, which lasted until 1699 and in which it was able to conquer the Morea peninsula in southern Greece.


title: Republic of Venice

text: These gains did not last, however; in December 1714, the Turks began the last Turkish–Venetian War, when the Morea was "without any of those supplies which are so desirable even in countries where aid is near at hand which are not liable to attack from the sea".


title: Republic of Venice

text: The Turks took the islands of Tinos and Aegina, crossed the isthmus, and took Corinth. Daniele Dolfin, commander of the Venetian fleet, thought it better to save the fleet than risk it for the Morea. When he eventually arrived on the scene, Nauplia, Modon, Corone, and Malvasia had fallen. Levkas in the Ionian islands, and the bases of Spinalonga and Suda on Crete, which still remained in Venetian hands, were abandoned. The Turks finally landed on Corfu, but its defenders managed to throw them back.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In the meantime, the Turks had suffered a grave defeat by the Austrians in the Battle of Petrovaradin on 5 August 1716. Venetian naval efforts in the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles in 1717 and 1718, however, met with little success. With the Treaty of Passarowitz (21 July 1718), Austria made large territorial gains, but Venice lost the Morea, for which its small gains in Albania and Dalmatia were little compensation. This was the last war with the Ottoman Empire. By the year 1792, the once-great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to a mere 309 merchantmen.


title: Republic of Venice

text: Although Venice declined as a seaborne empire, it remained in possession of its continental domain north of the Po Valley, extending west almost to Milan. Many of its cities benefited greatly from the "Pax Venetiae" (Venetian peace) throughout the 18th century.


title: Republic of Venice

text: By 1796, the Republic of Venice could no longer defend itself since its war fleet numbered only four galleys and seven galliots. In spring 1796, Piedmont fell, and the Austrians were beaten from Montenotte to Lodi. The army under Bonaparte crossed the frontiers of neutral Venice in pursuit of the enemy. By the end of the year, the French troops were occupying the Venetian state up to the Adige. Vicenza, Cadore and Friuli were held by the Austrians. With the campaigns of the next year, Napoleon aimed for the Austrian possessions across the Alps. In the preliminaries to the Peace of Leoben, the terms of which remained secret, the Austrians were to take the Venetian possessions in the Balkans as the price of peace (18 April 1797) while France acquired the Lombard part of the State.


title: Republic of Venice

text: After Napoleon's ultimatum, Doge Ludovico Manin surrendered unconditionally on 12 May, and abdicated, while the Major Council declared the end of the republic. According to Bonaparte's orders, the public powers passed to a provisional municipality under the French military governor. On 17 October, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, agreeing to share all the territory of the ancient republic, with a new border just west of the Adige River. Italian democrats, especially young poet Ugo Foscolo, viewed the treaty as a betrayal. The metropolitan part of the disbanded republic became an Austrian territory, under the name of Venetian Province ("Provincia Veneta" in Italian, "Provinz Venedig" in German).


title: Republic of Venice

text: Though the economic vitality of the Venetian Republic had started to decline since the 16th century due to the movement of international trade towards the Atlantic, its political regime still appeared in the 18th century as a model for the philosophers of the enlightenment.


title: Republic of Venice

text: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was hired in July 1743 as Secretary by comte de Montaigu, who had been named Ambassador of the French in Venice. This short experience, nevertheless, awakened the interest of Rousseau to the policy, which led him to design a large book of political philosophy. After the "Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men" (1755), he published "The Social Contract" (1762).


title: Republic of Venice

text: In the early years of the republic, the Doge of Venice ruled Venice in an autocratic fashion, but later his powers were limited by the "promissione ducale", a pledge he had to take when elected. As a result, powers were shared with the "Maggior Consiglio" or Great Council, composed of 480 members taken from patrician families, so that in the words of Marin Sanudo, "[The doge] could do nothing without the Great Council and the Great Council could do nothing without him".


title: Republic of Venice

text: Venice followed a mixed government model, combining monarchy in the doge, aristocracy in the Senate, republic of Rialto families in the Great Council, and a democracy in the concio. Machiavelli considered it <nowiki>"excellent among modern republics"</nowiki>, unlike his native republic of Florence).


title: Republic of Venice

text: In the 12th century, the aristocratic families of Rialto further diminished the doge's powers by establishing the Minor Council (1175), composed of the six ducal councillors, and the Council of Forty or "Quarantia" (1179) as a supreme tribunal. In 1223, these institutions were combined into the "Signoria", which consisted of the doge, the Minor Council, and the three leaders of the "Quarantia". The Signoria was the central body of government, representing the continuity of the republic as shown in the expression: "si è morto il Doge, no la Signoria" ("If the Doge is dead, the Signoria is not").


title: Republic of Venice

text: During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Signoria was supplemented by a number of boards of "savii" ("wise men"): the six "savii del consiglio", who formulated and executed government policy; the five "savii di terraferma", responsible for military affairs and the defence of the Terraferma; and the five "savii ai ordini", responsible for the navy, commerce, and the overseas territories. Together, the Signoria and the "savii" formed the Full College ("Pien Collegio"), the "de facto" executive body of the Republic.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In 1229, the "Consiglio dei Pregadi" or Senate, was formed, being 60 members elected by the major council. These developments left the doge with little personal power and put actual authority in the hands of the Great Council.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In 1310, a Council of Ten was established, becoming the central political body whose members operated in secret. Around 1600, its dominance over the major council was considered a threat and efforts were made in the council and elsewhere to reduce its powers, with limited success.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In 1454, the Supreme Tribunal of the three state inquisitors was established to guard the security of the republic. By means of espionage, counterespionage, internal surveillance, and a network of informers, they ensured that Venice did not come under the rule of a single "signore", as many other Italian cities did at the time. One of the inquisitors – popularly known as "Il Rosso" ("the red one") because of his scarlet robe – was chosen from the doge's councillors, two – popularly known as "I negri" ("the black ones") because of their black robes – were chosen from the Council of Ten. The Supreme Tribunal gradually assumed some of the powers of the Council of Ten.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In 1556, the "provveditori ai beni inculti" were also created for the improvement of agriculture by increasing the area under cultivation and encouraging private investment in agricultural improvement. The consistent rise in the price of grain during the 16th century encouraged the transfer of capital from trade to the land.


title: Republic of Venice

text: In the early modern period, the Republic's military strength was well out of proportion with its demographic weight. In the late 16th century, it ruled over a population of about 2 million people throughout its empire. In 1571, while preparing for war against the Ottomans, the Republic had 37,000 soldiers and 140 galleys (manned by tens of thousands of sailors and oarsmen), excluding urban militias. The Venetian peacetime army strength of 9,000 was able to quadruple in the course of a few months by drawing upon professional hired soldiers and territorial militias simultaneously. These troops generally showed marked technical superiority over their primarily Turkish opponents, as demonstrated in battles such as the 18-month Siege of Famagusta, in which the Venetians inflicted outsized casualties and only were defeated when they exhausted their gunpowder. Like other states of the period, the Republic's military strength peaked during wars, only to quickly go back to peacetime levels due to costs. The level of garrisons stabilized after 1577 at 9,000, with 7,000 infantry and the rest cavalry. In 1581 there were 146 galleys and 18 galleasses in the navy, requiring a third of the Republic's revenue. During the Cretan War (1645-1669), the Republic fought mostly alone against the undivided attention of the Ottoman Empire, and though it lost, managed to keep fighting after losing 62,000 troops in the attrition, while inflicting about 240,000 losses on the Ottoman army and sinking hundreds of Ottoman ships. The cost of the war was ruinous, but the Republic was eventually able to cover it. The Morean War further confirmed the Republic's position as a military power well into the late 17th century.


title: Republic of Venice

text: Venetian military strength underwent a terminal decline in the 18th century. The combined effect of prolonged peace and the abandonment of military careers by patricians meant that Venetian military culture ossified. Its army in that period was poorly maintained. The troops, serving under non-martial officers, were not regularly drilled and worked various odd jobs to supplement their salaries. Its navy did not decline to as drastic a degree, but still never came close to its relative power in the 16th and 17th centuries. In a normal 18th century year there were about 20 ships of the line (each of 64 or 70 cannons), 10 frigates, 20 galleys, and 100 small craft, which mostly participated in patrols and punitive expeditions against Barbary corsairs. When Napoleon invaded in 1796, the Republic surrendered without a fight.


title: Republic of Venice

text: The republic of Venice was active in the production and trading of salt, salted products, and other products along trade routes established by the salt trade. Venice produced its own salt at Chioggia by the seventh century for trade, but eventually moved on to buying and establishing salt production throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. Venetian merchants bought salt and acquired salt production from Egypt, Algeria, the Crimean peninsula, Sardinia, Ibiza, Crete, and Cyprus. The establishment of these trade routes also allow Venetian merchants to pick up other valuable cargo, such as Indian spices, from these ports for trade. They then sold or supplied salt and other goods to cities in the Po Valley - Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Bologna, among others - in exchange for salami, prosciutto, cheese, soft wheat, and other goods.


title: Republic of Venice

text: The Golden Bull of 1082, issued by Alexios I Komnenos in return for their defense of the Adriatic Sea against the Normans, granted Venetian merchants with duty-free trading rights, exempt from tax, throughout the Byzantine Empire in 23 of the most important Byzantine ports, guaranteed them property-right protections from Byzantine administrators, and given them buildings and wharfs within Constantinople. These concessions greatly expanded Venetian trading activity throughout the Eastern Mediterranean.


title: Republic of Venice

text: The winged Lion of St. Mark, which had appeared on the Republic's flag and coat of arms, is still featured in the red-yellow flag of the city of Venice (which has six tails, one for each "sestier" of the city), in the coat of arms of the city and in the yellow-red-blue flag of Veneto (which has seven tails representing the seven provinces of the region).


title: Republic of Venice

text: The winged lion also appears in the naval ensign of the Italian Republic, alongside the coat of arms of three other medieval Italian maritime republics (Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi).


title: John Money

text: John William Money (8 July 1921 – 7 July 2006) was a New Zealand psychologist, sexologist and author known for his research into sexual identity and biology of gender. He was one of the first researchers to publish theories on the influence of societal constructs of gender on individual formation of gender identity. Money introduced the terms "gender role" and "sexual orientation" and popularised the terms "gender identity" and "paraphilia".


title: John Money

text: Working with endocrinologist Claude Migeon, Money established the Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic, the first clinic in the United States to perform sexual reassignment surgeries on both infants and adults. He spent a considerable amount of his career in the United States.


title: John Money

text: A 1997 academic study criticised Money's work in many respects, particularly in regard to the involuntary sex-reassignment of the child David Reimer. Reimer committed suicide at 38 and his brother died of an overdose at 36. Some of Money's therapy sessions involved sexual activity between the two brothers when they were children.


title: John Money

text: Money's writing has been translated into many languages and includes around 2,000 articles, books, chapters and reviews. He received around 65 honours, awards and degrees in his lifetime.


title: John Money

text: Money was born in Morrinsville, New Zealand, to a Protestant family of English and Welsh descent. He attended Hutt Valley High School and initially studied psychology at Victoria University of Wellington, graduating with a double master's degree in psychology and education in 1944. He was a junior member of the psychology faculty at the University of Otago in Dunedin. Author Janet Frame attended some of Money's classes at the University of Otago as part of her teacher training. In October 1945, after Frame wrote an essay mentioning her thoughts of suicide, John Money facilitated Frame's committal to the psychiatric ward at Dunedin Public Hospital, leading to eight years in psychiatric institutions. In Frame's autobiography, "An Angel at My Table", Money is referred to as John Forrest. In 1947, at the age of 26, he emigrated to the United States to study at the Psychiatric Institute of the University of Pittsburgh. He left Pittsburgh and earned his PhD from Harvard University in 1952. He was married briefly in the 1950s but had no children.


title: John Money

text: Money proposed and developed several theories and related terminology, including gender identity, gender role, gender-identity/role and lovemap. He popularised the term "paraphilia" (appearing in the DSM-III, which would later replace "perversions") and introduced the term "sexual orientation" in place of "sexual preference", arguing that attraction is not necessarily a matter of free choice.


title: John Money

text: Money was a professor of paediatrics and medical psychology at Johns Hopkins University from 1951 until his death. Between 1960 and 1961, he co-authored two papers with Richard Green, "Incongruous Gender Role: Nongenital Manifestations in Prepubertal Boys" and "Effeminacy in Prepubertal Boys: Summary of Eleven Cases and Recommendations for Case Management."


title: John Money

text: Money established the Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic in 1965 along with Claude Migeon who was the head of paediatric endocrinology at Johns Hopkins. The hospital began performing sexual reassignment surgery in 1966, and was the first clinic in the United States to do so. At Johns Hopkins, Money was also involved with the Sexual Behaviors Unit, which ran studies on sex-reassignment surgery.


title: John Money

text: In 2002 he received the Magnus Hirschfeld Medal from the German Society for Social-Scientific Sexuality Research.


title: John Money

text: Money was also an early supporter of New Zealand's arts, both literary and visual. In 2002, as his Parkinson's disease worsened, Money donated a substantial portion of his art collection to the Eastern Southland Art Gallery in Gore, New Zealand. In 2003, the New Zealand Prime Minister, Helen Clark, opened the John Money wing at the Eastern Southland Gallery.


title: John Money

text: Money died 7 July 2006, one day before his 85th birthday, in Towson, Maryland, of complications from Parkinson's disease.


title: John Money

text: Money co-edited a 1969 book "Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment", which helped bring more acceptance to sexual reassignment surgery and transsexual individuals.


title: John Money

text: Money introduced numerous definitions related to gender in journal articles in the 1950s, many of them as a result of his studies of intersex morphology. His definition of gender is based on his understanding of sex differences among human beings. According to Money, the fact that one sex produces ova and the other sex produces sperm is the irreducible criterion of sex difference. However, there are other "sex-derivative differences" that follow in the wake of this primary dichotomy. These differences involve the way urine is expelled from the human body and other questions of sexual dimorphism. According to Money's theory, "sex-adjunctive differences" are typified by the smaller size of females and their problems in moving around while nursing infants. This then makes it more likely that the males do the roaming and hunting.


title: John Money

text: "Sex-arbitrary differences" are those that are purely conventional: for example, colour selection (baby blue for boys, pink for girls). Some of the latter differences apply to life activities, such as career opportunities for men versus women. Finally, Money created the now-common term "gender role" which he differentiated from the concept of the more traditional terminology "sex role". This grew out of his studies of intersex people. According to Money, the genitalia and erotic sexual roles were now, by his definition, to be included under the more general term "gender role" including all the non-genital and non-erotic activities that are defined by the conventions of society to apply to males or to females.


title: John Money

text: In his studies of intersex people, Money alleged that there are six variables that define sex. While in the average person all six would line up unequivocally as either all "male" or "female", in hermaphrodites any one or more than one of these could be inconsistent with the others, leading to various kinds of anomalies. In his seminal 1955 paper he defined these factors as:


title: John Money

text: Money made the concept of "gender" a broader, more inclusive concept than one of masculine/feminine. For him, gender included not only one's status as a man or a woman, but was also a matter of personal recognition, social assignment, or legal determination; not only on the basis of one's genitalia but also on the basis of somatic and behavioural criteria that go beyond genital differences. In 1972, Money presented his theories in "Man and Woman, Boy and Girl", a college level textbook. The book featured David Reimer as an example of gender reassignment.


title: John Money

text: In his book "Gay, Straight and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation", Money develops a conception of "bodymind". "Bodymind" is a way for scientists, in developing a science about sexuality, to move on from the platitudes of dichotomy between nature versus nurture, innate versus the acquired, biological versus the social, and psychological versus the physiological. He suggested that all of these capitalise on the ancient, pre-Platonic, pre-biblical conception of body versus the mind, and the physical versus the spiritual. In coining the term "bodymind", in this sense, Money wishes to move beyond these very ingrained principles of our folk or vernacular psychology.


title: John Money

text: Money also developed a view of "Concepts of Determinism" which, transcultural, transhistorical, and universal, all people have in common, sexologically or otherwise. These include pairbondage, troopbondage, abidance, ycleptance, foredoomance, with these coping strategies: adhibition (engagement), inhibition, explication. Money suggested that the concept of "threshold" – the release or inhibition of sexual (or other) behavior – is most useful for sex research as a substitute for any concept of motivation. Moreover, it confers the distinct advantage of having continuity and unity to what would otherwise be a highly disparate and varied field of research. It also allows for the classification of sexual behavior. For Money, the concept of threshold has great value because of the wide spectrum to which it applies. "It allows one to think developmentally or longitudinally, in terms of stages or experiences that are programmed serially, or hierarchically, or cybernetically (i.e. regulated by mutual feedback)."


title: John Money

text: During his professional life, Money was respected as an expert on sexual behavior, especially known for his views that gender was learned rather than innate. However, it was later revealed that his most famous case of David Reimer, born Bruce Reimer, was fundamentally flawed. In 1966, a botched circumcision left eight-month-old Reimer without a penis. Money persuaded the baby's parents that sex reassignment surgery would be in Reimer's best interest. At the age of 22 months, Reimer underwent an orchiectomy, in which his testicles were surgically removed. He was reassigned to be raised as female and his name changed from Bruce to Brenda. Money further recommended hormone treatment, to which the parents agreed. Money then recommended a surgical procedure to create an artificial vagina, which the parents refused. Money published a number of papers reporting the reassignment as successful.


title: John Money

text: According to John Colapinto's biography of David Reimer, starting when Reimer and his twin Brian were six years old, Money showed the brothers pornography and forced the two to rehearse sexual acts, with David playing the bottom role as Brian "[pressed] his crotch against" David's buttocks. Money also forced the two children to strip for "genital inspections", and on one occasion took a photo. Colapinto speculates that Money's rationale for these treatments may have been his belief that "childhood 'sexual rehearsal play was important for a "healthy adult gender identity".


title: John Money

text: For several years, Money reported on Reimer's progress as the "John/Joan case", describing apparently successful female gender development and using this case to support the feasibility of sex reassignment and surgical reconstruction even in non-intersex cases. Notes by a former student at Money's laboratory state that, during the yearly follow-up visits, Reimer's parents routinely lied to staff about the success of the procedure. When Money learned about this, he continued to misrepresent the results as a success for decades. By the time this was discovered, the idea of a purely socially constructed gender identity and infant Intersex medical interventions had become the accepted medical and sociological standard.


title: John Money

text: At 14 years old and in extreme psychological agony, Reimer was finally told the truth by his parents. He chose to begin calling himself David, and he underwent surgical procedures to revert the female bodily modifications.


title: John Money

text: David Reimer's case came to international attention in 1997 when he told his story to Milton Diamond, an academic sexologist, who persuaded Reimer to allow him to report the outcome in order to dissuade physicians from treating other infants similarly. Soon after, Reimer went public with his story, and John Colapinto published a widely disseminated and influential account in "Rolling Stone" magazine in December 1997. This was later expanded into "The New York Times" best-selling biography "As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl" (2000), in which Colapinto described how—contrary to Money's reports—when living as Brenda, Reimer did not identify as a girl. He was ostracised and bullied by peers (who dubbed him "cavewoman"), and neither frilly dresses nor female hormones made him feel female.


title: John Money

text: On 1 July 2002, Brian was found dead from an overdose of antidepressants. On 4 May 2004, after suffering years of severe depression, financial instability, and marital troubles, David committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a sawed-off shotgun at the age of 38. Reimer's parents have stated that Money's methodology was responsible for the deaths of both of their sons.


title: John Money

text: Money argued that media response to Diamond's exposé was due to right-wing media bias and "the antifeminist movement." He said his detractors believed "masculinity and femininity are built into the genes so women should get back to the mattress and the kitchen". However, intersex activists also criticised Money, stating that the unreported failure had led to the surgical reassignment of thousands of infants as a matter of policy. Privately, Money was mortified by the case, colleagues said, and as a rule did not discuss it.


title: John Money

text: Money participated in debates on chronophilias, especially paedophilia. He stated that both sexual researchers and the public do not make distinctions between affectional paedophilia and sadistic paedophilia. Money asserted that affectional paedophilia was about love and not sex.


title: John Money

text: Money held the view that affectional paedophilia is caused by a surplus of parental love that became erotic, and is not a behavioural disorder. Rather, he took the position that heterosexuality is another example of a societal and therefore superficial, ideological concept.


title: John Money

text: Researcher Mary Anne Case wrote that Money made "fraudulently deceptive claims about the malleability of gender in certain patients who had involuntarily undergone sex reassignment surgery" and that this fueled the anti-gender movement.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Jimmi Simpson (born November 21, 1975) is an American actor. He is best known for his work on television, which includes recurring roles as Liam McPoyle on "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia" (2005–2013), Lyle the Intern on "The Late Show with David Letterman" (2008–09), Mary Lightly on "Psych" (2009–13), Lloyd Lowery on "Breakout Kings" (2011–13), Jack Spaniel on "The Newsroom" (2014), Gavin Orsay on "House of Cards" (2014–15), and the younger William on "Westworld" (2016–2020). For the last role, he received a nomination for the 2018 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. In 2022, he starred in a television series adaptation of "The Man Who Fell to Earth".


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson also starred as Soldier on SundanceTV's "Hap and Leonard" (2016), Detective Russell Poole on USA's "Unsolved" (2018), and James Schaeler on ePix's "Perpetual Grace, LTD" (2019). He received a nomination for the 2018 British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in the "Black Mirror" episode "USS Callister" (2017).


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson made his feature film debut in "Loser" (2000). Subsequent film roles have included "" (2005), "Stay Alive" (2006), "Seraphim Falls", "Zodiac" (both 2007), "The Invention of Lying" (2009), "Date Night" (2010), "" (2012), "White House Down", "Knights of Badassdom" (both 2013), "Under the Silver Lake" (2018), "Unhinged" (2020), "Breaking News in Yuba County", and "Silk Road" (both 2021). On stage, Simpson's portrayal of Philo Farnsworth in "The Farnsworth Invention" (Broadway, 2007–08) earned him a Theatre World Award.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson was born in Hackettstown, New Jersey, on November 21, 1975. He has two older brothers. He attended Hackettstown High School, where he took his first acting class. After graduating from Bloomsburg University with a BA in theater, he acted for four seasons at the Williamstown Theatre Festival in Williamstown, Massachusetts.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson made his film debut at age 25 when he played Noah in the romantic comedy "Loser" (2000), directed by Amy Heckerling. This was followed by a supporting role in the Stephen King miniseries "Rose Red" in 2002 and appearances on television shows such as "24", "NYPD Blue", "Cold Case", "Carnivàle", and "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia", where he played the recurring character Liam McPoyle over several seasons, beginning in 2005. Subsequent film roles during this period included the sports comedy "" (2005) opposite Lindsay Lohan, revisionist Western "Seraphim Falls" (2006) with Liam Neeson, and the David Fincher thriller "Zodiac" (2007).


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: In 2008, Simpson starred as Philo T. Farnsworth in a production of Aaron Sorkin's "The Farnsworth Invention" on Broadway, opposite Hank Azaria. His portrayal of Farnsworth was described as "superb" by "The Chicago Tribune" and earned him a Theatre World Award. That same year, he made the first of several appearances as Lyle—a fictional intern—on "The Late Show with David Letterman", a role he frequented until November 2009. During that time he also played guest roles in episodes of "", "My Name is Earl", "House", and "Psych", and had supporting parts in the films "The Invention of Lying" (2009) and "Date Night" (2010). He later starred in one of the principal roles—Dr. Lloyd Lowery—on the A&E crime drama series "Breakout Kings", which ran from 2011 to 2012.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson's next projects were the films "Hello I Must Be Going" (2012), "" (2012), "The Truth About Emanuel" (2013), "Knights of Badassdom" (2013), and the Roland Emmerich action epic "White House Down" (2013). He then joined the cast of Netflix political thriller series "House of Cards" to play the recurring role of Gavin Orsay between 2014 and 2015. For this, Simpson was nominated on two occasions—alongside his co-stars—for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: In 2015, Simpson starred with Laurie Metcalf in a Circle X Theatre production of "Trevor", a play written by Nick Jones. Simpson's performance was roundly praised, with KCRW writing, "... you can't imagine the humanity that actor Jimmi Simpson brings to "Trevor". Yes, it's a funny play and, yes, there's some 'monkey business' but Mr. Simpson's gift is restraint. Instead of playing for broad laughs, he plays Trevor's struggle for just that: an honest struggle".


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson starred as Soldier, a psychotic drug dealer, on the first season of SundanceTV's dark comedy-drama "Hap and Leonard" in 2016. That same year, he appeared in a principal role on the debut season of HBO's science fiction drama series "Westworld". His portrayal of William, a businessman who visits the titular Wild West-themed amusement park and falls in love with one of its android inhabitants (played by Evan Rachel Wood), was described as "spellbinding" by Maureen Ryan of "Variety". Simpson was once again nominated alongside his co-stars for an SAG Award in 2017, while his work on the show's second season earned him an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: In 2017, Simpson appeared as Walton—a lieutenant aboard the titular spaceship—in "USS Callister", the opening episode of the fourth season of anthology sci-fi series "Black Mirror". In their review, "Den of Geek" called Simpson "one of [television's] best-kept secrets" and commented that his performance "pops off the screen". His portrayal of Walton earned him a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor the following year.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson starred as the real-life Det. Russell Poole on "Unsolved" in 2018, a ten-part USA Network series based on the 1990s murders of rappers Tupac Shakur and Biggie Smalls. "IndieWire" praised the "elevated artistry" of Simpson's performance, while "Vulture.com" commented in their review: "In an ensemble this solid, it can be challenging for one performance to emerge as a standout. But Simpson's does because he so carefully calibrates Poole's intensity, dialing it up by slight degrees in each episode until he's radiating with panicky determination ... Simpson physically and emotionally illustrates [the character's] internal struggle beautifully".


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson's recent film work includes David Robert Mitchell's neo-noir black comedy "Under the Silver Lake" (2018), the action thriller "Unhinged" (2020)—where he starred opposite Russell Crowe—and the comedic crime drama "Breaking News in Yuba County" (2021). He also starred in the stop-motion AMC+ series "Ultra City Smiths as Detective David Mills.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson stars as Spencer Clay in the Showtime adaptation of "The Man Who Fell to Earth", based on the 1963 novel of the same name.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson met New Zealand actress Melanie Lynskey in 2001 during the filming of "Rose Red", in which they both appeared. They became engaged in 2005 and married on April 14, 2007, in a chapel on Lake Hayes, near Queenstown, New Zealand. Lynskey filed for divorce in September 2012, citing irreconcilable differences. It was finalised in May 2014.


title: Jimmi Simpson

text: Simpson married English actress Sophia Del Pizzo in April 2019. It was announced in July 2021 that the pair had split and that Simpson had filed for divorce.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The Prisoner's Dilemma is an example of a game analyzed in game theory. It is also a thought experiment that challenges two completely rational agents to a dilemma: cooperate with their partner for mutual reward, or betray their partner ("defect") for individual reward.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: This dilemma was originally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher while working at RAND in 1950. Albert W. Tucker appropriated the game and formalized it by structuring the rewards in terms of prison sentences and named it "prisoner's dilemma". William Poundstone in his 1993 book "Prisoner's Dilemma" writes the following version:Two members of a criminal gang are arrested and imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of speaking to or exchanging messages with the other. The police admit they don't have enough evidence to convict the pair on the principal charge. They plan to sentence both to two years in prison on a lesser charge. Simultaneously, the police offer each prisoner a Faustian bargain.The possible outcomes are:


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: As a projection of rational behaviour in terms of loyalty to one's partner in crime, the Prisoner's Dilemma suggests that criminals who are offered a greater reward will betray their partner for the reward.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Accepting offers such as B shows that loyalty to one's partner is, in this game, irrational. Rationality in a system that profits from others, governs this behaviour. Alternative ideas governing behaviour have been proposed, see for example, Elinor Ostrom a Nobel Laureate in Economics.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: An assumption of the Prisoner's Dilemma is that all purely rational behaviour is self-interested, and as such people will betray each other for self-interest. This implies the only possible outcome for two purely rational prisoners is for them to betray each other, even though mutual cooperation would yield a greater reward.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In this case, "to betray" is the dominant strategy for both players, meaning it is the player's best response in all circumstances, and it is aligned with the sure-thing principle. The prisoner's dilemma also illustrates that the decisions made under collective rationality may not necessarily be the same as those made under individual rationality, and this conflict can also be witnessed in a situation called the "Tragedy of the Commons". This case indicates the fact that public goods are always prone to over-use.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In reality, such systemic bias towards cooperative behavior happens despite what is predicted by simple models of "rational" self-interested action. This bias towards cooperation has been known since the test was first conducted at RAND; the secretaries involved trusted each other and worked together for the best common outcome. The prisoner's dilemma became the focus of extensive experimental research. This experimental research usually takes one of three forms: single play, iterated play and iterated play against a programmed player, each with different purposes. And as a summary of these experiments, their results justify the categorical imperative raised by Immanuel Kant, which states that a rational agent is expected to "act in the way you wish others to act." This theory is vital for a situation when there are different players each acting for their best interest, and has to take others' actions into consideration to form their own choice. It underlines the interconnectedness of players in such a game, thus stressing the fact that a strategy has to consider others' reactions to be successful, including their responsiveness, their tendency to imitate, etc.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: An extended "iterated" version of the game also exists. In this version, the classic game is played repeatedly between the same prisoners, who continuously have the opportunity to penalize the other for previous decisions. If the number of times the game will be played is known to the players, then by backward induction two classically rational players will betray each other repeatedly, for the same reasons as the single-shot variant. In an infinite or unknown length game there is no fixed optimum strategy, and prisoner's dilemma tournaments have been held to compete and test algorithms for such cases.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The iterated version of the prisoner's dilemma is of particular interest to researchers. Due to its iterative nature, previous researchers observed that the frequency for players to cooperate could change, based on the outcomes of each iteration. Specifically, a player may be less willing to cooperate if their counterpart did not cooperate many times, which renders disappointment. Conversely, as time goes by, cooperation could increase, mainly attributable to the fact that a "tacit agreement" between players has been set up. Another interesting aspect concerning the iterated version of experiment, however, is that this tacit agreement between players has always been established successfully even though the number of iterations is made public to both sides.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The prisoner's dilemma game can be used as a model for many real world situations involving cooperative behavior. In casual usage, the label "prisoner's dilemma" may be applied to situations not strictly matching the formal criteria of the classic or iterative games: for instance, those in which two entities could gain important benefits from cooperating or suffer from the failure to do so, but find it difficult or expensive—not necessarily impossible—to coordinate their activities.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: It is assumed that both prisoners understand the nature of the game, have no loyalty to each other, and will have no opportunity for retribution or reward outside the game. Regardless of what the other decides, each prisoner gets a higher reward by betraying the other ("defecting"). The reasoning involves analyzing both players' best responses: B will either cooperate or defect. If B cooperates, A should defect, because going free is better than serving 2 years. If B defects, A should also defect, because serving 5 years is better than serving 10. So either way, A should defect since defecting is A's best response regardless of B's strategy. Parallel reasoning will show that B should defect.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Because defection always results in a better payoff than cooperation regardless of the other player's choice, it is a strictly dominant strategy for both A and B. Mutual defection is the only strong Nash equilibrium in the game (i.e. the only outcome from which each player could only do worse by unilaterally changing strategy). The dilemma, then, is that mutual cooperation yields a better outcome than mutual defection but is not the rational outcome because the choice to cooperate, from a self-interested perspective, is irrational. Thus, Prisoner's dilemma is a game where the Nash equilibrium is not Pareto efficient.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The structure of the traditional prisoner's dilemma can be generalized from its original prisoner setting. Suppose that the two players are represented by the colors red and blue and that each player chooses to either "cooperate" (stay silent) or "defect" (betray).


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: If both players cooperate, they both receive the reward "R" for cooperating. If both players defect, they both receive the punishment payoff "P". If Blue defects while Red cooperates, then Blue receives the temptation payoff "T", while Red receives the "sucker's" payoff, "S". Similarly, if Blue cooperates while Red defects, then Blue receives the sucker's payoff "S", while Red receives the temptation payoff "T".


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: and to be a prisoner's dilemma game in the strong sense, the following condition must hold for the payoffs:


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The payoff relationship implies that mutual cooperation is superior to mutual defection, while the payoff relationships and imply that defection is the dominant strategy for both agents.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The "donation game" is a form of prisoner's dilemma in which cooperation corresponds to offering the other player a benefit "b" at a personal cost "c" with "b" > "c". Defection means offering nothing. The payoff matrix is thus


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The donation game may be applied to markets. Suppose X grows oranges, Y grows apples. The marginal utility of an apple to the orange-grower X is "b", which is higher than the marginal utility ("c") of an orange, since X has a surplus of oranges and no apples. Similarly, for apple-grower Y, the marginal utility of an orange is "b" while the marginal utility of an apple is "c". If X and Y contract to exchange an apple and an orange, and each fulfills their end of the deal, then each receive a payoff of "b"-"c". If one "defects" and does not deliver as promised, the defector will receive a payoff of "b", while the cooperator will lose "c". If both defect, then neither one gains or loses anything.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: If two players play prisoner's dilemma more than once in succession and they remember previous actions of their opponent and change their strategy accordingly, the game is called iterated prisoner's dilemma.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In addition to the general form above, the iterative version also requires that , to prevent alternating cooperation and defection giving a greater reward than mutual cooperation.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The iterated prisoner's dilemma game is fundamental to some theories of human cooperation and trust. On the assumption that the game can model transactions between two people requiring trust, cooperative behavior in populations may be modeled by a multi-player, iterated, version of the game. It has, consequently, fascinated many scholars over the years. In 1975, Grofman and Pool estimated the count of scholarly articles devoted to it at over 2,000. The iterated prisoner's dilemma has also been referred to as the "peace-war game".


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: If the game is played exactly "N" times and both players know this, then the dominant strategy is to defect in all rounds. The only possible Nash equilibrium is to always defect. The proof is inductive: one might as well defect on the last turn, since the opponent will not have a chance to later retaliate. Therefore, both will defect on the last turn. Thus, the player might as well defect on the second-to-last turn, since the opponent will defect on the last no matter what is done, and so on. The same applies if the game length is unknown but has a known upper limit.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Unlike the standard prisoner's dilemma, in the iterated prisoner's dilemma the defection strategy is counter-intuitive and fails badly to predict the behavior of human players. Within standard economic theory, though, this is the only correct answer. The superrational strategy in the iterated prisoner's dilemma with fixed "N" is to cooperate against a superrational opponent, and in the limit of large "N", experimental results on strategies agree with the superrational version, not the game-theoretic rational one.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: For cooperation to emerge between game theoretic rational players, the total number of rounds "N" must be unknown to the players. In this case "always defect" may no longer be a strictly dominant strategy, only a Nash equilibrium. Amongst results shown by Robert Aumann in a 1959 paper, rational players repeatedly interacting for indefinitely long games can sustain the cooperative outcome.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: According to a 2019 experimental study in the "American Economic Review" which tested what strategies real-life subjects used in iterated prisoners' dilemma situations with perfect monitoring, the majority of chosen strategies were always to defect, tit-for-tat, and grim trigger. Which strategy the subjects chose depended on the parameters of the game.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Interest in the iterated prisoner's dilemma (IPD) was kindled by Robert Axelrod in his book "The Evolution of Cooperation" (1984). In it he reports on a tournament he organized of the "N" step prisoner's dilemma (with "N" fixed) in which participants have to choose their mutual strategy again and again, and have memory of their previous encounters. Axelrod invited academic colleagues all over the world to devise computer strategies to compete in an IPD tournament. The programs that were entered varied widely in algorithmic complexity, initial hostility, capacity for forgiveness, and so forth.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Axelrod discovered that when these encounters were repeated over a long period of time with many players, each with different strategies, greedy strategies tended to do very poorly in the long run while more altruistic strategies did better, as judged purely by self-interest. He used this to show a possible mechanism for the evolution of altruistic behavior from mechanisms that are initially purely selfish, by natural selection.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The winning deterministic strategy was tit for tat, which Anatol Rapoport developed and entered into the tournament. It was the simplest of any program entered, containing only four lines of BASIC, and won the contest. The strategy is simply to cooperate on the first iteration of the game; after that, the player does what his or her opponent did on the previous move. Depending on the situation, a slightly better strategy can be "tit for tat with forgiveness". When the opponent defects, on the next move, the player sometimes cooperates anyway, with a small probability (around 1–5%). This allows for occasional recovery from getting trapped in a cycle of defections. The exact probability depends on the line-up of opponents.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: By analysing the top-scoring strategies, Axelrod stated several conditions necessary for a strategy to be successful.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The optimal (points-maximizing) strategy for the one-time PD game is simply defection; as explained above, this is true whatever the composition of opponents may be. However, in the iterated-PD game the optimal strategy depends upon the strategies of likely opponents, and how they will react to defections and cooperations. For example, consider a population where everyone defects every time, except for a single individual following the tit for tat strategy. That individual is at a slight disadvantage because of the loss on the first turn. In such a population, the optimal strategy for that individual is to defect every time. In a population with a certain percentage of always-defectors and the rest being tit for tat players, the optimal strategy for an individual depends on the percentage, and on the length of the game.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In the strategy called Pavlov, win-stay, lose-switch, faced with a failure to cooperate, the player switches strategy the next turn. In certain circumstances, Pavlov beats all other strategies by giving preferential treatment to co-players using a similar strategy.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Although tit for tat is considered to be the most robust basic strategy, a team from Southampton University in England introduced a new strategy at the 20th-anniversary iterated prisoner's dilemma competition, which proved to be more successful than tit for tat. This strategy relied on collusion between programs to achieve the highest number of points for a single program. The university submitted 60 programs to the competition, which were designed to recognize each other through a series of five to ten moves at the start. Once this recognition was made, one program would always cooperate and the other would always defect, assuring the maximum number of points for the defector. If the program realized that it was playing a non-Southampton player, it would continuously defect in an attempt to minimize the score of the competing program. As a result, the 2004 Prisoners' Dilemma Tournament results show University of Southampton's strategies in the first three places, despite having fewer wins and many more losses than the GRIM strategy. (In a PD tournament, the aim of the game is not to "win" matches – that can easily be achieved by frequent defection). This strategy ended up taking the top three positions in the competition, as well as a number of positions towards the bottom.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The Southampton strategy takes advantage of the fact that multiple entries were allowed in this particular competition and that the performance of a team was measured by that of the highest-scoring player (meaning that the use of self-sacrificing players was a form of minmaxing). In a competition where one has control of only a single player, tit for tat is certainly a better strategy. Because of this new rule, this competition also has little theoretical significance when analyzing single agent strategies as compared to Axelrod's seminal tournament. However, it provided a basis for analysing how to achieve cooperative strategies in multi-agent frameworks, especially in the presence of noise. In fact, long before this new-rules tournament was played, Dawkins, in his book "The Selfish Gene", pointed out the possibility of such strategies winning if multiple entries were allowed, but he remarked that most probably Axelrod would not have allowed them if they had been submitted. It also relies on circumventing rules about the prisoner's dilemma in that there is no communication allowed between the two players, which the Southampton programs arguably did with their preprogrammed "ten move dance" to recognize one another; this only reinforces just how valuable communication can be in shifting the balance of the game.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Even without implicit collusion between software strategies (exploited by the Southampton team) tit for tat is not always the absolute winner of any given tournament; it would be more precise to say that its long run results over a series of tournaments outperform its rivals. (In any one event a given strategy can be slightly better adjusted to the competition than tit for tat, but tit for tat is more robust). The same applies for the tit for tat with forgiveness variant, and other optimal strategies: on any given day they might not "win" against a specific mix of counter-strategies. An alternative way of putting it is using the Darwinian ESS simulation. In such a simulation, tit for tat will almost always come to dominate, though nasty strategies will drift in and out of the population because a tit for tat population is penetrable by non-retaliating nice strategies, which in turn are easy prey for the nasty strategies. Richard Dawkins showed that here, no static mix of strategies form a stable equilibrium and the system will always oscillate between bounds.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In a stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma game, strategies are specified by in terms of "cooperation probabilities". In an encounter between player "X" and player "Y", "X"s strategy is specified by a set of probabilities "P" of cooperating with "Y". "P" is a function of the outcomes of their previous encounters or some subset thereof. If "P" is a function of only their most recent "n" encounters, it is called a "memory-n" strategy. A memory-1 strategy is then specified by four cooperation probabilities: formula_1, where formula_2 is the probability that "X" will cooperate in the present encounter given that the previous encounter was characterized by (ab). For example, if the previous encounter was one in which "X" cooperated and "Y" defected, then formula_3 is the probability that "X" will cooperate in the present encounter. If each of the probabilities are either 1 or 0, the strategy is called deterministic. An example of a deterministic strategy is the tit-for-tat strategy written as "P"={1,0,1,0}, in which "X" responds as "Y" did in the previous encounter. Another is the win–stay, lose–switch strategy written as "P"={1,0,0,1}, in which "X" responds as in the previous encounter, if it was a "win" (i.e., cc or dc) but changes strategy if it was a loss (i.e., cd or dd). It has been shown that for any memory-n strategy there is a corresponding memory-1 strategy that gives the same statistical results, so that only memory-1 strategies need be considered.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: If we define "P" as the above 4-element strategy vector of "X" and formula_4 as the 4-element strategy vector of "Y", a transition matrix "M" may be defined for "X" whose "ij" th entry is the probability that the outcome of a particular encounter between "X" and "Y" will be "j" given that the previous encounter was "i", where "i" and "j" are one of the four outcome indices: "cc", "cd", "dc", or "dd". For example, from "X"s point of view, the probability that the outcome of the present encounter is "cd" given that the previous encounter was "cd" is equal to formula_5. (The indices for "Q" are from "Y"s point of view: a "cd" outcome for "X" is a "dc" outcome for "Y".) Under these definitions, the iterated prisoner's dilemma qualifies as a stochastic process and "M" is a stochastic matrix, allowing all of the theory of stochastic processes to be applied.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: One result of stochastic theory is that there exists a stationary vector "v" for the matrix "M" such that formula_6. Without loss of generality, it may be specified that "v" is normalized so that the sum of its four components is unity. The "ij" th entry in formula_7 will give the probability that the outcome of an encounter between "X" and "Y" will be "j" given that the encounter "n" steps previous is "i". In the limit as "n" approaches infinity, "M" will converge to a matrix with fixed values, giving the long-term probabilities of an encounter producing "j" which will be independent of "i". In other words, the rows of formula_8 will be identical, giving the long-term equilibrium result probabilities of the iterated prisoners dilemma without the need to explicitly evaluate a large number of interactions. It can be seen that "v" is a stationary vector for formula_7 and particularly formula_8, so that each row of formula_8 will be equal to "v". Thus the stationary vector specifies the equilibrium outcome probabilities for "X". Defining formula_12 and formula_13 as the short-term payoff vectors for the {cc,cd,dc,dd} outcomes (From "X"s point of view), the equilibrium payoffs for "X" and "Y" can now be specified as formula_14 and formula_15, allowing the two strategies "P" and "Q" to be compared for their long term payoffs.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In 2012, William H. Press and Freeman Dyson published a new class of strategies for the stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma called "zero-determinant" (ZD) strategies. The long term payoffs for encounters between "X" and "Y" can be expressed as the determinant of a matrix which is a function of the two strategies and the short term payoff vectors: formula_16 and formula_17, which do not involve the stationary vector "v". Since the determinant function formula_18 is linear in "f", it follows that formula_19 (where "U"={1,1,1,1}). Any strategies for which formula_20 is by definition a ZD strategy, and the long term payoffs obey the relation formula_21.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Tit-for-tat is a ZD strategy which is "fair" in the sense of not gaining advantage over the other player. However, the ZD space also contains strategies that, in the case of two players, can allow one player to unilaterally set the other player's score or alternatively, force an evolutionary player to achieve a payoff some percentage lower than his own. The extorted player could defect but would thereby hurt himself by getting a lower payoff. Thus, extortion solutions turn the iterated prisoner's dilemma into a sort of ultimatum game. Specifically, "X" is able to choose a strategy for which formula_22, unilaterally setting formula_23 to a specific value within a particular range of values, independent of "Y"s strategy, offering an opportunity for "X" to "extort" player "Y" (and vice versa). (It turns out that if "X" tries to set formula_24 to a particular value, the range of possibilities is much smaller, only consisting of complete cooperation or complete defection.)


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: An extension of the IPD is an evolutionary stochastic IPD, in which the relative abundance of particular strategies is allowed to change, with more successful strategies relatively increasing. This process may be accomplished by having less successful players imitate the more successful strategies, or by eliminating less successful players from the game, while multiplying the more successful ones. It has been shown that unfair ZD strategies are not evolutionarily stable. The key intuition is that an evolutionarily stable strategy must not only be able to invade another population (which extortionary ZD strategies can do) but must also perform well against other players of the same type (which extortionary ZD players do poorly because they reduce each other's surplus).


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Theory and simulations confirm that beyond a critical population size, ZD extortion loses out in evolutionary competition against more cooperative strategies, and as a result, the average payoff in the population increases when the population is larger. In addition, there are some cases in which extortioners may even catalyze cooperation by helping to break out of a face-off between uniform defectors and win–stay, lose–switch agents.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: While extortionary ZD strategies are not stable in large populations, another ZD class called "generous" strategies "is" both stable and robust. In fact, when the population is not too small, these strategies can supplant any other ZD strategy and even perform well against a broad array of generic strategies for iterated prisoner's dilemma, including win–stay, lose–switch. This was proven specifically for the by Alexander Stewart and Joshua Plotkin in 2013. Generous strategies will cooperate with other cooperative players, and in the face of defection, the generous player loses more utility than its rival. Generous strategies are the intersection of ZD strategies and so-called "good" strategies, which were defined by Akin (2013) to be those for which the player responds to past mutual cooperation with future cooperation and splits expected payoffs equally if he receives at least the cooperative expected payoff. Among good strategies, the generous (ZD) subset performs well when the population is not too small. If the population is very small, defection strategies tend to dominate.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Most work on the iterated prisoner's dilemma has focused on the discrete case, in which players either cooperate or defect, because this model is relatively simple to analyze. However, some researchers have looked at models of the continuous iterated prisoner's dilemma, in which players are able to make a variable contribution to the other player. Le and Boyd found that in such situations, cooperation is much harder to evolve than in the discrete iterated prisoner's dilemma. The basic intuition for this result is straightforward: in a continuous prisoner's dilemma, if a population starts off in a non-cooperative equilibrium, players who are only marginally more cooperative than non-cooperators get little benefit from assorting with one another. By contrast, in a discrete prisoner's dilemma, tit-for-tat cooperators get a big payoff boost from assorting with one another in a non-cooperative equilibrium, relative to non-cooperators. Since nature arguably offers more opportunities for variable cooperation rather than a strict dichotomy of cooperation or defection, the continuous prisoner's dilemma may help explain why real-life examples of tit-for-tat-like cooperation are extremely rare in nature (ex. Hammerstein) even though tit for tat seems robust in theoretical models.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Players cannot seem to coordinate mutual cooperation, thus often get locked into the inferior yet stable strategy of defection. In this way, iterated rounds facilitate the evolution of stable strategies. Iterated rounds often produce novel strategies, which have implications to complex social interaction. One such strategy is win-stay lose-shift. This strategy outperforms a simple Tit-For-Tat strategy – that is, if you can get away with cheating, repeat that behavior. However if you get caught, switch.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The only problem of this tit-for-tat strategy is that they are vulnerable to signal error. The problem arises when one individual cheats in retaliation but the other interprets it as cheating. As a result of this, the second individual now cheats, and then it starts a see-saw pattern of cheating in a chain reaction.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Even without repeated games, strong enlightened self-interest can result in a stable and efficient outcome.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The prisoner setting may seem contrived, but there are in fact many examples in human interaction as well as interactions in nature that have the same payoff matrix. The prisoner's dilemma is therefore of interest to the social sciences such as economics, politics, and sociology, as well as to the biological sciences such as ethology and evolutionary biology. Many natural processes have been abstracted into models in which living beings are engaged in endless games of prisoner's dilemma. This wide applicability of the PD gives the game its substantial importance.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In environmental studies, the PD is evident in crises such as global climate-change. It is argued all countries will benefit from a stable climate, but any single country is often hesitant to curb emissions. The immediate benefit to any one country from maintaining current behavior is perceived to be greater than the purported eventual benefit to that country if all countries' behavior was changed, therefore explaining the impasse concerning climate-change in 2007.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: An important difference between climate-change politics and the prisoner's dilemma is uncertainty; the extent and pace at which pollution can change climate is not known. The dilemma faced by governments is therefore different from the prisoner's dilemma in that the payoffs of cooperation are unknown. This difference suggests that states will cooperate much less than in a real iterated prisoner's dilemma, so that the probability of avoiding a possible climate catastrophe is much smaller than that suggested by a game-theoretical analysis of the situation using a real iterated prisoner's dilemma.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Osang and Nandy (2003) provide a theoretical explanation with proofs for a regulation-driven win-win situation along the lines of Michael Porter's hypothesis, in which government regulation of competing firms is substantial.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Cooperative behavior of many animals can be understood as an example of the prisoner's dilemma. Often animals engage in long-term partnerships, which can be more specifically modeled as iterated prisoner's dilemma. For example, guppies inspect predators cooperatively in groups, and they are thought to punish non-cooperative inspectors.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Vampire bats are social animals that engage in reciprocal food exchange. Applying the payoffs from the prisoner's dilemma can help explain this behavior:


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In addiction research / behavioral economics, George Ainslie points out that addiction can be cast as an intertemporal PD problem between the present and future selves of the addict. In this case, "defecting" means "relapsing", and it is easy to see that not defecting both today and in the future is by far the best outcome. The case where one abstains today but relapses in the future is the worst outcome – in some sense the discipline and self-sacrifice involved in abstaining today have been "wasted" because the future relapse means that the addict is right back where they started and will have to start over (which is quite demoralizing, and makes starting over more difficult). Relapsing today and tomorrow is a slightly "better" outcome, because while the addict is still addicted, they haven't put the effort in to trying to stop. The final case, where one engages in the addictive behavior today while abstaining "tomorrow" will be familiar to anyone who has struggled with an addiction. The problem here is that (as in other PDs) there is an obvious benefit to defecting "today", but tomorrow one will face the same PD, and the same obvious benefit will be present then, ultimately leading to an endless string of defections.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: John Gottman in his research described in "The Science of Trust" defines good relationships as those where partners know not to enter the (D,D) cell or at least not to get dynamically stuck there in a loop. In cognitive neuroscience, fast brain signaling associated with processing different rounds may indicate choices at the next round. Mutual cooperation outcomes entail brain activity changes predictive of how quickly a person will cooperate in kind at the next opportunity; this activity may be linked to basic homeostatic and motivational processes, possibly increasing the likelihood to short-cut into the (C,C) cell of the game.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The prisoner's dilemma has been called the "E. coli" of social psychology, and it has been used widely to research various topics such as oligopolistic competition and collective action to produce a collective good.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Advertising is sometimes cited as a real-example of the prisoner's dilemma. When cigarette advertising was legal in the United States, competing cigarette manufacturers had to decide how much money to spend on advertising. The effectiveness of Firm A's advertising was partially determined by the advertising conducted by Firm B. Likewise, the profit derived from advertising for Firm B is affected by the advertising conducted by Firm A. If both Firm A and Firm B chose to advertise during a given period, then the advertisement from each firm negates the other's, receipts remain constant, and expenses increase due to the cost of advertising. Both firms would benefit from a reduction in advertising. However, should Firm B choose not to advertise, Firm A could benefit greatly by advertising. Nevertheless, the optimal amount of advertising by one firm depends on how much advertising the other undertakes. As the best strategy is dependent on what the other firm chooses there is no dominant strategy, which makes it slightly different from a prisoner's dilemma. The outcome is similar, though, in that both firms would be better off were they to advertise less than in the equilibrium. Sometimes cooperative behaviors do emerge in business situations. For instance, cigarette manufacturers endorsed the making of laws banning cigarette advertising, understanding that this would reduce costs and increase profits across the industry. This analysis is likely to be pertinent in many other business situations involving advertising.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Without enforceable agreements, members of a cartel are also involved in a (multi-player) prisoner's dilemma. 'Cooperating' typically means keeping prices at a pre-agreed minimum level. 'Defecting' means selling under this minimum level, instantly taking business (and profits) from other cartel members. Anti-trust authorities want potential cartel members to mutually defect, ensuring the lowest possible prices for consumers.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Two competing athletes have the option to use an illegal and/or dangerous drug to boost their performance. If neither athlete takes the drug, then neither gains an advantage. If only one does, then that athlete gains a significant advantage over their competitor, reduced by the legal and/or medical dangers of having taken the drug. If both athletes take the drug, however, the benefits cancel out and only the dangers remain, putting them both in a worse position than if neither had used doping.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In a conversation with Ken Griffey Jr. after the 1998 MLB season, Barry Bonds expressed his frustration with other players' use of steroids. Bonds stated "I had a helluva season last year, and nobody gave a crap. Nobody. As much as I've complained about McGwire and Canseco and all of the bull with steroids, I'm tired of fighting it. I turn 35 this year. I've got three or four good seasons left, and I wanna get paid. I'm just gonna start using some hard-core stuff, and hopefully it won't hurt my body. Then I'll get out of the game and be done with it." Bonds found himself in the prisoner's dilemma that is doping in baseball, the feeling that he has to use steroids so that his competitors don't have such a significant advantage over him, putting him on an even playing field, though everyone is worse off than if no one had used steroids at all.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In international political theory, the Prisoner's Dilemma is often used to demonstrate the coherence of strategic realism, which holds that in international relations, all states (regardless of their internal policies or professed ideology), will act in their rational self-interest given international anarchy. A classic example is an arms race like the Cold War and similar conflicts. During the Cold War the opposing alliances of NATO and the Warsaw Pact both had the choice to arm or disarm. From each side's point of view, disarming whilst their opponent continued to arm would have led to military inferiority and possible annihilation. Conversely, arming whilst their opponent disarmed would have led to superiority. If both sides chose to arm, neither could afford to attack the other, but both incurred the high cost of developing and maintaining a nuclear arsenal. If both sides chose to disarm, war would be avoided and there would be no costs.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Although the 'best' overall outcome is for both sides to disarm, the rational course for both sides is to arm, and this is indeed what happened. Both sides poured enormous resources into military research and armament in a war of attrition for the next thirty years until the Soviet Union could not withstand the economic cost. The same logic could be applied in any similar scenario, be it economic or technological competition between sovereign states.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Many real-life dilemmas involve multiple players. Although metaphorical, Hardin's tragedy of the commons may be viewed as an example of a multi-player generalization of the PD: Each villager makes a choice for personal gain or restraint. The collective reward for unanimous (or even frequent) defection is very low payoffs (representing the destruction of the "commons"). A commons dilemma most people can relate to is washing the dishes in a shared house. By not washing dishes an individual can gain by saving his time, but if that behavior is adopted by every resident, the collective cost is no clean plates for anyone.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: The commons are not always exploited: William Poundstone, in a book about the prisoner's dilemma, describes a situation in New Zealand where newspaper boxes are left unlocked. It is possible for people to take a paper without paying ("defecting"), but very few do, feeling that if they do not pay then neither will others, destroying the system. Subsequent research by Elinor Ostrom, winner of the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, hypothesized that the tragedy of the commons is oversimplified, with the negative outcome influenced by outside influences. Without complicating pressures, groups communicate and manage the commons among themselves for their mutual benefit, enforcing social norms to preserve the resource and achieve the maximum good for the group, an example of effecting the best case outcome for PD.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Douglas Hofstadter once suggested that people often find problems such as the PD problem easier to understand when it is illustrated in the form of a simple game, or trade-off. One of several examples he used was "closed bag exchange":


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: "Friend or Foe?" is a game show that aired from 2002 to 2003 on the Game Show Network in the US. It is an example of the prisoner's dilemma game tested on real people, but in an artificial setting. On the game show, three pairs of people compete. When a pair is eliminated, they play a game similar to the prisoner's dilemma to determine how the winnings are split. If they both cooperate (Friend), they share the winnings and they both get 50% of the winnings. If one cooperates and the other defects (Foe), the defector gets 80% of the winnings and the cooperator gets 20% of the winnings. If both defect, both leave with nothing. Notice that the reward matrix is slightly different from the standard one given above, as the rewards for the "both defect" and the "cooperate while the opponent defects" cases are identical. This makes the "both defect" case a weak equilibrium, compared with being a strict equilibrium in the standard prisoner's dilemma. If a contestant knows that their opponent is going to vote "Foe", then their own choice does not affect their own winnings. In a specific sense, "Friend or Foe" has a rewards model the same as the game of Chicken.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: This payoff matrix has also been used on the British television programmes "Trust Me", "Shafted", "The Bank Job" and "Golden Balls", and on the American game shows "Take It All", as well as for the winning couple on the Reality Show shows "Bachelor Pad" and "Love Island". Game data from the "Golden Balls" series has been analyzed by a team of economists, who found that cooperation was "surprisingly high" for amounts of money that would seem consequential in the real world but were comparatively low in the context of the game.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Researchers from the University of Lausanne and the University of Edinburgh have suggested that the "Iterated Snowdrift Game" may more closely reflect real-world social situations. Although this model is actually a chicken game, it will be described here. In this model, the risk of being exploited through defection is lower, and individuals always gain from taking the cooperative choice. The snowdrift game imagines two drivers who are stuck on opposite sides of a snowdrift, each of whom is given the option of shoveling snow to clear a path, or remaining in their car. A player's highest payoff comes from leaving the opponent to clear all the snow by themselves, but the opponent is still nominally rewarded for their work.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: This may better reflect real-world scenarios, the researchers giving the example of two scientists collaborating on a report, both of whom would benefit if the other worked harder. "But when your collaborator doesn't do any work, it's probably better for you to do all the work yourself. You'll still end up with a completed project."


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In coordination games, players must coordinate their strategies for a good outcome. An example is two cars that abruptly meet in a blizzard; each must choose whether to swerve left or right. If both swerve left, or both right, the cars do not collide. The local left- and right-hand traffic convention helps to co-ordinate their actions.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: A more general set of games are asymmetric. As in the prisoner's dilemma, the best outcome is cooperation, and there are motives for defection. Unlike the symmetric prisoner's dilemma, though, one player has more to lose and/or more to gain than the other. Some such games have been described as a prisoner's dilemma in which one prisoner has an alibi, whence the term "alibi game".


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In experiments, players getting unequal payoffs in repeated games may seek to maximize profits, but only under the condition that both players receive equal payoffs; this may lead to a stable equilibrium strategy in which the disadvantaged player defects every X games, while the other always co-operates. Such behaviour may depend on the experiment's social norms around fairness.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: It is not only prisoners who face dilemmas. Guardians also confront situations in which there are only unattractive choices from which to choose. Examples can easily be found in cases where one agent must smooth tensions between its own partners: one can think of two colleagues jockeying for career advancement and the troubles this causes their company's managing director; two officials competing for promotion and the tension this causes for the head of their bureau; or in parenting when two siblings vie for attention and the anxiety this causes their parents. If the behaviour of the guardian satisfies one side, the other side feels exposed and alienated.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: From an international relations perspective, Dr Spyros Katsoulas introduces the concept of the guardian's dilemma. The guardian's dilemma is defined as the condition in which two states maintain their enmity towards one another despite sharing a stronger common ally. By default, a dilemma is a situation with unsatisfactory choices. The guardian's dilemma lies in the fact that the stronger state can neither stay out of a crisis between its allies nor get actively involved without affecting the fragile equilibrium. If the guardian abstains, the situation may spin out of control; if the guardian gets involved, any tilt against one side may be seen as a victory or a window of opportunity for the other. Expanding on Glenn Snyder's concept of the alliance security dilemma, the outcomes of the interaction between the guardian and the two smaller partners are described as abandonment, entrapment, and emboldening.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Several software packages have been created to run prisoner's dilemma simulations and tournaments, some of which have available source code.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: Hannu Rajaniemi set the opening scene of his "The Quantum Thief" trilogy in a "dilemma prison". The main theme of the series has been described as the "inadequacy of a binary universe" and the ultimate antagonist is a character called the All-Defector. Rajaniemi is particularly interesting as an artist treating this subject in that he is a Cambridge-trained mathematician and holds a Ph.D. in mathematical physics – the interchangeability of matter and information is a major feature of the books, which take place in a "post-singularity" future. The first book in the series was published in 2010, with the two sequels, "The Fractal Prince" and "The Causal Angel", published in 2012 and 2014, respectively.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: A game modeled after the (iterated) prisoner's dilemma is a central focus of the 2012 video game "" and a minor part in its 2016 sequel "".


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In "The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Prisoner's Dilemma" by Trenton Lee Stewart, the main characters start by playing a version of the game and escaping from the "prison" altogether. Later they become actual prisoners and escape once again.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In "The Adventure Zone: Balance" during "The Suffering Game" subarc, the player characters are twice presented with the prisoner's dilemma during their time in two liches' domain, once cooperating and once defecting.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: In the 8th novel from the author James S. A. Corey "Tiamat's Wrath," Winston Duarte explains the prisoners dilemma to his 14-year-old daughter, Teresa, to train her in strategic thinking.


title: Prisoner's dilemma

text: An extreme version of the prisoner's dilemma is featured in the 2008 film "The Dark Knight" in which the Joker rigs two ferries, one containing prisoners and the other containing civilians, arming both groups with the means to detonate the bomb on each other's ferries. Ultimately, the two sides decide not to act.


title: Rick Hoffman

text: Richard Edward Hoffman (born June 12, 1970) is an American actor widely known for playing Jerry Best in "The Bernie Mac Show" (2002–2005); Chase Chapman in "Samantha Who?" (2007–2009); and Louis Litt in the legal drama series "Suits" (2011–2019).


title: Rick Hoffman

text: Hoffman was born in New York City and grew up in Roslyn Heights, New York. He was raised Jewish. He graduated from The Wheatley School in Old Westbury, New York before attending the University of Arizona. After graduating, he moved to Los Angeles, California to start an acting career.


title: Rick Hoffman

text: Hoffman was cast in his first role, as a security guard in "Conspiracy Theory", in 1997. He had some other small roles until he received a main role as Freddie Sacker on Darren Star's short-lived Wall Street series "The $treet" in 2000, which was pulled from the airwaves after seven episodes, but which allowed him to quit his job waiting tables and move back to New York. His subsequent TV roles included Terry Loomis on the short-lived Steven Bochco law drama "Philly" in 2001–2002, Jerry Best in "The Bernie Mac Show" (2002–2005), Patrick Van Dorn on the John Stamos comedy "Jake in Progress" (2004–2005) and Chase Chapman on the ABC comedy "Samantha Who?" (2007–2009). In 2011, he landed a starring role as Louis Litt in the USA Network series "Suits", which ran until 2019.


title: Rick Hoffman

text: His other TV and film work includes "The Day After Tomorrow", "Blood Work", "Hostel", "Cellular" and "The Condemned". He has also appeared as a guest in "", "Chuck", "The Pretender", "", "NCIS", "Crossing Jordan", "Without a Trace", "The Practice", "", "", "Shark", "Lie to Me", Andy Richter Controls the Universe, "Monk", "Billions", and "The Mentalist".


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: Dumb and Dumber is a 1994 American buddy comedy film directed by Peter Farrelly, who cowrote the screenplay with Bobby Farrelly and Bennett Yellin. It is the first installment in the "Dumb and Dumber" franchise. Starring Jim Carrey and Jeff Daniels, it tells the story of Lloyd Christmas (Carrey) and Harry Dunne (Daniels), two dumb but well-meaning friends from Providence, Rhode Island, who set out on a cross-country trip to Aspen, Colorado, to return a briefcase full of money to its owner, thinking it was abandoned as a mistake though it was actually left as a ransom. Lauren Holly, Karen Duffy, Mike Starr, Charles Rocket, and Teri Garr play supporting roles.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: The film was released on December 16, 1994. It grossed $247 million at the box office and has developed a cult following in the years after its release and is regarded as one of the best comedies of the 1990s. The success of "Dumb and Dumber" launched the career of the Farrelly brothers, established the range of the heretofore dramatically acclaimed Daniels as a gifted comedic actor and vitalized his Hollywood career, and solidified Carrey's reputation as one of the most prominent actors of the 1990s. The film also spawned an animated TV series, a , and a 2014 sequel.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: Lloyd Christmas and Harry Dunne, two kind but dimwitted young men, are best friends and roommates living in Providence, Rhode Island. Lloyd, a chip-toothed limousine driver, immediately falls in love when he meets Mary Swanson, a woman he is driving to the airport. Upon arriving and saying goodbye to Lloyd, she leaves a briefcase in the terminal. Lloyd sees this and attempts to return it to her, unaware that it contains ransom money for her kidnapped husband, Bobby, and that she intentionally left it for her husband's captors, Joe "Mental" Mentalino and J. P. Shay. Her Aspen-bound plane has already departed, leading to Lloyd running through and falling out of the jetway.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: Fired from his job for leaving the scene of an accident, Lloyd returns to his apartment and learns that Harry has also been fired from his dog-grooming job after delivering dogs late to a show and accidentally getting them dirty. Mental and Shay follow Lloyd home from the airport in pursuit of the briefcase. Mistaking the crooks for debt collectors, the two flee the apartment and return later to find that Mental and Shay have ransacked the apartment and decapitated Harry's parakeet. Lloyd suggests they head to Aspen to find Mary and return the briefcase under the pretext of escaping their lonely dreary lives in Providence. At first, Harry opposes the idea, but he eventually agrees and they leave the next day.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: Mental and Shay catch up to the duo at a motel that night. Posing as a hitchhiker, Mental is picked up by Harry and Lloyd while Shay secretly follows them. During a lunch stop, the duo pranks Mental with chili peppers in his burger, unaware that he has a stomach ulcer. When Mental reacts adversely, they accidentally kill him with rat poison pills (which he planned to use on them) after mistaking it for his medication. In response, police wait to intercept the two on the road to Colorado, but a distracted Lloyd takes a wrong turn and ends up driving all night through Nebraska. Upon waking up and realizing Lloyd's mishap, Harry gives up on the journey and decides to walk home, but Lloyd later persuades him to continue after trading the van for a minibike.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: The two arrive in Aspen but cannot find Mary. With no money and nowhere to stay, Harry attacks Lloyd in frustration that night, breaking the briefcase open by accident; after discovering the money, the two spend it on a luxury hotel suite, clothes, and a car. They learn that Mary and her family are hosting a gala and prepare to attend. At the gala, Harry, attempting to lure Mary over to Lloyd, reluctantly agrees to go skiing with her the next day and lies to Lloyd that he got him a date. The next day, after waiting all day for Mary at the hotel bar, Lloyd finds out Harry lied and spent the day with her himself.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: In retaliation, Lloyd pranks Harry by serving him a coffee laced with a potent dose of laxative, causing Harry to spontaneously defecate in a broken toilet at Mary's house. Lloyd arrives at Mary's house and informs her that he has her briefcase. He takes her to the hotel, shows her the briefcase, and confesses his love to her, but she rejects him as she is already married. Nicholas Andre, an old friend of the Swansons and the mastermind behind Bobby's kidnapping, arrives with Shay and learns that Harry and Lloyd had spent all of the ransom money and replaced it with IOUs; furious, he takes Lloyd and Mary hostage, as well as Harry when he returns. An argument leads Nicholas to shoot Harry, who plays dead before ineptly returning fire. Before Nicholas can fire another shot, an FBI team led by Beth Jordan (whom Harry had met at a gas station and Lloyd met earlier at the bar) raids the suite, where Beth tells Harry and Lloyd that the FBI and police had been following them since they left Providence. Harry reveals they gave him a bulletproof vest and gun when he arrived. Nicolas and Shay are arrested, and Mary and Bobby are reunited, much to Lloyd's dejection.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: The next day, Harry and Lloyd have begun walking home on foot because all of their purchases were confiscated and their minibike has broken down. The two unintentionally decline the chance to be oil boys for a group of bikini girls, after which Harry tells Lloyd that they will get their "break" one day, then play a friendly game of tag as they walk back to Rhode Island.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: The Farrelly Brothers had been trying for years to get their first movie made. Director Peter Farrelly's agent encouraged him to make a movie himself, alongside his brother Bobby.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: The Farrelly Brothers did not know who Jim Carrey was; they were only told that he was "The White Guy" on "In Living Color". Only after a screening of Carrey's first major acting role, "", did they realize they had struck gold. Based on the box-office success of Ace Ventura, Carrey was able to negotiate a salary of $7 million for this film.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: Nicolas Cage, who was proposed to be Carrey's co-star, tried to negotiate a $2 million increase in his fee but New Line decided against casting him and signed Jeff Daniels instead. Daniels was only paid around $50,000. New Line Cinema originally did not want Daniels in the film, as he was known only for his dramatic work at the time. However, the Farrellys and Carrey wanted Daniels for the part. Although New Line agreed to their demands, Daniels was offered the low salary in the hopes it would discourage him from signing on to the film. Daniels ultimately accepted the role, despite his agent reportedly dissuading him out of fears it would kill his career.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: Steve Martin and Martin Short both turned down the role of Lloyd. According to Splitsider, Gary Oldman and Cage were the original choices for Lloyd and Harry. Chris Elliott and Rob Lowe were both also considered for the role of Harry.


title: Dumb and Dumber

text: Carrey's chipped tooth is genuine, resulting from a fight with a classmate in his childhood, but he had since had it capped. He simply had the crown temporarily removed from that tooth to portray Lloyd.