title: Role-playing video game

text: The next major revolution came in the late 1990s, which saw the rise of optical disks in fifth generation consoles. The implications for RPGs were enormous—longer, more involved quests, better audio, and full-motion video. This was first clearly demonstrated in 1997 by the phenomenal success of "Final Fantasy VII", which is considered one of the most influential games of all time. With a record-breaking production budget of around $45 million, the ambitious scope of "Final Fantasy VII" raised the possibilities for the genre, with its dozens of minigames and much higher production values. The latter includes innovations such as the use of 3D characters on pre-rendered backgrounds, battles viewed from multiple different angles rather than a single angle, and for the first time full-motion CGI video seamlessly blended into the gameplay, effectively integrated throughout the game. The game was soon ported to the PC and gained much success there, as did several other originally console RPGs, blurring the line between the console and computer platforms.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Computer-driven role-playing games had their start in Western markets, with games generally geared to be played on home computers. By 1985, series like "Wizardry" and "Ultima" represented the state of the art in role-playing games. In Japan, home computers had yet to take as great a hold as they had in the West due to their cost; there was little market for Western-developed games and there were a few Japanese-developed games for personal computers during this time such as "The Black Onyx" (1984) which followed the "Wizardry"/"Ultima" format. With the release of the low-cost Famicom console (called the Nintendo Entertainment System overseas), a new opportunity arose to bring role-playing games to Japan. "Dragon Quest" (1986) was the first such attempt to recreate a role-playing game for a console, and requires several simplifications to fit within the more limited memory and capabilities of the Famicom compared to computers; players in "Dragon Quest" controlled only a single character, the amount of control over this character limited due to the simplicity of the Famicom controller, and a less-realistic art style was chosen to better visualize the characters within a tile-based graphics system. "Dragon Quest" was highly successful in Japan, leading to further entries in the series and other titles such as "Final Fantasy" that followed the same simplifications made in RPGs for "Dragon Quest". Because of these differences, the role-playing genre began to be classified into two fairly distinct styles: "computer RPG" and "console RPG".


title: Role-playing video game

text: By the early 2000s, the distinction between platforms became less pronounced as the same games appeared on both console and computer, but stylistic differences between Western role-playing games (WRPGs) and Japanese role-playing games (JRPGs) remained, rooted in the earlier distinctions. Though sharing fundamental premises, WRPGs tend to feature darker graphics, older characters, and a greater focus on roaming freedom, realism, and the underlying game mechanics (e.g. "rules-based" or "system-based"); whereas JRPGs tend to feature brighter, anime-like or chibi graphics, younger characters, turn-based or faster-paced action gameplay, and a greater focus on tightly-orchestrated, linear storylines with intricate plots (e.g. "action-based" or "story-based"). Further, WRPGs are more likely to allow players to create and customize characters from scratch, and since the late 1990s have had a stronger focus on extensive dialog tree systems (e.g. ""). On the other hand, JRPGs tend to limit players to developing pre-defined player characters, and often do not allow the option to create or choose one's own playable characters or make decisions that alter the plot. In the early 1990s, JRPGs were seen as being much closer to fantasy novels, but by the late 1990s had become more cinematic in style (e.g. "Final Fantasy" series). At the same time, WRPGs started becoming more novelistic in style (e.g. "Planescape: Torment"), but by the late 2000s had also adopted a more cinematic style (e.g. "Mass Effect").


title: Role-playing video game

text: One reason given for these differences is that many early Japanese console RPGs can be seen as forms of interactive manga or anime wrapped around Western rule systems at the time, in addition to the influence of visual novel adventure games. As a result, Japanese console RPGs differentiated themselves with a stronger focus on scripted narratives and character drama, alongside streamlined gameplay. In recent years, these trends have in turn been adopted by WRPGs, which have begun moving more towards tightly structured narratives, in addition to moving away from "numbers and rules" in favor of streamlined combat systems similar to action games. In addition, a large number of Western indie games are modelled after JRPGs, especially those of the 16-bit era, partly due to the "RPG Maker" game development tools.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Another oft-cited difference is the prominence or absence of "kawaisa", or "cuteness", in Japanese culture, and different approaches with respect to character aesthetics. WRPGs tend to maintain a serious and gritty tone, whereas JRPG protagonists tend to be designed with an emphasis on aesthetic beauty, and even male characters are often young, androgynous, shōnen or bishōnen in appearance. JRPGs often have cute characters, juxtaposed with more mature themes and situations; and many modern JRPGs feature characters designed in the same style as those in manga and anime. The stylistic differences are often due to differing target audiences: Western RPGs are usually geared primarily towards teenage to adult males, whereas Japanese RPGs are usually intended for a much larger demographic, including female audiences, who, for example, accounted for nearly a third of "Final Fantasy XIII" playerbase. In 2015, IGN noted in an interview with "Xenoblade Chronicles X" development team that the label "JRPG" is most commonly used to refer to RPGs "whose presentation mimics the design sensibilities" of anime and manga, that it's "typically the presentation and character archetypes" that signal "this is a JRPG."


title: Role-playing video game

text: Modern JRPGs are more likely to feature turn-based battles; while modern WRPGs are more likely to feature real-time combat. In the past, the reverse was often true: real-time action role-playing games were far more common among Japanese console RPGs than Western computer RPGs up until the late 1990s, due to gamepads usually being better suited to real-time action than the keyboard and mouse.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Some journalists and video game designers have questioned this cultural classification, arguing that the differences between Eastern and Western games have been exaggerated. In an interview held at the American Electronic Entertainment Expo, Japanese video game developer Tetsuya Nomura (who worked on "Final Fantasy" and "Kingdom Hearts") emphasized that RPGs should not be classified by country-of-origin, but rather described simply for what they are: role-playing games. Hironobu Sakaguchi, creator of "Final Fantasy" and "The Last Story", noted that, while "users like to categorise" JRPGs as "turn-based, traditional styles" and WRPGs as "born from first-person shooters," there "are titles that don't fit the category," pointing to "Chrono Trigger" (which he also worked on) and the "Mana" games. He further noted that there have been "other games similar to the style of "Chrono Trigger"," but that "it's probably because the games weren't localised and didn't reach the Western audience." "" series director Tetsuya Takahashi, in reference to "Xenoblade Chronicles", stated that "I don’t know when exactly people started using the term 'JRPG,' but if this game makes people rethink the meaning of this term, I’ll be satisfied." The writer Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com states that ""Xenoblade" throws into high relief the sheer artificiality of the gaming community's obsession over the differences between" Western and Japanese RPGs, pointing out that it "does things that don't really fit into either genre. Gamers do love their boundaries and barriers and neat little rules, I know, but just because you cram something into a little box doesn't mean it belongs there." Nick Doerr of Joystiq criticizes the claim that JRPGs are "too linear," pointing out that non-linear JRPGs are not uncommon—for instance, the "Romancing SaGa" series. Likewise, Rowan Kaiser of Joystiq points out that linear WRPGs were common in the 1990s, and argues that many of the often mentioned differences between Eastern and Western games are stereotypes that are generally "not true" and "never was", pointing to classic examples like "Lands of Lore" and "Betrayal at Krondor" that were more narrative-focused than the typical Western-style RPGs of the time.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Due to the cultural differences between Western and Japanese variations of role-playing games, both have often been compared and critiqued by those within the video games industry and press.


title: Role-playing video game

text: In the late 1980s, when traditional American computer RPGs such as "Ultima" and "Defender of the Crown" were ported to consoles, they received mixed reviews from console gamers, as they were "not perceived, by many of the players, to be as exciting as the Japanese imports", and lacked the arcade and action-adventure elements commonly found in Japanese console RPGs at the time. In the early 1990s, American computer RPGs also began facing criticism for their plots, where "the party sticks together through thick and thin" and always "act together as a group" rather than as individuals, and where non-player characters are "one-dimensional characters," in comparison to the more fantasy novel approach of Squaresoft console RPGs such as "Final Fantasy IV". However in 1994, game designer Sandy Petersen noted that, among computer gamers, there was criticism against cartridge-based console JRPGs being "not role-playing at all" due to popular examples such as "Secret of Mana" and especially "The Legend of Zelda" using "direct" arcade-style action combat systems instead of the more "abstract" turn-based battle systems associated with computer RPGs. In response, he pointed out that not all console RPGs are action-based, pointing to "Final Fantasy" and "Lufia". Another early criticism, dating back to the "Phantasy Star" games in the late 1980s, was the frequent use of defined player characters, in contrast to the "Wizardry" and Gold Box games where the player's avatars (such as knights, clerics, or thieves) were blank slates.


title: Role-playing video game

text: As Japanese console RPGs became increasingly more dominant in the 1990s, and became known for being more heavily story and character-based, American computer RPGs began to face criticism for having characters devoid of personality or background, due to representing avatars which the player uses to interact with the world, in contrast to Japanese console RPGs which depicted characters with distinctive personalities. American computer RPGs were thus criticized for lacking "more of the traditional role-playing" offered by Japanese console RPGs, which instead emphasized character interactions. In response, North American computer RPGs began making a comeback towards the end of the 1990s with interactive choice-filled adventures.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Several writers have criticized JRPGs as not being "true" RPGs, for heavy usage of scripted cutscenes and dialogue, and a frequent lack of branching outcomes. Japanese RPGs are also sometimes criticized for having relatively simple battle systems in which players are able to win by repetitively mashing buttons. As a result, Japanese-style role-playing games are held in disdain by some Western gamers, leading to the term "JRPG" being held in the pejorative. Some observers have also speculated that JRPGs are stagnating or declining in both quality and popularity, including remarks by BioWare co-founder Greg Zeschuk and writing director Daniel Erickson that JRPGs are stagnating—and that "Final Fantasy XIII" is not even really an RPG; criticisms regarding seemingly nebulous justifications by some Japanese designers for newly changed (or, alternately, newly un-changed) features of recent titles; calls among some gaming journalists to "fix" JRPGs' problems; as well as claims that some recent titles such as "Front Mission Evolved" are beginning to attempt—and failing to—imitate Western titles. In an article for "PSM3", Brittany Vincent of RPGFan.com felt that "developers have mired the modern JRPG in unoriginality", citing Square Enix CEO Yoichi Wada who stated that "they’re strictly catering to a particular audience", the article noting the difference in game sales between Japan and North America before going on to suggest JRPGs may need to "move forward". This criticism has also occurred in the wider media with an advertisement for "" (Obsidian Entertainment) in Japan openly mocked Japanese RPGs' traditional characteristics in favor of their own title. Nick Doerr of Joystiq noted that Bethesda felt that JRPGs "are all the same" and "too linear," to which he responded that "[f]or the most part, it's true" but noted there are also non-linear JRPGs such as the "Romancing SaGa" series. Such criticisms have produced responses such as ones by Japanese video game developers, Shinji Mikami and Yuji Horii, to the effect that JRPGs were never as popular in the West to begin with, and that Western reviewers are biased against turn-based systems. Jeff Fleming of Gamasutra also states that Japanese RPGs on home consoles are generally showing signs of staleness, but notes that handheld consoles such as the Nintendo DS have had more original and experimental Japanese RPGs released in recent years.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Western RPGs have also received criticism in recent years. They remain less popular in Japan, where, until recently, Western games in general had a negative reputation. In Japan, where the vast majority of early console role-playing video games originate, Western RPGs remain largely unknown. The developer Motomu Toriyama criticized Western RPGs, stating that they "dump you in a big open world, and let you do whatever you like [which makes it] difficult to tell a compelling story." Hironobu Sakaguchi noted that "users like to categorise" WRPGs as "a sort of different style, born from first person shooters." In recent years, some have also criticized WRPGs for becoming less RPG-like, instead with further emphasis on action. Christian Nutt of "GameSpy" states that, in contrast to JRPGs, WRPGs' greater control over the development and customization of playable characters has come at the expense of plot and gameplay, resulting in what he felt was generic dialogue, lack of character development within the narrative and weaker battle systems. He also states that WRPGs tend to focus more on the underlying rules governing the battle system rather than on the experience itself. Tom Battey of "Edge Magazine" noted that the problems often cited against JRPGs also often apply to many WRPGs as well as games outside of the RPG genre. BioWare games have been criticized for "lack of innovation, repetitive structure and lack of real choice." WRPGs, such as Bethesda games, have also been criticized for lacking in "narrative strength" or "mechanical intricacy" due to the open-ended, sandbox structure of their games.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Despite the criticisms leveled at both variations, Rowan Kaiser of Joystiq argued that many of the often mentioned differences between Eastern and Western games are stereotypes that are generally not true, noting various similarities between several Western titles (such as "Lands of Lore", "Betrayal at Krondor", and "Dragon Age") and several classic Eastern titles (such as "Final Fantasy" and "Phantasy Star"), noting that both these Western and Japanese titles share a similar emphasis on linear storytelling, pre-defined characters and "bright-colored" graphics. The developer Hironobu Sakaguchi also noted there are many games from both that don't fit such categorizations, such as his own "Chrono Trigger" as well as the "Mana" games, noting there have been many other such Japanese role-playing games that never released in Western markets.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Christianity is a minority religion in Japan and depictions of Christian symbolism and themes in Japanese media are not fraught with potential controversy. This tends to be problematic when JRPGs are exported to Western countries such as the United States where the topics of religion and blasphemy remain sensitive. A JRPG can exhibit elements that would be controversial in the West, such as "Xenogears" or "Final Fantasy Tactics" featuring antagonists that bear similarities to the Abrahamic God and the Catholic Church, respectively; negative depictions of organized religions; and "characters banding together and killing God." Nintendo has made efforts in the past to remove references such as these prior to introducing their games into the North American market.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Typically action RPGs feature each player directly controlling a single character in real time, and feature a strong focus on combat and action with plot and character interaction kept to a minimum. Early action RPGs tended to follow the template set by 1980s Nihon Falcom titles such as the "Dragon Slayer" and "Ys" series, which feature hack and slash combat where the player character's movements and actions are controlled directly, using a keyboard or game controller, rather than using menus. This formula was refined by the action-adventure game, "The Legend of Zelda" (1986), which set the template used by many subsequent action RPGs, including innovations such as an open world, nonlinear gameplay, battery backup saving, and an attack button that animates a sword swing or projectile attack on the screen. The game was largely responsible for the surge of action-oriented RPGs released since the late 1980s, both in Japan and North America. "The Legend of Zelda" series would continue to exert an influence on the transition of both console and computer RPGs from stat-heavy, turn-based combat towards real-time action combat in the following decades.


title: Role-playing video game

text: A different variation of the action RPG formula was popularized by "Diablo" (1996), where the majority of commands—such as moving and attacking—are executed using mouse clicks rather than via menus, though learned spells can also be assigned to hotkeys. In many action RPGs, non-player characters serve only one purpose, be it to buy or sell items or upgrade the player's abilities, or issue them with combat-centric quests. Problems players face also often have an action-based solution, such as breaking a wooden door open with an axe rather than finding the key needed to unlock it, though some games place greater emphasis on character attributes such as a "lockpicking" skill and puzzle-solving.


title: Role-playing video game

text: One common challenge in developing action RPGs is including content beyond that of killing enemies. With the sheer number of items, locations and monsters found in many such games, it can be difficult to create the needed depth to offer players a unique experience tailored to his or her beliefs, choices or actions. This is doubly true if a game makes use of randomization, as is common. One notable example of a game which went beyond this is "Deus Ex" (2000) which offered multiple solutions to problems using intricately layered story options and individually constructed environments. Instead of simply bashing their way through levels, players were challenged to act in character by choosing dialog options appropriately, and by using the surrounding environment intelligently. This produced an experience that was unique and tailored to each situation as opposed to one that repeated itself endlessly.


title: Role-playing video game

text: At one time, action RPGs were much more common on consoles than on computers. Though there had been attempts at creating action-oriented computer RPGs during the late 1980s and early 1990s, often in the vein of "Zelda", very few saw any success, with the 1992 game "Ultima VII" being one of the more successful exceptions in North America. On the PC, "Diablo"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s effect on the market was significant: it had many imitators and its style of combat went on to be used by many games that came after. For many years afterwards, games that closely mimicked the "Diablo" formula were referred to as ""Diablo" clones". Three of the four titles in the series were still sold together as part of the "Diablo Battle Chest" over a decade after "Diablo"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s release. Other examples of action RPGs for the PC include "Dungeon Siege", "Sacred", "Torchlight" and ""—the last of which was developed by a team headed by former Blizzard employees, some of whom had participated in the creation of the "Diablo" series. Like "Diablo" and "Rogue" before it, "Torchlight" and "Hellgate: London" made use of procedural generation to generate game levels.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Also included within this subgenre are role-playing shooters—games that incorporate elements of role-playing games and shooter games (including first-person and third-person). Recent examples include the "Mass Effect" series, "", "Borderlands 2" and "The 3rd Birthday".


title: Role-playing video game

text: This subgenre consists of RPGs where the player leads a party of adventurers in first-person perspective, typically through a dungeon or labyrinth in a grid-based environment. Examples include the aforementioned "Wizardry", "Might and Magic" and "Bard's Tale" series; as well as the "Etrian Odyssey" and "Elminage" series. Games of this type are sometimes called "blobbers", since the player moves the entire party around the playing field as a single unit, or "blob".


title: Role-playing video game

text: Most "blobbers" are turn-based, but some titles such as the "Dungeon Master", "Legend of Grimrock" and "Eye of the Beholder" series are played in real-time. Early games in this genre lacked an automap feature, forcing players to draw their own maps in order to keep track of their progress. Environmental and spatial puzzles are common, meaning players may need to, for instance, move a stone in one part of the level in order to open a gate in another part of the level.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Though many of the original RPGs for the PLATO mainframe system in the late 1970s also supported multiple, simultaneous players, the popularity of multiplayer modes in mainstream RPGs did not begin to rise sharply until the early to mid-1990s. For instance, "Secret of Mana" (1993), an early action role-playing game by Square, was one of the first commercial RPGs to feature cooperative multiplayer gameplay, offering two-player and three-player action once the main character had acquired his party members. Later, "Diablo" (1996) would combine CRPG and action game elements with an Internet multiplayer mode that allowed up to four players to enter the same world and fight monsters, trade items, or fight against each other.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Also during this time period, the MUD genre that had been spawned by MUD1 in 1978 was undergoing a tremendous expansion phase due to the release and spread of LPMud (1989) and DikuMUD (1991). Soon, driven by the mainstream adoption of the Internet, these parallel trends merged in the popularization of graphical MUDs, which would soon become known as massively multiplayer online role-playing games or MMORPGs, beginning with games like "Meridian 59" (1995), "" (1996), "Ultima Online" (1997), "Lineage" (1998), and "EverQuest" (1999), and leading to more modern phenomena such as "RuneScape" (2001), Ragnarok Online(2002), "Final Fantasy XI" (2003), "Eve Online" (2003) "Disney's Toontown Online" (2003) and "World of Warcraft" (2004).


title: Role-playing video game

text: Although superficially similar to single-player RPGs, MMORPGs lend their appeal more to the socializing influences of being online with hundreds or even thousands of other players at a time, and trace their origins more from MUDs than from CRPGs like "Ultima" and "Wizardry". Rather than focusing on the "old school" considerations of memorizing huge numbers of stats and esoterica and battling it out in complex, tactical environments, players instead spend much of their time forming and maintaining guilds and clans. The distinction between CRPGs and MMORPGs and MUDs can as a result be very sharp, likenable to the difference between "attending a renaissance fair and reading a good fantasy novel".


title: Role-playing video game

text: Further, MMORPGs have been criticized for diluting the "epic" feeling of single-player RPGs and related media among thousands of concurrent adventurers. Stated simply: every player wants to be "The Hero", slay "The Monster", rescue "The Princess", or obtain "The Magic Sword". But when there are thousands of players all playing the same game, clearly not everyone can be "the" hero. This problem became obvious to some in the game "EverQuest", where groups of players would compete and sometimes harass each other in order to get monsters in the same dungeon to drop valuable items, leading to several undesirable behaviors such as kill stealing, spawn camping, and ninja looting. In response—for instance by Richard Garriott in "Tabula Rasa" (2007)—developers began turning to instance dungeons as a means of reducing competition over limited resources, as well as preserving the gaming experience—though this mechanic has its own set of detractors.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Lastly, there exist markets such as Korea and China that, while saturated with MMORPGs, have so far proved relatively unreceptive to single-player RPGs. For instance, Internet-connected personal computers are relatively common in Korea when compared to other regions—particularly in the numerous "PC bangs" scattered around the country, where patrons are able to pay to play multiplayer video games—possibly due to historical bans on Japanese imports, as well as a culture that traditionally sees video games as "frivolous toys" and computers as educational. As a result, some have wondered whether the stand-alone, single-player RPG is still viable commercially—especially on the personal computer—when there are competing pressures such as big-name publishers' marketing needs, video game piracy, a change in culture, and the competitive price-point-to-processing-power ratio (at least initially) of modern console systems.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Roguelike is a subgenre of role-playing video games, characterized by procedural generation of game levels, turn-based gameplay, tile-based graphics, permanent death of the player-character, and typically based on a high fantasy narrative setting. Roguelikes descend from the 1980 game "Rogue", particularly mirroring "Rogue"s character- or sprite-based graphics. These games were popularized among college students and computer programmers of the 1980s and 1990s, leading to a large number of variants but adhering to these common gameplay elements. Some of the more well-known variants include "Hack", "NetHack", "Ancient Domains of Mystery", "Moria", "Angband", and "Tales of Maj'Eyal". The Japanese series of "Mystery Dungeon" games by Chunsoft, inspired by "Rogue", also fall within the concept of roguelike games.


title: Role-playing video game

text: More recently, with more powerful home computers and gaming systems, new variations of roguelikes incorporating other gameplay genres, thematic elements and graphical styles have become popular, typically retaining the notion of procedural generation. These titles are sometimes labeled as "roguelike-like", "rogue-lite", or "procedural death labyrinths" to reflect the variation from titles which mimic the gameplay of traditional roguelikes more faithfully. Other games, like "Diablo" and "UnReal World", took inspiration from roguelikes.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Sandbox RPGs, or open world RPGs, allow the player a great amount of freedom and usually feature a more open free-roaming world (meaning the player is not confined to a single path restricted by rocks or fences etc.). Sandbox RPGs possess similarities to other sandbox games, such as the "Grand Theft Auto" series, with a large number of interactable NPCs, large amount of content and typically some of the largest worlds to explore and longest play-times of all RPGs due to an impressive amount of secondary content not critical to the game's main storyline. Sandbox RPGs often attempt to emulate an entire region of their setting. Popular examples of this subgenre include the "Dragon Slayer" series by Nihon Falcom, the early "Dragon Quest" games by Chunsoft, "The Legend of Zelda" by Nintendo, "Wasteland" by Interplay Entertainment, the "SaGa" and "Mana" series by Squaresoft, "System Shock " and "System Shock 2" by Looking Glass Studios and Irrational Games, "Deus Ex" by Ion Storm, "The Elder Scrolls" and "Fallout" series by Bethesda Softworks and Interplay Entertainment, "Fable" by Lionhead Studios, the "Gothic" series by Piranha Bytes, the "Xenoblade Chronicles" series by Monolith Soft, and the "Dark Souls" series by FromSoftware.


title: Role-playing video game

text: This subgenre of turn-based role-playing games principally refers to games which incorporate elements from strategy games as an alternative to traditional role-playing game (RPG) systems. Tactical RPGs are descendants of traditional strategy games, such as chess, and table-top role-playing and strategic war games, such as "Chainmail", which were mainly tactical in their original form. The format of a tactical CRPG is also like a traditional RPG in its appearance, pacing and rule structure. Like standard RPGs, the player controls a finite party and battles a similar number of enemies. And like other RPGs, death is usually temporary, albeit some have permanent death of party members. But this genre incorporates strategic gameplay such as tactical movement on an isometric grid. Tactical RPGs tend not to feature multiplayer play.


title: Role-playing video game

text: A number of early Western role-playing video games used a highly tactical form of combat, including parts of the "Ultima" series, which introduced party-based, tiled combat in "" (1983). "Ultima III" would go on to be ported to many other platforms and influence the development of later titles, as would "Bokosuka Wars" (1983), considered a pioneer in the strategy/simulation RPG genre, according to Nintendo. Conventionally, however, the term tactical RPG (known as "simulation RPG" in Japan) refers to the distinct subgenre that was born in Japan; as the early origins of tactical RPGs are difficult to trace from the American side of the Pacific, where much of the early RPG genre developed.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Many tactical RPGs can be both extremely time-consuming and extremely difficult. Hence, the appeal of most tactical RPGs is to the hardcore, not casual, computer and video game player. Traditionally, tactical RPGs have been quite popular in Japan but have not enjoyed the same degree of success in North America and elsewhere. However, the audience for Japanese tactical RPGs has grown substantially since the mid-90s, with PS1 and PS2 titles such as "Final Fantasy Tactics", "Suikoden Tactics", "Vanguard Bandits", and "Disgaea" enjoying a surprising measure of popularity, as well as hand-held war games like "Fire Emblem". ("Final Fantasy Tactics" for the PS1 is often considered the breakthrough title outside Japan.) Older TRPGs are also being re-released via software emulation—such as on the Wii Virtual Console—and on handheld game consoles, giving games a new lease on life and exposure to new audiences. Japanese video games such as these are as a result no longer nearly as rare a commodity in North America as they were during the 1990s.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Western video games have utilized similar mechanics for years, as well, and were largely defined by "" (1994) in much the same way as Eastern video games were by "Fire Emblem". Titles such as "X-COM" have generally allowed greater freedom of movement when interacting with the surrounding environment than their Eastern counterparts. Other similar examples include the "Jagged Alliance" (1994–2013) and "Silent Storm" (2003–2005) series. According to a few developers, it became increasingly difficult during the 2000s to develop games of this type for the PC in the West (though several had been developed in Eastern Europe with mixed results); and even some Japanese console RPG developers began to complain about a bias against turn-based systems. Reasons cited include Western publishers' focus on developing real-time and action-oriented games instead.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Lastly, there are a number of "full-fledged" CRPGs which could be described as having "tactical combat". Examples from the classic era of CRPGs include parts of the aforementioned "Ultima" series; SSI's "Wizard's Crown" (1985) and "The Eternal Dagger" (1987); the "Gold Box" games of the late '80s and early '90s, many of which were later ported to Japanese video game systems; and the "Realms of Arkania" (1992–1996) series based on the German "The Dark Eye" pen-and-paper system. More recent examples include "Wasteland 2", "" and ""—all released in 2014. Partly due to the release of these games 2014 has been called "the first year of the CRPG renaissance".


title: Role-playing video game

text: Finally, a steadily increasing number of other non-RP video games have adopted aspects traditionally seen in RPGs, such as experience point systems, equipment management, and choices in dialogue, as developers push to fill the demand for role-playing elements in non-RPGs. The blending of these elements with a number of different game engines and gameplay styles have created a myriad of hybrid game categories formed by mixing popular gameplay elements featured in other genres such as first-person shooters, platformers, and turn-based and real-time strategy games. Examples include first-person shooters such as parts of the "Deus Ex" (starting in 2000) and "" (starting in 2007) series; real-time strategy games such as "" (2003) and "" (2009); puzzle video games such as "Castlevania Puzzle" (2010) and "" (2007); and turn-based strategy games like the "Steel Panthers" (1995–2006) series, which combined tactical military combat with RPG-derived unit advancement. As a group, hybrid games have been both praised and criticized; being referred to by one critic as the "poor man's" RPG for omitting the dialogue choices and story-driven character development of major AAA titles; and by another critic as "promising" for shedding the conventions of more established franchises in an attempt to innovate.


title: Role-playing video game

text: RPGs seldom test a player's physical skill. Combat is typically a tactical challenge rather than a physical one, and games involve other non-action gameplay such as choosing dialog options, inventory management, or buying and selling items.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Although RPGs share some combat rules with wargames, RPGs are often about a small group of individual characters. Wargames tend to have large groups of identical units, as well as non-humanoid units such as tanks and airplanes. Role-playing games do not normally allow the player to produce more units. However, the "Heroes of Might and Magic" series crosses these genres by combining individual heroes with large numbers of troops in large battles.


title: Role-playing video game

text: RPGs rival adventure games in terms of their rich storylines, in contrast to genres that do not rely upon storytelling such as sports games or puzzle games. Both genres also feature highly detailed characters, and a great deal of exploration. However, adventure games usually have a well-defined character, whereas while RPGs may do so, many allow the player to design their characters. Adventure games usually focus on one character, whereas RPGs often feature an entire party. RPGs also feature a combat system, which adventure games usually lack. Whereas both adventure games and RPGs may focus on the personal or psychological growth of characters, RPGs tend to emphasize a complex eternal economy where characters are defined by increasing numerical attributes.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Gameplay elements strongly associated with this genre, such as statistical character development, have been widely adapted to other video game genres. For example, "", an action-adventure game, uses resource statistics (abbreviated as "stats") to define a wide range of attributes including stamina, weapon proficiency, driving, lung capacity, and muscle tone, and uses numerous cutscenes and quests to advance the story.


title: Role-playing video game

text: "", a real-time strategy game, features heroes that can complete quests, obtain new equipment, and "learn" new abilities as they advance in level. A community-created mod based on "Warcraft III," "Defense of the Ancients (DotA)," served as significant inspiration for the multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) genre."" Due to its "Warcraft III" origins, MOBA is a fusion of role-playing games, real-time strategy games, and action games, with RPG elements built in its core gameplay. A key features, such as control over one character in a party, growth in power over the course of match, learning new thematic abilities, using of mana, leveling and accumulation of experience points, equipment and inventory management, completing quests, and fighting with the stationary boss monsters, have resemblance with role-playing games.


title: Role-playing video game

text: According to Satoru Iwata, former president of Nintendo, turn-based RPGs have been unfairly criticized as being outdated, and action-based RPGs can frustrate players who are unable to keep up with the battles. According to Yuji Horii, creator of the popular "Dragon Quest" series and Ryutaro Ichimura, producer of Square Enix, turn-based RPGs allow the player time to make decisions without feeling rushed or worry about real-life distractions.


title: Role-playing video game

text: The best-selling RPG series worldwide is "Pokémon", which has sold over 300 million units as of November 2017. The second and third best-selling RPG franchises worldwide are Square Enix's "Final Fantasy" and "Dragon Quest" series, with over 110 million units and over 64 million units sold as of March 31, 2014, respectively. "Pokémon Red", "Blue", and "Green" alone sold approximately 23.64 million copies (10.23 million in Japan, 9.85 million in US, 3.56 million in UK). Nearly all the games in the main "Final Fantasy" series and all the games in the main "Dragon Quest" series (as well as many of the spin-off games) have sold over a million copies each, with some games selling more than four million copies. Square Enix's best-selling title is "Final Fantasy VII", which has sold over 10 million copies worldwide as of 2010.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Among the best-selling PC RPGs overall is the massively multiplayer online game "World of Warcraft" with 11.5 million subscribers as of May 2010. Among single player PC RPGs, "Diablo II" has sold the largest amount, with the most recently cited number being over 4 million copies as of 2001. However, copies of the "Diablo: Battle Chest" continued to be sold in retail stores, with the compilation appearing on the NPD Group's top 10 PC games sales, list as recently as 2010. Further, "Diablo: Battle Chest" was the 19th best selling PC game of 2008—a full seven years after the game's initial release; and 11 million users still played "Diablo II" and "StarCraft" over Battle.net in 2010. As a franchise, the "Diablo" series has sold over 20 million copies, not including "Diablo III" which was released for Windows and OS X in 2012.


title: Role-playing video game

text: The "Dragon Quest" series was awarded with six world records in the 2008 "Gamer's Edition" of the "Guinness Book of World Records", including "Best Selling Role Playing Game on the Super Famicom", "Fastest Selling Game in Japan", and "First Video Game Series to Inspire a Ballet". Likewise, the "Pokémon" series received eight records, including "Most Successful RPG Series of All Time". "Diablo II" was recognized in the 2000 standard edition of the "Guinness Book of World Records" for being the fastest selling computer game ever sold, with more than 1 million units sold in the first two weeks of availability; though this number has been surpassed several times since. A number of RPGs are also being exhibited in the Barbican Art Gallery's "Game On" exhibition (starting in 2002) and the Smithsonian's "The Art of Video Games" exhibit (starting in 2012); and video game developers are now finally able to apply for grants from the US National Endowment of the Arts.


title: Role-playing video game

text: According to "Metacritic", as of May 2011, the highest-rated video game by reviewers is the Xbox 360 version of "Mass Effect 2", with an average metascore of 96 out of 100. According to GameRankings, the four top-rated video game RPGs, as of May 2010, are "Mass Effect 2" with an average rating of 95.70% for the Xbox 360 version and 94.24% for the PC version; "Fallout 3: Game of the Year Edition" with an average rating of 95.40% for the PlayStation 3 version; "Chrono Trigger" with an average rating of 95.10%; and "" with an average rating of 94.18% for the Xbox version. Sales numbers for these six aforementioned titles are 10 million units sold worldwide for "Final Fantasy VII" as of May 2010; 161,161 units of "Xenoblade Chronicles" sold in Japan as of December 2010; 1.6 million units sold worldwide for "Mass Effect 2" as of March 2010, just three months after release; 4.7 million units for "Fallout 3" on all three platforms as of November 2008, also only a few months after publication; 3 million units for both the Xbox and PC versions of "Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic" as of November 2004; and more than 2.65 million units for the SNES and PlayStation versions of "Chrono Trigger" as of March 2003, along with 790,000 copies for the Nintendo DS version as of March 31, 2009. Among these titles, none were PC-exclusives, three were North American multi-platform titles released for consoles like the Xbox and Xbox 360, and three were Japanese titles released for consoles like the SNES, PlayStation and Wii.


title: Role-playing video game

text: "Final Fantasy VII" topped "GamePro's" "26 Best RPGs of All Time" list in 2008, IGN's 2000 "Reader's Choice Game of the Century" poll, and the GameFAQs "Best Game Ever" audience polls in 2004 and 2005. It was also selected in "Empire" magazine's "100 Greatest Games of All Time" list as the highest-ranking RPG, at #2 on the list. On IGN's "Top 100 Games Of All Time" list in 2007, the highest ranking RPG is "Final Fantasy VI" at 9th place; and in both the 2006 and 2008 IGN Readers' Choice polls, "Chrono Trigger" is the top ranked RPG, in 2nd place. "Final Fantasy VI" is also the top ranked RPG in "Game Informer"'s list of its 200 best games of all time list, in 8th place; and is also one of the eight games to get a cover for the magazine's 200th issue. The 2006 "Famitsu" readers' poll is dominated by RPGs, with nearly a dozen titles appearing in the top twenty; while most were Japanese, a few Western titles also made a showing. The highest-ranking games on the list were "Final Fantasy X", followed by "Final Fantasy VII" and "Dragon Warrior III". For the past decade, the "Megami Tensei" series topped several "RPGs of the Decade" lists. RPGFan's "Top 20 RPGs of the Past Decade" list was topped by "" & "" followed by "Persona 3", while RPGamer's "Top RPGs of the Decade" list was topped by "Persona 3", followed by "Final Fantasy X" and "World of Warcraft".


title: Role-playing video game

text: Lastly, while in recent years Western RPGs have consistently been released on consoles such as the Xbox and Xbox 360, these systems have not shown as much market dominance in Eastern markets such as Japan, and only a few Western RPG titles have been localized to Japanese. Further, RPGs were not the dominant genre on the most popular of the seventh generation video game consoles, the Nintendo Wii, although their presence among handheld systems such as the Nintendo DS is considerably greater.


title: Role-playing video game

text: Notable early RPG developers include Don Daglow for creating the first role-playing video game, "Dungeon", in 1975; Yuji Horii for creating the "Dragon Quest" series; Hironobu Sakaguchi for creating the "Final Fantasy" series; Richard Garriott for creating the "Ultima" series; and Brenda Romero for writing and design work on the "Wizardry" series. Other notable RPG developers include Bethesda Game Studios, creators of "Fallout 3", "Fallout 4", and "The Elder Scrolls" series; Ray Muzyka and Greg Zeschuk for founding BioWare; and CD Projekt, creators of "The Witcher" series and "Cyberpunk 2077". Finally, Ryozo Tsujimoto ("Monster Hunter" series) and Katsura Hashino ("" series) were cited as "Japanese Game Developers You Should Know" by "1UP.com" in 2010.


title: Role-playing video game

text: there has been a trend of crowdfunding video games using services such as Kickstarter. Role-playing games that have been successfully crowdfunded include "Serpent in the Staglands" (2015), "The Banner Saga" series (2015–2018), "Dead State" (2014), "Wasteland 2" (2014), "Shadowrun Returns" and its sequels (2012–2015), the "Pillars of Eternity" series (2015–2018), the "" series (2014–2017) and "" (2017). Due to the release of "Wasteland 2", "Divinity: Original Sin", "The Banner Saga" and "Dead State" (as well as some more traditionally funded titles such as "Might and Magic X", "Lords of Xulima" and "") 2014 was called "the first year of the CRPG renaissance" by PC Gamer. However, it has been speculated that the spike in funded projects at around this time was the result of a "Kickstarter bubble", and that a subsequent slump in project funding was due to "Kickstarter fatigue".


title: Role-playing video game

text: The highest crowdfunded CRPG as of May 2017 is "Torment: Tides of Numenera" with $4,188,927 raised via Kickstarter. Kickstarted games have been released for the personal computer, video game console, and mobile platforms.


title: Social issue

text: A social issue is a problem that affects many people within a society. It is a group of common problems in present-day society and ones that many people strive to solve. It is often the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control. Social issues are the source of conflicting opinions on the grounds of what is perceived as morally correct or incorrect personal life or interpersonal social life decisions. Social issues are distinguished from economic issues; however, some issues (such as immigration) have both social and economic aspects. Some issues do not fall into either category, such as warfare.


title: Social issue

text: There can be disagreements about what social issues are worth solving, or which should take precedence. Different individuals and different societies have different perceptions. In "Rights of Man and Common Sense", Thomas Paine addresses the individual's duty to "allow the same rights to others as we allow ourselves." The failure to do so causes the creation of a social issue.


title: Social issue

text: There are a variety of methods people use to combat social issues. Some people vote for leaders in a democracy to advance their ideals. Outside the political process, people donate or share their time, money, energy, or other resources. This often takes the form of volunteering. Nonprofit organizations are often formed for the sole purpose of solving a social issue. Community organizing involves gathering people together for a common purpose.


title: Social issue

text: A distinct but related meaning of the term "social issue" (used particularly in the United States) refers to topics of national political interest, over which the public is deeply divided and which are the subject of intense partisan advocacy, debate, and voting. In this case "social issue" does not necessarily refer to an ill to be solved, but rather a topic to be discussed.


title: Social issue

text: Personal issues are those that individuals deal with themselves and within a small range of their peers and relationships. On the other hand, social issues involve values cherished by widespread society. For example, a high unemployment rate that affects millions of people is a social issue.


title: Social issue

text: A valence issue is a social problem that people uniformly interpret the same way. An example of a valence issue is child abuse, which is condemned across several societies. A position issue is a social problem in which the popular opinion among society is divided. Different people may hold different and strongly-held views, which are not easily changed. An example of a position issue is abortion which, in some countries, has not generated a widespread consensus from the public.


title: Social issue

text: Social stratification is the differentiation of the members of society based on their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or social and political power. It determines the position of people within a social group, category, or geographic region.


title: Social issue

text: In most countries (including developed countries), many people are poor and depend on welfare. In 2007 in Germany, one in six children are poor. That is up from only one in seventy-five in 1965. War also plays an important role in disturbing the economic status of a country by using money that was intended for welfare.


title: Social issue

text: So-called "problem neighborhoods" exist in many countries. These neighborhoods tend to have a high drop-out rate from secondary school, and children growing up in these neighborhoods have a low probability of going to college compared to children who grow up in other neighborhoods. Abuse of alcohol and drugs is common in these neighborhoods. Often these neighborhoods were founded out of best intentions.


title: Social issue

text: Widespread health conditions (often characterized as epidemics or pandemics) are of concern to society as a whole. They can harm the quality of life, and the ability of people to contribute to society (e.g. by working), and can result in death.


title: Social issue

text: Infectious diseases are often public health concerns because they can spread quickly and easily, affecting large numbers of people. The World Health Organization has an acute interest in combating infectious disease outbreaks by minimizing their geographic and numerical spread and treating the affected. Other conditions for which there is not yet a cure or even effective treatment, such as dementia, can be viewed as public health concerns in the long run.


title: Social issue

text: Throughout the life course, there are social problems associated with different ages. One such social problem is age discrimination. People often do not allow old people into high ranking position within their respective jobs because of their age, despite them having crucial experience and ample knowledge collected over many years of labour in the same field or another field with the same requirements as the current one.


title: Social issue

text: Social inequality is "the state or quality of being unequal". Inequality is the root of several social problems that occur when factors such as gender, disability, race, and age may affect the way a person is treated. A past example of inequality as a social problem is slavery in the United States. Africans brought to America were often enslaved and mistreated, and they did not share the same rights as the white population of America (for example, they were not allowed to vote).


title: Social issue

text: Some civil rights movements have attempted to and often succeeded at, advancing equality and extending rights to marginalized groups. These include the women's rights movement (beginning around the 1920s), the civil rights movement in the United States for African-American equality (beginning around the 1950s), and the LGBT rights movement (beginning around the 1960s).


title: Social issue

text: Education is unarguably the most important factor in a person's success in society. As a result, social problems can be raised by the unequal distribution of funding between public schools, such as that seen in the United States. The weak organizational policy in the place and the lack of communication between public schools and the federal government have led to major effects on the future generation. Public schools that do not receive high standardized test scores are not being sufficiently funded and as a result, their students are not receiving what should be the maximum level of education.


title: Social issue

text: Social problems in the workplace include occupational stress, theft, sexual harassment, wage inequality, gender inequality, racial inequality, health care disparities, and many more.


title: Social issue

text: In addition, common workplace issues that employees face include interpersonal conflict, communication problems (e.g. gossip), bullying, harassment, discrimination, low motivation and job satisfaction, and performance issues.


title: Social issue

text: Environmental racism exists when a particular place or town is subject to problematic environmental practices due to the racial and class components of that space. In general, the place or town is inhabited by lower-income and minority groups. Often, there is more pollution, factories, dumping, etc. that produce environmental hazards and health risks which are not seen in more affluent cities,


title: Social issue

text: The abortion debate is the ongoing controversy surrounding the moral, legal, and religious status of induced abortion. In English-speaking countries, the sides involved in the debate are the self-described "pro-choice" and "pro-life" movements. "Pro-choice" emphasizes the woman's choice of whether to terminate a pregnancy. "Pro-life" proposes the right of the embryo or fetus to gestate to term and be born. Both terms are considered loaded in mainstream media, where terms such as "abortion rights" or "anti-abortion" are generally preferred. Each movement has, with varying results, sought to influence public opinion and to attain legal support for its position.


title: Social issue

text: Other issues include education, lack of literacy and numeracy, corruption, school truancy, violence and bullying in schools, religious intolerance, immigration, political and religious extremism, discrimination of all sorts, the role of women, aging populations, gender issues, sexual orientation, unplanned parenthood, teenage pregnancy, child labour, war, inflation, and wage inequality.


title: Social issue

text: The face of Canadian poverty is described as racialized, destitute, and young. It is common among whites, aboriginal, and black people


title: Social issue

text: communities, and racial minorities. Additionally, racial minorities face both unemployment and underemployment compared to their counterparts. On reserves, poverty due to multiple factors has an exponential function. For instance, the sense of cultural isolation normally results from a deterioration of economic, social, and health conditions compared to those living off reserves. Poverty in Canada has a self-perpetuating system, where the societal mechanisms ensure that the poorest Canadians remain poor. Urban poverty is showcased through a lack of low-income housing for individuals and families and increasing homelessness.


title: Social issue

text: Racism has a strong undercurrent in Canadian society. However, it is not visible and openly identified. The current prevalent forms are structural racism (e.g. the Henry and Elfie Ginzberg experiment), individualized racism (e.g. racial profiling by police that is broadly defined by the Ontario Human Rights Commission), and internalized racism (e.g. first-generation immigrants and refugees). Social distance between whites and non-whites is a distinct aspect of the Canadian community that is identified through the isolation index. The anti-racism movement in Canada has borne aversive racism.


title: Social issue

text: It is estimated that by 2030, seniors will make about 23% of the Canadian population. This shrinks the labour force and real GDP growth rate, which may result in higher taxes. Additionally, Canada's fertility rate has been falling since 2009, especially in white families. Immigrants with dependents is also not a conducive element for reducing the impact; however, they can increase the population rate of rural areas to increase financial activities. It is studied that Canadians openly practice ageism. This discrimination based on age results in refusing jobs to qualified and willing candidates, while such negative attitudes are further legitimized by mass media. Filial responsibility is also an alien concept in the North American culture due to the prominence of individualism, except within indigenous communities. Those that attempt to uphold do not know how to perform (due to lack of precedence) and to a larger extent it might result in elder abuse. Public Health Agency of Canada reported that about 4 – 10% of seniors were facing elder abuse in Canada.


title: Social issue

text: This is both a cultural and historical phenomenon that contests against the basis of social beings able to satisfy needs of other people through companionship and social integration. It could be further seen in the failure of Canadian social institutions to meet the needs of the dependent aged within a systematic approach (e.g. trend of eldercare increasingly considered as a private matter rather than a public one and political leniency to "non-system" for elder care, as in the United States) and representation (e.g. non-representation of the stigmatized's oppressed voice to shape social institutions in ways that meet their needs). However, organizations like "Canada's Association for the Fifty-Plus" actively lobbies for reforming social policies.


title: Social issue

text: Several social issues have been prominent in the history of the United States. Many of them have waxed or waned over time as conditions and values have changed. The term "social issue" has a broad meaning in the United States, as it refers not only to ills to be solved but also to any topic of widespread debate, involving deeply-held values and beliefs.


title: Social issue

text: The Library of Congress has an established index of social causes in the United States. Examples include academic cheating, church-state separation, hacking, evolution education, gangs, hate speech, suicide, urban sprawl, and unions.


title: Social issue

text: Social issues gain a particularly high profile when a new president is elected. Elections are often impacted by several social issues, with many social issues discussed during debates, such as rights for abortion, LGBT people, and gun control.


title: Social issue

text: In the United States, the federal prison system has been unable to keep up with the steady increase of inmates over the past few years, causing major overcrowding. In the year 2012, the overcrowding level was 41 percent above "rated capacity" and was the highest level since 2004.


title: Social issue

text: In addition to being overcrowded, the federal prison system in the U.S. has also been at the center of controversy concerning the conditions in which prisoners are forced to live.


title: Social issue

text: Hate crimes are a social problem in the United States because they directly marginalize and target specific groups of people or specific communities based on their identities. Hate crimes can be committed as the result of hate-motivated behaviour, prejudice, and intolerance due to sexual orientation, gender expression, biological sex, ethnicity, race, religion, disability, or any other identity. Hate crimes are a growing issue especially in school settings because of the young populations that exist. The majority of victims and perpetrators are teenagers and young adults (the population that exists within educational institutions). Hate crimes can result in physical or sexual assault or harassment, verbal harassment, robbery, and death.


title: Social issue

text: Obesity is a prevalent social problem in today's society, with rates steadily increasing. According to the Weight-Control Information Network, since the early 1960s, the prevalence of obesity among adults more than doubled, increasing from 13.4 to 35.7 percent in U.S. adults aged 20 and older. Today, two in three adults are considered overweight or obese, and one in six children aged 6–19 are considered obese. This disease gives birth to many other diseases and conditions like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, depression, obstructive sleep and different types of cancer and osteoarthritis.


title: Social issue

text: The food industry has been criticized for promoting childhood obesity and ill-health by specifically targeting the child demographic in the marketing of unhealthy food products. The food products marketed often are deemed unhealthy due to their high calorie, fat, and sugar contents. Reduction of marketing of unhealthy food products could significantly reduce the prevalence of obesity and its serious health consequences. Former first lady Michelle Obama and Partnership for a Healthier America have proposed new rules that would limit junk food marketing in public schools.


title: Social issue

text: Mass media may use propaganda as a means to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view, or to maintain the viewer's attention. Who owns a media outlet often determines things such as the types of social problems that are presented, how long the problems are aired, and how dramatically the problems are presented. The American media is often biased towards one or the other end of the political spectrum, with many media outlets having been accused of either being too conservative or too liberal.


title: Social issue

text: Drugs are at times the cause of social problems. Drugs such as cocaine and opiates are addictive for some users. A minority of users of such drugs may commit crimes to obtain more drugs. In some individuals, drugs such as methamphetamine have been known to contribute to violent behaviour, which would be considered a social problem.


title: Social issue

text: Drunk driving is on the rise and is the number two cause of accidental deaths, causing approximately 17,000 deaths each year. All but nine states in the United States have adopted the Administrative License Revocation (ALR). The ALR is enforced when a person is caught drinking and driving and found guilty, resulting in the loss of their license for a full year. This is a step that is being taken to try to avoid the occurrence of this social problem.


title: Social issue

text: Legal marijuana is a debatable topic. Marijuana can be used in the medical domain, and there is no accurate fact that shows marijuana kills. However, people believe marijuana is a gateway to other drugs, injures lungs, and inhibits function. Some states are legalizing medical marijuana, such as New Mexico, Arizona, and New York. Some states are also legalizing it for both medical and recreational purposes, such as Colorado, California, and Oregon.


title: Social issue

text: Racism against various ethnic or minority groups has existed in the United States since the colonial era. African Americans in particular have faced restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms throughout much of United States history.


title: Social issue

text: India is ranked 75 out of 179 countries in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index, but its score has improved consistently from 2.7 in 2002 to 3.1 in 2011.


title: Social issue

text: In India, corruption takes the form of bribes, tax evasion, exchange controls, embezzlement, etc. A 2005 study done by Transparency International (TI) India found that more than 50% had firsthand experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to complete a task in a public office. The chief economic consequences of corruption are the loss to the exchequer and an increase in the cost of government-subsidised services, the unhealthy climate for investment, political instability, and unprincipled ethics.


title: Social issue

text: The TI India study estimates the monetary value of petty corruption in eleven basic services provided by the government, such as education, healthcare, judiciary, police, etc., to be approximately Rs.21,068 crores. India still ranks in the bottom quartile of developing nations in terms of the ease of doing business and compared to China and other lower developed Asian nations, the average time taken to secure the clearances for a startup or to invoke bankruptcy is much greater. Recently, a revelation of tax evasion (Panama Papers' Leak) case involving several high-profile celebrities and businessmen has increased the number of corruption charges against the elite of the country.


title: Social issue

text: India is a multicultural country with different social identities formed from varying cultural norms, religious politics, linguistic differences, tolerance to changes in economic orientation, barriers to qualitative education, and mismanagement of resources.


title: Social issue

text: The World Bank in 2011, based on 2005's PPPs International Comparison Program, estimated 23.6% of the Indian population, or about 276 million people, lived below $1.25 per day on purchasing power parity. According to the United Nation's Millennium Development Goal (MDG) programme, 270 million out of 1.2 billion Indians, or 21.9% of the population, lived below the poverty line of $1.25 between 2011 and 2012 (as compared to 41.6% between 2004 and 2005).


title: Social issue

text: The regions with long term terrorist activities today are Jammu and Kashmir (state-sponsored terrorism), Central India (Naxalism), and Seven Sister States (independence and autonomy movements). In the past, the Punjab insurgency led to militant activities in the Indian state of Punjab as well as the national capital of Delhi (e.g. Delhi serial blasts and anti-Sikh riots). As of 2006, at least 232 of the country's 606 districts were afflicted, at varying intensities, by several insurgent and terrorist movements.


title: Social issue

text: A growing number of Germans are poor and dependent on welfare. In 2007, one in six children depended on welfare. That is up from only one in seventy-five in 1965. Poverty rates vary in different states. For instance, only 3.9% suffer from poverty in Bavaria, while 15.2% of Berlin's inhabitants are poor. Families that are headed by a single parent and working-class families with multiple children are most likely to be poor.


title: Social issue

text: There is an ongoing discussion about hunger in Germany. Reverend Bernd Siggelkow, founder of the Berlin-based soup kitchen "Die Arche," claimed that many German children go hungry each day. He blamed the lack of jobs, low welfare payments, and parents who were drug-addicted or mentally ill. Siggelkow has been criticized by some people who said there was no hunger in Germany. SPD politician and board member of the German central bank, Thilo Sarrazin, said it was possible to live on welfare without going hungry if one did not buy fast food and cooked from scratch instead. He was criticized by The Left politician, Heidi Knake-Werner, who said it was not right "if well-paid people like us make recommendations to poor people about how they should shop."


title: Social issue

text: Germany has one of the lowest birth rates in the world. In 2012, its national fertility rate was 1.41 children per woman. This is up slightly from the 2002 rate of 1.31, but it is still well below the replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman. (By contrast, the United States had a fertility rate of 2.06 in 2012). Despite the nation's low birth rate, Germans are living longer, with 2012 estimates showcasing a life expectancy of 80.19 years (77.93 years for men and 82.58 years for women). This demographic shift is already straining the country's social welfare structures and will produce further economic and social problems in the future. The Mikrozensus in 2008 revealed that the number of children a German woman aged 40 to 75 had was closely linked to her educational achievement.


title: Social issue

text: So-called problem neighbourhoods ("Problemviertel") exist in Germany. These neighbourhoods have a high drop-out rate from secondary school. Children growing up in these neighbourhoods have only 1/7th the probability of going to college compared to a person growing up in another neighbourhood. Abuse of alcohol and drugs is common. Many people living in problem neighbourhoods are what is called "a-people". They are poor out-of-work, and immigrants.


title: Social issue

text: Often these neighbourhoods were founded out of good intentions. Many districts that later became problem neighbourhoods were founded in the 1960s and 1970s when the State wanted to provide better housing for poorer persons. As a result, big tenement buildings were built. The first tenants were mostly two-parent families, with at least one parent working. Many were happy with their neighbourhoods, but when the unemployment rate started increasing, more and more people lost their jobs. Moreover, families who could afford it started moving into better districts and only those who could not afford to move stayed in districts such as Hamburg-Mümmelmannsberg.)


title: Social issue

text: Since World War II, Germany has experienced intermittent turmoil from various groups. In the 1970s, radical leftist terrorist organizations, such as the Red Army Faction, engaged in a string of assassinations and kidnappings against political and business figures. Germany has also continued to struggle with far-right violence. Neo-Nazis are presently on the rise (this is in line with the younger generation of Germans growing older). There is some debate as to whether hate crime is actually rising, or whether simply more arrests have been made due to increased law-enforcement efforts. The number of officially recognized violent hate crimes has risen from 759 in 2003 to 776 in 2005. According to a recent study, a majority of Jews living in Germany were worried about a rise in antisemitism. The concern of Jews in Germany was less than those in France, where 90% of Jews that were polled said that antisemitism had risen over the years. Some have suggested that the increase in hate crime is related to the proliferation of right-wing parties, such as the National Democratic Party (NPD) in local elections.


title: Social issue

text: There is the fragility of income and social position in France, with several ways to measure this. One example is to look at unemployment. Within the European Union in May 2017, France was ranked 6th with its unemployment rate of 9.4 percent, as found by Statista. According to Observatoire des inégalités, France has between 5 and 8.9 million poor people, depending on the definition of poverty (this definition ranges from the poverty line at 50 percent of the median standard of living to 60 percent).


title: Social issue

text: Women suffer from economical and social semiotics in France. They are paid, on average, 6.8 percent less than men, according to l'insee. Women in France also face sexual harassment and other problems.


title: Social issue

text: These are some reasons why the Global Gender Gap report of 2016 has ranked France 17th with a score of 0.755 (on this ranking scale, reaching 1 means gender equality).


title: Human body

text: The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body.


title: Human body

text: It comprises a head, hair, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet.


title: Human body

text: The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.


title: Human body

text: The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and by artists to assist them in their work.


title: Human body

text: The human body is composed of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium and phosphorus. These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body.


title: Human body

text: The adult male body is about 60% water for a total water content of some . This is made up of about of extracellular fluid including about of blood plasma and about of interstitial fluid, and about of fluid inside cells. The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in body water outside cells are sodium and chloride, whereas within cells it is potassium and other phosphates.


title: Human body

text: The body contains trillions of cells, the fundamental unit of life. At maturity, there are roughly 3037trillion cells in the body, an estimate arrived at by totaling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types. The body is also host to about the same number of non-human cells as well as multicellular organisms which reside in the gastrointestinal tract and on the skin. Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen, surrounded by extracellular fluids. Of the weight of an average human body, nearly is non-human cells or non-cellular material such as bone and connective tissue.


title: Human body

text: Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA. The RNA is then used to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced. However, not all cells have DNA; some cells such as mature red blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.


title: Human body

text: The body consists of many different types of tissue, defined as cells that act with a specialised function. The study of tissues is called histology and often occurs with a microscope. The body consists of four main types of tissues. These are lining cells (epithelia), connective tissue, nerve tissue and muscle tissue.


title: Human body

text: Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract (epithelia) or internal cavities (endothelium) come in numerous shapes and forms – from single layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.


title: Human body

text: Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function, mostly sit within the body, with the exception of skin. Examples include the heart, lungs and liver. Many organs reside within cavities within the body. These cavities include the abdomen (which contains the stomach, for example) and pleura, which contains the lungs.


title: Human body

text: The heart is an organ located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs and slightly to the left. It is surrounded by the pericardium which holds it in place in the mediastinum and serves to protect it from blunt trauma, infection and help lubricate the movement of the heart via pericardial fluid. The heart works by pumping blood around the body allowing oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones and white blood cells to be transported.


title: Human body

text: The heart is composed of two atrium and two ventricles. The primary purpose of the atrium is to allow uninterrupted venous blood flow to the heart during ventricular systole. This allows enough blood to get into the ventricles during atrial systole. A lack of the atrium would cause a decrease in cardiac output of 75%. The purpose of the ventricles is to pump blood to the lungs through the right ventricle and to the rest of the body through the left ventricle.


title: Human body

text: The heart has an electrical conduction system to control the contractions and relaxation of the muscle. It starts in the sinoatrial node traveling through the atria causing them to pump blood into the ventricles. It then travels to the atrioventricular node which makes the signal slow down slightly allowing the ventricles to fill with blood before pumping it out and starting the cycle over again.


title: Human body

text: Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of death worldwide, making up 16% of all deaths. It is caused by the buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries supplying the heart, eventually the arteries may become so narrow that not enough blood is able to reach the myocardium, a condition known as myocardial infarction or heart attack, this can cause heart failure or cardiac arrest and eventually death. Risk factors for coronary artery disease include obesity, smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, lack of exercise and diabetes. Cancer can affect the heart, though it is exceedingly rare and has usually metastasized from another part of the body such as the lungs or breasts. This is because the heart cells quickly stop dividing and all growth occurs through size increase rather than cell division.


title: Human body

text: The gallbladder is a hollow pear shaped organ located posterior to the inferior middle part of the right lobe of the liver. It is variable in shape and size. It stores bile before it is released into the small intestine via the common bile duct to help with digestion of fats. It receives bile from the liver via the cystic duct which connects to the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct.


title: Human body

text: The gallbladder gets its blood supply from the cystic artery which in most people emerges from the right hepatic artery.


title: Human body

text: Gallstones is a common disease in which one or more stones form in the gallbladder or biliary tract. Most people are asymptomatic but if a stone blocks the biliary tract it causes a gallbladder attack, symptoms may include sudden pain in the upper right abdomen and or center of the abdomen. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. Typical treatment is removal of the gallbladder through a procedure called a cholecystectomy. Having gallstones is a risk factor for gallbladder cancer which although quite uncommon is rapidly fatal if not diagnosed early.


title: Human body

text: The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells and signalling molecules (i.e. hormones) from one part of the body to another. Paths of blood circulation within the human body can be divided into two circuits: the pulmonary circuit, which pumps blood to the lungs to receive oxygen and leave carbon dioxide, and the systemic circuit, which carries blood from the heart off to the rest of the body. The blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the spleen and bone marrow.


title: Human body

text: The digestive system consists of the mouth including the tongue and teeth, esophagus, stomach, (gastrointestinal tract, small and large intestines, and rectum), as well as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution and absorption into the body. These molecules take the form of proteins (which are broken down into amino acids), fats, vitamins and minerals (the last of which are mainly ionic rather than molecular). After being swallowed, food moves through the gastrointestinal tract by means of peristalsis: the systematic expansion and contraction of muscles to push food from one area to the next.


title: Human body

text: Digestion begins in the mouth, which chews food into smaller pieces for easier digestion. Then it is swallowed, and moves through the esophagus to the stomach. In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric acids to allow the extraction of nutrients. What is left is called chyme; this then moves into the small intestine, which absorbs the nutrients and water from the chyme. What remains passes on to the large intestine, where it is dried to form feces; these are then stored in the rectum until they are expelled through the anus.


title: Human body

text: The endocrine system consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function.


title: Human body

text: The immune system consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels, which are also part of the lymphatic system. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as antibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among many others.


title: Human body

text: The integumentary system consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and nails as well as other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world.


title: Human body

text: The lymphatic system extracts, transports and metabolizes lymph, the fluid found in between cells. The lymphatic system is similar to the circulatory system in terms of both its structure and its most basic function, to carry a body fluid.


title: Human body

text: The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, joints and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate. This system can be split up into the muscular system and the skeletal system.


title: Human body

text: The nervous system consists of the body's neurons and glial cells, which together form the nerves, ganglia and gray matter which in turn form the brain and related structures. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing; it serves many aspects of communication and controls various systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information about the body's environment.


title: Human body

text: From a structural perspective, the nervous system is typically subdivided into two component parts: the central nervous system (CNS), composed of the brain and the spinal cord; and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), composed of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is mostly responsible for organizing motion, processing sensory information, thought, memory, cognition and other such functions. It remains a matter of some debate whether the CNS directly gives rise to consciousness. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is mostly responsible for gathering information with sensory neurons and directing body movements with motor neurons.


title: Human body

text: From a functional perspective, the nervous system is again typically divided into two component parts: the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SNS is involved in voluntary functions like speaking and sensory processes. The ANS is involved in involuntary processes, such as digestion and regulating blood pressure.


title: Human body

text: The nervous system is subject to many different diseases. In epilepsy, abnormal electrical activity in the brain can cause seizures. In multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks the nerve linings, damaging the nerves' ability to transmit signals. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron disease which gradually reduces movement in patients. There are also many other diseases of the nervous system.


title: Human body

text: The primary purpose of the reproductive system is to produce new humans in the form of children and ensure their sexual development so that they can produce new humans too. It is composed of the gonads (testes and ovaries) which produce eggs and sperm cells (gametes) and produce hormones necessary for proper sexual development. The rest of the glands and ducts of the reproductive system are responsible for the transportation and sustaining of the gametes and to nurture the offspring.


title: Human body

text: The reproductive system is first stimulated by the hypothalamus during puberty which causes the ovaries and testes to produce testosterone (male) and estrogen and progesterone (female). Male puberty generally occurs between the ages of 13-15 and is characterized by beginning of sperm production and the development of secondary sex characteristics such as increased height and weight, broadened shoulders, pubic and facial hair, voice deepening and muscle development. Female puberty generally occurs between the ages of 9-13 and is characterized by ovulation and menstruation. The growth of secondary sex characteristics such as growth of pubic and underarm hair, breast, uterine and vaginal growth, widening hips and increased height and weight also occur during the female puberty process.


title: Human body

text: The external male reproductive system is made up of the penis and the scrotum which is a bag that protects the testis. The penis consists of the glans which is the head of the penis and contains the urethra and urinary meatus the point where urine exits the penis, the rest of the penis is called the shaft or corpus cavernosum and contains most of the urethra. The glans is covered by a fold of skin called the foreskin though this can be removed through circumcision.


title: Human body

text: Internally the male reproductive system starts in the testes where hundreds of seminiferous tubules produce sperm which is then stored and matured into spermatozoon in the epididymis. They are then brought through the vas deferens which leads away from the testes to the seminal vesicles where the sperm cells are mixed with a fructose-rich fluid from the seminal vesicles allowing the sperm to stay alive and remain healthy. It is then brought by the ejaculatory duct through the prostate and bulbourethral gland, and mixed with fluids from said glands. The fluid from the prostate helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina and keep the sperm alive. This mixture of sperm and accessory gland fluids is called semen and is released through the urethra during ejaculation. Almost the entire internal male reproductive system works in pairs with two testes, two epididymis, two vas deferens, two seminal vesicles, two ejaculatory ducts, two bulbourethral glands, but only one prostate and urethra.


title: Human body

text: The external female reproductive system also called the vulva consists of the mons pubis a fatty mass that covers the pubis, the labia majora (outer lips of the vagina), the labia minora (inner lips of the vagina), the vaginal opening which opens into vagina and is where the penis is inserted during sexual intercourse and children are born, the urethral opening which is the opening for the urethra that carries urine from the bladder and the clitoris which contains the most sensitive nerve endings and in humans has no use other than sexual pleasure. Located between the anus and vagina is the perineum.


title: Human body

text: Internally the female reproductive system contains two ovaries, the uterus, two fallopian tubes and the cervix. At birth a female has about 700,000 oocytes (the immature version of the egg cell) in both ovaries combined, though this degenerates to about 400,000 by the time puberty is reached. This is a lifetime supply as after birth no more oocytes are produced, compared to males where sperm cells are produced during their entire lifetime. During puberty the menstrual cycle begins for the first time, in response to low estrogen and progesterone levels the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). This causes the anterior pituitary gland to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH stimulates ovarian follicles to grow and one dominant follicle will eventually take over. As it continues to grow it releases more and more estradiol which stimulates LH secretion and suppresses FSH secretion preventing further follicular growth. When LH levels are highest the follicle ruptures releasing the ovum in a process called ovulation where it is then moved to one of the fallopian tubes. After ovulation the portion of the follicle that remains in the ovary is transformed into corpus luteum which continues to produce estrogen and high levels of progesterone. The progesterone causes the endometrium to grow thick preparing it for implantation of a fertilized egg. If fertilization occurs the corpus luteum continues to secrete hormones until the placenta develops enough to secrete the necessary hormones for maintaining pregnancy. Eventually the corpus luteum will turn into corpus albicans which is essentially scar tissue. If fertilization fails the corpus luteum will degrade into corpus albicans and stop secreting enough progesterone and estrogen causing the endometrial lining to break resulting in menstruation.


title: Human body

text: Many diseases affect the reproductive system such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) which is characterized by elevated androgen levels, menstrual irregularities and/or small cysts on one or both of the ovaries. It is a common disease affecting at least 7% of adult women. Symptoms include excess body hair, infertility, weight gain, male pattern baldness and irregular menstruation.


title: Human body

text: Another reproductive disease is testicular torsion, it occurs when the spermatic cord which holds up the testicle wraps around itself cutting off blood flow to the testicle. Testicular torsion is a medical emergency and can result in testicular death or infertility if not treated immediately by physically unwrapping the spermatic cord. If the testicle has suffered severe damage, it may need to be surgically in a lateral orchiectomy. The primary symptom of testicular torsion is severe testicular pain at rest, nausea and vomiting may also occur. Testicular torsion can occur at any age though it is most common in 12-18 year olds.


title: Human body

text: Sexually transmitted infections such as syphilis, HIV, chlamydia, HPV and genital warts are spread through sexual intercourse including oral, vaginal and anal sex. Many of these infections can be lethal if left untreated though others are mostly harmless.


title: Human body

text: Cancer can affect many parts of the reproductive system including the penis, testicles, prostate, ovaries, cervix, vagina, fallopian, uterus and vulva.


title: Human body

text: The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air. First, air is pulled through the trachea into the lungs by the diaphragm pushing down, which creates a vacuum. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as alveoli (sing.: alveolus) before being expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the air and into the bloodstream.


title: Human body

text: For the respiratory system to function properly, there need to be as few impediments as possible to the movement of air within the lungs. Inflammation of the lungs and excess mucus are common sources of breathing difficulties. In asthma, the respiratory system is persistently inflamed, causing wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Pneumonia occurs through infection of the alveoli, and may be caused by tuberculosis. Emphysema, commonly a result of smoking, is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli.


title: Human body

text: The urinary system consists of the two kidneys, two ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes waste materials from the blood through urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body.


title: Human body

text: First, the kidneys filter the blood through their respective nephrons, removing waste products like urea, creatinine and maintaining the proper balance of electrolytes and turning the waste products into urine by combining them with water from the blood. The kidneys filter about 150 quarts (170 liters) of blood daily, but most of it is returned to the blood stream with only 1-2 quarts (1-2 liters) ending up as urine. The urine is brought by the ureters from the kidneys down to the bladder.


title: Human body

text: The smooth muscle lining the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax through a process called peristalsis to force urine away from the kidneys and down into the bladder. Small amounts of urine are released into the bladder every 10–15 seconds.


title: Human body

text: The bladder is a hollow balloon shaped organ located in the pelvis. It stores urine until the brain signals it to relax the urinary sphincter and release the urine into the urethra starting urination. A normal bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (half a liter) for 3–5 hours comfortably.


title: Human body

text: Numerous diseases affect the urinary system including kidney stones which are formed when materials in the urine concentrate enough to form a solid mass, urinary tract infections which are infections of the urinary tract and can cause pain when urinating, frequent urination and even death if left untreated. Renal failure occurs when the kidneys fail to adequately filter waste from the blood and can lead to death if not treated with dialysis or kidney transplantation. Cancer can affect the bladder, kidneys, urethra and ureters with the latter two being far more rare.


title: Human body

text: Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso. The body's shape is determined by a strong skeleton made of bone and cartilage, surrounded by fat (adipose tissue), muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The spine at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible vertebral column which surrounds the spinal cord, which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body. Nerves connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles, and nerves in the body are named, with the exception of anatomical variations such as sesamoid bones and accessory muscles.


title: Human body

text: Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body, which moves because of the beating of the heart. Venules and veins collect blood low in oxygen from tissues throughout the body. These collect in progressively larger veins until they reach the body's two largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, which drain blood into the right side of the heart. From here, the blood is pumped into the lungs where it receives oxygen and drains back into the left side of the heart. From here, it is pumped into the body's largest artery, the aorta, and then progressively smaller arteries and arterioles until it reaches tissue. Here blood passes from small arteries into capillaries, then small veins and the process begins again. Blood carries oxygen, waste products, and hormones from one place in the body to another. Blood is filtered at the kidneys and liver.


title: Human body

text: The body consists of a number of body cavities, separated areas which house different organ systems. The brain and central nervous system reside in an area protected from the rest of the body by the blood brain barrier. The lungs sit in the pleural cavity. The intestines, liver, and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity.


title: Human body

text: Height, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and with age and sex. Body shape is influenced by the distribution of bones, muscle and fat tissue.


title: Human body

text: Human physiology is the study of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, from organs to the cells of which they are composed. The human body consists of many interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain homeostasis, keeping the body in a stable state with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.


title: Human body

text: Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).