title: Apple TV

text: AirPlay allows iOS devices or an AirPort-enabled computer with the iTunes music player to send a stream of music to multiple (three to six, in typical conditions) stereos connected to an AirPort Express (the audio-only antecedent of Apple TV) or Apple TV. The AirPort Express' streaming media capabilities use Apple's Remote Audio Output Protocol (RAOP), a proprietary variant of RTSP/RTP. Using WDS-bridging, the AirPort Express can allow AirPlay functionality (as well as Internet access, file and print sharing, etc.) across a larger distance in a mixed environment of wired and up to 10 wireless clients. Speakers attached to an AirPort Express or


title: Apple TV

text: Apple TV can be selected from within the "Remote" iPhone/iPod Touch program, allowing full AirPlay compatibility (see "Remote control" section below). A compatible Mac running OS X Mountain Lion or later can wirelessly mirror its screen to an Apple TV through AirPlay Mirroring while one running OS X Mavericks or later can also extend its display with AirPlay Display.


title: Apple TV

text: Apple TV can be controlled by many infrared remote controls or paired with the included Apple Remote to prevent interference from other remotes. Either kind of remote can control playback volume, but for music only. The Apple Wireless Keyboard is supported on the second-generation Apple TV and later using the built-in Bluetooth. The consumer has the ability to control media playback, navigate menus and input text and other information. Third-party keyboards that use the Apple layout may also be compatible. On July 10, 2008, Apple released "Remote", a free iOS application that allows the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad to control the iTunes library on the Apple TV via Wi-Fi. The Apple Watch also has a remote app to control Apple TV. The Remote App was updated on September 13, 2016, to take advantage of all the features of the Apple TV 4. This includes Siri, Touchpad, and Home Buttons, along with a now playing screen.


title: Apple TV

text: On September 9, 2015, Apple announced the new Siri Remote for the fourth-generation Apple TV (Apple TV HD) (although in some territories, Apple have kept the name Apple TV Remote, due to Siri functionality not being enabled on it in that territory). It is a completely redesigned remote that features dual microphones for Siri support and a glass touch surface for navigation around the interface by swiping or tapping and scrubbing to fast forward or rewind. Also, it has a menu and home button, a Siri button to invoke Siri, a Play/Pause button, and a Volume Up/Down button to control the volume on the TV. The Siri Remote communicates with the Apple TV via Bluetooth rather than infrared, removing the requirement of a line-of-sight with the device. This new remote is only supported by the Apple TV HD and later and will not work with earlier generations.


title: Apple TV

text: Beginning with the Apple TV HD, the remote includes two microphones and a button to activate Siri. Siri on the Apple TV has all of the functions of Siri on iOS 9; it can also respond to requests specifically for the TV. For instance, the viewer can ask Siri to search for a TV show or movie and it will search across multiple different sources to tell the user where the content is available to watch. It can also do things such as Play/Pause, Rewind/Fast Forward, skip back 15 seconds and temporarily turn on captioning when asked "what did he say?" or "what did she say?", open a specific app, and more.


title: Apple TV

text: Apple TV software 1.0 presented the user with an interface similar to that of Front Row. Like Front Row on the Mac, it presents the user with seven options for consuming content. Movies, TV Shows, Music, Podcasts, Photos, Settings, and Sources. It was a modified version of OS x v10.4 Tiger.


title: Apple TV

text: In February 2008, Apple released a major and free upgrade to the Apple TV, labelled "Take Two" (2.0). This update did away with Front Row and introduced a new interface in which content was organized into six categories, all of which appeared in a large square box on the screen upon startup (movies, TV shows, music, YouTube, podcasts, and photos) and presented in the initial menu, along with a "Settings" option for configuration, including software updates.


title: Apple TV

text: In October 2009, Apple released a minor upgrade for the Apple TV called "Apple TV Software 3.0". This update replaced the interface in version 2.0 with a new interface which presented seven horizontal columns across the top of the screen for the different categories of content (Movies, TV Shows, Music, Podcasts, Photos, Internet, and Settings). This update also added features such as content filtering, iTunes Extras, new fonts, and a new Internet radio app. One new feature in particular was the 'Genius' playlist option allowing for easier and more user friendly playlist creating.


title: Apple TV

text: The 2nd and 3rd generation Apple TVs run a version of iOS, rather than the modified Mac OS X of the original model. The interface on Apple TV Software 4 is similar to that of previous versions, with only minor changes and feature additions throughout. In March 2012, Apple released a major new software update, with the Apple TV 3rd generation, labeled as Apple TV Software 5 (iOS 5.1), which shipped with the new 3rd generation Apple TV. This update completely revised the look of the home screen to make it resemble the icon grid seen on iOS. Instead of 7 columns, content and third-party channels are shown in a tiled grid format, which can be rearranged. Throughout the years, for Apple TV Software 5–6, Apple released minor revisions, content additions, and feature updates.


title: Apple TV

text: The Apple TV Software 7.0 features a flat look similar to iOS 7 and OS X Yosemite and adds features such as Peer-To-Peer AirPlay. Version 8.0 was skipped. Apple TV Software 7.2.2 (iOS 8) is currently available for the Apple TV (3rd generation), as of March 2019. It does not support tvOS 9.0 or later. However, it does support Amazon Video, which was automatically added to those Apple TVs running 7.2.2 on December 6, 2017. In May 2019 Apple TV Software 7.3 (iOS 8.4.2) was released to the public. This update was the first update for the 3rd generation Apple TV since 2016. This update adds the new Apple TV app to the home screen. The Apple TV app brings compatibility to the Apple TV Channels service. This update also fixes some security flaws found in Apple TV Software 7.2.2 and earlier. On September 24, 2019, Apple TV Software 7.4 (iOS 8.4.3) was released to the public. On March 24, 2020, Apple TV Software 7.5 (iOS 8.4.4) was released to the public.


title: Apple TV

text: The Apple TV HD and later run an operating system called "tvOS" which does not support the earlier generations of Apple TV. It features an app store, allowing third-party app developers to release their own apps on the platform. The new software also features support for Siri voice control. The tvOS software development kit (SDK) for developing tvOS apps is included in Xcode 7.1 and later. A new development feature, App Thinning, is used in the Apple TV, running on tvOS, due to the storage restrictions of the device (as little as 32 GB) and the dual-use of the NAND Flash Memory to precache movies from Apple's content servers as well as storage for downloaded applications from the tvOS App Store. Apple's aim is to limit the size of application downloads and steering users toward downloading individual segments of apps in order to better manage storage space. Developers have reacted with criticism toward the download size limits, arguing that it leads to situations where game data is purged and has to be re-downloaded.


title: Apple TV

text: Apple TV contains neither a TV tuner nor a personal video recorder. Both capabilities can be applied to the connected home computer through various third-party products, such as allowing PVR software to connect to iTunes and enable scheduled HDTV recordings to play automatically via Apple TV for playback. Apple TV HD and newer can be linked with Wi-Fi-based tuners such as HDHomeRun.


title: Apple TV

text: The Front Row interface lacks some iTunes functionality, including rating items, checking the account balance, adding funds to the account, synchronizing from more than one computer, full Internet radio support, and games.


title: Apple TV

text: Movies rented on Apple TV must be watched on Apple TV, unlike iTunes rentals, which can be transferred to any video-enabled iPod, iPhone, or Apple TV. Movies purchased on Apple TV can be moved to a video-enabled iPod or iPhone via iTunes.


title: Apple TV

text: Apple TV prior to 4th generation (Apple TV HD) does not support the HDMI Consumer Electronics Control (HDMI CEC) protocol.


title: Apple TV

text: On the Apple TV (2nd generation), digital output audio is up-sampled to 48 kHz, including lossless CD rips at 44.1 kHz. Although this is a higher frequency and the difference is not audible, it is seen by some as falling short of digital transmission of data standards due to the audio not being 'bit perfect'.


title: Apple TV

text: Within the first week of presales in January 2007, Apple TV was the top pre-selling item at the Apple Store. Orders exceeded 100,000 units by the end of January and Apple began ramping-up to sell over a million units before the 2007 holiday season. Analysts began calling it a "DVD killer" that could enable multiple services. Analysts also predicted that Apple could sell up to 1.5 million units in the first year. Besides the Apple Store, Best Buy was one of the first retailers to carry the device; Target and Costco followed shortly thereafter.


title: Apple TV

text: Two months into sales, Forrester Research predicted at the time that Apple would only sell a million Apple TV units, because consumers prefer advertisement-supported content over paid content. Forrester predicted that cable companies would be the clear winners over content providers such as the iTunes Store. Shortly after, Apple released YouTube functionality and Jobs stated that Apple TV was a "DVD player for the Internet". Some market analysts predicted that YouTube on Apple TV "provides a glimpse of this product's potential and its future evolution", but overall, analysts had mixed reactions regarding the future of Apple TV. Some negative reactions followed after Jobs referred to the device as a "hobby", implying it was less significant than the Macintosh, iPod, and iPhone.


title: Apple TV

text: In Apple's first-quarter 2009 financial results conference call, acting chief executive Tim Cook stated that Apple TV sales increased three times over the same quarter a year ago. Cook mentioned that the movie rental business was working well for Apple, Apple would continue investment in movie rentals and Apple TV, but Apple TV is still considered a hobby for the company. Due to the growth of digital TV and consumers turning to Internet media services, an analyst at the time predicted sales of 6.6 million Apple TVs by the end of 2009.


title: Apple TV

text: The second generation sold 250,000 units in the first two weeks it was available. On December 21, 2010, Apple announced that they had sold 1 million units. In the second fiscal quarter of 2011, it had topped 2 million in total sales, with 820,000 sold in that quarter alone.


title: Apple TV

text: On January 24, 2012, Apple announced they had sold 1.4 million units in the first fiscal quarter of 2012, and 2.8 million units in all of fiscal year 2011. (4.2 million units through January 1, 2012).


title: Apple TV

text: Tim Cook announced at the All Things Digital conference in May 2012 that Apple had sold 2.7 million of the 3rd generation model in 2012.


title: Apple TV

text: In the Q4 FY2012 earnings call, Engadget reported comments from Tim Cook that Apple had shipped 1.3 million Apple TV units in the 4th Quarter (presumed to be 3rd generation).


title: Apple TV

text: MacObserver reported statements by Tim Cook in the Q1 FY2013 earnings call that Apple sold over 2 million Apple TV units in the December Quarter (presumed to be 3rd generation).


title: Apple TV

text: These reports lead to a cumulative volume of the 3rd generation device of 6 million units, as of January 1, 2013.


title: Apple TV

text: On February 28, 2014, at Apple's shareholders meeting, Apple CEO Tim Cook announced that in 2013 Apple TV brought in 1 billion dollars of revenue for Apple.


title: Apple TV

text: A market survey published by Parks Associates in December 2014 found that Apple TV has lost consumer traction to Google Chromecast, garnering only a 17% market share.


title: Apple TV

text: Tim Cook announced at the Apple Watch conference on March 9, 2015, that Apple had sold a total of 25 million Apple TVs up to that point.


title: Apple TV

text: During an Apple earnings call on January 27, 2016, CEO Tim Cook stated that the Apple TV had record sales. However, no specific sales figures were mentioned; Apple TV is included in an "Other products" category, which also includes the Apple Watch, iPods, and Beats products, and is not broken down by individual products. In June 2019 it was estimated that there are 53 million units of all generations in use worldwide.


title: Apple TV

text: In 2019, Apple analyst John Gruber stated the Apple TV sells at a low profit margin or a loss, saying units are effectively sold at cost.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: Allu–Konidela family is a prominent Indian show business family known for their work in Telugu cinema, with atleast 3 generations of the family involved in films, business ventures, and politics. Prominent heads of the family are comic actor Allu Ramalingaiah and his son-in-law, actor-politician Chiranjeevi.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: The family is colloquially known as Mega family in reference to the moniker of ChiranjeeviMega Star. This family is one of prominent family in India considering film industry sector.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: Allu–Konidela family have their origins in Mogalthuru and Palakollu villages of West Godavari district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: Chiranjeevi is married to Sureka, daughter of Allu Ramalingaiah and sister of Telugu film producer Allu Aravind. The couple has three children: Srija, Sushmitha and Ram Charan, the latter is one of the highest paid actors of Telugu cinema. Charan is married to Upasana Kamineni, grand-daughter of businessman Prathap C. Reddy. Srija is married to actor Kalyaan Dhev.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: Chiranjeevi has two brothers, Nagendra Babu, and actor-politician Pawan Kalyan. Nagendra Babu's children are Varun Tej and Niharika.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: Kalyan is married thrice to Nandini, Renu Desai and Anna Lezhneva. He has two children with DesaiAkira Nandan and Adya and two more children with LezhnevaPolena Anjana Pawanovna and Mark Shankar Pawanovich.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: Allu Aravind with his wife Nirmala has three children—Venkatesh, Arjun, and Sirish. The latter two are actors in Telugu cinema. Allu Arjun is married to Sneha Reddy, and the couple has two children, Ayaan and Arha.


title: Allu–Konidela family

text: Chiranjeevi has two sisters, Vijaya Durga and Madhavi Rao. Durga has two sons, Sai Dharam Tej and Panja Vaishnav Tej, both of whom are actors.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 "Tokugawa bakufu"), also known as the , was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars of the Sengoku period following the collapse of the Ashikaga shogunate. Ieyasu became the "shōgun," and the Tokugawa clan governed Japan from Edo Castle in the eastern city of Edo (Tokyo) along with the "daimyō" lords of the "samurai" class. The Tokugawa shogunate organized Japanese society under the strict Tokugawa class system and banned most foreigners under the isolationist policies of "Sakoku" to promote political stability. The Tokugawa shoguns governed Japan in a feudal system, with each "daimyō" administering a "han" (feudal domain), although the country was still nominally organized as imperial provinces. Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan experienced rapid economic growth and urbanization, which led to the rise of the merchant class and "Ukiyo" culture.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The Tokugawa shogunate declined during the "Bakumatsu" ("final act of the shogunate") period from 1853 and was overthrown by supporters of the Imperial Court in the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The Empire of Japan was established under the Meiji government, and Tokugawa loyalists continued to fight in the Boshin War until the defeat of the Republic of Ezo at the Battle of Hakodate in June 1869.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Following the Sengoku period ("warring states period"), the central government had been largely re-established by Oda Nobunaga during the Azuchi–Momoyama period. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu. While many "daimyos" who fought against Tokugawa Ieyasu were extinguished or had their holdings reduced, Ieyasu was committed to retaining the "daimyos" and the "han" (domains) as components under his new shogunate. Indeed, "daimyos" who sided with Ieyasu were rewarded, and some of Ieyasu's former vassals were made "daimyos" and were located strategically throughout the country.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Society in the Tokugawa period, unlike in previous shogunates, was supposedly based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The "daimyō" (lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, "daimyō" and samurai were more or less identical, since "daimyō" might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local rulers. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts that did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much larger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers. A 2017 study found that peasant rebellions and collective desertion ("flight") lowered tax rates and inhibited state growth in the Tokugawa shogunate.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: In the mid-19th century, an alliance of several of the more powerful "daimyō", along with the titular Emperor of Japan, succeeded in overthrowing the shogunate, which came to an official end in 1868 with the resignation of the 15th Tokugawa shogun"," Tokugawa Yoshinobu, leading to the "restoration" (, "Ōsei fukko") of imperial rule. Some loyal retainers of the shogun continued to fight during the Boshin war that followed, but were eventually defeated. Notwithstanding its eventual overthrow in favour of the more modernized, less feudal form of governance of the Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa shogunate oversaw the longest period of peace and stability in Japan's history, lasting well over 260 years.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "bakuhan" system ("bakuhan taisei" ) was the feudal political system in the Edo period of Japan. "Baku" is an abbreviation of "bakufu", meaning "military government"—that is, the shogunate. The "han" were the domains headed by "daimyō". Beginning from Ieyasu's appointment as shogun in 1603, but especially after the Tokugawa victory in Osaka in 1615, various policies were implemented to assert the shogunate's control, which severely curtailed the "daimyos"' independence. The number of "daimyos" varied but stabilized at around 270.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "bakuhan" system split feudal power between the shogunate in Edo and the "daimyōs" with domains throughout Japan. The "shōgun" and lords were all "daimyōs": feudal lords with their own bureaucracies, policies, and territories. Provinces had a degree of sovereignty and were allowed an independent administration of the "han" in exchange for loyalty to the "shōgun", who was responsible for foreign relations, national security, coinage, weights and measures, and transportation.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "shōgun" also administered the most powerful "han", the hereditary fief of the House of Tokugawa, which also included many gold and silver mines. Towards the end of the shogunate, the Tokugawa clan held around 7 million "koku" of land (天領 tenryō), including 2.6–2.7 million "koku" held by direct vassals, out of 30 million in the country. The other 23 million "koku" were held by other daimyos.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The number of "han" (roughly 270) fluctuated throughout the Edo period. They were ranked by size, which was measured as the number of "koku" of rice that the domain produced each year. One "koku" was the amount of rice necessary to feed one adult male for one year. The minimum number for a "daimyō" was ten thousand "koku"; the largest, apart from the "shōgun", was more than a million "koku".


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Although the shogun issued certain laws, such as the "buke shohatto" on the "daimyōs" and the rest of the samurai class, each "han" administered its autonomous system of laws and taxation. The "shōgun" did not interfere in a "han"'s governance unless major incompetence (such as large rebellions) is shown, nor were central taxes issued. Instead, each "han" provided feudal duties, such as maintaining roads and official currier stations, building canals and harbors, providing troops, and relieving famines. "Daimyōs" were strategically placed to check each other, and the "sankin-kōtai" system ensured that "daimyōs" or their family are always in Edo, observed by the shogun.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The shogunate had the power to discard, annex, and transform domains, although they were rarely and carefully exercised after the early years of the Shogunate, to prevent "daimyōs" from banding together. The "sankin-kōtai" system of alternative residence required each "daimyō" to reside in alternate years between the "han" and the court in Edo. During their absences from Edo, it was also required that they leave their family as hostages until their return. The hostages and the huge expenditure "sankin-kōtai" imposed on each "han" helped to ensure loyalty to the "shōgun". By 1690s, the vast majority of daimyos would be born in Edo, and most would consider it their homes. Some daimyos had little interest in their domains and needed to be begged to return "home".


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: In return for the centralization, peace among the daimyos were maintained; unlike in the Sengoku period, daimyos no longer worried about conflicts with one another. In addition, hereditary succession was guaranteed as internal usurpations within domains were not recognized by the shogunate.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The Tokugawa clan further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the "shōgun". Daimyos were classified into three main categories:


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "tozama daimyos" who fought against the Tokugawa clan in the Battle of Sekigahara had their estate reduced substantially. They were often placed in mountainous or far away areas, or placed between most trusted daimyos. Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the "tozama" as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the "tozama" less likely to rebel. In the end, however, it was still the great "tozama" of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, and to a lesser extent Hizen, that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or Satchotohi for short.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, the "shōguns" of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan. The shogunate secured a nominal grant of by the Imperial Court in Kyoto to the Tokugawa family. While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing the "shōgun" and received generous subsidies, he had virtually no say in state affairs. The shogunate issued the Laws for the Imperial and Court Officials ("kinchu narabini kuge shohatto" 禁中並公家諸法度) to set out its relationship with the Imperial family and the "kuge" (imperial court officials), and specified that the Emperor should dedicate to scholarship and poetry. The shogunate also appointed a liaison, the "Kyoto Shoshidai" ("Shogun's Representative in Kyoto"), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in his Kyoto palace, and in the wake of the reigning "shōgun", Tokugawa Iemochi, marrying the sister of Emperor Kōmei (r. 1846–1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence. The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a visit to Kyoto to visit the Emperor. Government administration would be formally returned from the "shogun" to the Emperor during the Meiji Restoration in 1868.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Foreign affairs and trade were monopolized by the shogunate, yielding a huge profit. Foreign trade was also permitted to the Satsuma and the Tsushima domains. Rice was the main trading product of Japan during this time. Isolationism was the foreign policy of Japan and trade was strictly controlled. Merchants were outsiders to the social hierarchy of Japan and were thought to be greedy.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The visits of the Nanban ships from Portugal were at first the main vector of trade exchanges, followed by the addition of Dutch, English and sometimes Spanish ships.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: From 1603 onward, Japan started to participate actively in foreign trade. In 1615, an embassy and trade mission under Hasekura Tsunenaga was sent across the Pacific to Nueva España (New Spain) on the Japanese-built galleon "San Juan Bautista". Until 1635, the Shogun issued numerous permits for the so-called "red seal ships" destined for the Asian trade.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: After 1635 and the introduction of Seclusion laws, inbound ships were only allowed from China, Korea, and the Netherlands.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Followers of Christianity first began appearing in Japan during the 16th century. Oda Nobunaga embraced Christianity and the Western technology that was imported with it, such as the musket. He also saw it as a tool he could use to suppress Buddhist forces.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Though Christianity was allowed to grow until the 1610s, Tokugawa Ieyasu soon began to see it as a growing threat to the stability of the shogunate. As "Ōgosho" ("Cloistered "Shōgun""), he influenced the implementation of laws that banned the practice of Christianity. His successors followed suit, compounding upon Ieyasu's laws. The ban of Christianity is often linked with the creation of the Seclusion laws, or Sakoku, in the 1630s.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The primary source of the shogunate's income was the tax (around 40%) levied on harvests in the Tokugawa clan's personal domains (tenryō). No taxes were levied on domains of daimyos, who instead provided military duty, public works and corvee. The shogunate obtained loans from merchants, which were sometimes seen as forced donations, although commerce was often not taxed. Special levies were also imposed for infrastructure-building.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: By the early 18th century, out of around 22,000 personal vassals, most would have received stipends rather than domains.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "rōjū" () were normally the most senior members of the shogunate. Normally, four or five men held the office, and one was on duty for a month at a time on a rotating basis. They supervised the "ōmetsuke" (who checked on the daimyos), "machi"-"bugyō" (commissioners of administrative and judicial functions in major cities, especially Edo), "" (遠国奉行, the commissioners of other major cities and shogunate domains) and other officials, oversaw relations with the Imperial Court in Kyoto, kuge (members of the nobility), daimyō, Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, and attended to matters like divisions of fiefs. Other "bugyō" (commissioners) in charge of finances, monasteries and shrines also reported to the rōjū. The roju conferred on especially important matters. In the administrative reforms of 1867 (Keiō Reforms), the office was eliminated in favor of a bureaucratic system with ministers for the interior, finance, foreign relations, army, and navy.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: In principle, the requirements for appointment to the office of rōjū were to be a "fudai daimyō" and to have a fief assessed at "koku" or more. However, there were exceptions to both criteria. Many appointees came from the offices close to the "shōgun", such as "" (側用人), Kyoto Shoshidai, and Osaka jōdai.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Irregularly, the "shōguns" appointed a "rōjū" to the position of "tairō" (great elder). The office was limited to members of the Ii, Sakai, Doi, and Hotta clans, but Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu was given the status of tairō as well. Among the most famous was Ii Naosuke, who was assassinated in 1860 outside the Sakuradamon Gate of Edo Castle (Sakuradamon incident).


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Three to five men titled the "wakadoshiyori" (若年寄) were next in status below the rōjū. An outgrowth of the early six-man "rokuninshū" (六人衆, 1633–1649), the office took its name and final form in 1662. Their primary responsibility was management of the affairs of the hatamoto and gokenin, the direct vassals of the "shōgun". Under the "wakadoshiyori" were the "metsuke".


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Some "shōguns" appointed a "soba yōnin". This person acted as a liaison between the "shōgun" and the "rōjū". The "soba yōnin" increased in importance during the time of the fifth "shōgun" Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, when a wakadoshiyori, Inaba Masayasu, assassinated Hotta Masatoshi, the "tairō". Fearing for his personal safety, Tsunayoshi moved the "rōjū" to a more distant part of the castle. Some of the most famous "soba yōnin" were Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu and Tanuma Okitsugu.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "ōmetsuke" and "metsuke" were officials who reported to the "rōjū" and "wakadoshiyori". The five "ōmetsuke" were in charge of monitoring the affairs of the "daimyōs", "kuge" and imperial court. They were in charge of discovering any threat of rebellion. Early in the Edo period, "daimyōs" such as Yagyū Munefuyu held the office. Soon, however, it fell to "hatamoto" with rankings of 5,000 "koku" or more. To give them authority in their dealings with "daimyōs", they were often ranked at 10,000 "koku" and given the title of "kami" (an ancient title, typically signifying the governor of a province) such as "Bizen-no-kami".


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: As time progressed, the function of the "ōmetsuke" evolved into one of passing orders from the shogunate to the "daimyōs", and of administering to ceremonies within Edo Castle. They also took on additional responsibilities such as supervising religious affairs and controlling firearms. The "metsuke", reporting to the "wakadoshiyori", oversaw the affairs of the vassals of the "shōgun". They were the police force for the thousands of hatamoto and gokenin who were concentrated in Edo. Individual "han" had their own "metsuke" who similarly policed their samurai.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "san-bugyō" (三奉行 "three administrators") were the "jisha", "kanjō", and "machi-bugyō", which respectively oversaw temples and shrines, accounting, and the cities. The "jisha-bugyō" had the highest status of the three. They oversaw the administration of Buddhist temples ("ji") and Shinto shrines ("sha"), many of which held fiefs. Also, they heard lawsuits from several land holdings outside the eight Kantō provinces. The appointments normally went to "daimyōs"; Ōoka Tadasuke was an exception, though he later became a "daimyō".


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "kanjō-bugyō" were next in status. The four holders of this office reported to the "rōjū". They were responsible for the finances of the shogunate.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "machi-bugyō" were the chief city administrators of Edo and other cities. Their roles included mayor, chief of the police (and, later, also of the fire department), and judge in criminal and civil matters not involving samurai. Two (briefly, three) men, normally hatamoto, held the office, and alternated by month.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Three Edo "machi bugyō" have become famous through "jidaigeki" (period films): Ōoka Tadasuke and Tōyama Kagemoto (Kinshirō) as heroes, and Torii Yōzō () as a villain.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "san-bugyō" together sat on a council called the "hyōjōsho" (評定所). In this capacity, they were responsible for administering the "tenryō" (the shogun's estates), supervising the "gundai" (), the "daikan" () and the "kura bugyō" (), as well as hearing cases involving samurai. The "gundai" managed Tokugawa domains with incomes greater than 10,000 koku while the "daikan" managed areas with incomes between 5,000 and 10,000 koku.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The shogun directly held lands in various parts of Japan. These were known as "shihaisho" (支配所); since the Meiji period, the term "tenryō" (, literally "Emperor's land") has become synonymous, because the shogun's lands were returned to the emperor. In addition to the territory that Ieyasu held prior to the Battle of Sekigahara, this included lands he gained in that battle and lands gained as a result of the Summer and Winter Sieges of Osaka. Major cities as Nagasaki and Osaka, and mines, including the Sado gold mine, also fell into this category.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The "gaikoku bugyō" were administrators appointed between 1858 and 1868. They were charged with overseeing trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and were based in the treaty ports of Nagasaki and Kanagawa (Yokohama).


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: The late Tokugawa shogunate ( "Bakumatsu") was the period between 1853 and 1867, during which Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy called "sakoku" and modernized from a feudal shogunate to the Meiji government. It is at the end of the Edo period and preceded the Meiji era. The major ideological and political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialist "Ishin Shishi" (nationalist patriots) and the shogunate forces, including the elite shinsengumi ("newly selected corps") swordsmen.


title: Tokugawa shogunate

text: Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of the Bakumatsu era to seize personal power. Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent; first, growing resentment of "tozama daimyōs", and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of a U.S. Navy fleet under the command of Matthew C. Perry (which led to the forced opening of Japan). The first related to those lords who had fought against Tokugawa forces at Sekigahara (in 1600) and had from that point on been exiled permanently from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase "sonnō jōi" ("revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians"). The end for the Bakumatsu was the Boshin War, notably the Battle of Toba–Fushimi, when pro-shogunate forces were defeated.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Stillwater is a 2021 American crime drama film directed by Tom McCarthy, based on a script he co-wrote with Marcus Hinchey, Thomas Bidegain and Noé Debré. It is the first DreamWorks Pictures film to be distributed by Focus Features. It stars Matt Damon as an unemployed oil-rig worker from Oklahoma who sets out with a French woman (Camille Cottin) to prove his convicted daughter's (Abigail Breslin) innocence.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on July 8, 2021, and was released theatrically in the United States on July 30, 2021 by Focus Features. It received generally positive reviews from critics and grossed $19 million against its $20 million budget.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Stillwater, Oklahoma roughneck Bill Baker (Damon) travels to Marseille, Southern France to visit his daughter Allison, who is five years into serving a nine-year prison sentence. While attending university in Marseille, Allison was convicted of killing her roommate and unfaithful lover, Lina.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: During Bill's first meeting with Allison, she asks him to pass a letter to her defense lawyer, Mrs. Leparq. Bill finds Leparq, who tells him that the letter says that Allison heard from her former professor about a man who claimed to be Lina's killer. Leparq refuses to attempt to reopen the case because the new information is just hearsay. Bill lies to Allison, telling her that Leparq will petition the judge to reopen the case.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Bill meets a woman named Virginie and her daughter Maya at his hotel. He asks Virginie to translate the letter, where he learns not only about his daughter's desperation at the sentence, but also about how little faith she has in her father's ability to help with the situation. Bill visits the professor mentioned in the letter, who gives him the phone number of someone who claims to know Lina's killer. Bill and Virginie meet with the girl, who names the killer as Akim.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Combing through social media, Virginie and her girlfriend, Nedjma, print photos of people in the social circles of Allison and Lina. Bill brings the photos to Allison, who identifies Akim. Bill then uses the photo to track down Akim at a housing project, but Bill is beaten by Akim's friends after drawing too much attention, while Akim escapes. The next time that he meets Allison, Bill confesses that he lied about Leparq agreeing to help and that he found Akim but didn't tell the police. Enraged that Bill squandered her one chance for exoneration, Allison tells him to never return to the prison.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Four months later, Bill has remained in Marseille, renting a room in Virginie's apartment and working on a construction crew. During Allison's one free day out of prison that year, Bill thinks that he reconnects with her, but that evening as she goes back to prison she attempts suicide by trying to hang herself. Bill is devastated but he continues to visit her and as their regular visits continue he reconnects with her.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Bill and Virginie also establish a closer relationship and Bill finally thinks his life is back on track.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: One night at a Olympique de Marseille game, which Bill attends with Maya, he spots Akim and follows him to his truck after the match has finished.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Bill approaches Akim and knocks him out and locks him in the basement of their apartment building where Virginie, Maya and Bill live. Bill implores Maya to keep the secret, and she agrees.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Bill pays a private investigator to have a lock of Akim's hair tested against the crime scene's DNA evidence. Akim tells Bill that Allison had hired him to kill Lina and that she paid him with a gold necklace bearing the word "Stillwater." Bill begins to doubt Allison's innocence. The private investigator suspects that Bill is keeping Akim in the basement, so he poses as a building inspector and asks Virginie if she has noticed any smells or noises from the basement, which she denies, but her suspicions are aroused. Police officers find and detain Bill, but after a fruitless search of the basement, the police question Maya, who lies about not having seen the hostage. After the police leave, Virginie reveals that she had released Akim after finding him in the basement. She demands that Bill move out for having put Maya at risk during Akim's abduction. Bill hugs a crying Maya goodbye, and moves back into the hotel.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Leparq meets with Bill to tell him that new proof will allow the case to be reopened, with a DNA test exonerating Allison, but is confused by Bill's numb reaction.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: After Allison and Bill return to Oklahoma to a hero's welcome, Bill asks Allison about the Stillwater necklace that he gave her when she had departed for Marseille. Allison breaks down and admits she hired Akim to evict Lina from their house after they had broken up, but claims that she did not intend for Lina to be killed, as Akim misunderstood her intentions to "put her out" of the apartment. The next morning as they sit on the porch, Allison says everything looks the same in Stillwater while Bill admits everything looks different to him, almost to the point of him not recognizing it anymore.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: It was announced in July 2019 that Tom McCarthy would write and direct the film, with Matt Damon set to star. Abigail Breslin was added to the cast later in the month, with filming beginning in August 2019. Camille Cottin was added to the cast in September. Mychael Danna composed the film's score. It was filmed on location in Oklahoma and Marseille.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Allison is in Marseilles, which is the hometown of Edmond Dantès in The Count of Monte Cristo. Dantès was convicted of a crime he did not commit and sent to the Marseille prison island Château d'If, which is visible in the background of several scenes in which Allison and Bill are swimming.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on July 8, 2021. It was scheduled to be released in the U.S. on November 6, 2020, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic until July 30, 2021.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: "Stillwater" grossed $14.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $5.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $19.8 million.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Stillwater "was released alongside "Jungle Cruise" and "The Green Knight", and was projected to gross around $5 million from 2,531 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $1.8 million on its first day, including $280,000 from Thursday-night previews. It went on to debut with $5.2 million, finishing fifth. The film fell 45% to $2.6 million in its second weekend, remaining in fifth place.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 74% based on 192 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The site's critics consensus reads, ""Stillwater" isn't perfect, but its thoughtful approach to intelligent themes – and strong performances from its leads – give this timely drama a steadily building power." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale, while 63% of PostTrak audience members gave it a positive score, with 34% saying that they would definitely recommend it.


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film a score of 3.5/4 stars, describing it as "provocative and stirring" and praising Damon's performance as Bill Baker, but wrote: "Bill is also prone to rash actions, which leads to a relatively late development in "Stillwater" that is jarring and misguided and lands this movie just short of greatness." David Sims of "The Atlantic" noted similarities between the film and director Tom McCarthy's previous films, "The Visitor" and "Win Win", but added: "McCarthy's excellent, if sprawling, script is more interested in the humans behind the headlines and the messy ways people try to reconcile their grief and guilt after indescribable trauma." Simran Hans of "The Observer" gave the film a score of 3/5 stars, describing it as "a thoughtful, knotty character study, albeit one nestled inside a polished, and less interesting, action thriller."


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Brian Lowry of CNN was more critical of the film, writing that it "confounds expectations in mostly frustrating ways", and that it "runs long but doesn't run particularly deep – or at least, not quite deep enough." Clarisse Loughrey of "The Independent" gave the film a score of 2/5 stars, describing it as "an empty gesture of a film", and wrote: "It doesn't reckon with the injustice Knox faced. Nor does it sympathise with her time behind bars. She doesn't even get to be the main character. That would be Matt Damon's Bill Baker, Allison's father – a completely fictional figure, with none of this family's details matching up to Knox's."


title: Stillwater (film)

text: Amanda Knox, whose real life story is thought to have inspired the movie, denounced the film and its creators on Twitter for profiting from her wrongful conviction and for distorting the facts of her story. Knox said, "by fictionalizing away my innocence, my total lack of involvement, by erasing the role of the authorities in my wrongful conviction, McCarthy reinforces an image of me as a guilty and untrustworthy person."


title: Ford Model T

text: The Ford Model T is an automobile that was produced by Ford Motor Company from October 1, 1908, to May 26, 1927. It is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile, which made car travel available to middle-class Americans. The relatively low price was partly the result of Ford's efficient fabrication, including assembly line production instead of individual handcrafting. It was mainly designed by an American (Childe Harold Wills) and two Hungarian engineers (Joseph A. Galamb, Eugene Farkas). The Model T was colloquially known as the "Tin Lizzie", "Leaping Lena" or "flivver".


title: Ford Model T

text: The Ford Model T was named the most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, ahead of the BMC Mini, Citroën DS, and Volkswagen Beetle. Ford's Model T was successful not only because it provided inexpensive transportation on a massive scale, but also because the car signified innovation for the rising middle class and became a powerful symbol of the United States' age of modernization. With 15 million sold, it was the most sold car in history before being surpassed by the Volkswagen Beetle in 1972, and still stood eighth on the top-ten list, .


title: Ford Model T

text: Although automobiles had been produced from the 1880s, until the Model T was introduced in 1908, they were mostly scarce, expensive, and often unreliable. Positioned as reliable, easily maintained, mass-market transportation, the Model T was a great success. In a matter of days after the release, 15,000 orders had been placed. The first production Model T was built on August 12, 1908 and left the factory on September 27, 1908, at the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant in Detroit, Michigan. On May 26, 1927, Henry Ford watched the 15 millionth Model T Ford roll off the assembly line at his factory in Highland Park, Michigan.


title: Ford Model T

text: Henry Ford conceived a series of cars between the founding of the company in 1903 and the introduction of the Model T. Ford named his first car the Model A and proceeded through the alphabet up through the Model T, twenty models in all. Not all the models went into production. The production model immediately before the Model T was the Model S, an upgraded version of the company's largest success to that point, the Model N. The follow-up to the Model T was another Ford Model A, rather than the "Model U." The company publicity said this was because the new car was such a departure from the old that Ford wanted to start all over again with the letter "A".


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T was Ford's first automobile mass-produced on moving assembly lines with completely interchangeable parts, marketed to the middle class. Henry Ford said of the vehicle:


title: Ford Model T

text: I will build a motor car for the great multitude. It will be large enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run and care for. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one – and enjoy with his family the blessing of hours of pleasure in God's great open spaces.


title: Ford Model T

text: Although credit for the development of the assembly line belongs to Ransom E. Olds, with the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash, having begun in 1901, the tremendous advances in the efficiency of the system over the life of the Model T can be credited almost entirely to Ford and his engineers.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T was designed by Childe Harold Wills, and Hungarian immigrants Joseph A. Galamb and Eugene Farkas. Henry Love, C. J. Smith, Gus Degner and Peter E. Martin were also part of the team. Production of the Model T began in the third quarter of 1908. Collectors today sometimes classify Model Ts by build years and refer to these as "model years," thus labeling the first Model Ts as 1909 models. This is a retroactive classification scheme; the concept of model years as understood today did not exist at the time. The nominal model designation was "Model T," although design revisions did occur during the car's two decades of production.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T has a front-mounted inline four-cylinder engine, producing , for a top speed of . According to Ford Motor Company, the Model T had fuel economy on the order of . The engine was capable of running on gasoline, kerosene, or ethanol, although the decreasing cost of gasoline and the later introduction of Prohibition made ethanol an impractical fuel for most users. The engines of the first 2,447 units were cooled with water pumps; the engines of unit 2,448 and onward, with a few exceptions prior to around unit 2,500, were cooled by thermosiphon action.


title: Ford Model T

text: The ignition system used in the Model T was an unusual one, with a low-voltage magneto incorporated in the flywheel, supplying alternating current to trembler coils to drive the spark plugs. This was closer to that used for stationary gas engines than the expensive high-voltage ignition magnetos that were used on some other cars. This ignition also made the Model T more flexible as to the quality or type of fuel it used. The system did not need a starting battery, since proper hand-cranking would generate enough current for starting. Electric lighting powered by the magneto was adopted in 1915, replacing acetylene gas flame lamp and oil lamps, but electric starting was not offered until 1919.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T engine was produced for replacement needs as well as stationary and marine applications until 1941, well after production of the Model T had ended.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Fordson Model F tractor engine, that was designed about a decade later, was very similar to, but larger than, the Model T engine.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T is a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Its transmission is a planetary gear type known (at the time) as "three speed." In today's terms it is considered a two-speed, because one of the three speeds is reverse.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T's transmission is controlled with three floor-mounted pedals, a revolutionary feature for its time, and a lever mounted to the road side of the driver's seat. The throttle is controlled with a lever on the steering wheel. The left-hand pedal is used to engage the transmission. With the floor lever in either the mid position or fully forward and the pedal pressed and held forward, the car enters low gear. When held in an intermediate position, the car is in neutral. If the left pedal is released, the Model T enters high gear, but only when the lever is fully forward – in any other position, the pedal only moves up as far as the central neutral position. This allows the car to be held in neutral while the driver cranks the engine by hand. The car can thus cruise without the driver having to press any of the pedals.


title: Ford Model T

text: In the first 800 units, reverse is engaged with a lever; all units after that use the central pedal, which is used to engage reverse gear when the car is in neutral. The right-hand pedal operates the transmission brake – there are no brakes on the wheels. The floor lever also controls the parking brake, which is activated by pulling the lever all the way back. This doubles as an emergency brake.


title: Ford Model T

text: Although it was uncommon, the drive bands could fall out of adjustment, allowing the car to creep, particularly when cold, adding another hazard to attempting to start the car: a person cranking the engine could be forced backward while still holding the crank as the car crept forward, although it was nominally in neutral. As the car utilizes a wet clutch, this condition could also occur in cold weather, when the thickened oil prevents the clutch discs from slipping freely. Power reaches the differential through a single universal joint attached to a torque tube which drives the rear axle; some models (typically trucks, but available for cars, as well) could be equipped with an optional two-speed rear Ruckstell axle, shifted by a floor-mounted lever which provides an underdrive gear for easier hill climbing.


title: Ford Model T

text: The heavy-duty "Model TT" truck chassis came with a special worm gear rear differential with lower gearing than the normal car and truck, giving more pulling power but a lower top speed (the frame is also stronger; the cab and engine are the same). A Model TT is easily identifiable by the cylindrical housing for the worm-drive over the axle differential. All gears are vanadium steel running in an oil bath.


title: Ford Model T

text: During the Model T's production run, particularly after 1916, more than 30 manufacturers offered auxiliary transmissions or drives to substitute for, or enhance, the Model T's drivetrain gears. Some offered overdrive for greater speed and efficiency, while others offered underdrives for more torque (often incorrectly described as "power") to enable hauling or pulling greater loads. Among the most noted were the Ruckstell two-speed rear axle, and transmissions by Muncie, Warford, and Jumbo.


title: Ford Model T

text: Murray Fahnestock, a Ford expert in the era of the Model T, particularly advised the use of auxiliary transmissions for the enclosed Model T's, such as the Ford Sedan and Coupelet, for three reasons: their greater weight put more strain on the drivetrain and engine, which auxiliary transmissions could smooth out; their bodies acted as sounding boards, echoing engine noise and vibration at higher engine speeds, which could be lessened with intermediate gears; and owners of the enclosed cars spent more to buy them, and thus likely had more money with which to enhance them.


title: Ford Model T

text: He also noted that auxiliary transmissions were valuable for Ford Ton-Trucks in commercial use, allowing for driving speeds to vary with their widely variable loads -- particularly when returning empty -- possibly saving as much as 50% of returning drive time.


title: Ford Model T

text: Model T suspension employed a transversely mounted semi-elliptical spring for each of the front and rear beam axles which allowed a great deal of wheel movement to cope with the dirt roads of the time.


title: Ford Model T

text: The front axle was drop forged as a single piece of vanadium steel. Ford twisted many axles through eight full rotations (2880 degrees) and sent them to dealers to be put on display to demonstrate its superiority.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T did not have a modern service brake. The right foot pedal applied a band around a drum in the transmission, thus stopping the rear wheels from turning. The previously mentioned parking brake lever operated band brakes acting on the inside of the rear brake drums, which were an integral part of the rear wheel hubs. Optional brakes that acted on the outside of the brake drums were available from aftermarket suppliers.


title: Ford Model T

text: Tires were pneumatic clincher type, in diameter, wide in the rear, in the front. Clinchers needed much higher pressure than today's tires, typically , to prevent them from leaving the rim at speed. Flat tires were a common problem.


title: Ford Model T

text: Balloon tires became available in 1925. They were all around. Balloon tires were closer in design to today's tires, with steel wires reinforcing the tire bead, making lower pressure possible – typically – giving a softer ride. The steering gear ratio was changed from 4:1 to 5:1 with the introduction of balloon tires. The old nomenclature for tire size changed from measuring the outer diameter to measuring the rim diameter so (rim diameter) × (tire width) wheels has about the same outer diameter as clincher tires. All tires in this time period used an inner tube to hold the pressurized air; tubeless tires were not generally in use until much later.


title: Ford Model T

text: Wheelbase is and standard track width was – track could be obtained on special order, "for Southern roads", identical to the pre-Civil War track gauge for many railroads in the former Confederacy. The standard 56-inch track being very near the inch standard railroad track gauge, meant that Model Ts could be and frequently were, fitted with flanged wheels and used as motorized railway vehicles or "speeders". The availability of a version meant the same could be done on the few remaining Southern railways – these being the only nonstandard lines remaining, except for a few narrow-gauge lines of various sizes. Although a Model T could be adapted to run on track as narrow as gauge (Wiscasset, Waterville and Farmington RR, Maine has one), this was a more complex alteration.


title: Ford Model T

text: By 1918, half of all the cars in the U.S. were Model Ts. In his autobiography, Ford reported that in 1909 he told his management team, "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black."


title: Ford Model T

text: However, in the first years of production from 1908 to 1913, the Model T was "not" available in black, but rather only in gray, green, blue, and red. Green was available for the touring cars, town cars, coupes, and Landaulets. Gray was available for the town cars only and red only for the touring cars. By 1912, all cars were being painted midnight blue with black fenders. Only in 1914 was the "any color so long as it is black" policy finally implemented.


title: Ford Model T

text: It is often stated Ford suggested the use of black from 1914 to 1925 due to the low cost, durability, and faster drying time of black paint in that era. There is no evidence that black dried any faster than any other dark varnishes used at the time for painting, but carbon black pigment was indeed one of the cheapest (if not the cheapest) available, and dark color of gilsonite, a form of bitumen making cheap metal paints of the time durable, limited the (final) color options to dark shades of maroon, blue, green or black. At that period Ford used two similar types of the so-called Japan black paint, one as a basic coat applied directly to the metal and another as a final finish.


title: Ford Model T

text: Paint choices in the American automotive industry, as well as in others (including locomotives, furniture, bicycles, and the rapidly expanding field of electrical appliances), were shaped by the development of the chemical industry. These included the disruption of dye sources during World War I and the advent, in the mid-1920s, of new nitrocellulose lacquers that were faster-drying and more scratch-resistant and obviated the need for multiple coats. Understanding the choice of paints for the Model T era and the years immediately following requires an understanding of the contemporaneous chemical industry.


title: Ford Model T

text: During the lifetime production of the Model T, over 30 types of black paint were used on various parts of the car. These were formulated to satisfy the different means of applying the paint to the various parts, and had distinct drying times, depending on the part, paint, and method of drying.


title: Ford Model T

text: Although Ford classified the Model T with a single letter designation throughout its entire life and made no distinction by model years, enough significant changes to the body were made over the production life that the car may be classified into several style generations. The most immediately visible and identifiable changes were in the hood and cowl areas, although many other modifications were made to the vehicle.


title: Ford Model T

text: The styling on the last "generation" was a preview for the following Model A, but the two models are visually quite different, as the body on the A is much wider and has curved doors as opposed to the flat doors on the T.


title: Ford Model T

text: When the Model T was designed and introduced, the infrastructure of the world was quite different from today's. Pavement was a rarity except for sidewalks and a few big-city streets. (The meaning of the term "pavement" as opposed to "sidewalk" comes from that era, when streets and roads were generally dirt and sidewalks were a paved way to walk along them.) Agriculture was the occupation of many people. Power tools were scarce outside factories, as were power sources for them; electrification, like pavement, was found usually only in larger towns. Rural electrification and motorized mechanization were embryonic in some regions and nonexistent in most. Henry Ford oversaw the requirements and design of the Model T based on contemporary realities. Consequently, the Model T was (intentionally) almost as much a tractor and portable engine as it was an automobile. It has always been well regarded for its all-terrain abilities and ruggedness. It could travel a rocky, muddy farm lane, cross a shallow stream, climb a steep hill, and be parked on the other side to have one of its wheels removed and a pulley fastened to the hub for a flat belt to drive a bucksaw, thresher, silo blower, conveyor for filling corn cribs or haylofts, baler, water pump, electrical generator, and many other applications. One unique application of the Model T was shown in the October 1922 issue of "Fordson Farmer" magazine. It showed a minister who had transformed his Model T into a mobile church, complete with small organ.


title: Ford Model T

text: During this era, entire automobiles (including thousands of Model Ts) were hacked apart by their owners and reconfigured into custom machinery permanently dedicated to a purpose, such as homemade tractors and ice saws. Dozens of aftermarket companies sold prefab kits to facilitate the T's conversion from car to tractor. The Model T had been around for a decade before the Fordson tractor became available (1917–18), and many Ts had been converted for field use. (For example, Harry Ferguson, later famous for his hitches and tractors, worked on Eros Model T tractor conversions before he worked with Fordsons and others.) During the next decade, Model T tractor conversion kits were harder to sell, as the Fordson and then the Farmall (1924), as well as other light and affordable tractors, served the farm market. But during the Depression (1930s), Model T tractor conversion kits had a resurgence, because by then used Model Ts and junkyard parts for them were plentiful and cheap.


title: Ford Model T

text: Like many popular car engines of the era, the Model T engine was also used on home-built aircraft (such as the Pietenpol Sky Scout) and motorboats.


title: Ford Model T

text: An armored-car variant (called the "FT-B") was developed in Poland in 1920 due to the high demand during the Polish-Soviet war in 1920.


title: Ford Model T

text: Many Model Ts were converted into vehicles that could travel across heavy snows with kits on the rear wheels (sometimes with an extra pair of rear-mounted wheels and two sets of continuous track to mount on the now-tandemed rear wheels, essentially making it a half-track) and skis replacing the front wheels. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversions of cars and small trucks was "snowflyers". These vehicles were extremely popular in the northern reaches of Canada, where factories were set up to produce them.


title: Ford Model T

text: A number of companies built Model T–based railcars. In "The Great Railway Bazaar", Paul Theroux mentions a rail journey in India on such a railcar. The New Zealand Railways Department's RM class included a few.


title: Ford Model T

text: The American LaFrance company modified more than 900 Model Ts for use in firefighting, adding tanks, hoses, tools and a bell. Model T fire engines were in service in North America, Europe, and Australia. A 1919 Model T equipped to fight chemical fires has been restored and is on display at the North Charleston Fire Museum in South Carolina.


title: Ford Model T

text: The knowledge and skills needed by a factory worker were reduced to 84 areas. When introduced, the T used the building methods typical at the time, assembly by hand, and production was small. The Ford Piquette Avenue Plant could not keep up with demand for the Model T, and only 11 cars were built there during the first full month of production. More and more machines were used to reduce the complexity within the 84 defined areas. In 1910, after assembling nearly 12,000 Model Ts, Henry Ford moved the company to the new Highland Park complex. During this time the Model T production system (including the supply chain) transitioned into an iconic example of assembly-line production. In subsequent decades it would also come to be viewed as the classic example of the rigid, first-generation version of assembly line production, as opposed to flexible mass production of higher quality products.


title: Ford Model T

text: As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, reducing production time from hours before to 93 minutes by 1914, while using less manpower. In 1914, Ford produced more cars than all other automakers combined. The Model T was a great commercial success, and by the time Ford made its 10 millionth car, half of all cars in the world were Fords. It was so successful Ford did not purchase any advertising between 1917 and 1923; instead, the Model T became so famous, people considered it a norm. More than 15 million Model Ts were manufactured in all, reaching a rate of 9,000 to 10,000 cars a day in 1925, or 2 million annually, more than any other model of its day, at a price of just $260 ($ today). Total Model T production was finally surpassed by the Volkswagen Beetle on February 17, 1972, while the Ford F-Series (itself directly descended from the Model T roadster pickup) has surpassed the Model T as Ford's all-time best-selling model.


title: Ford Model T

text: Henry Ford's ideological approach to Model T design was one of getting it right and then keeping it the same; he believed the Model T was all the car a person would, or could, ever need. As other companies offered comfort and styling advantages, at competitive prices, the Model T lost market share and became barely profitable. Design changes were not as few as the public perceived, but the idea of an unchanging model was kept intact. Eventually, on May 26, 1927, Ford Motor Company ceased US production and began the changeovers required to produce the Model A. Some of the other Model T factories in the world continued for a short while, with the final Model T produced at the Cork, Ireland plant in December 1928.


title: Ford Model T

text: Model T engines continued to be produced until August 4, 1941. Almost 170,000 were built after car production stopped, as replacement engines were required to service the many existing vehicles. Racers and enthusiasts, forerunners of modern hot rodders, used the Model Ts' blocks to build popular and cheap racing engines, including Cragar, Navarro, and, famously, the Frontenacs ("Fronty Fords") of the Chevrolet brothers, among many others.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Model T employed some advanced technology, for example, its use of vanadium steel alloy. Its durability was phenomenal, and some Model Ts and their parts are in running order over a century later. Although Henry Ford resisted some kinds of change, he always championed the advancement of materials engineering, and often mechanical engineering and industrial engineering.


title: Ford Model T

text: In 2002, Ford built a final batch of six Model Ts as part of their 2003 centenary celebrations. These cars were assembled from remaining new components and other parts produced from the original drawings. The last of the six was used for publicity purposes in the UK.


title: Ford Model T

text: Although Ford no longer manufactures parts for the Model T, many parts are still manufactured through private companies as replicas to service the thousands of Model Ts still in operation today.


title: Ford Model T

text: On May 26, 1927, Henry Ford and his son Edsel drove the 15-millionth Model T out of the factory. This marked the famous automobile's official last day of production at the main factory.


title: Ford Model T

text: The moving assembly line system, which started on October 7, 1913, allowed Ford to reduce the price of his cars. As he continued to fine-tune the system, Ford was able to keep reducing costs significantly. As volume increased, he was able to also lower the prices due to some of the fixed costs being spread over a larger number of vehicles as large supply chain investments increased assets per vehicle. Other factors reduced the price such as material costs and design changes. As Ford had market dominance in North America during the 1910s, other competitors reduced their prices to stay competitive, while offering features that weren't available on the ModelT such as a wide choice of colors, body styles and interior appearance and choices, and competitors also benefited from the reduced costs of raw materials and infrastructure benefits to supply chain and ancillary manufacturing businesses.


title: Ford Model T

text: The figures below are US production numbers compiled by R.E. Houston, Ford Production Department, August 3, 1927. The figures between 1909 and 1920 are for Ford's fiscal year. From 1909 to 1913, the fiscal year was from October 1 to September 30 the following calendar year with the year number being the year in which it ended. For the 1914 fiscal year, the year was October 1, 1913, through July 31, 1914. Starting in August 1914, and through the end of the ModelT era, the fiscal year was August 1 through July 31. Beginning with January 1920, the figures are for the calendar year.


title: Ford Model T

text: The above tally includes a total of 14,689,525 vehicles. Ford said the last ModelT was the 15 millionth vehicle produced.


title: Ford Model T

text: Henry Ford used wood scraps from the production of Model Ts to make charcoal briquettes. Originally named Ford Charcoal, the name was changed to Kingsford Charcoal after the Iron Mountain Ford Plant closed in 1951 and the Kingsford Chemical Company was formed and continued the wood distillation process. E. G. Kingsford, Ford's cousin by marriage, brokered the selection of the new sawmill and wood distillation plant site. Lumber for production of the Model T came from the same location, built-in 1920 called the Iron Mountain Ford which incorporated a sawmill where lumber from Ford purchased land in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan was cut and dried. Scrap wood was distilled at the Iron Mountain plant for its wood chemicals, including methanol (wood alcohol), with the end by-product being lump charcoal. This lump charcoal was modified and pressed into briquettes and mass-marketed by Ford.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Ford Model T was the first automobile built by various countries simultaneously, since they were being produced in Walkerville, Canada, and in Trafford Park, Greater Manchester, England, starting in 1911 and were later assembled in Germany, Argentina, France, Spain, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Brazil, Mexico, and Japan, as well as several locations throughout the US. Ford made use of the knock-down kit concept almost from the beginning of the company as freight and production costs from Detroit had Ford assembling vehicles in major metropolitan centers of the US.


title: Ford Model T

text: The Aeroford was an English automobile manufactured in Bayswater, London, from 1920 to 1925. It was a Model T with a distinct hood and grille to make it appear to be a totally different design, what later was called badge engineering. The Aeroford sold from £288 in 1920, dropping to £168–214 by 1925. It was available as a two-seater, four-seater, or coupé.


title: Ford Model T

text: Ford created a massive publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and advertisements about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in virtually every city in North America. A large part of the success of Ford's Model T stems from the innovative strategy which introduced a large network of sales hubs making it easy to purchase the car. As independent dealers, the franchises grew rich and publicized not just the Ford but the very concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed – several years posted around 100 percent gains on the previous year.


title: Ford Model T

text: Parisian Ford dealer Charles Montier and his brother-in-law Albert Ouriou entered a heavily modified version of the Model T (the "Montier Special") in the first three 24 Hours of Le Mans. They finished 14th in the inaugural 1923 race.


title: Ford Model T

text: Today, four main clubs exist to support the preservation and restoration of these cars: the Model T Ford Club International, the Model T Ford Club of America and the combined clubs of Australia. With many chapters of clubs around the world, the Model T Ford Club of Victoria has a membership with a considerable number of uniquely Australian cars. (Australia produced its own car bodies, and therefore many differences occurred between the Australian bodied tourers and the US/Canadian cars.) In the UK, the Model T Ford Register of Great Britain celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010. Many steel Model T parts are still manufactured today, and even fiberglass replicas of their distinctive bodies are produced, which are popular for T-bucket style hot rods (as immortalized in the Jan and Dean surf music song "Bucket T", which was later recorded by The Who). In 1949, more than twenty years after the end of production, 200,000 Model Ts were registered in the United States. In 2008, it was estimated that about 50,000 to 60,000 Ford Model Ts remain roadworthy.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Paul Verhoeven (; born 18 July 1938) is a Dutch director, producer and screenwriter, active in the Netherlands, France and the United States. His blending of graphic violence and sexual content with social satire is a trademark of both his drama and science fiction films.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: After receiving attention for the TV series "Floris" in his native Netherlands, Verhoeven got his film breakthrough with romantic drama "Turkish Delight" (1973), starring frequent collaborator Rutger Hauer. The film was nominated for Academy Award for Best Foreign Film and later received the award for Best Dutch Film of the Century at the Netherlands Film Festival. Verhoeven later directed successful Dutch films including the period drama "Keetje Tippel" (1975), the war film "Soldier of Orange" (1977), the teen drama "Spetters" (1980) and the psychological thriller "The Fourth Man" (1983).


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: In 1985, Verhoeven made his first Hollywood film "Flesh and Blood" and later had a successful career in the United States, directing science fiction films such as "RoboCop" (1987), "Total Recall" (1990), "Starship Troopers" (1997) and "Hollow Man" (2000), as well as the erotic thriller "Basic Instinct" (1992).


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: He later returned to Europe, making the Dutch war film "Black Book" (2006), French psychological thriller "Elle" (2016), and the religious drama "Benedetta" (2021), all receiving positive reviews. "Black Book" and "Elle" were both nominated for BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language and "Elle" won Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and César Award for Best Film. "Black Book" was also voted by the Dutch public, in 2008, as the best Dutch film ever made. In contrast, he won the Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Picture and Worst Director for "Showgirls" (1995); he is one of the few people to have accepted their Golden Raspberry awards in person, and was the first person to go to the ceremony to receive it. "Showgirls" was a notorious box office flop at its initial theatrical release, but later enjoyed huge success in the home video market and became a cult classic. Verhoeven's films altogether received a total of nine Academy Award nominations, mainly for editing and effects.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Paul Verhoeven was born in Amsterdam on 18 July 1938, the son of a schoolteacher, Wim Verhoeven, and a hatmaker, Nel van Schaardenburg. His family lived in the village of Slikkerveer.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: In 1943 the family moved to The Hague, the location of the German headquarters in the Netherlands during World War II. The Verhoeven house was near a German military base with V1- and V2-rocket launchers, which was repeatedly bombed by Allied forces. Their neighbours' house was hit and Verhoeven's parents were almost killed when bombs fell on a street crossing. From this period, Verhoeven mentioned in interviews, he remembers images of violence, burning houses, dead bodies on the street, and continuous danger. As a small child he experienced the war as an exciting adventure, and has compared himself with the character Bill Rowan in "Hope and Glory" (1987).


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven's father became headteacher at the Van Heutszschool in The Hague, and Paul attended this school. Sometimes the two watched informative films at home with the school's film projector. Verhoeven and his father also liked to see American films that were shown in cinemas after the liberation, such as "The Crimson Pirate" (1952).


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven and his father went ten times to see "The War of the Worlds" (1953). Verhoeven was a fan of the Dutch comic "Dick Bos". The character Dick Bos is a private detective who fights crime using jujutsu. Verhoeven liked comic drawing; he created "The Killer", a character in a detailed story of revenge. Other fiction he liked included "Frankenstein" and the Edgar Rice Burroughs Barsoom series.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven attended public secondary school Gymnasium Haganum in The Hague. Later, beginning in 1955, he studied at Leiden University. He graduated with a doctorandus (MSc) with a double major, in Mathematics and Physics.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven made his first film "Één hagedis teveel" (""One Lizard Too Many"") for the anniversary of his students' corps in 1960. In his last years at university Verhoeven also attended classes at the Netherlands Film Academy. After this he made three more short films: "Nothing Special" (1961), "The Hitchhikers" (1962), and "Let's Have a Party" (1963).


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven has not professionally used his mathematics and physics degree, opting instead to invest his energies in a career in film. After his studies he entered the Royal Dutch Navy as a conscript. He made the documentary "Het Korps Mariniers" (""The Marine Corps"", 1965), which won the French 'Golden Sun' award for military films.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: When he left the Navy, Verhoeven took his skills to Dutch television. First, he made a documentary about Anton Mussert titled "Mussert" (1968). His first major success was the 1969 television series "Floris", starring Rutger Hauer in the title role. The concept of "Floris" was inspired by foreign series such as "Ivanhoe" and "Thierry La Fronde".


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven's first feature film "Business Is Business" was released in 1971 and was not well received. His first national success came in 1973 with "Turkish Delight", starring Rutger Hauer and Monique van de Ven. This film, based on a novel by bestselling Dutch author Jan Wolkers, tells the passionate love story of an artist and a young liberal girl from a conservative background. The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Foreign Language Film in 1974. In 1999 the film won a Golden Calf for Best Dutch Film of the Century. Verhoeven's 1975 film "Katie Tippel" again featured Hauer and van de Ven, but it did not match the success of "Turkish Delight".


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven built on his reputation and achieved international success with his Golden Globe-nominated film "Soldier of Orange", starring Rutger Hauer and Jeroen Krabbé. The film, based on a true story about the Dutch resistance in World War II, was written by Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema. "Soldier of Orange" received the 1979 LA Film Critics Award for best foreign-language film. It was also nominated for a Golden Globe in 1980.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: In 1980 Verhoeven made the film "Spetters" with Renée Soutendijk and Rutger Hauer. The story is sometimes compared to "Saturday Night Fever", but the film has more explicit violence and sexuality (in this case also homosexuality), which are sometimes seen as the director's trademarks. Verhoeven's film "The Fourth Man" (1983) is a horror film starring Jeroen Krabbé and Renée Soutendijk. It was written by Gerard Soeteman from a novel by the Dutch writer Gerard Reve, and was Verhoeven's last Dutch film production until the 2006 film "Black Book".


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: "The Seattle Times" praised Verhoeven by saying he "often appears to be a one-man Dutch movie industry". "The San Diego Union-Tribune" called Verhoeven "a busy bee whose movies pollinate the festival circuit".


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Gerard Soeteman also wrote the script for Verhoeven's first English-language film, "Flesh and Blood" (1985), which starred Rutger Hauer and Jennifer Jason Leigh. Verhoeven moved to Hollywood for a wider range of opportunities in filmmaking. Working in the U.S., he made a serious change in style, directing big-budget, violent, special-effects-heavy hits "RoboCop" and "Total Recall"—each of which won an Academy Special Achievement Award: "RoboCop" for Sound Effects Editing, and "Total Recall" for Visual Effects.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven followed those successes with the equally intense and provocative "Basic Instinct" (1992), an erotic thriller. The ninth-highest-grossing film of the year, the movie was a return to themes Verhoeven had explored in "Turkish Delight" and "The Fourth Man". The film's most notorious scene shows Sharon Stone's character in a police interrogation, where she uncrosses her legs, briefly revealing her vulva (she does not wear underwear underneath her skirt). The film received two Academy Award nominations, for Film Editing and for Original Music.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: During this time, Verhoeven also worked on creating an historical epic based around the Crusades that would have starred Arnold Schwarzenegger. The film entered pre-production in 1993, but a year later the studio backing the film (Carolco) pulled funding for the project. Verhoeven would continue to discuss the film throughout the 1990s.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven's next film was the poorly received, NC-17-rated "Showgirls" (1995), about a stripper in Las Vegas trying to make a career as a showgirl. The film won seven Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Film and Worst Director; Verhoeven became the first director to accept his award in person. Afterward, the film enjoyed success on the home video market, generating more than $100 million from video rentals and became one of MGM's top 20 all-time bestsellers.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: After "Basic Instinct" and "Showgirls" Verhoeven returned to the science fiction genre, utilizing the graphic violence and special-effects tropes that had marked his earlier films, making "Starship Troopers" (1997), loosely based on the novel of the same name by Robert A. Heinlein, and "Hollow Man" (2000). Each film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: After about 20 years of working and living in the United States, Verhoeven returned to the Netherlands for the shooting of a new film. Together with his screenwriter Gerard Soeteman, Verhoeven made "Black Book" (2006). The director was hailed by the host of the Netherlands Film Festival with the words "The return of a hero". "Black Book" won six Golden Calves at this festival, including Best Director. When the shooting of "Black Book" was delayed due to financial issues, there was speculation about a new production. The film "Beast of Bataan" had been announced, but once the shooting for "Black Book" resumed, the other film was not made.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Since "Black Book", Verhoeven has been connected to a large number of projects, but in the first decade after his return, none came to fruition. Some of those titles were produced with other directors at the helm, such as "The Paperboy". In 2016, however, Verhoeven followed "Black Book" by directing a French film: "Elle", an adaptation of a novel by Philippe Djian. A psycho-thriller where Isabelle Huppert plays a rape victim, "Elle" was selected for the Official Competition at the Cannes International Film Festival, where it obtained very favourable reviews.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: In December 2016, it was announced that Verhoeven would be the president of the jury for the 67th Berlin International Film Festival, scheduled to take place in February 2017.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: In April 2017, it was announced that filming of "Benedetta", his next French film, would begin in August of the same year. It is a biographical film about the life of Benedetta Carlini, portrayed by "Elle" co-star Virginie Efira, and is an adaptation of the non-fiction book "Immodest Acts: The Life of a Lesbian Nun in Renaissance Italy" by Judith C. Brown. In May 2018, it was announced that Charlotte Rampling would play a key supporting role. The film premiered at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival in competition for the Palme d'Or.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven is currently preparing his next film, which reunites him with "RoboCop" screenwriter Edward Neumeier. "Young Sinner" is an erotic political thriller set in Washington DC about a "young staffer who works for a powerful Senator [and] is drawn into a web of international intrigue and danger."


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven was a member of the Jesus Seminar, and he was the only member who does not have a degree in biblical studies. He graduated with a degree in mathematics and physics from the University of Leiden. Since he is not a professional biblical exegete, his membership in the Jesus Seminar has occasionally been cited by opponents of the Seminar as a sign that this group is less scholarly than it claims. For example, Luke Timothy Johnson criticizes the Jesus Seminar's methods on exegetical grounds, and also criticizes what he perceives to be a dependence on the theatrical and an attempt to manipulate the mainstream media. He singles out Verhoeven as a key player in the media activities of the Jesus Seminar. On the other hand, some Jesus Seminar members were unhappy with Verhoeven's portrayal of Jesus as an eschatological prophet.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: In 2007, Verhoeven wrote the book "Jesus of Nazareth" () about the life of Jesus of Nazareth. The book reviews the ideas of Jesus of Nazareth and the alleged corruption of these same ideas over the last 2,000 years. Co-written with Verhoeven's biographer Rob Van Scheers, the book is the culmination of the research Verhoeven conducted in preparation for "Jesus: The Man", a motion picture about the life of Christ. The book tells about the Jewish uprising against Roman rule and characterizes Jesus as a radical political activist, downplaying any supernatural events and miracles as unproved or unprovable. "Jesus of Nazareth: A Realistic Portrait" was released in September 2008 in Dutch and was published in English in May 2010 by Seven Stories Press.


title: Paul Verhoeven

text: In 1967 Verhoeven married Martine Tours, with whom he has two daughters, Claudia (b. 1972), and Helen (b. 1974).


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: The Bourne Legacy is a 2012 American action-thriller film directed by Tony Gilroy, and is the fourth installment in the series of films adapted from the "Jason Bourne" novels originated by Robert Ludlum and continued by Eric Van Lustbader, being preceded by "The Bourne Identity" (2002), "The Bourne Supremacy" (2004), and "The Bourne Ultimatum" (2007). The film centers on black ops agent Aaron Cross (portrayed by Jeremy Renner), an original character. In addition to Renner, the film stars Rachel Weisz and Edward Norton.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: "The Bourne Legacy" is the only film in the franchise that does not feature the titular character Jason Bourne, as actor Matt Damon chose not to return due to Paul Greengrass not directing. Bourne is shown in pictures and mentioned by name several times throughout the film. Tony Gilroy, co-screenwriter of the first three films, sought to continue the story of the film series without changing its key events, and parts of "The Bourne Legacy" take place at the same time as the previous film, "The Bourne Ultimatum" (2007). Aaron Cross is a member of a black ops program called Operation Outcome whose subjects are genetically enhanced. He must run for his life once former CIA Treadstone agent Jason Bourne's actions lead to the public exposure of Operation Treadstone and its successor Operation Blackbriar.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Filming was primarily in New York City, with some scenes shot in the Philippines, South Korea, and Canada. Released on , 2012, the film received generally favorable reviews and grossed $276 million at the box office. It was followed in 2016 by "Jason Bourne", with Damon reprising his role.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Six weeks after Jason Bourne's escape from Russia after his pursuit with Kirill, Operation Outcome agent Aaron Cross is assigned a training exercise in the Alaskan wilderness as punishment for going AWOL. He must traverse the rugged terrain to find a remote cabin while being stalked by wolves. The cabin is operated by Number Three, another Outcome agent there as punishment. Cross lies and tells Number Three that he has lost his program medication dog tags containing "chems" that Outcome agents must take to maintain their mental and physical enhancements.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Colonel Eric Byer is tasked with containing the fallout from Pam Landy's exposure of Operations Treadstone and Blackbriar. He and his team find several videos of Treadstone and Outcome medical directors Albert Hirsch and Dan Hillcott being together posted online that could lead investigators to Operation Outcome. Byer orders Outcome to be completely shut down and all the agents and participating doctors killed to protect other clandestine programs.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Byer deploys an armed drone to eliminate Cross and Number Three in Alaska. Number Three is vaporized when a missile from the drone destroys the cabin, but Cross survives. He shoots down the drone with a rifle and removes a subdermal tracking implant on his hip. He traps an aggressive wolf and forces it to swallow his tracker. Another drone targets the tracker and kills the wolf, tricking everyone into believing that Cross was killed. At Sterisyn Morlanta, the pharmaceutical company supporting Outcome, researcher Dr. Donald Foite seemingly snaps and methodically shoots down Hillcott and his colleagues working on Outcome. After being cornered by guards, Foite shoots himself, leaving Dr. Marta Shearing as the program's sole survivor.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Cross travels from Alaska to Chicago to recover a stashed car, money, and fake identification. Running low on chems and seeing news that his Outcome provider, Dr. Shearing, had survived the shooting, he drives across country to her home in Maryland. Meanwhile, Byer sends four D-Trac assassins disguised as federal agents to kill her and make it look like a suicide. Cross intervenes, kills the assassins, and burns down her house to cover their escape. Shearing tells Cross that the program previously used a virus to lock in his physical enhancements, eliminating his need for his physical chems. They plan to fly to the Philippines to obtain a live virus to lock in his mental enhancements since it was impossible to get more mental chems.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Cross and Shearing use false identities to fly to Manila, bluff their way into a pharmaceutical factory where Sterisyn Morlanta has a research lab, and infect Cross with the live virus. Meanwhile, Byer's team undertakes a massive operation in New York to track and find Shearing digitally: they find cctv footage of her at JFK airport, determine her itinerary, discover that Cross is still alive and on her flight, and realize the duo's plan. Byer alerts the factory's security team, but Cross subdues the security guards, causes a panic on the factory floor, and they both escape in the commotion. Cross becomes incapacitated from the virus so Shearing hides him in an apartment to recover. Byer dispatches LARX#3, a chemically brainwashed super soldier, to kill them. The next morning, Cross recovers but the local police discover their hideout and they both narrowly escape. The police and the LARX agent chase them on motorcycle through the streets of Manila. They lose the police and Shearing kills the LARX agent, but Cross is shot and loses consciousness. She bribes a nearby boatman to help them escape Manilla. Byer and his team, who lost their trail, raid the empty apartment for clues, only to find a message written on the mirror, with Cross' dog tags hanging on the side.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Back in New York, Blackbriar supervisor Noah Vosen lies to the Senate, stating that Blackbriar was created solely to track down Bourne, and that Deputy Director Pamela Landy committed treason by aiding Bourne and releasing top secret Treadstone files to the press. Meanwhile, Cross recovers from his bullet wounds on the boat where he and Shearing use a map to determine where they should travel.


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Universal Pictures originally intended "The Bourne Ultimatum" to be the final film in the series, but development of another film was under way by October 2008. George Nolfi, who co-wrote "The Bourne Ultimatum", was to write the script of a fourth film, not to be based on any of the novels by Robert Ludlum. Joshua Zetumer had been hired to write a parallel script—a draft which could be combined with another (Nolfi's, in this instance)—by August 2009 since Nolfi would be directing "The Adjustment Bureau" that September. Matt Damon stated in November 2009 that no script had been approved and that he hoped that a film would begin shooting in mid-2011. The next month, he said that he would not do another Bourne film without Paul Greengrass, who announced in late November that he had decided not to return as director. In January 2010, Damon said that there would "probably be a prequel of some kind with another actor and another director before we do another one just because I think we're probably another five years away from doing it."


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: However, it was reported in June 2010 that Tony Gilroy, who co-wrote each of the three previous "Bourne" films, would be writing a script with his brother, screenwriter Dan Gilroy, for a fourth "Bourne" film to be released sometime in 2012. That October, Universal set the release date for "The Bourne Legacy" for August 10, 2012, Tony Gilroy was confirmed as the director of the film, and it was also announced that Jason Bourne will not be appearing in "The Bourne Legacy".


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Gilroy said he did not get involved with the project "until the rules were that Matt [Damon] was gone, Matt and Paul [Greengrass] were gone, there was no Jason Bourne. That was the given when I had the first conversation about this. So it was very important to me, extremely important to me, that everything that had happened before be well preserved and be enhanced if possible by what we're doing now." He also said, "you could never replace Matt [Damon] as Jason Bourne. This isn't James Bond. You can't do a prequel. You can't do any of those kinds of things, because there was never any cynicism attached to the franchise, and that was the one thing they had to hang on to."


title: The Bourne Legacy (film)

text: Gilroy "never had any intention of ever coming back to this realm at all—much less write it, much less direct it. Then I started a really casual conversation about what we could do in a post-Jason Bourne setting. I was only supposed to come in for two weeks, but the character we came up with, Aaron Cross, was so compelling." After watching "The Bourne Ultimatum" again, Gilroy called his brother, screenwriter Dan Gilroy, and said, The only thing you could do is sort of pull back the curtain and say there's a much bigger conspiracy.' So we had to deal with what happened in "Ultimatum" as the starting point of this film. "Ultimatum" plays in the shadows of "Legacy" for the first 15 minutes—they overlap."