title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In December 1952, the Justice Department filed a friend of the court brief in the case. The brief was unusual in its heavy emphasis on foreign-policy considerations of the Truman administration in a case ostensibly about domestic issues. Of the seven pages covering "the interest of the United States", five focused on the way school segregation hurt the United States in the Cold War competition for the friendship and allegiance of non-white peoples in countries then gaining independence from colonial rule. Attorney General James P. McGranery noted that "the existence of discrimination against minority groups in the United States has an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries. Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills." The brief also quoted a letter by Secretary of State Dean Acheson lamenting that "the United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country."


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: British barrister and parliamentarian Anthony Lester has written that "Although the Court's opinion in "Brown" made no reference to these considerations of foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision."


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In spring 1953, the court heard the case but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the court to gather a consensus around a "Brown" opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation spent much effort convincing those who initially intended to dissent to join a unanimous opinion. Although the legal effect would be same for a majority rather than unanimous decision, it was felt that dissent could be used by segregation supporters as a legitimizing counter-argument.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Conference notes and draft decisions illustrate the division of opinions before the decision was issued. Justices William O. Douglas, Hugo Black, Harold Hitz Burton, and Sherman Minton were predisposed to overturn "Plessy". Fred M. Vinson noted that Congress had not adopted desegregation legislation; Stanley F. Reed discussed incomplete cultural assimilation and states' rights, and was inclined to the view that segregation worked to the benefit of the African-American community; Tom C. Clark wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out." Felix Frankfurter and Robert H. Jackson disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to judicial activism and expressed concerns about the proposed decision's enforceability. Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice. Warren had supported the integration of Mexican-American students in California school systems following "Mendez v. Westminster". However, Eisenhower invited Earl Warren to a White House dinner, where the president told him: "These [southern whites] are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes." Nevertheless, the Justice Department sided with the African-American plaintiffs.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the judicial restraint faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the court the power to order its end. The activist faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a recess appointment, held his tongue until the Senate confirmed his appointment.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Warren convened a meeting of the justices, and presented to them the simple argument that the only reason to sustain segregation was an honest belief in the inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the court must overrule "Plessy" to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive Southern resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion. Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justice Jackson dropped his concurrence and Reed finally decided to drop his dissent. The final decision was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the court. Reed was the last holdout and reportedly cried during the reading of the opinion.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Brown family and the other plaintiffs. The decision consists of a single opinion written by chief justice Earl Warren, which all the justices joined.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Court's opinion began by noting that it had tried to determine whether the Fourteenth Amendment was meant to abolish segregation in public education—even hearing a second round of oral arguments from the parties' lawyers specifically on the historical sources—but to no avail.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Court said that the question was complicated by the major social and governmental changes that had taken place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Court observed that public schools had been uncommon in the American South in the late 1860s, when the Fourteenth Amendment had been adopted. At that time, Southern white children whose families could afford schooling usually attended private schools, while the education of black children was "almost nonexistent", to the point that in some Southern states any education of black people had been forbidden by law. The Court contrasted this with the situation in 1954: "Today, education is perhaps the most important function of our local and state governments." The Court concluded that, in making its ruling, it would have to "consider public education in light of its full development and its present place in American life throughout the Nation."


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: During the segregation era, it was common for black schools to have fewer resources and poorer facilities than white schools despite the equality required by the "separate but equal" doctrine. The "Brown" Court did not address this issue, however, probably because some of the school districts involved had made improvements to their black schools to "equalize" them with the quality of the white schools. This prevented the Court from finding a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause in "measurable inequalities" between all white and black schools, and instead required it to look to the effects of segregation itself. Thus, the Court framed the case around the more general question of whether the principle of "separate but equal" was constitutional when applied to public education.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In answer, the Court held that it did. It ruled that state-mandated segregation, even if implemented in schools of otherwise equal quality, is inherently unequal because of its psychological impact.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Court supported this conclusion with citations—in a footnote, not the main text of the opinion—to several psychological studies purporting to show that segregating black children made them feel inferior and interfered with their learning. These studies included those of Kenneth and Mamie Clark, whose experiments in the 1940s had suggested that black American children from segregated environments preferred white dolls over black dolls.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Court then concluded its relatively short opinion by declaring that segregated public education was inherently unequal, violated the Equal Protection Clause, and therefore was unconstitutional:


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Court did not close with an order to implement the integration of the schools of the various jurisdictions. Instead, it requested the parties re-appear before the Court the following Term to hold arguments on what the appropriate remedy should be. This became the case known as "Brown" II, described below.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Although Americans generally cheered the Court's decision in "Brown", most white Southerners decried it. Many Southern white Americans viewed "Brown" as "a day of catastrophe—a Black Monday—a day something like Pearl Harbor." In the face of entrenched Southern opposition, progress on integrating American schools moved slowly. The American political historian Robert G. McCloskey described:


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In Virginia, Senator Harry F. Byrd organized the Massive Resistance movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: For several decades after the "Brown" decision, African-American teachers, principals, and other school staff who worked in segregated Black schools were fired or laid off as Southerners sought to create a system of integrated schools with White leadership. According to historian Michael Fultz, "In many ways the South moved faster, with more 'deliberate speed' in displacing Black educators than it did in desegregating schools."


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Texas Attorney General John Ben Shepperd organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to the implementation of desegregation.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In September 1957, Arkansas governor Orval Faubus called out the Arkansas Army National Guard to block the entry of nine black students, later known as the "Little Rock Nine", after the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School. President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded by asserting federal control over the Arkansas National Guard and deploying troops from the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division stationed at Fort Campbell to ensure the black students could safely register for and attend classes.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Also in 1957, Florida's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an Interposition Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But Florida Governor LeRoy Collins, though joining in the protest against the court decision, refused to sign it, arguing that the attempt to overturn the ruling must be done by legal methods.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In Mississippi, fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years. When Medgar Evers sued in 1963 to desegregate schools in Jackson, Mississippi, White Citizens Council member Byron De La Beckwith murdered him. Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In June 1963, Alabama governor George Wallace personally blocked the door to the University of Alabama's Foster Auditorium to prevent the enrollment of two black students in what became known as the "Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" incident. Wallace sought to uphold his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" promise he had given in his 1963 inaugural address. Wallace moved aside only when confronted by General Henry V. Graham of the Alabama National Guard, whom President John F. Kennedy had ordered to intervene.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Native American communities were also heavily impacted by segregation laws with native children also being prohibited from attending white institutions. Native American children considered light-complexioned were allowed to ride school buses to previously all white schools, while dark-skinned Native children from the same band were still barred from riding the same buses. Tribal leaders, having learned about Martin Luther King Jr.'s desegregation campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, contacted him for assistance. King promptly responded to the tribal leaders and through his intervention the problem was quickly resolved.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting "Brown", but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954, the Greensboro, North Carolina school board declared that it would abide by the "Brown" ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D. E. Hudgins Jr., a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply. However, others in the city resisted integration, putting up legal obstacles to the actual implementation of school desegregation for years afterward, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971, after numerous local lawsuits and both nonviolent and violent demonstrations. Historians have noted the irony that Greensboro, which had heralded itself as such a progressive city, was one of the last holdouts for school desegregation.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In Moberly, Missouri, the schools were desegregated, as ordered. However, after 1955, the African-American teachers from the local "negro school" were not retained; this was ascribed to poor performance. They appealed their dismissal in "Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al."; but it was upheld, and SCOTUS declined to hear a further appeal.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Virginia had one of the companion cases in "Brown", involving the Prince Edward County schools. Significant opposition to the "Brown" verdict included U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, who led the Byrd Organization and promised a strategy of Massive Resistance. Governor Thomas Stanley, a member of the Byrd Organization, appointed the Gray Commission, 32 Democrats led by state senator Garland Gray, to study the issue and make recommendations. The commission recommended giving localities "broad discretion" in meeting the new judicial requirements. However, in 1956, a special session of the Virginia legislature adopted a legislative package which allowed the governor to simply close all schools under desegregation orders from federal courts. In early 1958, newly elected Governor J. Lindsay Almond closed public schools in Charlottesville, Norfolk, and Warren County rather than comply with desegregation orders, leaving 10,000 children without schools despite efforts of various parent groups. However, he reconsidered when on the Lee-Jackson state holiday, the Virginia Supreme Court ruled the closures violated the state constitution, and a panel of federal judges ruled they violated the U.S. Constitution. In early February 1959, both the Arlington County (also subject to a NAACP lawsuit, and which had lost its elected school board pursuant to other parts of the Stanley Plan) and Norfolk schools desegregated peacefully. Soon all counties reopened and integrated with the exception of Prince Edward County. That took the extreme step of choosing not to appropriate any funding for its school system, thus forcing all its public schools to close, although Prince Edward County provided tuition grants for all students, regardless of their race, to use for private, nonsectarian education. Since no private schools existed for blacks within the county, black children in the county either had to leave the county to receive any education between 1959 and 1963, or received no education. All private schools in the region remained racially segregated. This lasted until 1964, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled Prince Edward County's decision to provide tuition grants for private schools that only admitted whites violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, in the case of "Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County".


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Many Northern cities also had de facto segregation policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In Harlem, New York, for example, not a single new school had been built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist, even as the Second Great Migration caused overcrowding of existing schools. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Northern officials were in denial of the segregation, but "Brown" helped stimulate activism among African-American parents like Mae Mallory who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and State of New York on "Brown"'s principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first Freedom Schools of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historically-white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of white flight, however.)


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Topeka junior high schools had been integrated since 1941. Topeka High School was integrated from its inception in 1871 and its sports teams from 1949 onwards. The Kansas law permitting segregated schools allowed them only "below the high school level".


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Soon after the district court decision, election outcomes and the political climate in Topeka changed. The Board of Education of Topeka began to end segregation in the Topeka elementary schools in August 1953, integrating two attendance districts. All the Topeka elementary schools were changed to neighborhood attendance centers in January 1956, although existing students were allowed to continue attending their prior assigned schools at their option. Plaintiff Zelma Henderson, in a 2004 interview, recalled that no demonstrations or tumult accompanied desegregation in Topeka's schools: "They accepted it ... It wasn't too long until they integrated the teachers and principals."


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Topeka Public Schools administration building is named in honor of McKinley Burnett, NAACP chapter president who organized the case.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Monroe Elementary was designated a National Historic Site under the National Park Service on October 26, 1992, and redesignated a National Historical Park on May 12, 2022.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The intellectual roots of "Plessy v. Ferguson", the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation in 1896 under the doctrine of "separate but equal" were, in part, tied to the scientific racism of the era. However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time. In deciding "Brown v. Board of Education", the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. The court buttressed its holding by citing (in footnote 11) social science research about the harms to black children caused by segregated schools.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Both scholarly and popular ideas of hereditarianism played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the "Brown" decision. "Mankind Quarterly" was founded in 1960, in part in response to the "Brown" decision.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: William Rehnquist wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases" when he was a law clerk for Justice Robert H. Jackson in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the "Brown v. Board of Education" decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by 'liberal' colleagues but I think "Plessy v. Ferguson" was right and should be reaffirmed." Rehnquist continued, "To the argument ... that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minorities are." Rehnquist also argued for "Plessy" with other law clerks.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: However, during his 1971 confirmation hearings, Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson's tentative views for his own use." Jackson had initially planned to join a dissent in "Brown". Later, at his 1986 hearings for the slot of Chief Justice, Rehnquist put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed, was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time." In any event, while serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the "Brown" decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Chief Justice Warren's reasoning was broadly criticized by contemporary legal academics with Judge Learned Hand decrying that the Supreme Court had "assumed the role of a third legislative chamber" and Herbert Wechsler finding "Brown" impossible to justify based on neutral principles.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Some aspects of the "Brown" decision are still debated. Notably, Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, himself an African American, wrote in "Missouri v. Jenkins" (1995) that at the very least, "Brown I" has been misunderstood by the courts.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Some Constitutional originalists, notably Raoul Berger in his influential 1977 book "Government by Judiciary," make the case that "Brown" cannot be defended by reference to the original understanding of the 14th Amendment. They support this reading of the 14th Amendment by noting that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 did not ban segregated schools and that the same Congress that passed the 14th Amendment also voted to segregate schools in the District of Columbia. Other originalists, including Michael W. McConnell, a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, in his article "Originalism and the Desegregation Decisions," argue that the Radical Reconstructionists who spearheaded the 14th Amendment were in favor of desegregated southern schools. Evidence supporting this interpretation of the 14th Amendment has come from archived Congressional records showing that proposals for federal legislation which would enforce school integration were debated in Congress a few years following the amendment's ratification.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In response to Michael McConnell's research, Raoul Berger argued that the Congressmen and Senators who were advocating in favor of school desegregation in the 1870s were trying to rewrite the 14th Amendment in order to make the 14th Amendment fit their political agenda and that the actual understanding of the 14th Amendment from 1866 to 1868 (which is when the 14th Amendment was actually passed and ratified) does, in fact, permit US states to have segregated schools. Berger criticized McConnell for being unable to find any reference to school segregation—let alone any reference to a desire to prohibit it—among supporters of the 14th Amendment in the congressional history of this amendment (specifically in the recordings of the 39th United States Congress, since that was the US Congress that actually passed the 14th Amendment) and also criticized McConnell's view that the 1954 view of "civil rights" should be decisive in interpreting the 14th Amendment as opposed to the 1866 view of "civil rights." Berger also argues that McConnell failed to provide any evidence that the state legislatures who ratified the 14th Amendment understood it at the time as prohibiting school segregation and that whenever the question of school segregation's compatibility with the US Constitution (as opposed to the separate question of school segregation's compatibility with US state law and/or US state constitutions, where courts have often ruled against school segregation) reached the judiciary in the couple of decades after the passage and ratification of the 14th Amendment (whether in Ohio, Nevada, California, Indiana, or New York), courts have always affirmed the constitutionality of school segregation—as did Michigan Supreme Court Chief Justice Thomas M. Cooley in his 1880 treatise "The General Principles of Constitutional Law in the United States of America". In addition, Berger argues that the views of the draftsmen of the 14th Amendment in 1866 are decisive—as opposed to the views of later readers of the 14th Amendment (including the views of supporters of the 14th Amendment after this amendment's passage and ratification due to the fact that even their views and beliefs about the meaning and scope of this Amendment could and sometimes did change over time—like with Nevada U.S. Senator William Morris Stewart, who initially opposed school desegregation but later changed his mind and supported it). To back up his view about original intent being decisive, Berger cites—among other things—an 1871 quote by James A. Garfield to John Bingham where Garfield challenged Bingham's recollection of a statement that Bingham had previously made in 1866—with Garfield telling Bingham that he can make but not unmake history.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The case also has attracted some criticism from more liberal authors, including some who say that Chief Justice Warren's reliance on psychological criteria to find a harm against segregated blacks was unnecessary. For example, Drew S. Days has written: "we have developed criteria for evaluating the constitutionality of racial classifications that do not depend upon findings of psychic harm or social science evidence. They are based rather on the principle that 'distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality,' "Hirabayashi v. United States", 320 U.S. 81 (1943). . . ."


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In his book "The Tempting of America" (page 82), Robert Bork endorsed the "Brown" decision as follows:


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In June 1987, Philip Elman, a civil rights attorney who served as an associate in the Solicitor General's office during Harry Truman's term, claimed he and Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter were mostly responsible for the Supreme Court's decision, and stated that the NAACP's arguments did not present strong evidence. Elman has been criticized for offering a self-aggrandizing history of the case, omitting important facts, and denigrating the work of civil rights attorneys who had laid the groundwork for the decision over many decades. However, Frankfurter was also known for being one of court's most outspoken advocates of the judicial restraint philosophy of basing court rulings on existing law rather than personal or political considerations. Public officials in the United States today are nearly unanimous in lauding the ruling. In May 2004, the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling, President George W. Bush spoke at the opening of the "Brown v. Board of Education" National Historic Site, calling "Brown" "a decision that changed America for the better, and forever." Most Senators and Representatives issued press releases hailing the ruling.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In a 2016 article in Townhall.com, an outlet of the Salem Media Group, economist Thomas Sowell argued that when Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of "Brown v. Board of Education" that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal", Dunbar High School was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court." In Sowell's estimation, "Dunbar, which had been accepting outstanding black students from anywhere in the city, could now accept only students from the rough ghetto neighborhood in which it was located" as a detrimental consequence of the SCOTUS decision.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their decision, which became known as ""Brown II"" the court delegated the task of carrying out school desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed," a phrase traceable to Francis Thompson's poem "The Hound of Heaven".


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this decision. The language "all deliberate speed" was seen by critics as too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the court's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts interpreted "Brown II" as legal justification for resisting, delaying, and avoiding significant integration for years—and in some cases for a decade or more—using such tactics as closing down school systems, using state money to finance segregated "private" schools, and "token" integration where a few carefully selected black children were admitted to former white-only schools but the vast majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: For example, based on "Brown II", the U.S. District Court ruled that Prince Edward County, Virginia did not have to desegregate immediately. When faced with a court order to finally begin desegregation in 1959 the county board of supervisors stopped appropriating money for public schools, which remained closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: White students in the county were given assistance to attend white-only "private academies" that were taught by teachers formerly employed by the public school system, while black students had no education at all unless they moved out of the county. But the public schools reopened after the Supreme Court overturned "Brown II" in "Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County", declaring that "...the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out", and that the county must provide a public school system for all children regardless of race.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson and Charles Scott Jr. (son of the original "Brown" team member), with assistance from the American Civil Liberties Union, persuaded Linda Brown Smith—who now had her own children in Topeka schools—to be a plaintiff in reopening "Brown". They were concerned that the Topeka Public Schools' policy of "open enrollment" had led to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their children to "preferred" schools that would create both predominantly African-American and predominantly European-American schools within the district. The district court reopened the "Brown" case after a 25-year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs' request finding the schools "unitary". In 1989, a three-judge panel of the Tenth Circuit on 2–1 vote found that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment. In 1993, the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District's request for "certiorari" and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit's mandate.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: After a 1994 plan was approved and a bond issue passed, additional elementary magnet schools were opened and district attendance plans redrawn, which resulted in the Topeka schools meeting court standards of racial balance by 1998. Unified status was eventually granted to Topeka Unified School District No. 501 on July 27, 1999. One of the new magnet schools is named after the Scott family attorneys for their role in the "Brown" case and civil rights.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: A PBS film called "Simple Justice" retells the story of the "Brown vs. Board of Education" case, beginning with the work of the NAACP's Legal Defense Fund's efforts to combat 'separate but equal' in graduate school education and culminating in the historical 1954 decision.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: ...we lived in an integrated neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school and the school looked so big to a smaller child. And I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out ... to sit outside with the secretary. And while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on. And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just couldn't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Robert Dean Stockwell (March 5, 1936 – November 7, 2021) was an American actor with a career spanning seven decades. As a child actor under contract to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, he first came to the public's attention in films including "Anchors Aweigh" (1945), "The Green Years" (1946), "Gentleman's Agreement" (1947), "The Boy with Green Hair" (1948), and "Kim" (1950). As a young adult, he had a lead role in the 1957 Broadway and 1959 screen adaptation of "Compulsion;" and in 1962 he played Edmund Tyrone in the film version of "Long Day's Journey into Night", for which he won two Best Actor Awards at the Cannes Film Festival. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama for his starring role in the 1960 film version of D. H. Lawrence's "Sons and Lovers".


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He appeared in supporting roles in such films as "Dune" (1984), "Paris, Texas" (1984), "To Live and Die in L.A." (1985), "Blue Velvet" (1986), "Beverly Hills Cop II" (1987), and "" (1988). He received further critical acclaim for his performance in "Married to the Mob" (1988), for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He subsequently had roles in "The Player" (1992), "Air Force One" (1997), "The Rainmaker" (1997), "" (2000) and "The Manchurian Candidate" (2004).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: His television roles include Rear Admiral Albert "Al" Calavicci in "Quantum Leap" (1989–1993), Navy Secretary Edward Sheffield on "JAG" (2002–2004), and Brother Cavil on "Battlestar Galactica" (2004–2009). Following his roles on "Quantum Leap" and "Battlestar Galactica", he appeared at numerous science fiction conventions. He retired from acting in 2015 following health issues and focused his later life on sculpture and other visual art.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell was born into a family of entertainers in the North Hollywood section of Los Angeles, and grew up between there and New York City. He was the younger son of Elizabeth "Betty" (Veronica) Stockwell, a vaudeville actress, and Harry Stockwell, an actor and lyric baritone singer. His father appeared in New York productions of "Carousel" and "Oklahoma!", and was the voice of Prince Charming in Disney's film "Snow White". His elder brother was television and film actor Guy Stockwell. His stepmother, Nina Olivette, was an actress, comedian, singer, and toe dancer in burlesque and theater in New York and throughout North America. His mother's family was Italian.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell's father was appearing on Broadway in "Oklahoma!" when he heard about a play, "Innocent Voyage" by Paul Osborne, that was looking for child actors. Stockwell's mother took their two sons down to audition, and both boys were successful. Stockwell's part was small and the play had only a short run, but it led to a contract with MGM.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: The studio cast him in a small role in "The Valley of Decision" (1945), a popular melodrama. Producer Joe Pasternak gave him a bigger part in "Anchors Aweigh" (1945) with Frank Sinatra and Gene Kelly, where he played the nephew of Kathryn Grayson.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: The film was popular, and MGM gave him a key role in "The Green Years" (1946) as Robert Shannon, an Irish Catholic orphan who grows up in a Scottish Presbyterian household. It was a huge hit. He also made a brief appearance in the MGM school room during the chase sequence of "Abbott and Costello in Hollywood" (1945).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: 20th Century Fox borrowed him for "Home Sweet Homicide" (1946) with Peggy Ann Garner where he was billed fourth. He co-starred with Wallace Beery in "The Mighty McGurk" (1947) at MGM, a remake of "The Champ" (1931) which Beery had made previously with Jackie Cooper. He also had the lead in the short "A Really Important Person" (1947).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He had supporting roles in "The Arnelo Affair" (1947), "The Romance of Rosy Ridge" (1947) (as Janet Leigh's brother), and "Song of the Thin Man" (1947), billed fourth as the son of William Powell and Myrna Loy's characters. He later said, "I have very positive feelings regarding both of them, they were very sweet people, especially Myrna Loy. And that cute little dog, Asta. I liked that little dog."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Nevertheless, Stockwell found being a child actor difficult overall, stating, "I didn't enjoy acting particularly, when I was young. I thought it was a lot of work. There were a few films that I enjoyed, they were comedies, they were not important films, weren't very successful, so I was always pretty much known as a serious kid. I got those kind of roles and I didn't care for them very much." He found that this work meant he didn't have any friends except his brother, and he was constantly working, with only one holiday in nine years. He said it was "a miserable way to bring up a child, though neither my parents nor I recognised it at the time".


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Fox borrowed him again to play Gregory Peck's son in "Gentleman's Agreement" (1947), a film which Stockwell "didn't like doing at all, because it was so serious. In other words, when I would find out I was going to do another movie, my mother would always bring that news to me, and the first question that I would always ask was, 'Is there a crying scene in the movie?' And there almost always was."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He played an orphaned runaway longing to go to sea in "Deep Waters" (1948). He was then borrowed by RKO Pictures to play the title role in "The Boy with Green Hair" (1948) directed by Joseph Losey, a notorious flop for the Dore Schary regime. Stockwell said that "during the production, I did feel that I was part of something that meant something to me, it was important."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Back at Fox, he was cast as Lionel Barrymore's grandson and Richard Widmark's protégé in "Down to the Sea in Ships" (1949), before supporting Margaret O'Brien at MGM in "The Secret Garden" (1949), a box office disappointment. Stockwell later described the picture as "More crying scenes! And temper tantrums! But I enjoyed very much working with Margaret, she was a very talented little actress."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In MGM's popular "Stars in My Crown" (1950), which he did not enjoy doing, he was billed third after Joel McCrea and Ellen Drew.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell was top billed in "The Happy Years", which lost a considerable amount of money for the studio, but then played the title role in "Kim" (1950) alongside Errol Flynn and Paul Lukas, a big commercial success. During its filming, Flynn played a prank on him in a scene where he was supposed to hand him a bowl of food, instead handing him a bowl of camel dung.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell graduated from Alexander Hamilton High School in Los Angeles, and attended the University of California, Berkeley for a year before dropping out. "I was unhappy and could not get along with people," he later said. At UC Berkeley, he immersed himself in music and wrote several small compositions.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He took a number of years off and resumed his acting career as an adult in 1956. He guest-starred on shows such as "Front Row Center", "Matinee Theatre", "Schlitz Playhouse", "The United States Steel Hour", "Climax!", "Men of Annapolis", "Cimarron City", "General Electric Theater", and "Wagon Train" (in 1957 as "Jimmy Drew", brother to Shelley Winters in "The Ruth Owens Story" (S1E3). He had a supporting role in a Western, "Gun for a Coward" (1957), and the lead role in a low-budget teen melodrama, "The Careless Years" (1957), the feature directorial debut of Arthur Hiller. It was made for Bryna Productions, the company of Kirk Douglas. He signed a five-year deal with the company, but this was the only film he made for them.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In 1957, he starred as Judd Steiner in the Broadway adaptation of "Compulsion", based on the Leopold and Loeb story. He reprised the role in the 1959 film version, for which he and co-stars Orson Welles and Bradford Dillman shared the 1959 Cannes Film Award for Best Actor. Stockwell continued to work heavily in TV on such shows as "Playhouse 90", "Johnny Staccato", and "Buick-Electra Playhouse".


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell married actress Millie Perkins on April 15, 1960. That year, he played coal miner Walter Morel's son Paul Morel in the British film "Sons and Lovers", with Trevor Howard and Wendy Hiller. He later called it "a very delightful film to do". He continued to work mostly on television, including episodes of "Checkmate", "The DuPont Show with June Allyson", "Outlaws", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", "Hallmark Hall of Fame" ("The Joke and the Valley"), "Bus Stop", "The Twilight Zone" ("A Quality of Mercy"), "Alcoa Premiere", "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour", and "The Dick Powell Theatre". He appeared with Millie Perkins on "Wagon Train" as the lead character in the episode "The Will Santee Story".


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In 1962, Stockwell and Perkins divorced. He appeared in an adaptation of Eugene O'Neill's play "Long Day's Journey Into Night" with Katharine Hepburn, Ralph Richardson and Jason Robards, under the direction of Sidney Lumet. He later called it "as intense and rewarding an experience as I've had." He subsequently guest starred on "Combat!", "The Greatest Show on Earth", "The Defenders", "The Eleventh Hour", "Kraft Suspense Theatre", "Burke's Law", had a six-episode arc on "Dr. Kildare, and" had a supporting part in the feature "Rapture" (1965).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In the mid-1960s, Stockwell dropped out of show business, becoming active in the Topanga Canyon hippie subculture as a close friend of visual artists George Herms and Wallace Berman, fellow child actor and "dropout" Russ Tamblyn, and musician Neil Young. "I did some drugs and went to some love-ins," he later said. "The experience of those days provided me with a huge, panoramic view of my existence that I didn't have before. I have no regrets."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell returned to acting with a supporting role in "Psych-Out" (1968) co-starring Susan Strasberg and Jack Nicholson. He guest starred on "Thirty-Minute Theatre" in Britain, "The FBI", and "Bonanza", and played the lead in AIP's "The Dunwich Horror" (1970) with Sandra Dee.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He also had a key part in Dennis Hopper's "The Last Movie" (1971). In 1985 Stockwell said this film "is a great picture. It was ahead of its time then  – and it still is ... it will gain respect over the years. Dennis Hopper is a marvelous director."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell guest starred on "Mannix", "The FBI" (again), "Night Gallery", "Orson Welles' Great Mysteries", and "Mission: Impossible" and had the lead in some TV movies, "Paper Man" (1971) and "The Failing of Raymond" (1971) as well as a support part in "Adventures of Nick Carter" (1972).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell had the lead in a biker movie, "The Loners" (1972), the last film of Sam Katzman, which Stockwell called "a mess", and horror comedy "The Werewolf of Washington" (1973), the script for which he said "had a brilliant edge to it. It was satirical, political, funny, witty and wonderful", but the director ruined it, according to Stockwell.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: During the mid-1970s, he designed the distinctive cover of Neil Young's album "American Stars 'n Bars" (1976).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He continued to guest for TV shows such as "Police Surgeon", "The Streets of San Francisco", "Columbo", "Joe Forrester", "Three for the Road", "Cannon", "Ellery Queen", "Police Story", "McCloud", "Tales of the Unexpected", "Greatest Heroes of the Bible", "Hart to Hart", "The A Team", and "Simon & Simon".


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He appeared in the occasional feature such as "The Pacific Connection" (1974), "Win, Place or Steal" (1974), "" (1976), "Tracks" (1976) with Dennis Hopper, "One Away" (1976), "A Killing Affair" (1977), "She Came to the Valley" (1979), "Born to Be Sold" (1981), and "Wrong Is Right" (1982).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: On December 15, 1981, Stockwell married his second wife, Joy Marchenko, a textiles expert who worked in Morocco. The following year, Stockwell and Neil Young together directed and appeared in "Human Highway" (1982). He starred in "Alsino and the Condor", a Nicaraguan film, and "To Kill a Stranger" (1983). By this time Stockwell had moved to Taos, New Mexico, and was depressed about the state of his career, turning to real estate to pay the bills. On November 5, 1983, his wife gave birth to their son, Austin.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In 1984, he appeared in Wim Wenders's critically acclaimed film "Paris, Texas", and in the same year, in David Lynch's film version of "Dune" as Wellington Yueh. In between he appeared in "Fox Mystery Theater". Stockwell later said "After "Paris, Texas" and "Dune" I think I've got a pretty good start on what amounts to a third career."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Between 1985 and 1988, he was a busy character actor, appearing in 14 films and one telefilm. In 1985, he turned in a brief but significant role as attorney Bob Grimes in William Friedkin's "To Live and Die in L.A.". He was also in "The Legend of Billie Jean" (1985), an episode of "Miami Vice", and "Papa Was a Preacher" (1986). Stockwell's second child with wife Marchenko, Sophia, was born on August 5, 1985.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In 1986, Stockwell made an appearance in another Lynch production, the neo-noir thriller "Blue Velvet." He was in episodes of "Hunter" and "Murder, She Wrote", and the films "Gardens of Stone" (1987) (directed by Francis Ford Coppola), "Beverly Hills Cop II" (1987), "Kenny Rogers as The Gambler, Part III: The Legend Continues" (1987), "The Time Guardian" (1987), "Banzai Runner" (1987), and "The Blue Iguana" (1987).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In 1988, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as Mafia boss Tony "the Tiger" Russo in the comedy "Married to the Mob". Stockwell later called it "the favorite part I've ever had in a film. I just felt that that part was just perfect for me and I had a way to approach it that I thought was just right and it turned out that way."


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He also had roles in "" (1988) from Coppola, "Smokescreen" (1988), the Brazilian "The Long Haul" (1989), the reboot of "The Twilight Zone", "Buying Time" (1989), and "Limit Up" (1989).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: In 1989, Stockwell appeared as second lead in the show "Quantum Leap", which ran for five seasons. During the series' run, Stockwell appeared in "Catchfire" (1990) directed by Hopper, "Citizen Soldier" (1990, originally shot in 1976), "Sandino" (1991), "Son of the Morning Star" (1992), "The Player" (1992), "Shame" (1992), "Captain Planet and the Planeteers", "Friends and Enemies" (1992), and "Fatal Memories" (1992).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Following the end of "Quantum Leap", Stockwell appeared in "" (1993), "Caught in the Act" (1993), "In the Line of Duty: The Price of Vengeance" (1994), "Chasers" (1994), "Vanishing Son II" (1994), "Justice in a Small Town" (1994), "The Innocent" (1994), "" (1994), "Deadline for Murder: From the Files of Edna Buchanan" (1995), and "The Langoliers" (1995).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He tried another regular series, "Street Gear" (1995) but it only lasted 13 episodes. Stockwell was in episodes of "", "Nowhere Man", "The Commish", "Can't Hurry Love", and "Ink".


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He had roles in the comedy "Mr. Wrong" (1996), "Naked Souls" (1996), "Twilight Man" (1996), "" (1996), "Last Resort" (1996), "Close to Danger" (1997), "Living in Peril" (1997), "McHale's Navy" (1997), "Midnight Blue" (1997), "Air Force One" (1997), "The Shadow Men" (1997), "The Rainmaker" (1997), and "Sinbad: The Battle of the Dark Knights" (1998).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He was in "Restraining Order" (1999), "Water Damage" (1999), "The Venice Project" (1999), "Rites of Passage" (1999), and "What Katy Did" (1999).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell's performances in the 2000s included "They Nest" (2000), "In Pursuit" (2000), "" (2000), "The Flunky" (2000), "Italian Ties" (2001), "CQ" (2001) directed by Coppola's son Roman, "The Quickie" (2001), "Buffalo Soldiers" (2001), "Inferno" (2002), "The Manchurian Candidate" (2004), "The Deal" (2007), and "The Nanny Express" (2008).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He guest starred on "First Monday", "" (reunited with Scott Bakula from "Quantum Leap"), "Stargate SG-1", "JAG", and "Crash" with Hopper. He had a semi-regular part on "Battlestar Galactica" from 2006 as John Cavil.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: He made a minor appearance in a new 2009 adaptation of "The Dunwich Horror", followed by roles in the films "C.O.G." (2013), "Max Rose" (2013), "Deep in the Darkness" (2014), and "Persecuted" (2014). As of 2015, Stockwell remained a resident of Taos. He reunited with Bakula in a 2014 episode of "", titled "Chasing Ghosts," and the following year appeared in the film "Entertainment" (2015).


title: Dean Stockwell

text: It was reported in January 2017 by his ex-wife Joy, that he had suffered and recovered from a stroke in 2015 and was retired from acting.


title: Dean Stockwell

text: Stockwell was an "avowed environmentalist". He campaigned for the Democratic Party in the 1992 U.S. presidential election.


title: Tamarind

text: Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is probably indigenous to tropical Africa. The genus "Tamarindus" is monotypic, meaning that it contains only this species. It belongs to the family Fabaceae.


title: Tamarind

text: The tamarind tree produces brown, pod-like fruits that contain a sweet, tangy pulp, which is used in cuisines around the world. The pulp is also used in traditional medicine and as a metal polish. The tree's wood can be used for woodworking and tamarind seed oil can be extracted from the seeds. Tamarind's tender young leaves are used in Indian and Filipino cuisine. Because tamarind has multiple uses, it is cultivated around the world in tropical and subtropical zones.


title: Tamarind

text: The tamarind is a long-lived, medium-growth tree, which attains a maximum crown height of . The crown has an irregular, vase-shaped outline of dense foliage. The tree grows well in full sun. It prefers clay, loam, sandy, and acidic soil types, with a high resistance to drought and aerosol salt (wind-borne salt as found in coastal areas).


title: Tamarind

text: The evergreen leaves are alternately arranged and pinnately lobed. The leaflets are bright green, elliptic-ovular, pinnately veined, and less than in length. The branches droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures, and are often pruned in agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest. At night, the leaflets close up.


title: Tamarind

text: As a tropical species, it is frost-sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind. Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood.


title: Tamarind

text: The tamarind flowers (although inconspicuously), with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) wide, five-petalled, borne in small racemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks. Buds are pink as the four sepals are pink and are lost when the flower blooms.


title: Tamarind

text: The fruit has a fleshy, juicy, acidic pulp. It is mature when the flesh is coloured brown or reddish brown. The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods (containing six to 12 seeds), whereas African and West Indian varieties have shorter pods (containing one to six seeds). The seeds are somewhat flattened, and a glossy brown. The fruit is best described as sweet and sour in taste, and is high in tartaric acid, sugar, B vitamins, and, unusually for a fruit, calcium.


title: Tamarind

text: "Tamarindus indica" is probably indigenous to tropical Africa, but has been cultivated for so long on the Indian subcontinent that it is sometimes reported to be indigenous there. It grows wild in Africa in locales as diverse as Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya, Zambia, Somalia, Tanzania and Malawi. In Arabia, it is found growing wild in Oman, especially Dhofar, where it grows on the sea-facing slopes of mountains. It reached South Asia likely through human transportation and cultivation several thousand years ago. It is widely distributed throughout the tropics, from Africa to South Asia.


title: Tamarind

text: In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine.


title: Tamarind

text: Today, India is the largest producer of tamarind. The consumption of tamarind is widespread due to its central role in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and the Americas, especially Mexico.


title: Tamarind

text: The name derives from , romanized "tamar hindi", "Indian date". Several early medieval herbalists and physicians wrote "tamar indi", medieval Latin use was "tamarindus", and Marco Polo wrote of "tamarandi".


title: Tamarind

text: In Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called "tamarindo". In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or "agua de tamarindo"). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called "tamón". Countries in the Malay world like Indonesia call it "asam jawa" (Javanese sour fruit) or simply "asam", and "sukaer" in Timor. While in the Philippines, it is called "sampalok" or "sampaloc" in Filipino, and "sambag" in Cebuano. Tamarind ("Tamarindus indica") is sometimes confused with "Manila tamarind" ("Pithecellobium dulce"). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as "guamúchili".


title: Tamarind

text: Seeds can be scarified or briefly boiled to enhance germination. They retain their germination capability for several months if kept dry.


title: Tamarind

text: The tamarind has long been naturalized in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and Pacific Islands. Thailand has the largest plantations of the ASEAN nations, followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In parts of Southeast Asia, tamarind is called "asam". It is cultivated all over India, especially in Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Extensive tamarind orchards in India produce annually.


title: Tamarind

text: In the United States, it is a large-scale crop introduced for commercial use (second in net production quantity only to India), mainly in southern states, notably south Florida, and as a shade tree, along roadsides, in dooryards and in parks.


title: Tamarind

text: A traditional food plant in Africa, tamarind has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare. In Madagascar, its fruit and leaves are a well-known favorite of the ring-tailed lemur, providing as much as 50 percent of their food resources during the year if available.


title: Tamarind

text: Throughout South Asia and the tropical world, tamarind trees are used as ornamental, garden, and cash crop plantings. Commonly used as a bonsai species in many Asian countries, it is also grown as an indoor bonsai in temperate parts of the world.


title: Tamarind

text: The fruit is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk. A mature tree may be capable of producing up to of fruit per year. Veneer grafting, shield (T or inverted T) budding, and air layering may be used to propagate desirable cultivars. Such trees will usually fruit within three to four years if provided optimum growing conditions.


title: Tamarind

text: The fruit pulp is edible. The hard green pulp of a young fruit is considered by many to be too sour, but is often used as a component of savory dishes, as a pickling agent or as a means of making certain poisonous yams in Ghana safe for human consumption. As the fruit matures it becomes sweeter and less sour (acidic) and the ripened fruit is considered more palatable. The sourness varies between cultivars and some sweet tamarind ones have almost no acidity when ripe. In Western cuisine, tamarind pulp is found in Worcestershire sauce and HP Sauce.


title: Tamarind

text: Tamarind paste has many culinary uses including as a flavoring for chutneys, curries, and the traditional sharbat syrup drink. Tamarind sweet chutney is popular in India and Pakistan as a dressing for many snacks and often served with samosa. Tamarind pulp is a key ingredient in flavoring curries and rice in south Indian cuisine, in the Chigali lollipop, in rasam, and in certain varieties of masala chai tea. Across the Middle East, from the Levant to Iran, tamarind is used in savory dishes, notably meat-based stews, and often combined with dried fruits to achieve a sweet-sour tang. In the Philippines, the whole fruit is used as an ingredient in the traditional dish called sinigang to add a unique sour taste, unlike that of dishes that use vinegar instead. Indonesia also has a similarly sour, tamarind-based soup dish called sayur asem.


title: Tamarind

text: In Mexico and the Caribbean, the pulp is diluted with water and sugared to make an agua fresca drink. It is widely used throughout all of México for candy making, including tamarind mixed with chilli powder candy.


title: Tamarind

text: The leaves and bark are also edible, and the seeds can be cooked to make safe for consumption. Blanched, tender tamarind leaves are used in a Burmese salad called "magyi ywet thoke" (; ), a salad from Upper Myanmar that features tender blanched tamarind leaves, garlic, onions, roasted peanuts, and pounded dried shrimp.


title: Tamarind

text: Tamarind seed oil is the oil made from the kernel of tamarind seeds. Isolation of the kernel without the thin but tough shell (or "testa") is difficult.


title: Tamarind

text: Tamarind kernel powder is used as sizing material for textile and jute processing, and in the manufacture of industrial gums and adhesives. It is de-oiled to stabilize its colour and odor on storage.


title: Tamarind

text: Throughout Southeast Asia, the fruit of the tamarind is used as a poultice applied to the foreheads of people with fevers. The fruit exhibits laxative effects due to its high quantities of malic acid, tartaric acid, and potassium bitartrate. Its use for the relief of constipation has been documented throughout the world.


title: Tamarind

text: Tamarind wood is used to make furniture, carvings, turned objects such as mortars and pestles, chopping blocks, and other small specialty wood items. Tamarind heartwood is reddish brown, sometimes with a purplish hue. The heartwood in tamarind tends to be narrow and is usually only present in older and larger trees. The pale yellow sapwood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood. Heartwood is said to be durable to very durable in decay resistance, and is also resistant to insects. Its sapwood is not durable and is prone to attack by insects and fungi as well as spalting. Due to its density and interlocked grain, tamarind is considered difficult to work. Heartwood has a pronounced blunting effect on cutting edges. Tamarind turns, glues, and finishes well. The heartwood is able to take a high natural polish.


title: Tamarind

text: In homes and temples, especially in Buddhist Asian countries, the fruit pulp is used to polish brass shrine statues and lamps, and copper, brass, and bronze utensils. Tamarind contains tartaric acid, a weak acid that can remove tarnish. Lime, another acidic fruit, is used similarly.


title: Tamarind

text: In hens, tamarind has been found to lower cholesterol in their serum, and in the yolks of the eggs they laid. Due to a lack of available human clinical trials, there is insufficient evidence to recommend tamarind for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia or diabetes. Different parts of tamarind ("T. indica") are recognized for their various medicinal properties. A previous study reported that the seed, leaf, leaf veins, fruit pulp and skin extracts of tamarind possessed high phenolic content and antioxidant activities. The presence of lupanone and lupeol, catechin, epicatechin, quercetin and isorhamnetin in the leaf extract could have contributed towards the diverse range of the medicinal activities. On the other hand, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) analyses revealed that tamarind seeds contained catechin, procyanidin B2, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, chloramphenicol, myricetin, morin, quercetin, apigenin and kaempferol. The treatment of tamarind leaves on liver HepG2 cells significantly regulated the expression of genes and proteins involved with consequential impact on the coagulation system, cholesterol biosynthesis, xenobiotic metabolism signaling and antimicrobial response.


title: Adam Demos

text: Adam Demos (born 24 May 1985) is an Australian actor. He is best known for his roles as August Walker on the American television series "Unreal" and Brad in the Netflix series "Sex/Life".


title: Adam Demos

text: Adam Demos was born in Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia. His mother Lindy Demos is of Greek descent. He attended Tarrawanna Public School and graduated from Dapto High School in 2003. He is the cousin of Australian basketball player Tyson Demos.


title: Adam Demos

text: Although Demos was interested in acting at an early age, he first worked as a construction laborer in his father's demolition business, the Wollongong steelworks, a roofing company, and in Bondi's Hotel Ravesis. He enrolled in an acting class at Screenwise Film & TV Acting School in Sydney when he was 23, but was worried his friends would mock him so kept it a secret. His mother encouraged him to pursue acting.


title: Adam Demos

text: In 2012, Demos played the role of 'Solo Man' in the iconic advertising for the Australian soft drink brand.


title: Adam Demos

text: Demos previously played small roles in Australia when his big break came. In 2017, Demos was cast to play Nate Baldwin in the ABC Australia drama "Janet King". On the set, Demos found out about a role in Hollywood explicitly written for an Australian actor. He got the gig and flew to Vancouver to start filming the third season of Lifetime's "UnREAL". Demos stated that it was a confusing experience filming "UnREAL", his first international production, as it was a TV show within a TV show.


title: Adam Demos

text: In 2019, Demos starred opposite Christina Milian in Netflix's "Falling Inn Love" which was shot in New Zealand.


title: Adam Demos

text: In 2020, Demos filmed the Netflix series "Sex/Life", inspired by the book "44 Chapters About 4 Men" by BB Easton, in Toronto, Canada. Demos was cast in the show with the help of Stacy Rukeyser, whom he had worked with on "UnREAL" and was the showrunner for "Sex/Life". To prepare for the scene where he sings "Heartbeats", Demos took singing and guitar lessons. His full-frontal nude scene in episode 3 of the series went viral on social media platforms.


title: Adam Demos

text: In May 2022, A Perfect Pairing was released on Netflix, starring Victoria Justice alongside Demos. The film tells the story of an American wine company executive who travels to Australia to land a major client and ends up sparking a connection with a man she meets on a sheep farm.


title: Methodism

text: Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother Charles Wesley were also significant early leaders in the movement. They were named "Methodists" for "the methodical way in which they carried out their Christian faith". Methodism originated as a revival movement within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate denomination after Wesley's death. The movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond because of vigorous missionary work, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.


title: Methodism

text: Wesleyan theology, which is upheld by the Methodist churches, focuses on sanctification and the transforming effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing doctrines include the new birth, assurance, imparted righteousness, the possibility of entire sanctification, and the works of piety. Scripture is considered as a primary authority, but Methodists also look to Christian tradition, including the historic creeds. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all. This is an Arminian doctrine, as opposed to the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several other early leaders of the movement were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the Calvinist position.


title: Methodism

text: The movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage, in addition to tent revivals and camp meetings held at certain times of the year. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, while American Methodism is more so, the United Methodist Church in particular. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition, and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of Methodism.


title: Methodism

text: In addition to evangelism, Methodism emphasizes charity and support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals, collectively known as the Social Gospel, are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, and schools to follow Christ's command to spread the gospel and serve all people. Methodists are historically known for their adherence to the doctrine of nonconformity to the world, reflected by their traditional standards of a commitment to teetotalism, proscription of gambling, regular attendance at class meetings, and weekly observance of the Friday fast.


title: Methodism

text: Early Methodists were drawn from all levels of society, including the aristocracy, but the Methodist preachers took the message to labourers and criminals who tended to be left outside organized religion at that time. In Britain, the Methodist Church had a major effect in the early decades of the developing working class (1760–1820). In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition.


title: Methodism

text: The Methodist revival began in England with a group of men, including John Wesley (1703–1791) and his younger brother Charles (1707–1788), as a movement within the Church of England in the 18th century. The Wesley brothers founded the "Holy Club" at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they systematically set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick and the poor, as well as prisoners. The fellowship were branded as "Methodist" by their fellow students because of the way they used "rule" and "method" to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery and turned it into a title of honour.


title: Methodism

text: In 1735, at the invitation of the founder of the Georgia Colony, General James Oglethorpe, both John and Charles Wesley set out for America to be ministers to the colonists and missionaries to the Native Americans. Unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church. At a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his "heart strangely warmed". He records in his journal: "I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and an assurance was given me that He had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death." Charles had reported a similar experience a few days previously. Considering this a pivotal moment, Daniel L. Burnett writes: "The significance of [John] Wesley's Aldersgate Experience is monumental ... Without it the names of Wesley and Methodism would likely be nothing more than obscure footnotes in the pages of church history."


title: Methodism

text: The Wesley brothers immediately began to preach salvation by faith to individuals and groups, in houses, in religious societies, and in the few churches which had not closed their doors to evangelical preachers. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609). Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield (1714–1770), Howell Harris (1714–1773), and Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon (1707–1791) were notable for being Calvinistic Methodists.


title: Methodism

text: George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade. Whitefield, who had been a fellow student of the Wesleys and prominent member of the Holy Club at Oxford, became well known for his unorthodox, itinerant ministry, in which he was dedicated to open-air preaching—reaching crowds of thousands. A key step in the development of John Wesley's ministry was, like Whitefield, to preach in fields, collieries and churchyards to those who did not regularly attend parish church services. Accordingly, many Methodist converts were those disconnected from the Church of England; Wesley remained a cleric of the Established Church and insisted that Methodists attend their local parish church as well as Methodist meetings because only an ordained minister could perform the sacraments of baptism and communion.


title: Methodism

text: Faced with growing evangelistic and pastoral responsibilities, Wesley and Whitefield appointed lay preachers and leaders. Methodist preachers focused particularly on evangelising people who had been "neglected" by the established Church of England. Wesley and his assistant preachers organized the new converts into Methodist societies. These societies were divided into groups called "classes"—intimate meetings where individuals were encouraged to confess their sins to one another and to build each other up. They also took part in love feasts which allowed for the sharing of testimony, a key feature of early Methodism. Growth in numbers and increasing hostility impressed upon the revival converts a deep sense of their corporate identity. Three teachings that Methodists saw as the foundation of Christian faith were:


title: Methodism

text: Wesley's organisational skills soon established him as the primary leader of the movement. Whitefield was a Calvinist, whereas Wesley was an outspoken opponent of the doctrine of predestination. Wesley argued (against Calvinist doctrine) that Christians could enjoy a second blessing—entire sanctification (Christian perfection) in this life: loving God and their neighbours, meekness and lowliness of heart and abstaining from all appearance of evil. These differences put strains on the alliance between Whitefield and Wesley, with Wesley becoming quite hostile toward Whitefield in what had been previously very close relations. Whitefield consistently begged Wesley not to let theological differences sever their friendship and, in time their friendship was restored, though this was seen by many of Whitefield's followers to be a doctrinal compromise.


title: Methodism

text: Many clergy in the established church feared that new doctrines promulgated by the Methodists, such as the necessity of a new birth for salvation—the first work of grace, of justification by faith and of the constant and sustained action of the Holy Spirit upon the believer's soul, would produce ill effects upon weak minds. Theophilus Evans, an early critic of the movement, even wrote that it was "the natural Tendency of their Behaviour, in Voice and Gesture and horrid Expressions, to make People mad". In one of his prints, William Hogarth likewise attacked Methodists as "enthusiasts" full of "Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism". Other attacks against the Methodists were physically violent—Wesley was nearly murdered by a mob at Wednesbury in 1743. The Methodists responded vigorously to their critics and thrived despite the attacks against them.


title: Methodism

text: Initially, the Methodists merely sought reform within the Church of England (Anglicanism), but the movement gradually departed from that Church. George Whitefield's preference for extemporaneous prayer rather than the fixed forms of prayer in the "Book of Common Prayer", in addition to his insistence on the necessity of the new birth, set him at odds with Anglican clergy.


title: Methodism

text: As Methodist societies multiplied, and elements of an ecclesiastical system were, one after another, adopted, the breach between John Wesley and the Church of England gradually widened. In 1784, Wesley responded to the shortage of priests in the American colonies due to the American Revolutionary War by ordaining preachers for America with power to administer the sacraments. Wesley's actions precipitated the split between American Methodists and the Church of England (which held that only bishops could ordain people to ministry).


title: Methodism

text: With regard to the position of Methodism within Christendom, "John Wesley once noted that what God had achieved in the development of Methodism was no mere human endeavor but the work of God. As such it would be preserved by God so long as history remained." Calling it "the grand depositum" of the Methodist faith, Wesley specifically taught that the propagation of the doctrine of entire sanctification was the reason that God raised up the Methodists in the world. In light of this, Methodists traditionally promote the motto "Holiness unto the Lord".


title: Methodism

text: The influence of Whitefield and Lady Huntingdon on the Church of England was a factor in the founding of the Free Church of England in 1844. At the time of Wesley's death there were over 500 Methodist preachers in British colonies and the United States. Total membership of the Methodist societies in Britain was recorded as 56,000 in 1791, rising to 360,000 in 1836 and 1,463,000 by the national census of 1851.


title: Methodism

text: Early Methodism experienced a radical and spiritual phase that allowed women authority in church leadership. The role of the woman preacher emerged from the sense that the home should be a place of community care and should foster personal growth. Methodist women formed a community that cared for the vulnerable, extending the role of mothering beyond physical care. Women were encouraged to testify their faith. However the centrality of women's role sharply diminished after 1790 as Methodist churches became more structured and more male dominated.


title: Methodism

text: The Wesleyan Education Committee, which existed from 1838 to 1902, has documented the Methodist Church's involvement in the education of children. At first most effort was placed in creating Sunday Schools but in 1836 the British Methodist Conference gave its blessing to the creation of "Weekday schools".


title: Methodism

text: Methodism spread throughout the British Empire and, mostly through Whitefield's preaching during what historians call the First Great Awakening, in colonial America. After Whitefield's death in 1770, however, American Methodism entered a more lasting Wesleyan and Arminian phase of development.


title: Methodism

text: Many Methodist bodies, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the United Methodist Church, base their doctrinal standards on the Articles of Religion, John Wesley's abridgment of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England that excised its Calvinist features. Some Methodist denominations also publish catechisms, which concisely summarise Christian doctrine. Methodists generally accept the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed as declarations of shared Christian faith. Methodism also affirms the traditional Christian belief in the triune Godhead (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) as well as the orthodox understanding of the person of Jesus Christ as God incarnate who is both fully divine and fully human. Methodism emphasizes doctrines that indicate the power of the Holy Spirit to strengthen the faith of believers and to transform their personal lives.


title: Methodism

text: Methodism is broadly evangelical in doctrine and is characterized by Wesleyan theology; John Wesley is studied by Methodists for his interpretation of church practice and doctrine. At its heart, the theology of John Wesley stressed the life of Christian holiness: to love God with all one's heart, mind, soul and strength and to love one's neighbour as oneself. One popular expression of Methodist doctrine is in the hymns of Charles Wesley. Since enthusiastic congregational singing was a part of the early evangelical movement, Wesleyan theology took root and spread through this channel. Martin V. Clarke, who documented the history of Methodist hymnody, states: Theologically and doctrinally, the content of the hymns has traditionally been a primary vehicle for expressing Methodism's emphasis on salvation for all, social holiness, and personal commitment, while particular hymns and the communal act of participating in hymn singing have been key elements in the spiritual lives of Methodists.


title: Methodism

text: Wesleyan Methodists identify with the Arminian conception of free will, as opposed to the theological determinism of absolute predestination. Methodism teaches that salvation is initiated when one chooses to respond to God, who draws the individual near to him (the Wesleyan doctrine of prevenient grace), thus teaching synergism. Methodists interpret Scripture as teaching that the saving work of Jesus Christ is for all people (unlimited atonement) but effective only to those who respond and believe, in accordance with the Reformation principles of "sola gratia" (grace alone) and "sola fide" (faith alone). John Wesley taught four key points fundamental to Methodism:


title: Methodism

text: After the first work of grace (the new birth), Methodist soteriology emphasizes the importance of the pursuit of holiness in salvation, a concept best summarized in a quote by Methodist evangelist Phoebe Palmer who stated that "justification would have ended with me had I refused to be holy." Thus, for Methodists, "true faith..."cannot" subsist without works". Methodism, inclusive of the holiness movement, thus teaches that "justification [is made] conditional on obedience and progress in sanctification", emphasizing "a deep reliance upon Christ not only in coming to faith, but in remaining in the faith". John Wesley taught that the keeping of the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, as well as engaging in the works of piety and the works of mercy, were "indispensable for our sanctification".


title: Methodism

text: Methodists also believe in the second work of grace—Christian perfection, also known as entire sanctification, which removes original sin and makes the believer holy. John Wesley explained, "entire sanctification, or Christian perfection, is neither more nor less than pure love; love expelling sin, and governing both the heart and life of a child of God. The Refiner's fire purges out all that is contrary to love."


title: Methodism

text: Methodist churches teach that apostasy can occur through a loss of faith or through sinning. If a person backslides but later decides to return to God, he or she must confess his or her sins and be entirely sanctified again (the Arminian doctrine of conditional security).


title: Methodism

text: Methodists hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution. Methodism has inherited its liturgy from Anglicanism, although American Methodist theology tends to have a stronger "sacramental emphasis" than that held by evangelical Anglicans.


title: Methodism

text: In common with most Protestants, Methodists recognize two sacraments as being instituted by Christ: Baptism and Holy Communion (also called the Lord's Supper). Most Methodist churches practice infant baptism, in anticipation of a response to be made later (confirmation), as well as baptism of believing adults. The "Catechism for the Use of the People Called Methodists" states that, "[in Holy Communion] Jesus Christ is present with his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour". In the United Methodist Church, the explanation of how Christ's presence is made manifest in the elements (bread and wine) is described as a "Holy Mystery".


title: Methodism

text: Methodist churches generally recognize sacraments to be a means of grace. John Wesley held that God also imparted grace by other established means such as public and private prayer, Scripture reading, study and preaching, public worship, and fasting; these constitute the works of piety. Wesley considered means of grace to be "outward signs, words, or actions ... to be the ordinary channels whereby [God] might convey to men, preventing [i.e., preparing], justifying or sanctifying grace". Specifically Methodist means, such as the class meetings, provided his chief examples for these prudential means of grace.


title: Methodism

text: American Methodist theologian Albert Outler, in assessing John Wesley's own practices of theological reflection, proposes a methodology termed the "Wesleyan Quadrilateral". Wesley's Quadrilateral is referred to in Methodism as "our theological guidelines" and is taught to its ministers (clergy) in seminary as the primary approach to interpreting Scripture and gaining guidance for moral questions and dilemmas faced in daily living.


title: Methodism

text: Traditionally, Methodists declare the Bible (Old and New Testaments) to be the only divinely inspired Scripture and the primary source of authority for Christians. The historic Methodist understanding of Scripture is based on the superstructure of Wesleyan covenant theology. Methodists also make use of tradition, drawing primarily from the teachings of the Church Fathers, as a source of authority. Tradition may serve as a lens through which Scripture is interpreted. Theological discourse for Methodists almost always makes use of Scripture read inside the wider theological tradition of Christianity.


title: Methodism

text: John Wesley himself contended that a part of the theological method would involve experiential faith. In other words, truth would be vivified in personal experience of Christians (overall, not individually), if it were really truth. And every doctrine must be able to be defended rationally. He did not divorce faith from reason. By reason, one asks questions of faith and seeks to understand God's action and will. Tradition, experience and reason, however, were subject always to Scripture, Wesley argued, because only there is the Word of God revealed "so far as it is necessary for our salvation."


title: Methodism

text: Early Methodism was known for its "almost monastic rigors, its living by rule, [and] its canonical hours of prayer". It inherited from its Anglican patrimony the rubrics of reciting the Daily Office, which Methodist Christians were expected to pray. The first prayer book of Methodism, "The Sunday Service of the Methodists with other occasional Services" thus included the canonical hours of both Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer; these two fixed prayer times were observed everyday in early Christianity, individually on weekdays and corporately on the Lord's Day. Later Methodist liturgical books, such as the "Methodist Worship Book" (1999) provide for Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer to be prayed daily; the United Methodist Church encourages its communicants to pray the canonical hours as "one of the essential practices" of being a disciple of Jesus. Some Methodist religious orders publish the Daily Office to be used for that community, for example, "The Book of Offices and Services of The Order of Saint Luke" contains the canonical hours to be prayed traditionally at seven fixed prayer times: Lauds (6 am), Terce (9 am), Sext (12 pm), None (3 pm), Vespers (6 pm), Compline (9 pm) and Vigil (12 am).


title: Methodism

text: With respect to public worship, Methodism was endowed by the Wesley brothers with worship characterised by a twofold practice: the ritual liturgy of the "Book of Common Prayer" on the one hand and the non-ritualistic preaching service on the other. This twofold practice became distinctive of Methodism because worship in the Church of England was based, by law, solely on the "Book of Common Prayer" and worship in the Nonconformist churches was almost exclusively that of "services of the word", i.e. preaching services, with Holy Communion being observed infrequently. John Wesley's influence meant that, in Methodism, the two practices were combined, a situation which remains characteristic of the denomination. The Lovefeast, traditionally practiced quarterly, was another practice that characterized early Methodism as John Wesley taught that it was an apostolic ordinance. Worship, hymnology, devotional and liturgical practices in Methodism were also influenced by Lutheran Pietism and, in turn, Methodist worship became influential in the Holiness movement.


title: Methodism

text: In America, the United Methodist Church and Free Methodist Church, as well as the Primitive Methodist Church and Wesleyan Methodist Church, have a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. When the Methodists in America were separated from the Church of England because of the American Revolution, John Wesley himself provided a revised version of the "Book of Common Prayer" called "The Sunday Service of the Methodists; With Other Occasional Services" (1784). Today, the primary liturgical books of the United Methodist Church are "The United Methodist Hymnal" and "The United Methodist Book of Worship" (1992). Congregations employ its liturgy and rituals as optional resources, but their use is not mandatory. These books contain the liturgies of the church that are generally derived from Wesley's "Sunday Service" and from the 20th-century liturgical renewal movement.


title: Methodism

text: The British Methodist Church is less ordered or liturgical in worship, but makes use of the "Methodist Worship Book" (similar to the Church of England's "Common Worship"), containing worship services (liturgies) and rubrics for the celebration of other rites, such as marriage. The "Worship Book" is also ultimately derived from Wesley's "Sunday Service".


title: Methodism

text: A unique feature of American Methodism has been the observance of the season of Kingdomtide, encompassing the last 13 weeks before Advent, thus dividing the long season after Pentecost into two distinct segments. During Kingdomtide, Methodist liturgy has traditionally emphasized charitable work and alleviating the suffering of the poor.


title: Methodism

text: A second distinctive liturgical feature of Methodism is the use of Covenant Services. Although practice varies between different national churches, most Methodist churches annually follow the call of John Wesley for a renewal of their covenant with God. It is common, at least in British Methodism, for each congregation to normally hold an annual Covenant Service on the first convenient Sunday of the year, and Wesley's covenant prayer is still used, with minor modification, in the order of service:


title: Methodism

text: As Wesley advocated outdoor evangelism, revival services are a traditional worship practice of Methodism that are often held in churches, as well as at camp meetings, brush arbor revivals, and tent revivals.


title: Methodism

text: Traditionally, Methodist connexions descending from the tradition of the Methodist Episcopal Church have a probationary period of six months before an individual is admitted into church membership as a full member of a congregation. Given the wide attendance at Methodist revival meetings, many people started to attend Methodist services of worship regularly, though they had not yet committed to membership. When they made that commitment, becoming a probationer was the first step and during this period, probationers "receive additional instruction and provide evidence of the seriousness of their faith and willingness to abide by church discipline before being accepted into full membership." In addition to this, to be a probationary member of a Methodist congregation, a person traditionally requires an "earnest desire to be saved from [one's] sins". In the historic Methodist system, probationers were eligible to become members of class meetings, where they could be further discipled in their faith.


title: Methodism

text: Catechisms such as "The Probationer's Handbook", authored by minister Stephen O. Garrison, have been used by probationers to learn the Methodist faith. After six months, probationers were examined before the Leaders and Stewards' Meeting (which consisted of Class Leaders and Stewards) where they were to provide "satisfactory assurance both of the correctness of his faith and of his willingness to observe and keep the rules of the church." If probationers were able to do this, they were admitted as full members of the congregation by the pastor.


title: Methodism

text: Full members of a Methodist congregation "were obligated to attend worship services on a regular basis" and "were to abide by certain moral precepts, especially as they related to substance use, gambling, divorce, and immoral pastimes." This practice continues in certain Methodist connexions, such as the Lumber River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Church, in which probationers must be examined by the pastor, class leader, and board for full membership, in addition to being baptized. The same structure is found in the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, which teaches:


title: Methodism

text: Early Methodists wore plain dress, with Methodist clergy condemning "high headdresses, ruffles, laces, gold, and 'costly apparel' in general". John Wesley recommended that Methodists annually read his thoughts "On Dress"; in that sermon, Wesley expressed his desire for Methodists: "Let me see, before I die, a Methodist congregation, full as plain dressed as a Quaker congregation". The 1858 Discipline of the Wesleyan Methodist Connection thus stated that "we would ... enjoin on all who fear God plain dress". Peter Cartwright, a Methodist revivalist, stated that in addition to wearing plain dress, the early Methodists distinguished themselves from other members of society by fasting once a week, abstaining from alcohol (teetotalism), and devoutly observing the Sabbath. Methodist circuit riders were known for practicing the spiritual discipline of mortifying the flesh as they "arose well before dawn for solitary prayer; they remained on their knees without food or drink or physical comforts sometimes for hours on end". The early Methodists did not participate in, and condemned, "worldly habits" including "playing cards, racing horses, gambling, attending the theater, dancing (both in frolics and balls), and cockfighting".


title: Methodism

text: In Methodism, fasting is considered one of the works of piety. The Directions Given to Band Societies (25 December 1744) by John Wesley mandate fasting and abstinence from meat on all Fridays of the year (in remembrance of the crucifixion of Jesus). Wesley himself also fasted before receiving Holy Communion "for the purpose of focusing his attention on God," and asked other Methodists to do the same.


title: Methodism

text: Over time, many of these practices were gradually relaxed in mainline Methodism, although practices such as teetotalism and fasting are still very much encouraged, in addition to the current prohibition of gambling; denominations of the conservative holiness movement, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Evangelical Methodist Church Conference, continue to reflect the spirit of the historic Methodist practice of wearing plain dress, with members abstaining from the "wearing of apparel which does not modestly and properly clothe the person" and "refraining from the wearing of jewelry" and "superfluous ornaments


title: Methodism

text: (including the wedding ring)". The Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches, which continues to observe the ordinance of women's headcovering, stipulates "renouncing all vain pomp and glory" and "adorning oneself with modest attire." The General Rules of the Methodist Church in America, which are among the doctrinal standards of many Methodist Churches, promote first-day Sabbatarianism as they require "attending upon all the ordinances of God" including "the public worship of God" and prohibit "profaning the day of the Lord, either by doing ordinary work therein or by buying or selling".


title: Methodism

text: Methodism is a worldwide movement and Methodist churches are present on all populated continents. Although Methodism is declining in Great Britain and North America, it is growing in other places—at a rapid pace in, for example, South Korea. There is no single Methodist Church with universal juridical authority; Methodists belong to multiple independent denominations or "connexions". The great majority of Methodists are members of denominations which are part of the World Methodist Council, an international association of 80 Methodist, Wesleyan, and related uniting denominations, representing about 80 million people.


title: Methodism

text: Methodism is prevalent in the English-speaking world but it is also organized in mainland Europe, largely due to missionary activity of British and American Methodists. British missionaries were primarily responsible for establishing Methodism across Ireland and Italy. Today the United Methodist Church (UMC)—a large denomination based in the United States—has a presence in Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Collectively the European and Eurasian regions of the UMC constitute a little over 100,000 Methodists (). Other smaller Methodist denominations exist in Europe.


title: Methodism

text: The original body founded as a result of Wesley's work came to be known as the Wesleyan Methodist Church. Schisms within the original church, and independent revivals, led to the formation of a number of separate denominations calling themselves "Methodist". The largest of these were the Primitive Methodists, deriving from a revival at Mow Cop in Staffordshire, the Bible Christians, and the Methodist New Connexion. The original church adopted the name "Wesleyan Methodist" to distinguish it from these bodies. In 1907, a union of smaller groups with the Methodist New Connexion and Bible Christian Church brought about the United Methodist Church; then the three major streams of British Methodism united in 1932 to form the present Methodist Church of Great Britain. The fourth-largest denomination in the country, the Methodist Church of Great Britain has about 202,000 members in 4,650 congregations.


title: Methodism

text: Early Methodism was particularly prominent in Devon and Cornwall, which were key centers of activity by the Bible Christian faction of Methodists. The Bible Christians produced many preachers, and sent many missionaries to Australia. Methodism also grew rapidly in the old mill towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire, where the preachers stressed that the working classes were equal to the upper classes in the eyes of God. In Wales, three elements separately welcomed Methodism: Welsh-speaking, English-speaking, and Calvinistic.