title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2014 Dubai International indirectly supported over 400,000 jobs and contributed over US$26.7 billion to the economy, which represented around 27% of Dubai's GDP and 21% of the employment in Dubai.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The history of civil aviation in Dubai started in July 1937 when an air agreement was signed for a flying boat base for the aircraft of Imperial Airways with the rental of the base at about 440 rupees per month – this included the guards' wages. The Empire Flying Boats also started operating once a week flying east to Karachi and west to Southampton, England. By February 1938, there were four flying boats a week.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In the 1940s, flying from Dubai was by flying boats operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), operating the Horseshoe route from Southern Africa via the Persian Gulf to Sydney.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Construction of the airport was ordered by the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1959. It officially opened in 1960 with its first airfield, at which time it was able to handle aircraft the size of a Douglas DC-3 on a runway made of compacted sand. Three turning-areas, an apron and small terminal completed the airport that was constructed by Costain.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In May 1963, construction of a asphalt runway started. This new runway, alongside the original sand runway and taxiway opened in May 1965, together with several new extensions were added to the Terminal Building, hangars erected, Airport and Navigational aids were installed. The installation of the lighting system continued after the official opening and was completed in August of that year. During the second half of the 1960s several extensions, equipment upgrades like a VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) and an instrument landing system (ILS), as well as new buildings, were constructed. By 1969, the airport was served by 9 airlines serving some 20 destinations.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The inauguration was on 15 May 1966 and was marked by the visits of the first big jets of Middle East Airlines and Kuwait Airways Comets.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The advent of wide-body aircraft required further airport development in the 1970s, which had already been foreseen by the Ruler of Dubai, and plans for a new Terminal, runways, and taxiways capable of coping with international flights were drawn up.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The construction of a new terminal building consisting of a three-storey building long and included an enclosed floor area of . A new control tower was also constructed.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Expansion continued in the early 1970s including ILS Category II equipment, lengthening existing runway to , installation of a non-directional beacon (NDB), diesel generators, taxiways, etc. This work made handling the Boeing 747 and Concorde possible. Several runway and apron extensions were carried out through the decade to meet growing demand.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: 1971 saw the new precision category 2 Approach and Runway Lighting System being commissioned. The construction of the Airport Fire Station and the installation of the generators were completed in December of that year and were fully operational in March 1972. The ruler also commissioned and inaugurated the Long-range Surveillance System on 19 June 1973.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: With the expansion of the Airport Fire Services, it was necessary to find more suitable accommodation, and a hangar-style building was made available to them at the end of 1976. This was located midway between the runway ends to facilitate efficient operations. A new building was also constructed to house the Airport Maintenance Engineer, Electronics Engineering section, and Stores unit.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Expansion of the Airport Restaurant and Transit Lounge including the refurbishing of the upper level and the provision of a new kitchen was completed in December 1978.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The next phase of development was the second runway, which was completed three months ahead of schedule and opened in April 1984. This runway, located north of the existing runway and parallel to it and is equipped with the latest meteorological, airfield lighting and instrument landing systems to give the airport a Category II classification.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Also, several extensions and upgrades of terminal facilities and supporting systems were carried out. On 23 December 1980 the airport became an ordinary member of the Airports Council International (ACI).


title: Dubai International Airport

text: During the 1980s, Dubai was a stopping point for airlines such as Air India, Cathay Pacific, Singapore Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, and others traveling between Asia and Europe that needed a refueling point in the Persian Gulf. This use was later made redundant with the availability of Russian airspace due to the breakup of the Soviet Union and the advent of longer-range aircraft introduced in the late 1980s and early 1990s such as the Airbus A340, the Boeing 747-400 and the Boeing 777 series aircraft, which had the range to fly between Europe and Southeast Asia nonstop. British Airways flights from Islamabad to Manchester also stopped for short times during the 1980s.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The opening of Terminal 2 in 1998 saw the first step of phase 1 of the new development master plan launched in 1997. As the second stage, Concourse 1 opened in April 2000 under the name of Sheikh Rashid Terminal. The concourse is in length and connects to the check-in area by a tunnel containing moving walkways (conveyor belt/travelators). It also contains a hotel, business center, health club, exchanges, dining and entertainment facilities, internet services, medical center, post office, and a prayer room. The next step was the reconfiguration of the runways, already part of phase 2, and aprons and taxiways were expanded and strengthened in 2003–2004. In addition, the Dubai Flower Centre opened in 2005 as part of the development. The airport saw the need for this as the city is a hub for import and export of flowers and the airport required a specialist facility since flowers need special conditions.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Construction of Terminal 3 began in 2004 as the next stage of phase 2 of the development, with an estimated cost of around $4.55  billion. Completion was originally planned for 2006 but was delayed by two years.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: On 30 May 2008, a topping out ceremony was conducted. The terminal became operational on 14 October 2008, with Emirates Airline (EK2926) from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, being the first flight to arrive at the new terminal and EK843 to Doha, Qatar being the first departing flight. The terminal increased the airport's maximum passenger capacity annually by 47  million, bringing the total annual capacity up to 75 million passengers.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: On 29 October 2010, the airport marked its 50th anniversary. The airport has seen over 402 million passengers at an average annual growth rate of 15.5% and handled over 3.87 million aircraft at an average annual growth rate of 12.4%.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: With the arrival of the Airbus A380, the airport made modifications costing $230 million. These included the building of 29 gates capable of handling the large aircraft, five of which are in Terminal 3 and two are in Terminal 1. Other important projects at the airport include the next stage of phase 2 development, which includes the construction of Concourse 3. This will be a smaller version of Concourse 2, which is connected to Terminal 3.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Also as part of the expansion, the airport is now able to handle at least 75 million (an increase of 19 million) passengers per annum with the opening of Concourse 3, which is part of Terminal 3. However, recent communications predict a further increase to 80 million passengers with additional reassessments of existing capacities. In 2009, Terminal 2 expanded its facilities to handle 5 million (an increase of 2 million) passengers annually, taking the airport's total capacity to 62 million passengers. Terminal 2 capacity was planned to be expanded to bring the total capacity of the airport from the initial 75 million passengers to 80 million passenger capacity by 2012.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The Cargo Mega Terminal, which will have the capacity to handle 3 million tonnes of cargo a year, is a major development; it is going to be built in the long term. The completion of the mega terminal will be no later than 2018. Terminal 2 will be completely redeveloped to match the status of the other two terminals. With all of these projects completed by 2013, the airport expects to be able to handle at least 75–80 million passengers and over 5 million tonnes of cargo.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport's landside facilities were modified to allow the construction of two stations for the Red Line of Dubai Metro. One station was built at Terminal 1 and the other at Terminal 3. The line began service on 9 September 2009, and opened in phases over the next year. The second Metro line, the Green Line, runs near the Airport Free Zone and has served the airport's north-eastern area with the Terminal 2 starting in September 2011.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: With phase 2 of DXB's expansion plan complete, the airport now has three terminals and three concourses, two cargo mega terminals, an airport free zone, an expo center with three large exhibition halls, a major aircraft maintenance hub and a flower center to handle perishable goods. A phase 3 which has been included in the master-plan involves the construction of a new Concourse 4.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport revealed its future plans in May 2011, which involve the construction of a new Concourse D for all airlines currently operating from concourse C. Concourse D is expected to bring the total capacity of the airport to over 90 million passengers and will open in early 2016. The plan also involves Emirates solely operating from Concourse C along with Concourse A and B.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In September 2012, Dubai Airports changed the names of concourses to make it easier for passengers to navigate the airport. Concourse 1, in which over 100 international airlines operate, became Concourse C. Concourse 2 became Concourse B and Concourse 3 became Concourse A. The gates in Terminal 2 were changed and are now numbered F1 to F6. The remaining alpha-numeric sequences are being reserved for future airport facilities that are part of the Dubai Airports' $7.8 billion expansion programme, including Concourse D.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai's government announced the construction of a new airport in Jebel Ali, named Dubai World Central – Al Maktoum International Airport. It is expected to be the second-largest airport in the world by physical size, though not by passenger metrics. It opened 27 June 2010; however, construction is not expected to finish until 2027. The airport is expected to be able to accommodate up to 160 million passengers. There has been an official plan to build the Dubai Metro Purple Line to connect Al Maktoum International Airport to Dubai International Airport; construction was set to begin in 2012. The proposed Purple Line will link Dubai International Airport and Al Maktoum International Airport.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Concourse D opened on 24 February 2016 for all international airlines and moved out of the Terminal 1. Emirates now operates from Concourses A, B and C, all under Terminal 3. while FlyDubai operates from Terminal 2 (Concourse F).


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Recreational flying to Dubai is catered for by the Dubai Aviation Club, which undertakes flying training for private pilots and provides facilities for private owners.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The Government of Dubai provides short and long range search and rescue services, police support, medical evacuation and general purpose flights for the airport and all VIP flights to the airport.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai International Airport was conceptualized to function as Dubai's primary airport and the region's busiest for the foreseeable future without the need for relocation or the building of another airport when passenger figures increased. The area was chosen near to Dubai, to attract passengers from the city of Dubai, rather than travel to the busier Sharjah International Airport. The planned location originally was Jebel Ali.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The original master plan for the existing airport initially involved a dual-terminal and one runway configuration over two phases with provisions for another two passenger terminals in the near future. Phase 1 included the construction for the first passenger terminal, the first runway, 70 aircraft parking bays, support facilities and structures, including large maintenance hangar, the first fire station, workshops, and administrative offices, an airfreight complex, two cargo agents' buildings, in-flight catering kitchens and an control tower. Construction for the second phase would commence immediately after the completion of Phase 1 and include the second runway, 50 new aircraft parking bays in addition to the existing 70 bays, a second fire station and a third cargo agent building.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The third phase included the construction of a new terminal (now the parts of Terminal 1's main building and Concourse C) and an additional 60 parking bays, as well as a new aircraft maintenance facility. Then, in the early 2000s (decade) a new master plan was introduced which began the development of the current concourses and terminal infrastructure.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Paul Griffiths (Dubai Airports' CEO) in his interview to "Vision" magazine, cited plans to build infrastructure to support the expansion of Emirates and budget airline flydubai, and ascend the ranks of global aviation hubs.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport traffic control tower (ATCT) was constructed as part of phase two of the then-development plan.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai International Airport has three terminals. Terminal 1 has one concourse (concourse D), Terminal 2 is set apart from the other two main buildings and Terminal 3 is divided into Concourse A, B, and C. The cargo terminal is capable of handling 3 million tonnes of cargo annually and a general aviation terminal (GAT) is close by.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai Airport has three passenger terminals. Terminals 1 and 3 are directly connected with a common transit area, with airside passengers being able to move freely between the terminals without going through immigration, while Terminal 2 is on the opposite side of the airport. For transiting passengers, a shuttle service runs between the terminals, with a journey time of around 20 minutes from Terminal 2 to Terminal 1 and 30 minutes to Terminal 3. Passengers in Terminal 3 who need to transfer between concourse A and the rest of the Terminal have to travel via an automated people mover. Also after early 2016 when the construction of Concourse D was done, there is now an automated people mover between concourse D and Terminal 1.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Situated beside Terminal 2 is the Executive Flights Terminal, which has its own check-in facilities for premium passengers and where transportation to aircraft in any of the other terminals is by personal buggy.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The three passenger terminals have a total handling capacity of around 80  million passengers a year.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Terminals 1 and 3 cater to international passengers, whilst Terminal 2 is for budget passengers and passengers flying to the subcontinent and Persian Gulf region; Terminals 1 and 3 handle 85% of the passenger traffic and the Executive Flights terminal is for the higher-end travelers and important guests.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Terminal 1 has a capacity of 45 million passengers. It is used by over 100 airlines and is connected to Concourse D by an automated people mover. It is spread over an area of and offers 221 check-in counters.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The Terminal was originally built to handle 18 million passengers; however, with extreme congestion at the terminal, the airport was forced to expand the terminal to accommodate the opening of 28 remote gates. Over the years, more mobile gates were added to the airport bringing the total as of 2010 to 28.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2013, Dubai Airports announced a major renovation for Terminal 1 and Concourse C. The renovations include upgraded baggage systems, replacement of check-in desks and a more spacious departure hall. Arrivals will also see improvements to help reduce waiting times. The renovation was completed by the middle of 2015.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Planning began for further expansion of Dubai Airport, with the construction of Terminal 4, it was revealed on the day Emirates completed its phased operations at the new Terminal 3, on 14 November 2008.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: According to Dubai Airport officials, plans for Terminal 4 had begun and extensions would be made to Terminal 3. These are required to bring the capacity of the airport to 80–90 million passengers a year by 2015.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In May 2011, Paul Griffiths, chief executive of Dubai Airports revealed the Dubai Airport masterplan. It involves the construction of Concourse D (previously Terminal 4). With a capacity of 15 million, it would bring the total capacity of the airport to 90 million passengers by 2018—an increase of 15 million. It also will see Emirates take over the operation at Concourse C, along with concourse A and B which it will already be operating. All remaining airlines will shift to Concourse D, or move to Al Maktoum International Airport. The airport projects that international passenger and cargo traffic will increase at an average annual growth rate of 7.2% and 6.7%, respectively, and that by 2020 passenger numbers at Dubai International Airport will reach 98.5 million and cargo volumes will top 4.1 million tonnes.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Concourse D will have a capacity of 15 million passengers, include 17 gates and will be connected to Terminal 1 via an automated people mover. On 6 February 2016, members of the public were invited to trial the concourse in preparation for its opening. On Wednesday, 24 February 2016, Concourse D officially opened with the first British Airways flight arriving at gate D8.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Concourse D and Terminal 1 reopened on 24 June 2021 following a year's closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Terminal 2 built in 1998 has an area of and has a capacity of 10 million as of 2013, after several, decent reconstructions and a major expansion in 2012 which saw capacity double. It is used by over 50 airlines, mainly operating in the Persian Gulf region. Most flights operate to India, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In June 2009, Terminal 2 became the hub of Air India Express and flydubai, and the terminal houses the airline's corporate head office.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Terminal 2 has undergone a major refurbishment recently, extending check-in and boarding facilities, changing the interior and exterior décor, and offering more dining choices to passengers. Capacity was increased to allow for 10 million passengers, an increase of 5 million.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The terminal has now increased the number of facilities available to passengers. Check-in counters have increased to 37. The boarding area is more spacious, with more natural light. Also the new open boarding gates allow several flights to board simultaneously, improving passenger and aircraft movements. There are a total of 43 remote stands at the terminal. However, passengers cannot move between Terminal 2 to 1 or from 2 to 3 and vice versa inside the airport. They have to make use of Taxi service or public transport available outside.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The Dubai duty-free shopping area covers in departures and in arrivals. The extension included a larger arrivals hall as well.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The partly underground Terminal 3 was built at a cost of US$4.5 billion, exclusively for Emirates and has a capacity of 65 million passengers. The terminal has 20 Airbus A380 gates at Concourse A and 5 at Concourse B and 2 at Concourse C. It was announced on 6 September 2012 that Terminal 3 would no longer be Emirates-exclusive, as Emirates and Qantas had set up an extensive code sharing agreement. Qantas would be the second and only one of two airlines to fly in and out of Terminal 3. This deal also allows Qantas to use the A380 dedicated concourse.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Upon completion, Terminal 3 was the largest building in the world by floor space, with over of space, capable of handling 60 million passengers in a year. A large part is located under the taxiway area and is directly connected to Concourse B: the departure and arrival halls in the new structure are beneath the airport's apron. Concourse A is connected to the terminal via a Terminal 3 APM. It has been operational since 14 October 2008, and opened in four phases to avoid collapse of baggage handling and other IT systems.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The building includes a multi level underground structure, first and business class lounges, restaurants, 180 check-in counters and 2,600 car-parking spaces. The terminal offers more than double the previous retail area of concourse C, by adding about and Concourse B's of shopping facilities.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In arrivals, the terminal contains 72 immigration counters and 14 baggage carousels. The baggage handling system—the largest system and also the deepest in the world—has a capacity to handle 8,000 bags per hour. The system includes 21 screening injection points, 49 make-up carousels, of conveyor belts capable of handling 15,000 items per hour at a speed of and 4,500 early baggage storage positions.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Concourse A, part of Terminal 3, opened 2 January 2013, has a capacity of 19 million passengers and is connected to the two major public levels of Terminal 3 via Terminal 3 APM in addition to the vehicular and baggage handling system utility tunnels for further transfer. The concourse opened on 2 January 2013 and was built at a cost of US$3.3 billion. The building, which follows the characteristic shape of Concourse B, long, wide and high in the centre from the apron level and accommodates 20 air bridge gates, of which all are capable of handling the Airbus A380-800. There are also 6 remote lounges for passengers departing on flights parked at 13 remote stands. The gates in concourse A are labelled A1–A24.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The concourse includes one 4-star hotel and one 5-star hotel, first- and business-class lounges, and duty-free areas. The total built-up area is . The concourse allows for multi-level boarding and boasts the largest first and business class lounges in the world. Each lounge has its own dedicated floor offering direct aircraft access from the lounges. The total amount of retail space at the concourse is , and there is also a total of 14 cafes and restaurants.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Concourse B is directly connected to terminal 3 and is dedicated exclusively to Emirates. The total built up area of the concourse itself is . The concourse is long, wide (at midpoint) and high. The terminal has 10 floors (4 basements, a ground floor and 5 above floors). The building currently includes a multi-level structure for departures and arrivals and includes 32 gates, labelled B1–B32. The concourse has 26 air bridge gates and 5 boarding lounges for 14 remote stands that are for Airbus A340 and Boeing 777 aircraft only. For transit passengers the concourse has 3 transfer areas and 62 transfer desks.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The concourse also includes the Emirates first and Business class lounges, and the Marhaba lounge. The First class lounge has a capacity of 1,800 passengers and a total area of . The Business class lounge has a capacity of 3,000 passengers and a total area of . The Marhaba lounge, the smallest lounge at the concourse has a capacity of 300 passengers at a time.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The total retail area at the concourse is , which also includes 18 restaurants within the food court.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: There is a direct connection to Sheikh Rashid Terminal (Concourse C) located at the control tower structure through passenger walkways. There is also a 300-room hotel and health club including both five and four star rooms. Concourse B includes five aerobridges that are capable of handling the new Airbus A380.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Emirates Airline continues to maintain a presence in Concourse C, operating 12 gates at the concourse as well as the Emirates First Class and Business Class Lounges.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Concourse C, is a part of Terminal 3, was opened in 2000 and used to be the largest concourse at Dubai International Airport before Concourse B in Terminal 3 opened. It incorporates 50 gates, including 28 air bridges and 22 remote gates located at a lower level of the terminal. The gates are labelled C1–C50.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The concourse includes over 17 food and beverage cafes and restaurants, with the food court being located on the Departures Level. Also located in the concourse is a 5-star hotel and a duty-free shopping facility. Other facilities include prayer rooms and a medical centre. Concourse C became part of Terminal 3 in 2016 after concourse D opened.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The Al Majlis VIP pavilion was exclusively built for the Dubai Royal Air Wing and opened on 1 July 2008. The entire facility is a terminal, and includes a Royal Majlis and an antenna farm. It also includes eight aircraft hangars with a total built up area of and maintenance hangars for Boeing 747s and Airbus A380s, and a gatehouse for VIP service. In 2010 there were 47,213 customers, 13,162 movements and in 2009, there were a total of 43,968 customers and 14,896 movements.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Executive Flight Services (EFS) caters to those passengers of high class or special importance that travel through Dubai International Airports. It is the largest dedicated business aviation terminal of its kind in the Middle East. It is located at the Dubai Airport Free Zone close to Dubai International's Terminal 2. It only caters to private flights exclusive to the terminal. Airlines operating from the terminal are expected to maintain a lounge. In 2010, EFS handled 7,889 aircraft movements and 25,177 passengers.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The centre itself is located close to Terminal 2, and includes a two-storey main building, a hangar, a ramp area for aircraft parking and a special VIP car park for long term parking. The centre also has its own immigration and customs sections, its own Dubai Duty Free outlet, a fully equipped business and conference centre, eight luxury private lounges and a limousine service between aircraft and the terminal. The ramp area of the terminal can accommodate up to 22 small-sized private jets, between 8 and 12 medium-sized jets or up to four large-sized jets such as a Boeing Business Jet (BBJ), the Boeing 727 or the Airbus A319. The facility makes EFC the largest dedicated business aviation terminal in the Middle East.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The cargo village at Dubai International Airport is one of the world's largest and most central cargo hubs, with most of the cargo for Asia and Africa coming through the facility. Forecasts in 2004 for cargo growth predicted that additional major cargo handling facilities were needed to satisfy demands. Plans were put in place to construct the first stage of the cargo mega terminal, which by 2018 will have the ability to handle three million tons of freight.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Phase 1 of the cargo mega terminal was completed by 2004 and the next phase of expansion was scheduled for completion in late 2007. Presently the airport has a cargo capacity of 2.5 million tonnes, and will be expanded to handle 3 million.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai Airport has constructed a flower centre to handle flower imports and exports, as Dubai is a major hub for the import and export of flowers, and the airport required a specialist facility since these products need special conditions. The flower centre's first phase was completed in 2004 at a cost of $50 million.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The centre when completed and functioning will have a floor area of approximately including different export chambers and offices. The handling capacity of the centre is expected to be more than 300,000 tonnes of product throughput per annum. The entire facility (with the exception of the offices) will be maintained at an ambient temperature of just .


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai Airport has two closely spaced parallel runways, 12R/30L is , 12L/30R is . The gap between the centrelines of the two runways is . The runways are equipped with four sets of ILS to guide landing aircraft safely under very poor weather conditions. The runways were expanded to accommodate the Airbus A380 which came into service in 2007.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2009, it was announced that the airport installed a Category III landing system, allowing planes to land in low-visibility conditions, such as fog. This system was the first of its kind in the United Arab Emirates.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2013 Dubai Airports announced an 80-day runway refurbishment program which started on 1 May 2014 and was completed on 21 July 2014. The northern runway was resurfaced while lighting upgrades and additional taxiways were built on the southern runway to help boost its capacity. The southern runway was closed from 1 to 31 May 2014, while the northern runway was closed from 31 May to 20 July 2014. Due to extra congestion on one runway, all freighter, charter and general aviation flights were diverted to Al Maktoum International Airport. Flights at DXB were reduced by 26% and 14 airlines moved to Al Maktoum International Airport whilst the runways works were being done. Emirates cut 5,000 flights and grounded over 20 aircraft during the period.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai Airports plans to close the southern runway (12R/30L) for complete resurfacing and replacement of the airfield lighting and supporting infrastructure. This will be done during a 45-day period from 16 April 2019 to 30 May 2019. This upgrade will boost safety, service and capacity levels at DXB. Airlines will be required to reduce flight operations at DXB due to single runway operations.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: With Dubai-based Emirates being one of the launch customers for the Airbus A380 and also the largest customer, Dubai Airport needed to expand its existing facilities to accommodate the very large aircraft. The Department of Civil Aviation spent $120 million in upgrading both of its terminals and airport infrastructure, including enlarged gate holdrooms, new finger piers, an enlarged runway, new airbridges and extended baggage belt carousels from the normal . Dubai Airport also invested $3.5 billion into a new Concourse A, exclusively for handling Emirates A380s. With the changes made, the airport does not expect embarking and disembarking passengers and baggage from the A380 to take longer than it does for Boeing 747-400s, which carry fewer passengers. On 16 July 2008, Dubai Airport unveiled the first of two specially-built gates capable of handling the aircraft. Costing $10 million, the gates will enable passengers to get on the upper cabin of the new 555-seater aircraft directly from the gate hold rooms. The hold rooms themselves have been enlarged to cater for the larger number of passengers flying the A380s. In addition to the two gates at Terminal 1, five more A380-capable gates were opened at concourse B on 14 October 2008. Concourse A opened on 2 January 2013.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Workers building a new terminal at Dubai International Airport went on a sympathy strike in March 2006. Another strike took place in October 2007. Four thousand strikers were arrested. Most of them were released some days later and those who were not local were then deported from Dubai.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Ground handling services at Dubai International Airport has been provided by Dnata Ground Handling Services.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Emirates Engineering, based in Dubai, operates the aircraft maintenance and engine test cell technical facilities at the airport. Emirates Engineering currently provides full support for the Emirates Airline fleet and all the other international operations at the airport.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport has over of retail space spread between its three main terminals and includes many shopping and eating outlets. The Dubai duty-free shopping area in Terminal 2 covers in departures and in arrivals. The extension included a larger arrivals hall as well.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Extensive upgrading work on existing retail areas since 2004 in Terminals 1 and 2 has increased sales. Dubai Duty Free Company announced annual sales of Dhs5.9 billion (US$1.6 billion) in 2012, representing a 10 per cent increase on the previous year. In 2008, Dubai Duty Free doubled its retail space from with the inauguration of the new Emirates Terminal 3 in October 2008. Dubai Duty Free recorded more than 23.5 million transactions in 2012. As of August 2009, Dubai Duty Free was the biggest single airport retail operation in the world ahead of London's Heathrow and Seoul's Incheon airports.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In addition to a wide array of duty-free shops and eating outlets, Dubai Airport has two open-air garden areas. Dubai Airport has numerous business centres located around the airport. Within the international transit area of the interconnected Terminals 1 and 2, internet and games facilities, prayer rooms, showers, spas, gym, swimming pool and three hotels are provided. Various lounge areas are provided, some including children's play areas or televisions showing news, movies and sports channels. Terminal 3 has a left luggage facility operated by Emirates in the Arrivals area where layover passengers can leave their luggage for a fee while they go sightseeing.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The Civil Aviation Authority of Dubai manages the overall safety and security of the airport. Pre-screening takes place in all terminals at the entrance of the airport. Iris scanning has been implemented in all UAE airports. This type of scanning prevents those deported from the UAE for serious criminal charges from returning again using fraudulent documents.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport uses highly sensitive equipment to conduct thorough searches on travellers into the UAE, including screening for smuggling, possessing or taking illegal drugs in the country. A senior Dubai judge was quoted on 11 February 2008, by "Seven Days" saying, "These laws help discourage anyone from carrying or using drugs. Even if the amount of illegal drugs found on someone is 0.05 grams, they will be found guilty. The penalty is a minimum four years if it is for personal use. The message is clear—drugs will not be tolerated". A number of travellers have been held pending charge while Dubai authorities test their possessions, blood and urine for any trace of contraband.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2018, Houthi rebel group claimed that Dubai airport had been attacked by drones launched by Houthi rebels from Yemen. In response, Dubai Airports stated “With regards to reports by questionable sources this morning, Dubai Airports can confirm that Dubai International (DXB) is operating as normal without any interruption”.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Since there are international flights operating out from the airport, the terminals are equipped with immigration processing facilities and security scanning for all passengers including domestic, and regional passengers. Terminals 1 and 3 handle 95% of the international flights, whilst Terminal 2 mainly caters to regional flights and international flights routed to other airports in Middle East. Emirates Airline operates from only Terminal 3. Conversely, low-cost carriers such as flydubai operate flights out of Terminal 2.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Passenger growth at the airport has been growing at an average rate of 18%. The airport reached its capacity of 33 million passengers per annum by 2007; however, this was still not enough to handle the growing over congestion at the airport. In 2013, the airport's capacity reached 75 million with the opening of concourse A and expansion of Terminal 2.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Passenger traffic for 2014 grew by 7.5% as 70.48 million passengers passed through Dubai International, compared to 66.43 million during the corresponding period in 2013. Growth slowed down in 2014 due to the 80-day runway resurfacing project, which saw DXB operate with only one runway between May and July.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2014, India was DXB's biggest destination with 8.91 million passengers. The UK, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan followed with 5.38 million, 4.88 million and 3.13 million, respectively. London's Heathrow became the top city destination, recording 2,626,357 passengers. Doha followed it with 2,355,959.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2020, Dubai International Airport's first quarter passenger traffic fell down by 67.8 percent and reached 5.75 million. This is even lower than the statistics presented last year in the same quarter.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport handled 2.37 million tonnes of air cargo in 2014, a decrease of 3.1 per cent over 2013, making it the sixth-busiest airfreight hub in the world and the busiest in the Middle East. The decline was due to the runway closure, and the shifting of many cargo flights from DXB to Al Maktoum International Airport.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport is connected by the road D 89. One of the longest intra-city roads, D 89 begins at the Deira Corniche and runs perpendicular to D 85 (Baniyas Road). From Deira, the road progresses south-eastward towards Dubai International Airport, intersecting with E 311 (Emirates Road) past the airport. A road tunnel underneath one of the runways was built in 2003.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport is served by Dubai Metro, which operates two lines through or near the airport. The Red Line has a station at each of Terminal 3 and Terminal 1. Services run between 6 am and 11 pm every day except Friday, when they run between 1 pm and midnight. These timings differ during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. The stations are located in front of both terminals and can be accessed directly from the arrivals areas.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The Green Line has at a station near the Airport Free Zone, from which passengers can connect to Terminal 2.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Dubai Buses operated by RTA run a number of routes to the city, but mainly Deira, and are available at the Airport Ground Transportation centre and the Arrivals at every terminal.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Passengers who need to transfer between Terminals 1 and 3, and Terminal 2 can use the inter-terminal shuttle bus service which operates frequently.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Bus stations are situated opposite both Terminal 1, 2 and 3. Local buses 4, 11, 15, 33 and 44 can be used to connect with Terminal 1 and 3, while bus 2 connects with Terminal 2. Dubai International Airport Buses provide air-conditioned transport into the city centre and over 80 hotels in the city.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: Emirates offers a complimentary coach service, which operates three daily services to and from Al Ain, and four daily, to and from Abu Dhabi. So does Etihad.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: The airport is served by the Government owned Dubai Taxi Agency, which provides 24-hour service at the arrivals in every terminal.


title: Dubai International Airport

text: In 2013, Dubai International Airport was featured in a 10-part documentary series called "Ultimate Airport Dubai" that aired on the National Geographic Channel and was produced by Arrow Media and National Geographic Channels International. The documentary focused on the everyday operations of the airport. The series returned for a second season in 2014 and a third in 2015.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine, sold under the brand name Effexor among others, is an antidepressant medication of the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) class. It is used to treat major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. It may also be used for chronic pain. It is taken by mouth. It is also available as the salt venlafaxine besylate in an extended-release formulation (Venbysi XR).


title: Venlafaxine

text: Common side effects include loss of appetite, constipation, dry mouth, dizziness, sweating, insomnia, drowsiness and sexual problems. Severe side effects include an increased risk of suicide, mania, and serotonin syndrome. Antidepressant withdrawal syndrome may occur if stopped. There are concerns that use during the later part of pregnancy can harm the baby. How it works is not entirely clear, but it seems to be related to the potentiation of the activity of some neurotransmitters in the brain.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine was approved for medical use in the United States in 1993. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 43rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States with more than 15million prescriptions.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine is used primarily for the treatment of depression, general anxiety disorder, social phobia, panic disorder, and vasomotor symptoms.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine has been used off label for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy and migraine prevention. It may work on pain via effects on the opioid receptor. It has also been found to reduce the severity of 'hot flashes' in menopausal women and men on hormonal therapy for the treatment of prostate cancer.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Due to its action on both the serotoninergic and adrenergic systems, venlafaxine is also used as a treatment to reduce episodes of cataplexy, a form of muscle weakness, in patients with the sleep disorder narcolepsy. Some open-label and three double-blind studies have suggested the efficacy of venlafaxine in the treatment of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clinical trials have found possible efficacy in those with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Case reports, open trials and blinded comparisons with established medications have suggested the efficacy of venlafaxine in the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder.


title: Venlafaxine

text: A comparative meta-analysis of 21 major antidepressants found that venlafaxine, agomelatine, amitriptyline, escitalopram, mirtazapine, paroxetine, and vortioxetine were more effective than other antidepressants, although the quality of many comparisons was assessed as low or very low.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine was similar in efficacy to the atypical antidepressant bupropion; however, the remission rate was lower for venlafaxine. In a double-blind study, patients who did not respond to an SSRI were switched to either venlafaxine or another SSRI (citalopram); similar improvement was observed in both groups.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Studies have not established its efficacy for use by children. In children and adolescents with depression, venlafaxine increases the risk of suicidal thoughts or attempts.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Studies have shown that the extended release is superior to the immediate release form of venlafaxine.


title: Venlafaxine

text: A meta-analysis has shown that efficacy of venlafaxine is not correlated with baseline severity of depression.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine has been shown to have an optimal efficacy and tolerability towards the lower end of the licensed dose range.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine is not recommended in patients hypersensitive to it, nor should it be taken by anyone who is allergic to the inactive ingredients, which include gelatin, cellulose, ethylcellulose, iron oxide, titanium dioxide and hypromellose. It should not be used in conjunction with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), as it can cause potentially fatal serotonin syndrome. Venlafaxine might interact with tramadol or other opioids, trazodone, so caution is needed while mixing multiple serotonergic agents together.


title: Venlafaxine

text: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires all antidepressants, including venlafaxine, to carry a black box warning with a generic warning about a possible suicide risk.


title: Venlafaxine

text: A 2014 meta analysis of 21 clinical trials of venlafaxine for the treatment of depression in adults found that compared to placebo, venlafaxine reduced the risk of suicidal thoughts and behavior.


title: Venlafaxine

text: A study conducted in Finland followed more than 15,000 patients for 3.4 years. Venlafaxine increased suicide risk by 60% (statistically significant), as compared to no treatment. At the same time, fluoxetine (Prozac) halved the suicide risk.


title: Venlafaxine

text: In another study, the data on more than 200,000 cases were obtained from the UK general practice research database. At baseline, patients prescribed venlafaxine had a greater number of risk factors for suicide (such as prior suicide attempts) than patients treated with other anti-depressants. The patients taking venlafaxine had significantly higher risk of suicide than the ones on fluoxetine or citalopram (Celexa). After adjusting for known risk factors, venlafaxine was associated with an increased risk of suicide relative to fluoxetine and dothiepin that was not statistically significant. A statistically significant greater risk for attempted suicide remained after adjustment, but the authors concluded that it could be due to residual confounding. The study was sponsored by Wyeth, which produces and markets venlafaxine.


title: Venlafaxine

text: An analysis of clinical trials by the FDA statisticians showed the incidence of suicidal behaviour among the adults on venlafaxine to be not significantly different from fluoxetine or placebo.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine is contraindicated in children, adolescents and young adults. In children and adolescents with depression, venlafaxine increases the risk of suicidal thoughts or attempts.


title: Venlafaxine

text: People stopping venlafaxine commonly experience discontinuation symptoms such as dysphoria, headaches, nausea, irritability, emotional lability, sensation of electric shocks, and sleep disturbance. Venlafaxine has a higher rate of moderate to severe discontinuation symptoms relative to other antidepressants (similar to the SSRI paroxetine).


title: Venlafaxine

text: The higher risk and increased severity of discontinuation syndrome symptoms relative to other antidepressants may be related to the short half-life of venlafaxine and its active metabolite. After discontinuing venlafaxine, the levels of both serotonin and norepinephrine decrease, leading to the hypothesis that the discontinuation symptoms could result from an overly rapid reduction of neurotransmitter levels.


title: Venlafaxine

text: The development of a potentially life-threatening serotonin syndrome (also more recently classified as "serotonin toxicity") may occur with venlafaxine treatment, particularly with concomitant use of serotonergic drugs, including but not limited to SSRIs and SNRIs, many hallucinogens such as tryptamines and phenethylamines (e.g., LSD/LSA, DMT, MDMA, mescaline), dextromethorphan (DXM), tramadol, tapentadol, pethidine (meperidine) and triptans and with drugs that impair metabolism of serotonin (including MAOIs) . Serotonin syndrome symptoms may include mental status changes (e.g. agitation, hallucinations, coma), autonomic instability (e.g. tachycardia, labile blood pressure, hyperthermia), neuromuscular aberrations (e.g. hyperreflexia, incoordination) or gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g. nausea, vomiting, diarrhea). Venlafaxine-induced serotonin syndrome has also been reported when venlafaxine has been taken in isolation in overdose. An abortive serotonin syndrome state, in which some but not all of the symptoms of the full serotonin syndrome are present, has been reported with venlafaxine at mid-range dosages (150 mg per day). A case of a patient with serotonin syndrome induced by low-dose venlafaxine (37.5 mg per day) has also been reported.


title: Venlafaxine

text: There are few well-controlled studies of venlafaxine in pregnant women. A study released in May 2010 by the Canadian Medical Association Journal suggests use of venlafaxine doubles the risk of miscarriage. Consequently, venlafaxine should only be used during pregnancy if clearly needed. A large case-control study done as part of the National Birth Defects Prevention Study and published in 2012 found a significant association of venlafaxine use during pregnancy and several birth defects including anencephaly, cleft palate, septal heart defects and coarctation of the aorta. Prospective studies have not shown any statistically significant congenital malformations. There have, however, been some reports of self-limiting effects on newborn infants. As with other serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs), these effects are generally short-lived, lasting only 3 to 5 days, and rarely resulting in severe complications.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine should be taken with caution when using St John's wort. Venlafaxine may lower the seizure threshold, and coadministration with other drugs that lower the seizure threshold such as bupropion and tramadol should be done with caution and at low doses.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine is neither recommended nor approved for the treatment of major depressive episodes in bipolar disorder, as it can induce mania or mixed episodes. Venlafaxine appears to be more likely than the SSRIs and bupropion to induce mania and mixed episodes in bipolar patients.


title: Venlafaxine

text: A rare but serious side effect of venlafaxine is liver injury. It reaches male and female patients with a median age of 44y. Cessation of venlafaxine is one of the appropriate measure of management. The mechanism of venlafaxine-related liver injury is unclear but may be related to a CYP2D6 polymorphism.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine can be abused as recreational drug, with damages that can manifest within a month. Hard data regarding prevalence of abuse are not easy to find.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Abusers reported usage of extremely high dosage, 5 to 10 times of acceptable clinical dosage. The adverse side effects were strong cases of the listed side effects. As standard measure treatment is to be supervised by a doctor with relevant education, such as neurologist or psychiatrist.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine should be used with caution in hypertensive patients. Venlafaxine must be discontinued if significant hypertension persists. It can also have undesirable cardiovascular effects.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Most patients overdosing with venlafaxine develop only mild symptoms. Plasma venlafaxine concentrations in overdose survivors have ranged from 6 to 24 mg/L, while postmortem blood levels in fatalities are often in the 10–90 mg/L range. Published retrospective studies report that venlafaxine overdosage may be associated with an increased risk of fatal outcome compared to that observed with SSRI antidepressant products, but lower than that for tricyclic antidepressants. Healthcare professionals are advised to prescribe Effexor and Effexor XR in the smallest quantity of capsules consistent with good patient management to reduce the risk of overdose. It is usually reserved as a second-line treatment for depression due to a combination of its superior efficacy to the first-line treatments like fluoxetine, paroxetine and citalopram and greater frequency of side effects like nausea, headache, insomnia, drowsiness, dry mouth, constipation, sexual dysfunction, sweating and nervousness.


title: Venlafaxine

text: There is no specific antidote for venlafaxine, and management is generally supportive, providing treatment for the immediate symptoms. Administration of activated charcoal can prevent absorption of the drug. Monitoring of cardiac rhythm and vital signs is indicated. Seizures are managed with benzodiazepines or other anticonvulsants. Forced diuresis, hemodialysis, exchange transfusion, or hemoperfusion are unlikely to be of benefit in hastening the removal of venlafaxine, due to the drug's high volume of distribution.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine is usually categorized as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), but it has also been referred to as a serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (SNDRI). It is described as 'synthetic phenethylamine bicyclic derivative with antidepressant activity'. It works by blocking the transporter "reuptake" proteins for key neurotransmitters affecting mood, thereby leaving more active neurotransmitters in the synapse. The neurotransmitters affected are serotonin and norepinephrine. Additionally, in high doses it weakly inhibits the reuptake of dopamine, since dopamine is inactivated by norepinephrine reuptake in the frontal cortex. The frontal cortex largely lacks dopamine transporters; therefore venlafaxine can increase dopamine neurotransmission in this part of the brain.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine indirectly affects opioid receptors as well as the alpha2-adrenergic receptor, and was shown to increase pain threshold in mice. These benefits with respect to pain were reversed with naloxone, an opioid antagonist, thus supporting an opioid mechanism.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine is well absorbed, with at least 92% of an oral dose being absorbed into systemic circulation. It is extensively metabolized in the liver via the CYP2D6 isoenzyme to desvenlafaxine ("O"-desmethylvenlafaxine, now marketed as a separate medication named Pristiq), which is just as potent an SNRI as the parent compound, meaning that the differences in metabolism between extensive and poor metabolisers are not clinically important in terms of efficacy. Side effects, however, are reported to be more severe in CYP2D6 poor metabolisers. Steady-state concentrations of venlafaxine and its metabolite are attained in the blood within 3 days. Therapeutic effects are usually achieved within 3 to 4 weeks. No accumulation of venlafaxine has been observed during chronic administration in healthy subjects. The primary route of excretion of venlafaxine and its metabolites is via the kidneys. The half-life of venlafaxine is relatively short, so patients are directed to adhere to a strict medication routine, avoiding missing a dose. Even a single missed dose can result in withdrawal symptoms.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine is a substrate of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which pumps it out of the brain. The gene encoding P-gp, ABCB1, has the SNP rs2032583, with alleles C and T. The majority of people (about 70% of Europeans and 90% of East Asians) have the TT variant. A 2007 study found that carriers of at least one C allele (variant CC or CT) are 7.72 times more likely than non-carriers to achieve remission after 4 weeks of treatment with amitriptyline, citalopram, paroxetine or venlafaxine (all P-gp substrates). The study included patients with mood disorders other than major depression, such as bipolar II; the ratio is 9.4 if these other disorders are excluded. At the 6-week mark, 75% of C-carriers had remitted, compared to only 38% of non-carriers.


title: Venlafaxine

text: The IUPAC name of venlafaxine is 1-[2-(dimethylamino)-1-(4 methoxyphenyl)ethyl]cyclohexanol, though it is sometimes referred to as (±)-1-[a-[a-(dimethylamino)methyl]-"p"-methoxybenzyl]cyclohexanol. It consists of two enantiomers present in equal quantities (termed a racemic mixture), both of which have the empirical formula of CHNO. It is usually sold as a mixture of the respective hydrochloride salts, ("R"/"S")-1-[2-(dimethylamino)-1-(4 methoxyphenyl)ethyl]cyclohexanol hydrochloride, CHClNO, which is a white to off-white crystalline solid. Venlafaxine is structurally and pharmacologically related to the atypical opioid analgesic tramadol, and more distantly to the newly released opioid tapentadol, but not to any of the conventional antidepressant drugs, including tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, MAOIs, or RIMAs.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine extended release is chemically the same as normal venlafaxine. The extended release (controlled release) version distributes the release of the drug into the gastrointestinal tract over a longer period than normal venlafaxine. This results in a lower peak plasma concentration. Studies have shown that the extended release formula has a lower incidence of nausea as a side effect, resulting in better compliance.


title: Venlafaxine

text: Venlafaxine was originally marketed as Effexor in most of the world; generic venlafaxine has been available since around 2008 and extended release venlafaxine has been available since around 2010.


title: Venlafaxine

text: As of January 2020, venlafaxine is marketed under many brand names worldwide, many with alternative extended release forms (not shown): Adefaxin, Alenthus, Altven, Alventa, Amfax, Anapresin, Ansifix, Arafaxina, Argofan, Arrow Venlafaxine, Axone, Axyven, Benolaxe, Blossom, Calmdown, Dalium, Defaxine, Depefex, Depretaxer, Deprevix, Deprexor, Deprixol, Depurol, Desinax, Dislaven, Dobupal, Duofaxin, Easyfor, Ectien, Eduxon, Efastad, Efaxin, Efaxine, Efectin, Efegen, Efevelon, Efevelone, Efexiva, Efexor, Effegad, Effexine, Effexor, Elafax, Elaxine, Elify, Enpress, Enlafax, Envelaf, Falven, Faxigen, Faxine, Faxiprol, Faxiven, Faxolet, Flavix, Flaxen, Fobiless, Ganavax, Idixor, Idoxen, Intefred, Illovex, Lafactin, Lafaxin, Lanvexin, Laroxin, Levest, Limbic, Linexel, Maxibral, Mazda, Melocin, Memomax, Mezine, Neoxacina, Neoxacina, Nervix, Norafexine, Norezor, Norpilen, Noviser, Nulev, Odiven, Olwexya, Oriven, Paxifar, Politid, Pracet, Prefaxine, Psiseven, Quilarex, Rafax, Senexon, Sentidol, Sentosa, Serosmine, Seroxine, Sesaren, Subelan, Sulinex, Sunveniz, Sunvex, Symfaxin, Tedema, Tifaxin, Tonpular, Trevilor, Tudor, Vafexin, Valosine, Vandral, Velaf, Velafax, Velahibin, Velaxin, Velaxor, Velept, Velpine, Venax, Venaxin, Venaxx, Vencarm, Vencontrol, Vendep, Venegis, Venex, Venexor, Venfalex, Venfax, Ven-Fax, Venfaxine, Venforin, Venforspine, Veniba, Veniz, Venjoy, Venla, Venlabax, Venlablue, Venlabrain, Venladep, Venladex, Venladoz, Venlaf, Venlafab, Venlafaxin, Venlafaxina, Venlafaxine, Venlagamma, Venlalic, Venlamax, Venlamylan, Venlaneo, Venlapine, Venla-Q, Venlasand, Venlatrin, Venlavitae, Venlax, Venlaxin, Venlaxine, Venlaxor, Venlazid, Venlectine, Venlifax, Venlift, Venlix, Venlobax, Venlofex, Venlor, Venorion, Venozap, Vensate, Ventab, Venxin, Venxor, Vextor, Venzip, Vexamode, Vfax, Viepax, ViePax, Voxafen, Zacalen, Zanfexa, Zaredrop, Zarelis, Zarelix, and Zenexor.


title: Mezcal

text: Mezcal (, ), sometimes spelled mescal, is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from any type of agave. The word "mezcal" comes from Nahuatl , which means "oven-cooked agave", from and . Traditionally the word "mezcal" has been used generally in Mexico for all agave spirits and it continues to be used for many agave spirits whether these spirits have been legally certified as "mezcal" or not, and it is also considered a drink of artisan origin.


title: Mezcal

text: Agaves or magueys are endemic to the Americas and found globally as ornamental plants. More than 70% of mezcal is made in the Mexican state of Oaxaca, but is now produced and commercialized throughout Mexico for the national and international market. A saying attributed to Oaxaca regarding the drink is: "" ("For all bad, mezcal, and for all good, as well; and if there is no remedy, liter and a half"). Native fermented drinks from maguey plant, such as pulque, existed before the arrival of the Spanish.


title: Mezcal

text: The origin of mezcal is tied to the introduction of distillation technology from Filipino immigrants to Nueva Galicia (present-day Aguascalientes, Colima, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas) in the late 16th century. The distinctive stills originally used for the production of "vino de coco" (coconut sap liquor) from tubâ (coconut sap wine) were acquired and adapted by indigenous peoples in the region to produce mezcal from the fermented juices of agave heart. "Vino de coco" faced severe prohibition from colonial authorities since the early 17th century because they competed with liquor imports from Spain. The ban of "vino de coco" created the ideal circumstances for the commercialization and expansion of mezcal production. Mezcal also became banned shortly after. But they continued to be manufactured clandestinely in remote hard-to-reach areas because they were sourced from readily available wild agave plants and the Philippine-type stills were portable and easy to hide. Mezcal production gradually spread from the coastal regions to the highlands of Jalisco and neighboring regions in the 17th and 18th centuries. A variant from these regions made specifically from the blue agave became the tequila. It spread further to the rest of Mexico and parts of what is now the southern United States via trade routes.


title: Mezcal

text: In the 21st century, mezcal is still made from the heart of the agave plant, called the , in much the same way as it was 200 years ago. In Mexico, mezcal is generally consumed straight and has a strong smoky flavor. Though other types of mezcal are not as popular as tequila, Mexico does export the product, mostly to Japan and the United States, and exports are growing.


title: Mezcal

text: The agave was one of the most sacred plants in pre-Spanish Mexico, and had a privileged position in religious rituals, mythology and the economy. Cooking of the "piña", or heart, of the agave and fermenting its juice was practiced. The origin of this drink has a myth. It is said that a lightning bolt struck an agave plant, cooking and opening it, releasing its juice. For this reason, the liquid is called the "elixir of the gods".


title: Mezcal

text: While fermented drinks from agave (like pulque) is pre-colonial, the distillation of agave heart juice into mezcal was only introduced in the colonial era. The technology for distillation originated from early Filipino immigrants who arrived via the Manila galleons to the coastal regions of Nueva Galicia (present-day Aguascalientes, Colima, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas). From around 1569, they established coconut plantations for the production of tubâ, which were distilled into ""vino de coco"" (coconut sap liquor, called lambanog in the Philippines). This process used a distinctive type of still originating from the Philippines consisting of a hollowed tree trunk with two copper containers ("kawa") covering each end, one of which was placed over a furnace. A side opening held a gutter that collected the distillate. The stills were small, simple to operate, and could be built from locally-sourced materials. This technology and the knowledge of liquor production were acquired by the indigenous peoples who worked in the coconut plantations between 1580 to 1600. They were then applied to distill juice from the fruits of "Agave angustifolia", resulting in the mezcal.


title: Mezcal

text: "Vino de coco" rapidly became highly popular in Nueva Galicia, particularly in the mining towns. By the early 1600s, the Spanish colonial government and the "Real Audiencia" in Spain banned "vino de coco" and issued an order for the destruction of coconut plantations in Colima because it competed with the sales of imported spirits from Spain. Although this wasn't complied with completely, the prohibition of "vino de coco" led to the expansion and commercialization of the production of mezcal to fill the local demand for cheap liquor. The first mention of distilled agave spirits in colonial records is from 1619, by the Spanish cleric Domingo Lázaro de Arregui. He mentions that the indigenous peoples in the coastal regions of the Sierra de Nayarit were distilling ""mexcales"". By 1638, the governor of Nueva Galicia also started to regulate the sale of mezcal. By 1643, there are records of mezcal and "vino de coco" being sold in Guadalajara.


title: Mezcal

text: The production of mezcal moved from the coastal river basins of the Río Grande de Santiago to the inland ravines by the early 1700s to evade the prohibition on spirits production, as well as to take advantage of the larger numbers of wild agave plants in the interiors. The plants used expanded to highland cultivars of "Agave angustifolia", as well as "Agave rhodacantha" in Jalisco, and "Agave hookeri" in Michoacán.


title: Mezcal

text: By the mid-1700s, the production of "vino de coco" had ceased completely due to the prohibition and the loss of coconut plantations. But mezcal liquor survived because they were sourced from abundant wild agaves. The production sites moved to even more remote and difficult-to-access areas in the foothills of the Volcán de Colima, the ravines of the Colima Valley, and in the Chamila Valley. During this period, the first clandestine distilleries in the highlands of Jalisco were also established in the valleys of Amatitán, Tequila, Magdalena, and El Arenal; whose mezcal variant made specifically from blue agave later became the tequila.


title: Mezcal

text: The small size of the Philippine-type stills (consisting mostly of a tree trunk and two copper kettles) made it easy to disassemble and move while evading colonial authorities. The numerous well-like ancient graves cut into the rocks in the region were also coopted as fermentation basins for agave juice. The small size of the still also allowed distillers to produce agave liquor from a very small number of agave plants or even a single plant. These conditions led to the constant selection and vegetative propagation of wild agave plants with the best characteristics for agave liquor production, eventually resulting in the development of domesticated cultivars of agave.


title: Mezcal

text: In Colima, the fermented agave to be distilled into mezcal is still called "tuba". The oldest agave spirits distilleries (called "tabernas" or "viñatas") use Philippine-type stills, many of which are still operational. The technology was also transported through trade routes into Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Sonora, and the rest of Mexico, as well as parts of the southern United States, where modified Philippine-type stills have been reported.


title: Mezcal

text: Travelers during the colonial period of Mexico frequently mention mezcal, usually with an admonition as to its potency. Alexander von Humboldt mentions it in his Political Treatise on the Kingdom of New Spain (1803), noting that a very strong version of mezcal was being manufactured clandestinely in the districts of Valladolid (Morelia), Mexico State, Durango and Nuevo León. He mistakenly observed that mezcal was obtained by distilling pulque, contributing to its myth and mystique. Spanish authorities, though, treated pulque and mezcal as separate products for regulatory purposes.


title: Mezcal

text: Edward S. Curtis described in his seminal work "The North American Indian" the preparation and consumption of mezcal by the Mescalero Apache Indians: "Another intoxicant, more effective than "túlapai", is made from the mescal—not from the sap, according to the Mexican method, but from the cooked plant, which is placed in a heated pit and left until fermentation begins. It is then ground, mixed with water, roots added, and the whole boiled and set aside to complete fermentation. The Indians say its taste is sharp, like whiskey. A small quantity readily produces intoxication." This tradition has recently been revived in the Guadalupe Mountains National Park.


title: Mezcal

text: Internationally, mezcal has been recognized as an Appellation of Origin (AO, DO) since 1994. There is also a Geographical Indication (GI), originally limited to the states of Oaxaca, Guerrero, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Puebla and Zacatecas. Similar products are made in Jalisco, Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Tamaulipas, but these have not been included in the mezcal DO.


title: Mezcal

text: Within Mexico, mezcal is regulated under Norma Oficial Mexicana (NOM) regulations, originally NOM-070-SCFI-1994 (in 1994), by the industry body Consejo Mexicano Regulador de la Calidad del Mezcal A.C. (COMERCAM, the Mexican Regulatory Council for Mezcal Quality). This regulation became law in 2003, and certification began in 2005.


title: Mezcal

text: The regulations have been controversial, not only from small artisanal producers for whom the cost of certification is prohibitive, but also from traditional producers outside the chosen GI states and those producers who believe that the term "mezcal" should not be owned by the state. Uncertified producers are prohibited from using the term "mezcal" on their products. Some producers and importers have responded by labeling their products as "destilados de agave" or "agave spirits", a category now recognized by the United States' TTB and in increasing use.


title: Mezcal

text: In Canada, products that are labelled, packaged, sold or advertised as Mezcal must be manufactured in Mexico as mezcal under the stipulated guidelines. However, Canadian laws also allow for local bottling and resale of imported mezcal, after its alcohol percentage has been adjusted with the addition of distilled or purified water.


title: Mezcal

text: Currently uncertified agave spirits labeled as "destilados de agave" or "agave spirits" can also be bottled in the United States.


title: Mezcal

text: The agave plant is part of the "Agavaceae" family, which has almost 200 species. The mezcal agave has very large, thick leaves with points at the ends. When it is mature, it forms a "piña" or heart in the center from which juice is extracted to convert into mezcal. It takes between seven and fifteen years for the plant to mature, depending on the species and whether it is cultivated or wild. Agave fields are a common sight in the semi-desert areas of Oaxaca state and other parts of Mexico.


title: Mezcal

text: Mezcal is made from over 30 agave species, varieties, and subvarieties, in contrast with tequila, which is made only with blue agave. Of many agave species that can be used to make mezcal, seven are particularly notable. There is no exhaustive list, as the regulations allow any agaves, provided that they are not used as the primary material in other governmental Denominations of Origin. However, the interpretation of this regulation to mean that mezcal "cannot" be made from blue agave may be a mistranslation. The term "silvestre" "wild" is sometimes found, but simply means that the agaves are wild (foraged, not cultivated); it is not a separate variety.


title: Mezcal

text: Most commonly used is "espadín" "smallsword" ("Agave angustifolia" (Haw.), var. "espadín"), the predominant agave in Oaxaca. The next most important are "arroqueño" ("Agave americana" (L.) var. "oaxacensis", sub-variety arroqueño), "cirial" ("Agave karwinskii" (Zucc.)), "barril" ("Agave rodacantha" (Zucc.) var. "barril"), "mexicano" ("Agave macroacantha" or "Agave rhodacantha" var. "mexicano", also called "dobadaan") and "cincoañero" ("Agave canatala" Roxb). The most famous wild agave is "tobalá" ("Agave potatorum" (Zucc.)). Others include "madrecuixe", "tepeztate", and "jabalí". Various other varieties of "Agave karwinskii" are also used, such as bicuixe and madrecuixe.


title: Mezcal

text: Traditionally, mezcal is handcrafted by small-scale producers. A village can contain dozens of production houses, called "fábricas" or "palenques", each using methods that have been passed down from generation to generation, some using the same techniques practiced 200 years ago. This is an important difference with tequila which is nowadays mostly produced industrially.


title: Mezcal

text: The process begins by harvesting the plants, which can weigh each, and extracting the "piña", or heart, by cutting off the plant's leaves and roots. The "piñas" are then cooked for about three days, often in pit ovens, which are earthen mounds over pits of hot rocks. This underground roasting gives mezcal its intense and distinctive smoky flavor. They are then crushed and mashed (traditionally by a stone wheel turned by a horse) and then left to ferment in large vats or barrels with water added.


title: Mezcal

text: The mash is allowed to ferment, the resulting liquid collected and distilled in either clay or copper pots which will further modify the flavor of the final product. The distilled product is then bottled and sold. Unaged mezcal is referred to as "joven", or young. Some of the distilled product is left to age in barrels between one month and four years, but some can be aged for as long as 12 years. Mezcal can reach an alcohol content of 55%. Like tequila, mezcal is distilled twice. The first distillation is known as "ordinario", and comes out at around 75 proof (37.5% alcohol by volume). The liquid must then be distilled a second time to raise the alcohol percentage.


title: Mezcal

text: Mezcal is highly varied, depending on the species of agave used, the fruits and herbs added during fermentation and the distillation process employed, creating subtypes with names such as "de gusano, tobalá, pechuga, blanco, minero, cedrón, de alacran, creme de café" and more. A special recipe for a specific mezcal type known as" pechuga "uses cinnamon, apple, plums, cloves, and other spices that is then distilled through chicken, duck, or turkey breast. It is made when the specific fruits used in the recipe are available, usually during November or December. Other variations flavor the mash with cinnamon, pineapple slices, red bananas, and sugar, each imparting a particular character to the mezcal. Most mezcal, however, is left untouched, allowing the flavors of the agave used to come forward.


title: Mezcal

text: Not all bottles of mezcal contain a "worm" (actually the larva of a moth, "Comadia redtenbacheri", that can infest agave plants), but if added, it is added during the bottling process. There are conflicting stories as to why such a thing would be added. Some state that it is a marketing ploy. Others state that it is there to prove that the mezcal is fit to drink, and still others state that the larva is there to impart flavor.


title: Mezcal

text: The two types of mezcal are those made of 100% agave and those mixed with other ingredients, with at least 80% agave. Both types have four categories. "Joven" (white) mezcal is clear and hardly aged. "Dorado" (golden) is not aged but a coloring agent is added. This is more often done with a mixed mezcal. "Reposado" or "añejado" (aged) is placed in wood barrels from two to nine months. This can be done with 100% agave or mixed mezcals. "Añejo" is aged in barrels for a minimum of 12 months. The best of this type are generally aged from 18 months to three years. If the "añejo" is of 100% agave, it is usually aged for about four years.


title: Mezcal

text: Mexico has about cultivating agave for mezcal, owned by 9,000 producers. Over are produced in Mexico annually, with more than 150 brand names.


title: Mezcal

text: The industry generates about 29,000 jobs directly and indirectly. Certified production amounts to more than ; are exported, generating 21 million dollars in income. To truly be called mezcal, the liquor must come from certain areas. States that have certified mezcal agave growing areas with production facilities are Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosí, Puebla, Michoacan, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas. About 30 species of agave are certified for use in the production of mezcal. Oaxaca has 570 of the 625 mezcal production facilities in Mexico, but some in-demand mezcals come from Guerrero, as well. In Tamaulipas, 11 municipalities have received authorization to produce authentic mezcal with the hopes of competing for a piece of both the Mexican national and international markets. The agave used here is "agave Americano, agave verde" or "maguey de la Sierra", which are native to the state.


title: Mezcal

text: Oaxaca produces 90% of the mezcal in Mexico, which presents a serious environmental threat to the state, according to local deputy Elena Cuevas Hernández. She notes that of water and of firewood are required for the production of of mezcal, which comes to per batch consuming of water and of firewood. In 2019 Oaxaca produced of mezcal and consumed of water and of wood. Water is used both for irrigation of the maguey plants and cooling the distilled product; wood is used to burn the stalks. Certain communities already control or prohibit cutting firewood. The deputy also warns of pollution related to inadequate disposal of rotting stalks left in the fields and pollutants with low pH (3 or 4) and methane (CH). Yet another problem is the low pay that producers receive.


title: Mezcal

text: In Mexico, mezcal is generally drunk straight, rather than mixed in a cocktail. Mezcal is generally not mixed with any other liquids, but is often accompanied with sliced oranges, lemon or lime sprinkled with a mixture of ground fried larvae, ground chili peppers, and salt called "sal de gusano", which literally translates as "worm salt".


title: Mezcal

text: In the US, Europe and Japan, mezcal is increasingly becoming a prominent ingredient on many craft cocktail menus. Often mezcal is swapped for a more traditional spirit, in cocktails such as the "Oaxaca old fashioned" and the "Mezcal Negroni".


title: Mezcal

text: In the 21st century, mezcal, especially from Oaxaca, has been exported. Exportation has been on the increase and government agencies have been helping smaller-scale producers obtain the equipment and techniques needed to produce higher quantities and qualities for export. The National Program of Certification of the Quality of Mezcal certifies places of origin for export products. Mezcal is sold in 27 countries on three continents. The two countries that import the most are the United States and Japan. In the United States, a number of entrepreneurs have teamed up with Mexican producers to sell their products in the country, by promoting its handcrafted quality, as well as the Oaxacan culture strongly associated with it.


title: Mezcal

text: The booming industry has been met with opposition from ecological activists, on 9 March San-Francisco based neozapatismo news outlet Radio Zapatista, released an article on the damage the industry and its mass-production is doing to the environment of the Mixteca Region and the cultures of the region.


title: Mezcal

text: The state of Oaxaca sponsors the International Mezcal Festival every year in the capital city, Oaxaca de Juárez. There, locals and tourists can sample and buy a large variety of mezcals made in the state. Mezcals from other states, such as Guerrero, Guanajuato, and Zacatecas also participate. This festival was started in 1997 to accompany the yearly Guelaguetza festival. In 2009, the festival had over 50,000 visitors, and brought in 4 million pesos to the economy.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: The Kingpin (Wilson Grant Fisk) is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by Stan Lee and John Romita Sr., and first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #50 (cover-dated July 1967). The "Kingpin" name is a reference to the crime lord title in Mafia slang nomenclature.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: One of the most feared, dangerous and powerful crime lords in the Marvel Universe, usually depicted as New York City's crime overlord, he was introduced as an adversary of Spider-Man, but later went on to be the archenemy of Daredevil, as well as a recurring foe of the Punisher and his adoptive daughter Echo. The Kingpin is the husband of Vanessa Fisk and Typhoid Mary Fisk, and the father of Richard Fisk and Butch Pharris, the latter being his successor as Kingpin. His traditional attire consists of his signature white suit jacket and cane, though his appearance has been changed over the years. Across all iterations, the Kingpin is depicted with an extraordinarily heavyset appearance and a bald head. The character is not simply obese but also heavily-muscled (like a sumo wrestler) and a formidable hand-to-hand combatant. While this makes him a dangerous foe to face in person, even to Spider-Man, his size has been regularly mocked.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: The character has been substantially adapted from the comics into various forms of media, including films, television series and video games, portrayed by John Rhys-Davies in the 1989 television film "The Trial of the Incredible Hulk" and by Michael Clarke Duncan in the 2003 feature film "Daredevil" and animated series "". Vincent D'Onofrio portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) franchise, having appeared thus far in the television series "Daredevil" (2015–2018) and the miniseries "Hawkeye" (2021), and scheduled to reprise the role in "Echo" (2023) and "" (2024), while Liev Schreiber voices the Kingpin in the 2018 animated film "". In 2009, the Kingpin was ranked as IGN's 10th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: The Kingpin first appears in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #50 (July 1967), and was created by writer Stan Lee and artist John Romita Sr., who based his physical appearance on actors Sydney Greenstreet and Robert Middleton.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: In his debut story arc in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #50–52, the Kingpin is portrayed purely as a crime lord, albeit one who tends to be unusually hands-on in his criminal dealings. In his subsequent appearances, also written by Lee, he becomes more of a typical supervillain, employing fantastic devices to further his criminal capers. In the early 1980s, the character evolved further. A series of appearances in "Daredevil" by writer/penciler Frank Miller depicted the Kingpin as a scheming, cold-blooded crime lord who consistently stayed beyond the reach of the law. This remained the character's dominant form for decades as the Kingpin became widely regarded as Daredevil's archenemy. He continues to be a recurring opponent of Spider-Man, Daredevil, Hawkeye, Echo, and the Punisher.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Wilson Grant Fisk began his life as a poor child in New York City, bullied by his classmates due to his obesity. Fisk began training himself in physical combat, using his new-found strength to form a gang of his former tormentors that terrorized the surrounding neighborhoods. He was eventually discovered by mob boss Don Rigoletto, who hired him and his best friend as bodyguards, and Fisk worked his way up until he became Rigoletto's right-hand man. He then turned on his mentor, eliminating him and taking control of his men and business interests, before expanding his new empire until he had become one of the most powerful figures in New York's criminal underworld, earning the name "Kingpin".


title: Kingpin (character)

text: While the Kingpin enjoyed a long tenure in his new position, he also garnered enemies in the form of the Maggia and the terrorist group Hydra. The two groups joined forces to attack Fisk's empire, causing him to flee to Japan after losing most of his assets. There, he started a legitimate spice exporting business and used the profits to return to New York, organizing his old followers and starting a war to destroy the Maggia. The resulting chaos allowed Fisk to easily step back in and gain back everything he had lost.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Fisk attempted to form a coalition of New York's crime families after hearing that the vigilante Spider-Man had disappeared and ordered the abduction of J. Jonah Jameson to silence his reporting on the Kingpin's crimes, but Spider-Man returned and foiled his plans, in what became Fisk's first confrontation with the web-slinger.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: To avoid public scrutiny of his criminal activities, Fisk cultivated an image of himself as a legitimate businessman and a kind-hearted philanthropist who made donations to charities. He eventually met and then married a woman named Vanessa, with whom he had a son named Richard. Vanessa did not know that her future husband was a criminal when they married. When she finally learned who he really was, she threatened to leave him if he did not give up his life of crime. The Kingpin gave up his criminal empire, moving his family to Japan to protect them from his enemies. As time passed, however, he found himself unable to adjust to civilian life and became the Kingpin once more, this time with his wife's knowledge.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Richard did not find out that his father was a criminal until he attended college. After graduating, he told his parents that he intended to travel through Europe. Only months later, they received news that their son had died in a skiing accident. However, it turned out that Richard was still alive; he returned to New York, used a costume and mask to disguise himself as a mysterious new crime lord calling himself the "Schemer", and formed his own gang to destroy his father's empire. Fisk came back into conflict with Spider-Man as he worked to stop the Schemer.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: At one point, he became the manager and director of a Las Vegas-based fragment of HYDRA despite their past opposition to his rule.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: At his wife's behest, Fisk later permanently divested himself of his criminal empire. He unsuccessfully attempted to kill Spider-Man once more before stepping down as the Kingpin, swearing to never again return to crime.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: To complete his reformation, the Kingpin agreed to turn over all of his records to the authorities so they could prosecute his former lieutenants. His wife Vanessa was subsequently kidnapped by the men he betrayed, who then put out a contract on his life. After witnessing Vanessa's apparent death, Fisk returned to a life of crime. He quickly regained control by taking advantage of his knowledge of the weaknesses of all of New York's criminal organizations, and made a promise to keep the East Coast stable to stop crime bosses from the Midwest from expanding into his territory. The Kingpin also gained the loyalty of infamous assassin Bullseye by promising him steady work. When Daredevil stole his records, the Kingpin did nothing to stop him, plotting to get his old allies arrested so he could select more compliant replacements. Daredevil realized this in time to stop himself from turning over the records, frustrating the Kingpin's plans. Kingpin maneuvered Daredevil into battling the Hand, hoping to get him killed. He secretly promoted corrupt mayoral candidate Randolph Cherryh, and hired the services of Elektra Natchios. Daredevil found Vanessa alive but amnesiac, and used her as leverage to force Kingpin to end his support for Cherryh. As retribution, he sent Elektra to kill Foggy Nelson (Daredevil's friend), but Elektra failed and was killed by Bullseye.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: The Kingpin learned Daredevil's secret identity through information passed on from Karen Page, Daredevil's ex-girlfriend who was now a pornographic film actress addicted to drugs. The Kingpin used his influence to destroy Matt Murdock's civilian and professional life. Enamored with the results of his own scheme, he became increasingly obsessed with ruining Daredevil's legacy. This led to a series of events that included brutalizing respected crime reporter Ben Urich, having his employees James Wesley and Felix Manning assault Daredevil's confidant, dirty cop Nick Manolis, and sending the homicidal Nuke into Hell's Kitchen. Nuke's rampage killed dozens of people, and the Kingpin was implicated. Though he avoided prison, his reputation was shattered and the image of respectability he had carefully built was ruined.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Kingpin was sought out by the Black Cat (who was dating Spider-Man at the time), and became concerned that her lack of powers would make the woman a liability to him. He therefore arranged to have scientists on his payroll provide her with defensive "bad luck" powers that cause mishap to befall anyone who attempts to harm her in combat but also hurt and eventually kill anyone who stays close to her for too long. The Kingpin hoped that this would lead to Spider-Man's death, but Spider-Man and the Black Cat ultimately broke up instead. Shortly after, Fisk was attacked by Spider-Man. Fisk later had his scientists create the supervillains the Answer, and the Spot, to battle Spider-Man and the Black Cat so they would not interfere further with his operations.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Fisk later rehires Bullseye to look into the parties responsible for a major drug war in New York and survives an assassination attempt by Crossbones. In retaliation, he sends Bullseye to assassinate the Red Skull (Crossbones's employer). The attempt fails, and the Kingpin instead defeats the Red Skull (in a clone of Captain America's body) in personal combat.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Fisk subsequently purchases his own cable television station, partnering with a wealthy millionaire from Texas that the Kingpin thinks can be easily manipulated. However, the "millionaire" is actually a spy planted by HYDRA. Learning of this from Nick Fury, Daredevil spreads rumors among New York's criminal outfits that the Kingpin had become a stooge of HYDRA, weakening his credibility and influence. HYDRA operatives steal most of the Kingpin's fortune, deprive him of income by dismantling his businesses, and send a helicopter gunship to destroy his skyscraper offices. With his empire crumbling, the Kingpin is indicted on federal charges, and Daredevil tricks him into committing assault and battery when he tries to escape via Manhattan's Port Authority Bus Terminal. Bailed out of jail by a rival, Fisk finally snaps when he learns that his benefactor intends to use him as an "errand boy". He kills him, and becomes a fugitive.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: The Kingpin regains his sanity and has a small role in "Marvel vs. DC" when he purchases the "Daily Planet", firing Perry White and replacing him with J. Jonah Jameson. He also bullies workers, especially Lois Lane, who threatens to expose him as the Kingpin. Eventually, he is confronted by his angry staff but is defeated when Spider-Man (Ben Reilly) and Superboy (Kon-El) arrive before he can do any significant damage. At the end of the crossover, the universes are restored and everyone is returned home.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Fisk returns to Japan and focuses on rebuilding his empire while fighting the X-Men and Shang-Chi, Kingpin became leader of Shang-Chi's father's organization, Si-Fan, introducing a clan of cyborg ninjas named Cyber-Ninjas. He returns to New York and resumes his criminal activities as Kingpin. Still under Kingpin's command, Si-Fan faces Shang-Chi and Elektra.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: While in Japan, Fisk manipulates his adoptive daughter Maya Lopez (Echo) into thinking that Daredevil killed her biological father (although Fisk was actually responsible) to incite Daredevil's death. However, his plan backfires when Daredevil convinces Maya of the truth, and Lopez shoots the Kingpin in the eyes in retaliation, rendering him blind. Fisk eventually loses his criminal empire to Samuel Silke (one of his employees who works with Richard) in a bloody assassination bid, using the Kingpin's new status as a blind man to rally supporters. In the aftermath, Vanessa kills Richard and flees the country with Fisk's remaining wealth while the Kingpin recuperates in an unnamed East European country, broken and alone. He is given an eye transplant which restores his eyesight. He eventually confronts Silke and fatally crushes the man's head, almost manages to regain his empire through sheer will, but is defeated by Daredevil (who declares himself the new Kingpin). Fisk is imprisoned as a result.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: He later hatches a scheme to be freed and regain his wealth by giving the FBI proof in the form of the nonexistent "Murdock Papers" that Murdock is Daredevil. Having made so many enemies in prison, Fisk is constantly under attack from the Hand, HYDRA, and any number of criminal organizations with which he had had dealings. The U.S. government is hard-pressed to get rid of this expensive, dangerous, legally clean master criminal, and Fisk succeeds in manipulating the FBI into gravely wounding Daredevil and providing them a sample of Daredevil's DNA. He tells Ben Urich to give the federal government the location of the Night Nurse, the only medic for injured superheroes, or go to jail.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Kingpin finally succeeds in getting Matt Murdock arrested, but the FBI betrays him at the last minute and arrests him as well, placing him in the same jail as Murdock in the hopes that the two will kill each other; instead, the two enemies team up to survive a prison riot directed at them. Finally, Murdock sacrifices the deal, refusing to let Bullseye (who was also incarcerated) leave the prison as the Kingpin had planned. The fight ends with the Kingpin shot point-blank in the knee by gunfire from Bullseye intended for Murdock, while Murdock escapes; a dying Vanessa is revealed to have manipulated events to attempt to have them both killed, while mourning her son's death.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Fisk appears in the 2006 "Civil War: War Crimes" one-shot issue, in which he offers information about Captain America's Resistance base to Iron Man, the leader of the pro-Registration forces in exchange for a reduced sentence. But as his status in prison is threatened for collaborating with Iron Man, he betrays Iron Man. He then puts out a hit on Spider-Man's loved ones after Iron Man convinced Peter Parker to publicly reveal himself as a means of demonstrating support for the Superhuman Registration Act. This results in May Parker being gravely wounded by a sniper's attempt to kill Spider-Man. After tracing the event back to Kingpin, Spider-Man confronts the Kingpin in prison and badly beats him in front of his fellow inmates. Spider-Man decides to let the Kingpin live with the humiliation of his defeat, news of which will quickly spread through the Underworld. Parker vows, however, to kill the Kingpin if May dies.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: In the 2007 "" storyline, which ends with the undoing from history of Peter and Mary Jane Watson's marriage and Spider-Man's real identity public revelation, all memories on the part of the public that Spider-Man is Peter is removed, including the Kingpin's.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: Murdock returns to the United States with a cleared name and completes Vanessa's last wish and takes on Fisk's case, getting all charges dropped in exchange for Fisk leaving the country, giving up his American citizenship and his agreement to end his vendetta with Daredevil. Although the charges were dropped due to the evidence being deemed inadmissible in court, Murdock delays the case enough so Fisk is unable to attend his wife's funeral. The mournful Fisk is later seen visiting his wife's grave, before temporarily returning to New York to resolve some loose ends.


title: Kingpin (character)

text: In a 2007–2008 storyline in the series "Runaways", Fisk meets with the Runaways, revealing he knew all about their parents since they ruled Los Angeles with efficiency and vision; he never tried to take their territory, nor did they invade his. He makes a deal with the Runaways to secure a mysterious object for him in exchange for protection from the government. He and his army of ninjas are defeated when the Runaways refuse to give it to him after stealing the object, discovering what Fisk wanted was a device invented by the Pride. It is later revealed that Fisk was hired by elderly woman Lillie McGurty who orchestrated the events so the Runaways can travel back to 1907 and ensure that the woman would come back to the present with them, which her past self declined.