title: Stuttgart

text: The "Archive instigator" is dedicated to the dead of the city. Since 2005, the instigators are working on a memoir about "The dead town". So far, about 5,000 names of victims of the regime of National Socialism have been acquired.


title: Stuttgart

text: There are two large tours that are available to visitors to Stuttgart. The first is the Hop-on Hop-off bus tour (also called the CityTour Stuttgart), lasting from 10 AM to 4 PM that takes visitors around the city. The other is the Neckar-Käpt'n, only available from May to October, which cruises on the Neckar river from its dock at Wilhelma in Bad Cannstatt.


title: Stuttgart

text: The population of Stuttgart declined steadily between 1960 (637,539) and 2000 (586,978). Then low levels of unemployment and attractive secondary education opportunities led to renewed population growth, fuelled especially by young adults from the former East Germany. For the first time in decades, in 2006 there were also more births in the city than deaths. In April 2008 there were 590,720 inhabitants in the city.


title: Stuttgart

text: More than half of the population today is not of Swabian background, as many non-Swabian Germans have moved here due to the employment situation, which is far better than in most areas of Germany. Since the 1960s, many foreigners have also immigrated to Stuttgart to work here (as part of the "Gastarbeiter" program); another wave of immigrants came as refugees from the Wars in Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Thus, 40% of the city's population is of foreign background. In 2000, 22.8% of the population did not hold German citizenship, in 2006 this had reduced to 21.7%. by end of 2018 the largest groups of foreign nationals were Turks (17,900), Greeks (13,757), Italians (14,021), Croats (15,268), Serbs (5,844) followed by immigrants from Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Portugal, Poland, France, and Austria. 39% of foreign nationals come from the European Union (mostly Italy, Greece, and Poland).


title: Stuttgart

text: The religious landscape in Stuttgart changed in 1534 as a direct result of the Reformation. Since this time Württemberg has been predominantly Protestant. However, since 1975 the number of Protestants in Stuttgart has dropped from around 300,000 to 200,000. In 2014, 26.2% of inhabitants were Protestant and 24.0% were Roman Catholic. 49.8% of the population fell into other categories: Muslims, Jews and those who either followed no religion or one not accounted for in official statistics.


title: Stuttgart

text: Unemployment in the Stuttgart Region is above the average of Baden-Württemberg, but very low compared to other metropolitan areas in Germany. In November 2008, before the annual winter rise, unemployment in the Stuttgart Region stood at 3.8%, 0.1% lower than the rate for Baden-Württemberg, in February 2009 it was 4.7%. Unemployment in the actual city of Stuttgart during the same periods stood at 5.2% and 6.0% (8 Nov and 9 Feb respectively). By comparison: unemployment for the whole of Germany stood at 7.1% (8 Nov) and 8.5% (9 Feb).


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart ranks as one of the safest cities in Germany. In 2003, 8535 crimes were committed in Stuttgart for every 100,000 inhabitants (versus the average for all German cities of 12,751). Figures for 2006 indicate that Stuttgart ranked second behind Munich. 60% of Stuttgart crimes were solved in 2003, ranking second behind Nuremberg.


title: Stuttgart

text: When Stuttgart was run as a (or within) the Duchy of Württemberg, it was governed by a type of protectorate called a Vogt appointed by the Duke. After 1811 this role was fulfilled by a City Director or 'Stadtdirektor'. After 1819 the community elected its own community mayor or 'Schultheiß'. Since 1930 the title of Oberbürgermeister (the nearest equivalent of which would be an executive form of lord mayor in English) has applied to Stuttgart and all other Württemberg towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants.


title: Stuttgart

text: At the end of the Second World War, French administrators appointed the independent politician Arnulf Klett as Burgomaster, a role he fulfilled without interruption until his death in 1974. Since this time Stuttgart has mainly been governed by the CDU. One former mayor was Manfred Rommel (son of perhaps the most famous German field marshal of World War II, Erwin Rommel).


title: Stuttgart

text: As the capital of Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart is an important political centre in Germany and the seat of the State Parliament, or Landtag as well as all Baden-Württemberg state departments.


title: Stuttgart

text: In June 2009, for the first time the Greens gained the most seats in a German city with more than 500,000 inhabitants, effectively changing the balance of power in the city council. For the first time since 1972 the CDU no longer held the most seats, toppling its absolute majority shared with the Independent Party and the FDP. According to the German newspaper Die Welt, the main reason for the Greens' victory was disgruntlement with the controversial Stuttgart 21 rail project.


title: Stuttgart

text: The current mayor of Stuttgart is Frank Nopper of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) since 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 8 November 2020, with a runoff held on 29 November, and the results were as follows:


title: Stuttgart

text: The Stuttgart city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows:


title: Stuttgart

text: The city of Stuttgart is administratively divided into 23 city districts – five "inner" districts and 18 "outer" districts. Each district has a council headed by a district director. From there, the districts are broken down into quarters. Since the changes in city statutes on 1 July 2007 and 1 January 2009, the total number of quarters rose to 152.


title: Stuttgart

text: The Stuttgart area is known for its high-tech industry. Some of its most prominent companies include Mercedes-Benz Group, Porsche, Robert Bosch GmbH, McKesson Europe, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and Sika AG – all of whom have their world or European headquarters here.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart is home to Germany's ninth biggest exhibition center, Stuttgart Trade Fair, which lies on the city outskirts next to Stuttgart Airport. Hundreds of SMEs are still based in Stuttgart (often termed "Mittelstand"), many still in family ownership with strong ties to the automotive, electronics, engineering and high-tech industry.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart has the highest general standard of prosperity of any city in Germany. Its nominal GDP per capita is €57,100 and GDP purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita is €55,400. Total GDP of Stuttgart is €33.9 billion, of which service sector contributes around 65.3%, industry 34.5%, and agriculture 0.2%.


title: Stuttgart

text: The automobile and motorcycle were purported to have been invented in Stuttgart (by Karl Benz and subsequently industrialized in 1887 by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach at the Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft). As a result, it is considered to be the starting point of the worldwide automotive industry and is sometimes referred to as the 'cradle of the automobile'. Today, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche both have their headquarters in Stuttgart, as well as automotive parts giants Bosch and Mahle. A number of auto-enthusiast magazines are published in Stuttgart.


title: Stuttgart

text: The region currently has Germany's highest density of scientific, academic and research organisations. No other region in Germany registers so many patents and designs as Stuttgart. 45% of Baden-Württemberg's R&D capacities are concentrated in the Swabian capital. More than 11% of all German R&D costs are invested in the Stuttgart region (approximately 4.3 billion euros per year). In addition to several universities and colleges (e.g. University of Stuttgart, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart Institute of Management and Technology and several Stuttgart Universities of Applied Sciences), the area is home to six Fraunhofer institutes, four institutes of collaborative industrial research at local universities, two Max-Planck institutes and a major establishment of the German Aerospace Centre (DLR).


title: Stuttgart

text: The Stuttgart Stock Exchange is the second largest in Germany (after Frankfurt). Many leading companies in the financial services sector are headquartered in Stuttgart with around 100 credit institutes in total (e.g. LBBW Bank, Wüstenrot & Württembergische, Allianz Life Assurance).


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart is the only city in Germany where wine grapes are grown within the urban area, mainly in the districts of Rotenberg, Uhlbach and Untertürkheim.


title: Stuttgart

text: Wine-growing in the area dates back to 1108 when, according to State archives, Blaubeuren Abbey was given vineyards in Stuttgart as a gift from 'Monk Ulrich'. In the 17th century the city was the third largest German wine-growing community in the Holy Roman Empire. Wine remained Stuttgart's leading source of income well into the 19th century.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart is still one of Germany's largest wine-growing cities with more than 400 hectares of vine area, thanks in main to its location at the center of Germany's fourth largest wine region, the Württemberg wine growing area which covers and is one of only 13 official areas captured under German Wine law. The continuing importance of wine to the local economy is marked every year at the annual wine festival ('Weindorf').


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart also has several famous breweries such as Stuttgarter Hofbräu, Dinkelacker, and Schwaben Bräu.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart and its region have been home to some significant figures of German thought and literature, the most important ones being Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Schiller and Friedrich Hölderlin.


title: Stuttgart

text: The city, in its engineering tradition as the cradle of the automobile, has also always been a fruitful place of research and innovation. Stuttgart has Germany's second-highest number of institutions (six) of applied research of the Fraunhofer Society (after Dresden).


title: Stuttgart

text: The city is not considered a traditional university city, but nevertheless has a variety of institutions of higher education. The most significant of them are:


title: Stuttgart

text: Historically, an elite military academy existed in Stuttgart in the late 18th century (1770–1794), the Hohe Karlsschule, at Solitude Castle. Friedrich Schiller and the city's most famous Classicist architect, Nikolaus Friedrich von Thouret, were among its many esteemed alumni.


title: Stuttgart

text: The first Waldorf School (also known as Rudolf Steiner School) was founded here in 1919 by the director of the Waldorf Astoria tobacco factory, Emil Molt, and Austrian social thinker Rudolf Steiner, a comprehensive school following Steiner's educational principles of anthroposophy and humanistic ideals. Today, four of these schools are located in Stuttgart.


title: Stuttgart

text: Since 1985 Stuttgart is home to the International School of Stuttgart, one of fewer than 100 schools worldwide that offer all three International Baccalaureate programs- the IB Primary Years (Early Learning to Grade 5), IB Middle Years (Grade 6 to 10), IB Diploma (grades 11–12). The International School of Stuttgart is accredited by both the Council of International Schools and the New England Association of Schools and Colleges.


title: Stuttgart

text: One of the headquarters of the public Südwestrundfunk (SWR; "Southwest Broadcasting") channels (several radio and one TV channel; regional focus on the southwestern German States of Baden-Württemberg and Rhineland-Palatinate) is located in Stuttgart (the other ones being Baden-Baden and Mainz). It also has a "Landesmedienzentrum", a state media center.


title: Stuttgart

text: Furthermore, the city is a significant centre of publishing and specialist printing, with renowned houses such as Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group, (schoolbooks), Kohlhammer Verlag, Metzler Verlag and Motor Presse having their head offices there. The Reclam Verlag is located in nearby Ditzingen.


title: Stuttgart

text: The newspapers "Stuttgarter Zeitung" (StZ; regional, with significant supra-regional, national and international sections) and Stuttgarter Nachrichten (StN; regional) are published here as well as a number of smaller, local papers such as "Cannstatter Zeitung".


title: Stuttgart

text: As is the case wherever the US military is stationed, there is an American Forces Network (AFN) station. It transmits on FM on 102.3 MHz from Fernmeldeturm Frauenkopf and on AM on 1143 kHz from Hirschlanden transmitter.


title: Stuttgart

text: Following the suit of other German cities such as Berlin, Cologne and Hanover, on 1 March 2008 a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) came into effect in Stuttgart with the aim of improving air quality. This affects all vehicles entering the Stuttgart 'Environmental zone' ("Umweltzone"), including vehicles from abroad.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart has a light rail system known as the Stuttgart Stadtbahn. In the city center and densely built-up areas, the Stadtbahn runs underground. Stations are signposted with a 'U' symbol, which stands for "Untergrundbahn" (underground rail). Until 2007, Stuttgart also operated regular trams. Stuttgart also has a large bus network. Stadtbahn lines and buses are operated by the Stuttgarter Straßenbahnen AG (SSB). The outlying suburbs of Stuttgart and nearby towns are served by a suburban railway system called the Stuttgart S-Bahn, using tracks supplied by the national Deutsche Bahn AG (DB).


title: Stuttgart

text: A peculiarity of Stuttgart is the "Zahnradbahn", a rack railway that is powered by electricity and operates between Marienplatz in the southern inner-city district of the city and the district of Degerloch. It is the only urban rack railway in Germany. Stuttgart also has a "Standseilbahn", a funicular railway that operates in the Heslach area and the forest cemetery (Waldfriedhof). In Killesberg Park, on a prominent hill overlooking the city, there is the miniature railway run by diesel (and on weekends with steam).


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart is a hub in the Intercity-Express and Intercity networks of Deutsche Bahn AG (DB), with through services to most other major German cities. It also operates international services to Strasbourg, Vienna, Zürich and Paris (five times a day, journey time 3 hours 11 minutes).


title: Stuttgart

text: Long-distance trains stop at Stuttgart Hauptbahnhof, the city's main line terminus, which is also used by Interregio-Express, Regional-Express and Regionalbahn trains for services to stations in the Stuttgart metropolitan area. The local rail networks (see above) operate underneath the terminus.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart also has its own rail freight centre with marshalling yards and a container terminal in the Obertürkheim area of Hedelfingen.


title: Stuttgart

text: After years of political debate and controversy, plans were approved in October 2007 to convert the existing above-ground main train station to an underground through station. The "Stuttgart 21 project" will include the rebuilding of surface and underground lines connecting the station in Stuttgart's enclosed central valley with existing railway and underground lines. Building work started in 2010 with controversial modifications to the Hauptbahnhof and was slated to be completed in 2019, then 2021 and now 2025.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart is served by Stuttgart Airport (, IATA airport code "STR"), an international airport approximately south of the city centre on land belonging mainly to neighboring towns. It takes 30 minutes to reach the airport from the city center using S-Bahn lines S2 or S3 or Stadtbahn line U6. Stuttgart airport is Germany's only international airport with one runway. Despite protests and local initiatives, surveys are currently underway to assess the impact of a second runway.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart is served by Autobahn A8, that runs east–west from Karlsruhe to Munich, and Autobahn A81 that runs north–south from Würzburg to Singen. The Autobahn A831 is a short spur entering the southern side of Stuttgart.


title: Stuttgart

text: Besides these Autobahns, Stuttgart is served by a large number of expressways, many of which are built to Autobahn standards, and were once intended to carry an A-number. Important expressways like B10, B14, B27 and B29 connect Stuttgart with its suburbs. Due to the hilly surroundings, there are many road tunnels in and around Stuttgart. There are also a number of road tunnels under intersections in the center of Stuttgart.


title: Stuttgart

text: As in many parts of Germany, football is the most popular sport in Stuttgart which is home to 'The Reds' and 'The Blues'. 'The Reds', VfB Stuttgart, are the most famous and popular local club. An established team currently playing in the German Bundesliga, VfB was founded in 1893 and has won five German titles since 1950, most recently in 1992 and 2007. VfB is based at the Mercedes-Benz Arena in Bad Cannstatt.


title: Stuttgart

text: 'The Blues', Stuttgarter Kickers, are the second most important football team. They currently play in the Regionalliga Südwest (fourth division) at the smaller Gazi Stadium close to the TV tower in Degerloch.


title: Stuttgart

text: Other lower-division football teams are "Sportfreunde Stuttgart" – most famous for taking part in the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy in 1908, considered the first "World Cup" – and FV Zuffenhausen.


title: Stuttgart

text: TV Bittenfeld has been playing in the men's Handball-Bundesliga since the 2015–2016 season under the name TVB 1898 Stuttgart. The home venue is the Scharrena Stuttgart, part of the home games also take place in the Porsche-Arena for capacity reasons. VfL Pfullingen/Stuttgart played in the Bundesliga from 2001 to 2006, where they played their home games in the Hanns-Martin-Schleyer-Halle. In the 1990–1991 season, SG Stuttgart-Scharnhausen also played in the Bundesliga.


title: Stuttgart

text: Since 2008, the women's volleyball team Allianz MTV Stuttgart (until 2010 Allianz Volley Stuttgart, until 2012 Smart Allianz Stuttgart) plays in the Deutsche Volleyball-Bundesliga. They became German champions in 2019, having previously been runners-up four times in a row from 2015 to 2018, and also won the German cup three times. CJD Feuerbach was German champion in women's volleyball three times. The club withdrew its first team from the Bundesliga in 1996 for financial reasons.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart has two major ice hockey teams. Stuttgart Rebels EC, plays in the "Landesliga" (4th tier) at the Waldau ice rink in Degerloch. The Bietigheim Bissingen Steelers play in the first division of the DEL. The Steelers play in the new Ege Trans Arena in Bietigheim.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart has three American Football teams: the Stuttgart Silver Arrows, who play in the Regionalliga Südwest, and the Stuttgart Scorpions as part of the German Football League, who play in Stuttgarter Kickers' Gazi Stadium. With Stuttgart Surge a third team was founded in 2021 as part of the European League of Football (ELF) and is likewise supposed to play in the Gazi Stadium.


title: Stuttgart

text: Australian Football is practiced by the Stuttgart Emus – one of only six active teams in Germany. It participates in the Australian Football League Germany when they play their home games in the Eberhard-Bauer-Stadion.


title: Stuttgart

text: TC Weissenhof is a Stuttgart-based women's tennis team that has won the German championship four times. Another women's team is TEC Waldau Stuttgart (German champions in 2006).


title: Stuttgart

text: HTC Stuttgarter Kickers is one of the most successful field hockey clubs in Germany, having won the German championship in 2005 and a European title in 2006.


title: Stuttgart

text: Stuttgart has a reputation for staging major events, including the FIFA World Cup 1974, the finals stages of the FIBA EuroBasket 1985, the UEFA Euro 1988, and the World Championships in Athletics 1993. It was also one of the twelve host cities of the FIFA World Cup 2006. Six matches, three of them second round matches, including the third and fourth place playoff, were played at the Gottlieb Daimler Stadium (today Mercedes-Benz Arena). Stuttgart was also 2007 European Capital of Sport, hosting events such as the UCI World Cycling Championships Road Race and the IAAF World Athletics Final.


title: Stuttgart

text: Other famous sports venues are the Weissenhof tennis courts, where the annual Mercedes Cup tennis tournament is played, the Porsche Arena (hosting tennis, basketball and handball) and the Schleyerhalle (boxing, equestrianism/show jumping, gymnastics, track cycling etc.), Scharrena Stuttgart.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The 1966 FIFA World Cup was the eighth FIFA World Cup, a quadrennial football tournament for men's senior national teams. It was played in England from 11 July to 30 July 1966. The England national football team defeated West Germany 4-2 in the final to win the tournament. The final had finished at 2–2 after 90 minutes and went to extra time, when Geoff Hurst scored two goals to complete his hat-trick, the first to be scored in a men's World Cup final. England were the fifth nation to win the event, and the third host nation to win after Uruguay in 1930 and Italy in 1934. Brazil were the defending champions, but they failed to progress from the group stage.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Two debut teams performed well at the competition – North Korea beat Italy 1–0 on the way to reaching the quarter-finals, where they lost to Portugal 5–3 after leading 3–0. Portugal themselves finished third, losing 2–1 to England in the semi-final. Portuguese striker Eusébio was the tournament's top scorer, with nine goals clinching the golden boot with three goals more than second placed Helmut Haller.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The 1966 World Cup was the first FIFA World Cup held in the English-speaking world. Matches were played at eight stadiums across England, with the final being held at Wembley Stadium, which had a capacity of 98,600. The 1966 event featured the highest number of teams of any international tournament to date, with 70 nations participating.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: All 15 African nations who entered the qualifying later boycotted the tournament in protest after FIFA, citing competitive and logistical issues, ruled that there would be no direct qualification for an African team. Prior to the tournament, the Jules Rimet trophy was stolen, but was recovered by a dog named Pickles four months before the tournament began. It was the first World Cup to have selected matches broadcast via satellite to countries on other continents. The final, which was broadcast locally by the BBC, was the last to be shown entirely in black and white.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: England was chosen as host of the 1966 World Cup in Rome, Italy on 22 August 1960, over rival bids from West Germany and Spain. This is the first tournament to be held in a country that was affected directly by World War II, as the four previous tournaments were either held in countries out of war theatres or in neutral countries.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Despite the Africans' absence, there was another new record number of entries for the qualifying tournament, with 70 nations taking part. After all the arguments, FIFA finally ruled that ten teams from Europe would qualify, along with four from South America, one from Asia and one from North and Central America.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Portugal and North Korea qualified for the first time. Portugal would not qualify again until 1986, while North Korea's next appearance was at the 2010 tournament. This was also Switzerland's last World Cup finals until 1994. Notable absentees from this tournament included 1962 runners-up Czechoslovakia and semi-finalists Yugoslavia.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The mascot for the 1966 competition was "World Cup Willie", a lion wearing a Union Jack jersey emblazoned with the words "WORLD CUP". This was the first World Cup mascot, and one of the first mascots to be associated with a major sporting competition. Willie was designed by freelance children's book illustrator Reg Hoye. The official match ball was produced by Slazenger for the tournament.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Thirty-one African nations boycotted the tournament to protest a 1964 FIFA ruling that required the three second-round winners from the African zone to enter a play-off round against the winners of the Asian zone in order to qualify for the World Cup, as they felt winning their zone was enough in itself to merit qualification. The Confederation of African Football (CAF) felt that the representation of African nations in the World Cup was unfair, and so they demanded that FIFA guarantee at least one African nation a spot in the finals of the following tournament. They also protested against the readmission of South Africa to FIFA in 1963, despite its expulsion from the CAF due to the Apartheid regime in 1958. As a result of this boycott, FIFA fined CAF 5,000 Swiss francs. Yidnekatchew Tessema, then president of the CAF, responded to this punishment by saying, "FIFA has adopted a relentless attitude against the African Associations and its decisions resemble methods of intimidation and repression designed to discourage any further impulses of a similar nature. In our opinion, the African National Associations ... really deserved a gesture of respect rather than a fine."


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: South Africa was subsequently assigned to the Asia and Oceania qualifying group before being disqualified after being suspended again due to pressure from other African nations in October 1964. Despite this, after FIFA refused to change the qualifying format, the African teams decided anyway to pull out of the World Cup until at least one African team had a place assured in the World Cup, something which was put in place for the 1970 FIFA World Cup and all subsequent World Cup finals. The Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique participated for Portugal.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The 1966 World Cup had a rather unusual hero off the field, a dog called Pickles. In the build-up to the tournament, the Jules Rimet trophy was stolen from an exhibition display. A nationwide hunt for the icon ensued. It was later discovered wrapped in newspaper as the dog sniffed under some bushes in London. The FA commissioned a replica cup in case the original cup was not found in time. This replica, as well as Pickles' collar, is held at the National Football Museum in Manchester, where it is on display.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: West Germany encouraged and covered up a culture of doping across many sports for decades. The report, titled "Doping in Germany from 1950 to today", links the West German national team of 1966, which reached the World Cup final, with doping.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The format of the 1966 competition remained the same as 1962: 16 qualified teams were divided into four groups of four. Each group played a round-robin format. Two points were awarded for a win and one point for a draw, with goal average used to separate teams equal on points. The top two teams in each group advanced to the knockout stage.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: In the knockout games, if the teams were tied after 90 minutes, 30 minutes of extra time were played. For any match other than the final, if the teams were still tied after extra time, lots would be drawn to determine the winner. The final would have been replayed if tied after extra time; but if still tied after the replay, the champion would have been decided by drawing lots. In the event, no replays or drawing of lots was necessary.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The draw for the final tournament, taking place on 6 January 1966 at the Royal Garden Hotel in London was the first ever to be televised, with England, West Germany, Brazil and Italy as seeds.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Eight venues were used for this World Cup. The newest and biggest venue used was Wembley Stadium in north London, which was 43 years old in 1966. As was often the case in the World Cup, group matches were played in two venues in close proximity to each other. Group 1 matches (which included the hosts) were all played in London: five at Wembley, which was England's national stadium and was considered to be the most important football venue in the world; and one at White City Stadium in west London, which was used as a temporary replacement for nearby Wembley. The group stage match between Uruguay and France played at White City Stadium (originally built for the 1908 Summer Olympics) was scheduled for a Friday, the same day as regularly scheduled greyhound racing at Wembley. Because Wembley's owner refused to cancel this, the game had to be moved to the alternative venue in London. Group 2's matches were played at Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield and Villa Park in Birmingham; Group 3's matches were played at Old Trafford in Manchester and Goodison Park in Liverpool; and Group 4's matches were played at Ayresome Park in Middlesbrough and Roker Park in Sunderland. The stadium construction cost are estimated to be today's equivalent of 19.2 million GBP, additional to 36.22 million GBP for tournament organisation.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The most used venue was Wembley, which was used for nine matches, including all six featuring England, the final and the third-place match. Goodison Park was used for five matches, Roker Park and Hillsborough both hosted four, while Old Trafford, Villa Park and Ayresome Park each hosted three matches and did not host any knockout round matches.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The opening match took place on Monday 11 July. With the exception of the first tournament, which commenced on 13 July 1930, every other tournament (up to 2018) has commenced in May or June. Before the tournament began, eventual winners England were 9/2 second favourites with bookmakers behind Brazil (9/4), while beaten finalists West Germany were 25/1 outsiders. The final took place on 30 July 1966, the 36th anniversary of the first final. Until 2022, this was the latest date that any tournament had concluded. The reason for the unusually late scheduling of the tournament appears to lie with the outside broadcast commitments of the BBC, which also had commitments to cover Wimbledon (which ran between 20 June and 2 July) and the Open Golf Championship (6 to 9 July).


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: 1966 was a World Cup with few goals as the teams began to play much more tactically and defensively. This was exemplified by Alf Ramsey's England as they finished top of Group 1 with only four goals, but having none scored against them. They also became the first World Cup winning team not to win its first game in the tournament. Uruguay were the other team to qualify from that group at the expense of both Mexico and France. All the group's matches were played at Wembley Stadium apart from the match between Uruguay and France which took place at White City Stadium.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: In Group 2, West Germany and Argentina qualified with ease as they both finished the group with 5 points, Spain managed 2, while Switzerland left the competition after losing all three group matches. FIFA cautioned Argentina for its violent style in the group games, particularly in the scoreless draw with West Germany, which saw Argentinean Rafael Albrecht get sent off and suspended for the next match.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: In the northwest of England, Old Trafford and Goodison Park played host to Group 3 which saw the two-time defending champions Brazil finish in third place behind Portugal and Hungary, and be eliminated along with Bulgaria. Brazil were defeated 3–1 by Hungary in a classic encounter before falling by the same scoreline to Portugal in a controversial game. Portugal appeared in the finals for the first time, and made quite an impact. They won all three of their games in the group stage, with a lot of help from their outstanding striker Eusébio, whose nine goals made him the tournament's top scorer.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Group 4, however, provided the biggest upset when North Korea beat Italy 1–0 at Ayresome Park, Middlesbrough and finished above them, thus earning qualification to the next round along with the Soviet Union. This was the first time that a nation from outside Europe or the Americas had progressed from the first stage of a World Cup: the next would be Morocco in 1986.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: The quarter-finals provided a controversial victory for West Germany as they cruised past Uruguay 4–0; the South Americans claimed that this occurred only after the referee (who was Jim Finney, from England) had not recognised a handball by Schnellinger on the goal line and then had sent off two players from Uruguay: Horacio Troche and Héctor Silva. It appeared as though the surprise package North Korea would claim another major upset in their match against Portugal at Goodison Park, when after 22 minutes they led 3–0. It fell to one of the greatest stars of the tournament, Eusébio, to change that. He scored four goals in the game and José Augusto added a fifth in the 78th minute to earn Portugal a 5–3 win.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Meanwhile, in the other two games, Ferenc Bene's late goal for Hungary against the Soviet Union, who were led by Lev Yashin's stellar goalkeeping, proved little more than a consolation as they crashed out 2–1, and the only goal between Argentina and England came courtesy of England's Geoff Hurst. During that controversial game (for more details see Argentina and England football rivalry), Argentina's Antonio Rattín became the first player to be sent off in a senior international football match at Wembley. Rattín at first refused to leave the field and eventually had to be escorted by several policemen. Scoreless when Rattin was dismissed, the game was decided by Hurst’s headed goal twelve minutes from the end of normal time. This game is called "el robo del siglo" (the robbery of the century) in Argentina.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: All semi-finalists were from Europe. The venue of the first semi-final between England and Portugal was changed from Goodison Park in Liverpool to Wembley, due to Wembley's larger capacity. This larger capacity was particularly significant during a time when ticket revenue was of crucial importance. Bobby Charlton scored both goals in England's win, with Portugal's goal coming from a penalty in the 82nd minute after a handball by Jack Charlton on the goal line. The other semi-final also finished 2–1: Franz Beckenbauer scoring the winning goal with a left foot shot from the edge of the area for West Germany as they beat the Soviet Union.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: Portugal went on to beat the Soviet Union 2–1 to take third place. Portugal's third place was the best finish by a team making its World Cup debut since 1934. It was equalled by Croatia in 1998.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: London's Wembley Stadium was the venue for the final, and 98,000 people attended. After 12 minutes 32 seconds Helmut Haller put West Germany ahead, but the score was levelled by Geoff Hurst four minutes later. Martin Peters put England in the lead in the 78th minute; England looked set to claim the title when the referee awarded a free kick to West Germany with one minute left. The ball was launched goalward and Wolfgang Weber scored, with England appealing in vain for handball as the ball came through the crowded penalty area.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: With the score level at 2–2 at the end of 90 minutes, the game went to extra time. In the 98th minute, Hurst found himself on the scoresheet again; his shot hit the crossbar, bounced down onto the goal line, and was awarded as a goal. Debate has long raged over whether the ball crossed the line, with the goal becoming part of World Cup history. England's final goal was scored by Hurst again, as a celebratory pitch invasion began. This made Geoff Hurst the first player to have scored three times in a single World Cup final. BBC commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme's description of the match's closing moments has gone down in history: "Some people are on the pitch. They think it's all over ... "[Hurst scores]" It is now!"


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: England's total of eleven goals scored in six games set a new record low for average goals per game scored by a World Cup winning team. The record stood until 1982, when it was surpassed by Italy's 12 goals in seven games; in 2010 this record was lowered again by Spain, winning the Cup with eight goals in seven games. England's total of three goals conceded also constituted a record low for average goals per game conceded by a World Cup winning team. That record stood until 1994, when it was surpassed by Brazil's three goals in seven games. France again lowered the record to two goals in seven during the 1998 tournament, a record that has since been equalled by Italy at the 2006 tournament and by Spain's two goals conceded during the 2010 tournament.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: England received the recovered Jules Rimet trophy from Elizabeth II and were crowned World Cup winners for the first time.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: In this World Cup, the national anthems were played only in the final. They were not played in the earlier matches because the organisers (FIFA and the FA) feared that North Korea's presence – a socialist country that was not recognised by the United Kingdom – in the World Cup would cause problems with South Korea. A memo from the Foreign Office months before the finals began stated that the solution would be "denying the visas to North Korean players". The final, held at Wembley Stadium, was the last to be broadcast in black and white.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: A total of 26 match referees and other officials featured at the event. Despite the event being a worldwide tournament, the majority of the officials were from Europe. Gottfried Dienst refereed the final between England and West Germany.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: With nine goals, Eusébio was the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 89 goals were scored by 47 players, with two of them credited as own goals.


title: 1966 FIFA World Cup

text: In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. The rankings for the 1966 tournament were as follows:


title: Gas constant

text: The molar gas constant (also known as the gas constant, universal gas constant, or ideal gas constant) is denoted by the symbol or . It is the molar equivalent to the Boltzmann constant, expressed in units of energy per temperature increment per amount of substance, i.e. the pressure–volume product, rather than energy per temperature increment per "particle". The constant is also a combination of the constants from Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. It is a physical constant that is featured in many fundamental equations in the physical sciences, such as the ideal gas law, the Arrhenius equation, and the Nernst equation.


title: Gas constant

text: The gas constant is the constant of proportionality that relates the energy scale in physics to the temperature scale and the scale used for amount of substance. Thus, the value of the gas constant ultimately derives from historical decisions and accidents in the setting of units of energy, temperature and amount of substance. The Boltzmann constant and the Avogadro constant were similarly determined, which separately relate energy to temperature and particle count to amount of substance.


title: Gas constant

text: The gas constant "R" is defined as the Avogadro constant "N" multiplied by the Boltzmann constant "k" (or "k"):


title: Gas constant

text: Since the 2019 redefinition of SI base units, both "N" and "k" are defined with exact numerical values when expressed in SI units. As a consequence, the SI value of the molar gas constant is exactly .


title: Gas constant

text: Some have suggested that it might be appropriate to name the symbol "R" the Regnault constant in honour of the French chemist Henri Victor Regnault, whose accurate experimental data were used to calculate the early value of the constant. However, the origin of the letter "R" to represent the constant is elusive. The universal gas constant was apparently introduced independently by Clausius’ student, A.F. Horstmann (1873)


title: Gas constant

text: where "P" is the absolute pressure, "V" is the volume of gas, "n" is the amount of substance, "m" is the mass, and "T" is the thermodynamic temperature. "R" is the mass-specific gas constant. The gas constant is expressed in the same unit as are molar entropy and molar heat.


title: Gas constant

text: where "P" is pressure, "V" is volume, "n" is number of moles of a given substance, and "T" is temperature.


title: Gas constant

text: The physical significance of "R" is work per degree per mole. It may be expressed in any set of units representing work or energy (such as joules), units representing degrees of temperature on an absolute scale (such as Kelvin or Rankine), and any system of units designating a mole or a similar pure number that allows an equation of macroscopic mass and fundamental particle numbers in a system, such as an ideal gas (see "Avogadro constant").


title: Gas constant

text: The Boltzmann constant "k" (alternatively "k") may be used in place of the molar gas constant by working in pure particle count, "N", rather than amount of substance, "n", since


title: Gas constant

text: where "N" is the number of particles (molecules in this case), or to generalize to an inhomogeneous system the local form holds:


title: Gas constant

text: As of 2006, the most precise measurement of "R" had been obtained by measuring the speed of sound "c"("P", "T") in argon at the temperature "T" of the triple point of water at different pressures "P", and extrapolating to the zero-pressure limit "c"(0, "T"). The value of "R" is then obtained from the relation


title: Gas constant

text: However, following the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, "R" now has an exact value defined in terms of other exactly defined physical constants.


title: Gas constant

text: The specific gas constant of a gas or a mixture of gases ("R") is given by the molar gas constant divided by the molar mass ("M") of the gas or mixture.


title: Gas constant

text: Just as the molar gas constant can be related to the Boltzmann constant, so can the specific gas constant by dividing the Boltzmann constant by the molecular mass of the gas.


title: Gas constant

text: Another important relationship comes from thermodynamics. Mayer's relation relates the specific gas constant to the specific heat capacities for a calorically perfect gas and a thermally perfect gas.


title: Gas constant

text: where "c" is the specific heat capacity for a constant pressure and "c" is the specific heat capacity for a constant volume.


title: Gas constant

text: It is common, especially in engineering applications, to represent the specific gas constant by the symbol "R". In such cases, the universal gas constant is usually given a different symbol such as "" to distinguish it. In any case, the context and/or unit of the gas constant should make it clear as to whether the universal or specific gas constant is being referred to.


title: Gas constant

text: In case of air, using the perfect gas law and the standard sea-level conditions (SSL) (air density "ρ" = 1.225 kg/m, temperature "T" = 288.15 K and pressure "p" = ), we have that "R" = "P"/("ρ""T") = . Then the molar mass of air is computed by "M" = "R"/"R" = .


title: Gas constant

text: Note the use of kilomoles, with the resulting factor of in the constant. The USSA1976 acknowledges that this value is not consistent with the cited values for the Avogadro constant and the Boltzmann constant. This disparity is not a significant departure from accuracy, and USSA1976 uses this value of "R" for all the calculations of the standard atmosphere. When using the ISO value of "R", the calculated pressure increases by only 0.62 pascal at 11 kilometers (the equivalent of a difference of only 17.4 centimeters or 6.8 inches) and 0.292 Pa at 20 km (the equivalent of a difference of only 33.8 cm or 13.2 in).


title: Gas constant

text: Also note that this was well before the 2019 SI redefinition, through which the constant was given an exact value.


title: SIG MCX

text: The SIG MCX is a family of firearms designed and manufactured by SIG Sauer, produced in both selective fire and semi-automatic only models, and features a short-stroke gas piston system, which is inherited from the earlier SIG MPX submachine gun. The MCX is available in rifle, carbine, short-barreled rifle, and pistol configurations (the latter configuration generally conforming to the definition of a compact carbine but for taking a pistol brace rather than a buttstock). The rifle was further developed into the SIG MCX Spear, which was adopted in its .277 Fury chambering as the XM5 by the U.S. Army in 2022.


title: SIG MCX

text: The SIG MCX was first introduced at SHOT Show 2015. The rifle was originally designed by SIG USA, the subsidiary of SIG Sauer based in New Hampshire. In 2016, SIG recalled some of the rifles that had the first-generation bolt carrier group. A SIG MCX was used in the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, which at the time was the deadliest mass shooting in U.S. history, now second to the 2017 Las Vegas shooting.


title: SIG MCX

text: The SIG MCX series features a short-stroke gas piston system to reduce recoil and improve the reliability of the weapon; this was based on the design of the earlier SIG MPX. The MCX features a system that allows for conversion between 5.56×45mm NATO, .300 AAC Blackout, and 7.62×39mm ammunition, using standard 5.56 mm STANAG magazines for 5.56×45mm NATO and .300 AAC Blackout, and specially designed STANAG-compatible magazines for 7.62×39mm. The MCX is designed to deliver optimal performance with .300 AAC Blackout and an optional suppressor.


title: SIG MCX

text: The barrel's profile is tapered at the crown to allow the installation of muzzle devices and direct-thread sound suppressors without the use of washers that degrade performance and allows the devices to self-center on installation. The barrel can be changed in a matter of seconds to another length or a different caliber. Additionally the barrels are nitride coated for corrosion resistance. It features hardened steel wear points.


title: SIG MCX

text: First generation MCX variants have a forend made of aluminum with a KeyMod system to add accessories while second generation MCX variants have an M-LOK handguard. Controls are mostly ambidextrous including the charging handle but not the bolt release. Sig produces four stock configurations are available for the MCX carbine. The overall layout of the two rifles is similar. SIG designed the upper receiver to be compatible with standard AR-15 and M16 lower receivers with the help of an adapter.


title: SIG MCX

text: An integrally suppressed upper receiver group based on the MCX was selected by USSOCOM for the SURG (Suppressed Upper Receiver Group) contract in July 2018. These suppressed uppers would be paired with existing M4A1 lowers in SOCOM inventory.


title: SIG MCX

text: The SIG MCX is available with a safe/semi-automatic trigger group for the U.S. civilian market, or safe/semi-automatic/fully automatic trigger group for the military and law enforcement agencies.


title: SIG MCX

text: SIG Sauer offers the rifle in semi-automatic only in three different configurations for the civilian market:


title: SIG MCX

text: The SIG MCX RATTLER is a short-barreled rifle variant chambered in .300 AAC Blackout and 5.56. It is intended to serve as a personal defense weapon, featuring a barrel, and comes with a Picatinny rail tail interface for attaching either a compact buttstock or a folding PCB (pistol contour brace). In February 2018, USSOCOM ordered upper receiver group conversion kits for the MCX Rattler in .300BLK for evaluation. The MCX Rattler was later selected as the winner of SOCOM's Commercial Personal Defense Weapon (CPDW) contract in May 2022 and suppressed MCX Rattlers will be ordered in 5.56 and .300BLK.


title: SIG MCX

text: The SIG MCX-SPEAR LT is the third generation of the SIG MCX, introduced in 2022. Intended to serve as a carbine, it features a , or barrel and a Picatinny rail tail interface for attaching either a buttstock or a pistol brace. It is available in 5.56 mm NATO, .300 Blackout and 7.62x39mm.


title: SIG MCX

text: The SIG MCX SPEAR was developed as Sig Sauer's submission for the United States Army Next Generation Squad Weapon (NGSW) program and is chambered in 6.8×51mm SIG Fury cartridge. Sig Sauer was chosen as the winner on 19 April 2022, designating the weapon the XM5 in U.S. military service.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: In the Heights is a 2021 American musical drama film directed by Jon M. Chu from a screenplay by Quiara Alegría Hudes based on the stage musical of the same name by Hudes and Lin-Manuel Miranda. The film stars Anthony Ramos, Corey Hawkins, Leslie Grace in her film debut, Melissa Barrera, Olga Merediz, Daphne Rubin-Vega, Gregory Diaz IV, and Jimmy Smits. The film follows a similar plot to the musical, telling the story of a corner in the predominantly Dominican Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan in New York City, where every member of the community pursues their (little dreams) for a better life.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: "In the Heights" was originally set to be adapted by Universal Pictures in 2008, with Kenny Ortega hired to direct. After that version fell through, the project was eventually started back up in 2016, with Chu set to direct and Ramos being cast in October 2018. The rest of the cast joined in April 2019, and filming took place around New York City that summer.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Originally intended to be released in 2020, "In the Heights" was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film had its world premiere at the Los Angeles Latino International Film Festival on June 4, 2021, and was released in the United States on June 10 in theaters and streaming on HBO Max under a 30-day simultaneous exhibition window. It was widely praised for Chu's direction, the performances, and musical numbers, though it underperformed at the box office, grossing just $45 million against its $55 million production budget and $200 million break-even point. For his performance in the film, Ramos was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in the category Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Usnavi de la Vega tells a group of children a story of Washington Heights. Ten years earlier, Usnavi is the owner of a bodega in the neighborhood. After chasing off street artist "Graffiti Pete", he introduces: Claudia, the neighborhood matriarch who raised him; Kevin Rosario, who runs a taxi company; Benny, Kevin's employee and Usnavi’s best friend; the beauty salon ladies Daniela, Carla, and Cuca; Sonny, Usnavi’s teenage cousin; and Vanessa, on whom Usnavi has a crush ("In The Heights").


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Alejandro, an attorney and family friend, informs Usnavi that his late father's business in the Dominican Republic, which he dreams of reviving, is for sale. Kevin's daughter Nina returns from Stanford University. After seeing Benny ("Benny's Dispatch"), she tells her father she cannot afford tuition, but he brushes her off, telling her not to worry ("Breathe").


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Nina visits Daniela's salon, which is moving to the Bronx due to rising rents in Manhattan, and reconnects with the ladies but reveals she has dropped out of Stanford (""). Vanessa submits a rental application downtown, where she dreams of becoming a fashion designer, but is rejected ("It Won't Be Long Now"). She heads to the bodega, where Sonny asks her out for Usnavi.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Sonny learns a lottery ticket the bodega sold has won $96,000. At the public pool, everybody in the neighborhood fantasizes about what they would do with the money ("96,000"), while the local laments losing business to a Mister Softee truck (""). Reminiscing about their childhood, Benny reassures Nina she is destined for greatness ("When You're Home"). Usnavi talks to Sonny's father about letting Sonny come with him to the Dominican Republic, but Sonny's father implies he and Sonny are illegal immigrants and cannot leave.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Kevin reveals he has sold his business to pay for Nina's tuition, but she refuses the money, revealing the real reason she dropped out was the racism she experienced. Usnavi and Vanessa head to the salsa club for their date, but he is too nervous to dance with her. After multiple men dance with Vanessa, Usnavi tries to make her jealous by dancing with another woman ("The Club"). The power goes out, and Sonny and Graffiti Pete illuminate the neighborhood with fireworks. Vanessa and Usnavi argue, and she rejects him ("Blackout").


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Finding Vanessa's rental application in the trash, Usnavi asks Daniela to co-sign. Disappointed with the block's negativity over the power outage and 's death, Daniela rouses the neighborhood into a celebration (""), as the power outage ends. Vanessa and Usnavi reconcile.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: A month later, Nina is returning to Stanford. Benny promises to join her in Palo Alto, and they kiss ("When the Sun Goes Down"). As Usnavi prepares to leave for the Dominican Republic, he discovers that held the winning lottery ticket, and has left it to him. Vanessa arrives with champagne, having learned about Usnavi’s help with her new lease. She suggests Usnavi stay but he refuses, and she kisses him, lamenting that she was too late in realizing her feelings for him ("Champagne").


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Usnavi gives Alejandro the lottery ticket to use for Sonny's DACA fees. The next morning, Vanessa takes Usnavi to the bodega and shows him a fashion line she created the previous night inspired by Graffiti Pete's work. Seeing Pete's murals celebrating Abuela, Usnavi decides to stay. The story returns to the present day, revealing that Usnavi is telling his story in the remodeled bodega to his and Vanessa's daughter, Iris. Everyone sings and dances in the street, while Usnavi expresses his elation at being in Washington Heights, where he has always belonged (“Finale”).


title: In the Heights (film)

text: In addition, Lin-Manuel Miranda, who wrote the music and lyrics of the original musical and played Usnavi in the original Broadway run, appears as the piragüero, who keeps having run ins with the Mr. Softee Truck Driver, portrayed by Christopher Jackson, who originated the Benny character through to the original Broadway run. Olga Merediz also reprises her role as Claudia.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: The film includes contributions by original Broadway cast members, such as cameos by Seth Stewart and Javier Muñoz, as well as background vocals by Andréa Burns, Janet Dacal, Mandy Gonzalez, Joshua Henry, Krysta Rodriguez, and Jon Rua. Broadway actor Patrick Page appears as Pike Phillips. Miranda's parents Luis Miranda and Luz Towns-Miranda make cameo appearances during "Breathe". Also in the song "Breathe", actress Ariana Greenblatt makes an appearance as the character of young Nina. The Kid Mero provides the voice of the DJ at the start of the film. Valentina appears as a patron of Daniela's salon. NPR journalist Maria Hinojosa appears as the protest leader at the DACA rally. The film also features an appearance from Rennie Harris.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: On November 7, 2008, Universal Pictures announced that they planned to adapt the original musical as a feature film for release in 2011. Kenny Ortega was set to direct the film, which was slated to begin filming in summer 2011 with a budget of $37 million. However, the project was canceled in March 2011; reportedly, this was due to the fact Universal was looking for a "bankable Latino star" like Shakira or Jennifer Lopez instead of unknown actors. In January 2012, Lin-Manuel Miranda stated that the film adaptation was back under discussion; in the meantime, he went on vacation and started to read a biography of Alexander Hamilton, which would lead to his next project, "Hamilton". In May 2016, it was announced that Miranda would co-produce the film with Harvey Weinstein and backing from The Weinstein Company. On June 10, 2016, Jon M. Chu came on board to direct the film adaptation of the musical. In the aftermath of numerous sexual misconduct allegations made against Weinstein, his producer credit on the film was removed, with the rights to the film eventually auctioned off to Warner Bros. for $50 million. Warner Bros. was one of several studios wanting to produce "In the Heights"—due to the success of "Hamilton"; to persuade Miranda and Chu, they built a backlot bodega with carts and set up performances of songs from the show. The budget was set at $55 million.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: In October 2018, Anthony Ramos was cast in an undisclosed role, later revealed to be the lead of Usnavi. Miranda, who played the role in the Broadway production, watched Ramos play the part in the 2018 Kennedy Center production and praised him on Twitter. In January 2019, Corey Hawkins was cast in the role of Benny. In April 2019, Jimmy Smits, Melissa Barrera, Leslie Grace, Olga Merediz, Gregory Diaz, Daphne Rubin-Vega, Stephanie Beatriz and Dascha Polanco were cast. In June 2019, Marc Anthony and Lin-Manuel Miranda joined the cast, with Miranda cast as . Miranda revealed in an interview on "The Tonight Show" that he initially did not plan on appearing in the film at all, having decided he was too old to play Usnavi during development. Chu and Hudes subsequently pushed for him to play the , which he was reluctant to do. He relented when Hudes threatened to cut the song "" unless he played the role.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Filming began on June 3, 2019, in New York City. The bulk of filming was done at the intersection of 175th Street and Audubon Avenue, where STO Domingo Grocery Inc. was used as the exterior of the bodega. The musical number "96,000" was filmed at the Highbridge Pool featuring synchronized swimming and shot over two days with 500 extras. Christopher Scott, who had worked with Jon M. Chu on the YouTube series "The LXD" as well as the films "Step Up Revolution" and "Step Up All In", served as choreographer. "" was shot in the abandoned lower level of the Brooklyn Ninth Avenue station, which had previously been used in the film "Joker" (the "Joker Stairs" were also used as a filming location). The team had wanted to film the sequence inside the New York Transit Museum but could not as they were only allowed to use the space for the one day the museum is closed to the public. However, they were able to rent vintage subway cars from the museum for use in the number. The tunnel sequence at the end of the song was shot in the pedestrian tunnel at the 191st Street station. As the tunnel is a public access point for the station, the team was only given permission to close it for filming at night. The lights, which were rigged during the day while the tunnel was open, were initially designed to display a rainbow of light, but at the last second Chu had them changed to red, white, and blue – the colors of the Cuban, Puerto Rican, and American flags.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: The vocal performances in the film are a mix of the actors singing live on-set, pre-recorded audio, and re-recorded in the studio during post-production. The production team's choice to use one or the others depended on the environment of the scene and tone of the song. Usnavi and Vanessa's duet, "Champagne", which is one continuous shot, was recorded entirely on-set.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: The film is dedicated to the memory of Doreen Montalvo, a member of the original Broadway cast who appears in the film as one of the singers during "Breathe" and reprises her role as the Bolero singer performing "". Montalvo died in October 2020, after the film's postponed release date.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Several changes were made from the musical, which first ran in 2005, such as adding references to the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) immigration policy and microaggressions, and cutting certain characters and songs.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: The film's soundtrack album was released by Atlantic Records and WaterTower Music on June 10, 2021, the same day as its U.S. release. The songs are composed and written by Lin-Manuel Miranda, who produced the tracks with Alex Lacamoire, Bill Sherman and Greg Wells. Two singles the title track was released on the album's pre-order date on April 23, 2021, and "96,000" was released via streaming on May 3, 2021, prior to the album's release date.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Two songs created for the film but not included on the soundtrack are "Always", a doo-wop version of "Siempre" performed by Mandy Gonzalez, who originated the role of Nina on Broadway, in the background of the dry cleaners scene, and "Cuándo Llega El Tren", performed by Bronx musician Flaco Navaja, which plays in the background of the bodega when Sonny helps Usnavi ask Vanessa out. Both songs feature backing vocals by Miranda, Lacamoire, and Sherman. In addition, a hold music version of "You'll Be Back" from "Hamilton" plays as an easter egg during the scene where Kevin Rosario calls Stanford University. Despite its inclusion in the film's post-credit scene, "Piragua (Reprise)" is not on the soundtrack album.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: "In the Heights" was first screened virtually for critics on April 15, 2021. It had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York City on June 9, 2021, following an advanced screening at the Los Angeles Latino International Film Festival on June 4, 2021 at the TCL Chinese Theater in Hollywood. It was released in the United States on June 10, 2021, in both theaters and on HBO Max.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: It was previously scheduled to be released on June 26, 2020, but it was delayed to June 18, 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, before being moved up a week to June 11, and finally one day earlier to June 10. On May 9, 2021, select Cinemark, Regal Cinemas and AMC theaters hosted a free advance screening in honor of Mother's Day. Internationally, the film was released in the United Kingdom on June 18, 2021. Other markets like European and Australasian countries have scheduled dates planned for between July and September 2021.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: "In the Heights" was released on digital platforms on July 30, 2021 with the DVD, Blu-ray, and 4K UHD releases from Warner Bros. Home Entertainment arriving a month later on August 30, 2021. The film returned to HBO Max on October 28.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: "In the Heights" has grossed $30 million in the United States and Canada, and $15.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $45.1 million. Due to its $55 million production budget and another $50 million spent on marketing, "Variety" estimated the film would need to gross around $200 million worldwide in order to break-even.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "In the Heights" was released alongside "" and "" and was initially projected to gross as high as $25–35 million from 3,456 theaters in its opening weekend, though an estimate of $10 million to the midteens was also suggested. A poll by Fandango Media found that the film would be the first seen in a theater since the pandemic began for 96% of people pre-ordering tickets for it. After grossing $5 million on its first day, weekend estimates were lowered to $13 million. It went on to debut to just $11.5 million, finishing second behind holdover "A Quiet Place Part II". 67% of the audience was over the age of 25, with 63% being female; 40% of the opening weekend audience was Latino. While some analysts, such as Anthony D'Alessandro for "Deadline Hollywood", suggested that the film's underperformance could be partially blamed on its simultaneous release on HBO Max, Rebecca Rubin posited in "Variety" that it could be attributed to alternative factors, such as the film's 143-minute runtime reducing the number of individual screenings per day, 25% of American theaters remaining closed at the time of release (and many theaters which had opened limiting audiences due to social distancing measures), and the film's source material and lead cast members having relatively low name recognition, and its release on HBO Max. The film fell 60% in its second weekend, grossing $4.5 million and finishing in sixth.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: According to Samba TV, the film was streamed on HBO Max by 693,000 households over its first three days of release, lower than previous day-in-date Warner Bros. titles like "Mortal Kombat" (3.8 million) and "" (1.6 million). Research firm Screen Engine reported the film was the third-most streamed film across all platforms in its opening weekend behind "Mortal Kombat" (which was available via PVOD) and "Awake". By the end of its first month, the film had been streamed in over 1.7 million U.S. households.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "In the Heights" holds an approval rating of 94% based on 366 reviews with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "Lights up for "In the Heights", a joyous celebration of heritage and community fueled by dazzling direction and singalong songs." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 84 out of 100 based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported 88% of audience members gave it a positive score, with 67% saying they would definitely recommend it.


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Monica Castillo of the "TheWrap" wrote: "Like "Crazy Rich Asians", not everyone is going to feel represented when they watch "In the Heights". That's an impossible task for any movie. Yet "In the Heights" can represent many things for many different viewers. It can be a story about ambitious, hard-working people chasing their dreams. It can be a reflection on the immigrant experience and the struggle to find where you belong. It can also be a tribute to our parents' sacrifices." From "The Hollywood Reporter", David Rooney said: "The movie glows with an abundance of love for its characters, their milieu and the pride with which they defend their cultural footprint against the encroaching forces of New York development that continually shove the marginalized further into the margins. The resilience with which the characters claim their place in the fabric of city life is exhilarating."


title: In the Heights (film)

text: In his review for "Variety", Peter Debruge praised Chu's direction and wrote: "Like its source, the movie is a blast, one that benefits enormously from being shot on the streets of Washington Heights." "IndieWire"s David Ehrlich gave the film an A−, saying: "So exuberant and full of life that it would probably convince you the movies were back even if they hadn't gone anywhere, "In the Heights" is the kind of electrifying theatrical experience that people have been waxing nostalgic about ever since the pandemic began — the kind that it almost seemed like we might never get to enjoy again... Seeing this massive, guileless, heartfelt piece of Hollywood entertainment on the big screen is like coming home after a long year in exile only to find that it's still there, and maybe even better than you remembered."


title: In the Heights (film)

text: A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" gave the film a positive review, writing that "It’s a piece of mainstream American entertainment in the best sense — an assertion of impatience and faith, a celebration of communal ties and individual gumption, a testimony to the power of art to turn struggles into the stuff of dreams." From "The A.V. Club", Danette Chavez wrote ""In The Heights"’ slice-of-life portraiture suggests a less ambitious undertaking than "Hamilton", but it tells a story as expansive as that of a fledgling nation. Through both musicals, Miranda demonstrates how ingrained people of color are in this country’s history: Before he reimagined a pivotal chapter in United States history with Black and Latino actors, the acclaimed multi-hyphenate threw a spotlight on marginalized people's fight against displacement. At the core of "In The Heights", on stage or screen, is movement—as migration, as immigration, as dancing, as code-switching, as the shift from friends to lovers."


title: In the Heights (film)

text: There was slight criticism in terms of the changes to the character of Vanessa. In an article titled "The Generic of "In the Heights"" from "The New Yorker", author Frances Negrón-Muntaner states, "The choice to contain Vanessa implies that one does not need to flee downtown and escape one’s roots to succeed. That’s true enough, but in staying put Vanessa seems to give up her big dreams of crossing over, for man, child, and bodega." K. Austin Collins of "Rolling Stone" rated the film three and a half out of five stars. He praised the setting, music, and cast performances of the film, and also wrote that ""In The Heights" spins its lively, complicated tale. An aspirational immigrant story, but flows and overlaps and grows dense in unexpected ways. In both Miranda and Chu's trademark style, this is all threaded together with life spilling into the streets, musical numbers that fold reality into fantasy with an aplomb that's as pleasurable as it is overwhelming."


title: In the Heights (film)

text: The film drew criticism for its casting choices, which seemingly excluded Afro-Latino actors with darker skin tones and misrepresented the demographics of Washington Heights, leading to accusations of colorism. Miranda issued an apology on social media regarding the matter shortly after the film's release. He also addressed the controversy during an appearance on "The Daily Show", where he stressed that while "there's so much in the movie, the beef really was specifically dark-skinned Afro-Latinos in leading roles... and I totally understand that and I receive it and I just have to do better on the next one." Lead actor Ramos also accepted the criticism, stating in an interview with the Associated Press that "there's no debate about it. You know you can't, right? Like there's nothing to debate".


title: In the Heights (film)

text: Actress Rita Moreno defended Miranda during an interview on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert", saying: "It's like you can never do right, it seems... This is the man who literally has brought Latino-ness and Puerto Rican-ness to America[n entertainment]". She added in reference to Miranda, "They're really attacking the wrong person." Moreno's comments received further backlash, with the National Association of Hispanic Journalists calling them "unacceptable". She subsequently issued a statement walking back on her remarks, stating in part, "I was clearly dismissive of Black lives that matter in our Latin community. It is so easy to forget how celebration for some is lament for others".


title: Ultraviolet

text: Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm (with a corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and constitutes about 10% of the total electromagnetic radiation output from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, the chemical and biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Short-wave ultraviolet light damages DNA and sterilizes surfaces with which it comes into contact. For humans, suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of exposure of the skin to UV light, along with an increased risk of skin cancer. The amount of UV light produced by the Sun means that the Earth would not be able to sustain life on dry land if most of that light were not filtered out by the atmosphere. More energetic, shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground. However, ultraviolet light (specifically, UVB) is also responsible for the formation of vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum, thus, has effects both beneficial and harmful to life.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The lower wavelength limit of human vision is conventionally taken as 400 nm, so ultraviolet rays are invisible to humans, although people can sometimes perceive light at shorter wavelengths than this. Insects, birds, and some mammals can see near-UV (NUV) (i.e., slightly shorter wavelengths than what humans can see).


title: Ultraviolet

text: Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. Humans also lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as whitish-blue or whitish-violet. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths around 310 nm. Near-UV radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and some birds. Birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this, coupled with eye structures that transmit more UV gives smaller birds "true" UV vision.


title: Ultraviolet

text: "Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from Latin "ultra", "beyond"), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency (thus a shorter wavelength) than violet light.


title: Ultraviolet

text: UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself. He called them "(de-)oxidizing rays" () to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays", discovered the previous year at the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical rays" was adopted soon afterwards, and remained popular throughout the 19th century, although some said that this radiation was entirely different from light (notably John William Draper, who named them "tithonic rays"). The terms "chemical rays" and "heat rays" were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively. In 1878, the sterilizing effect of short-wavelength light by killing bacteria was discovered. By 1903, the most effective wavelengths were known to be around 250 nm. In 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths below 200 nm, named "vacuum ultraviolet" because it is strongly absorbed by the oxygen in air, was made in 1893 by German physicist Victor Schumann.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly as 10–400 nanometers, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the ISO standard ISO 21348:


title: Ultraviolet

text: Several solid-state and vacuum devices have been explored for use in different parts of the UV spectrum. Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing devices, but these can suffer from unwanted response to visible light and various instabilities. Ultraviolet can be detected by suitable photodiodes and photocathodes, which can be tailored to be sensitive to different parts of the UV spectrum. Sensitive UV photomultipliers are available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used across the spectrum.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Vacuum UV, or VUV, wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) are strongly absorbed by molecular oxygen in the air, though the longer wavelengths around 150–200 nm can propagate through nitrogen. Scientific instruments can, therefore, use this spectral range by operating in an oxygen-free atmosphere (commonly pure nitrogen), without the need for costly vacuum chambers. Significant examples include 193-nm photolithography equipment (for semiconductor manufacturing) and circular dichroism spectrometers.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven by solar astronomy for many decades. While optics can be used to remove unwanted visible light that contaminates the VUV, in general; detectors can be limited by their response to non-VUV radiation, and the development of solar-blind devices has been an important area of research. Wide-gap solid-state devices or vacuum devices with high-cutoff photocathodes can be attractive compared to silicon diodes.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized by a transition in the physics of interaction with matter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly with the outer valence electrons of atoms, while wavelengths shorter than that interact mainly with inner-shell electrons and nuclei. The long end of the EUV spectrum is set by a prominent He spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV is strongly absorbed by most known materials, but synthesizing multilayer optics that reflect up to about 50% of EUV radiation at normal incidence is possible. This technology was pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets in the 1990s, and it has been used to make telescopes for solar imaging. See also the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer satellite.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Some sources use the distinction of "hard UV" and "soft UV". For instance, in the case of astrophysics, the boundary may be at the Lyman limit (wavelength 91.2 nm), with "hard UV" being more energetic; the same terms may also be used in other fields, such as cosmetology, optoelectronic, etc. The numerical values of the boundary between hard/soft, even within similar scientific fields, do not necessarily coincide; for example, one applied-physics publication used a boundary of 190 nm between hard and soft UV regions.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m in vacuum.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The atmosphere blocks about 77% of the Sun's UV, when the Sun is highest in the sky (at zenith), with absorption increasing at shorter UV wavelengths. At ground level with the sun at zenith, sunlight is 44% visible light, 3% ultraviolet, and the remainder infrared. Of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth's surface, more than 95% is the longer wavelengths of UVA, with the small remainder UVB. Almost no UVC reaches the Earth's surface. The fraction of UVB which remains in UV radiation after passing through the atmosphere is heavily dependent on cloud cover and atmospheric conditions. On "partly cloudy" days, patches of blue sky showing between clouds are also sources of (scattered) UVA and UVB, which are produced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visible blue light from those parts of the sky. UVB also plays a major role in plant development, as it affects most of the plant hormones. During total overcast, the amount of absorption due to clouds is heavily dependent on the thickness of the clouds and latitude, with no clear measurements correlating specific thickness and absorption of UVB.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more-energetic UV radiation produced by the Sun, are absorbed by oxygen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when single oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially important in blocking most UVB and the remaining part of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Ultraviolet absorbers are molecules used in organic materials (polymers, paints, etc.) to absorb UV radiation to reduce the UV degradation (photo-oxidation) of a material. The absorbers can themselves degrade over time, so monitoring of absorber levels in weathered materials is necessary.


title: Ultraviolet

text: In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA/UVB rays, such as avobenzone, oxybenzone and octyl methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers or "blockers". They are contrasted with inorganic absorbers/"blockers" of UV radiation such as carbon black, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide.


title: Ultraviolet

text: For clothing, the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to sun protection factor (SPF) ratings for sunscreen. Standard summer fabrics have UPFs around 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Suspended nanoparticles in stained-glass prevent UV rays from causing chemical reactions that change image colors. A set of stained-glass color-reference chips is planned to be used to calibrate the color cameras for the 2019 ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded by the high level of UV present at the surface of Mars.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Common soda–lime glass, such as window glass, is partially transparent to UVA, but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, passing about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but blocking over 90% of the light below 300 nm. A study found that car windows allow 3-4% of ambient UV to pass through, especially if the UV was greater than 380 nm. Other types of car windows can reduce transmission of UV that is greater than 335 nm. Fused quartz, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Crystalline quartz and some crystals such as CaF and MgF transmit well down to 150 nm or 160 nm wavelengths.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Wood's glass is a deep violet-blue barium-sodium silicate glass with about 9% nickel oxide developed during World War I to block visible light for covert communications. It allows both infrared daylight and ultraviolet night-time communications by being transparent between 320 nm and 400 nm and also the longer infrared and just-barely-visible red wavelengths. Its maximum UV transmission is at 365 nm, one of the wavelengths of mercury lamps.


title: Ultraviolet

text: A "black light" lamp emits long-wave UV‑A radiation and little visible light. Fluorescent black light lamps work similarly to other fluorescent lamps, but use a phosphor on the inner tube surface which emits UV‑A radiation instead of visible light. Some lamps use a deep-bluish-purple Wood's glass optical filter that blocks almost all visible light with wavelengths longer than 400 nanometers. The purple glow given off by these tubes is not the ultraviolet itself, but visible purple light from mercury’s 404 nm spectral line which escapes being filtered out by the coating. Other black lights use plain glass instead of the more expensive Wood's glass, so they appear light-blue to the eye when operating.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Incandescent black lights are also produced, using a filter coating on the envelope of an incandescent bulb that absorbs visible light ("see section below"). These are cheaper but very inefficient, emitting only a small fraction of a percent of their power as UV. Mercury-vapor black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with UV-emitting phosphor and an envelope of Wood's glass are used for theatrical and concert displays.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Black lights are used in applications in which extraneous visible light must be minimized; mainly to observe "fluorescence", the colored glow that many substances give off when exposed to UV light. UV‑A / UV‑B emitting bulbs are also sold for other special purposes, such as tanning lamps and reptile-husbandry.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Shortwave UV lamps are made using a fluorescent lamp tube with no phosphor coating, composed of fused quartz or vycor, since ordinary glass absorbs UV‑C. These lamps emit ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UV‑C band at 253.7 nm and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp, as well as some visible light. From 85% to 90% of the UV produced by these lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas only 5–10% is at 185 nm. The fused quartz tube passes the 253.7 nm radiation but blocks the 185 nm wavelength. Such tubes have two or three times the UV‑C power of a regular fluorescent lamp tube. These low-pressure lamps have a typical efficiency of approximately 30–40%, meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the lamp, they will produce approximately 30–40 watts of total UV output. They also emit bluish-white visible light, due to mercury's other spectral lines. These "germicidal" lamps are used extensively for disinfection of surfaces in laboratories and food-processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies.


title: Ultraviolet

text: 'Black light' incandescent lamps are also made from an incandescent light bulb with a filter coating which absorbs most visible light. Halogen lamps with fused quartz envelopes are used as inexpensive UV light sources in the near UV range, from 400 to 300 nm, in some scientific instruments. Due to its black-body spectrum a filament light bulb is a very inefficient ultraviolet source, emitting only a fraction of a percent of its energy as UV.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV radiation at particular spectral lines for scientific purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps are often used as stable sources, either windowless or with various windows such as magnesium fluoride. These are often the emitting sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for chemical analysis.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Other UV sources with more continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps (commonly used as sunlight simulators), deuterium arc lamps, mercury-xenon arc lamps, and metal-halide arc lamps.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The excimer lamp, a UV source developed in the early 2000s, is seeing increasing use in scientific fields. It has the advantages of high-intensity, high efficiency, and operation at a variety of wavelength bands into the vacuum ultraviolet.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to emit radiation in the ultraviolet range. In 2019, following significant advances over the preceding five years, UV‑A LEDs of 365 nm and longer wavelength were available, with efficiencies of 50% at 1.0 W output. Currently, the most common types of UV LEDs are in 395 nm and 365 nm wavelengths, both of which are in the UV‑A spectrum. The rated wavelength is the peak wavelength that the LEDs put out, but light at both higher and lower wavelengths are present.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The cheaper and more common 395 nm UV LEDs are much closer to the visible spectrum, and give off a purple color. Other UV LEDs deeper into the spectrum do not emit as much visible light LEDs are used for applications such as UV curing applications, charging glow-in-the-dark objects such as paintings or toys, and lights for detecting counterfeit money and bodily fluids. UV LEDs are also used in digital print applications and inert UV curing environments. Power densities approaching 3 W/cm (30 kW/m) are now possible, and this, coupled with recent developments by photo-initiator and resin formulators, makes the expansion of LED cured UV materials likely.


title: Ultraviolet

text: UV‑C LEDs are developing rapidly, but may require testing to verify effective disinfection. Citations for large-area disinfection are for non-LED UV sources known as germicidal lamps. Also, they are used as line sources to replace deuterium lamps in liquid chromatography instruments.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Gas lasers, laser diodes, and solid-state lasers can be manufactured to emit ultraviolet rays, and lasers are available that cover the entire UV range. The nitrogen gas laser uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to emit a beam that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are at 337.1 nm and 357.6 nm in wavelength. Another type of high-power gas lasers are excimer lasers. They are widely used lasers emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelength ranges. Presently, UV argon-fluoride excimer lasers operating at 193 nm are routinely used in integrated circuit production by photolithography. The current wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is about 126 nm, characteristic of the Ar* excimer laser.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Direct UV-emitting laser diodes are available at 375 nm. UV diode-pumped solid state lasers have been demonstrated using cerium-doped lithium strontium aluminum fluoride crystals (Ce:LiSAF), a process developed in the 1990s at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Wavelengths shorter than 325 nm are commercially generated in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can also be made by applying frequency conversion to lower-frequency lasers.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser engraving), medicine (dermatology, and keratectomy), chemistry (MALDI), free-air secure communications, computing (optical storage), and manufacture of integrated circuits.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The vacuum ultraviolet (V‑UV) band (100–200 nm) can be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wavelength lasers. The generation is generally done in gasses (e.g. krypton, hydrogen which are two-photon resonant near 193 nm) or metal vapors (e.g. magnesium). By making one of the lasers tunable, the V‑UV can be tuned. If one of the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the V‑UV production is intensified. However, resonances also generate wavelength dispersion, and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the 4 wave mixing. Difference frequency mixing (i.e., ) as an advantage over sum frequency mixing because the phase matching can provide greater tuning.


title: Ultraviolet

text: In particular, difference frequency mixing two photons of an (193 nm) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides resonantly enhanced tunable V‑UV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm. Practically, the lack of suitable gas / vapor cell window materials above the lithium fluoride cut-off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm. Tunable V‑UV wavelengths down to 75 nm was achieved using window-free configurations.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (E‑UV) radiation at 13.5 nm for extreme ultraviolet lithography. The E‑UV is not emitted by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an extremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an excimer laser. This technique does not require a synchrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X‑ray spectrum. Synchrotron light sources can also produce all wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of the UV and X‑ray spectra at 10 nm.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial.


title: Ultraviolet

text: UV light (specifically, UV‑B) causes the body to produce vitamin D, which is essential for life. Humans need some UV radiation to maintain adequate vitamin D levels. According to the World Health Organization:


title: Ultraviolet

text: There is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5–15 minutes of casual sun exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the summer months is sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Vitamin D can also be obtained from food and supplementation. Excess sun exposure produces harmful effects, however.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Vitamin D promotes the creation of serotonin. The production of serotonin is in direct proportion to the degree of bright sunlight the body receives. Serotonin is thought to provide sensations of happiness, well-being and serenity to human beings.


title: Ultraviolet

text: UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to successfully treat psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and localized scleroderma. In addition, UV light, in particular UV‑B radiation, has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the most common type of skin cell. As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin cells divide more rapidly than usual or necessary.


title: Ultraviolet

text: In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result in acute and chronic harmful effects on the eye's dioptric system and retina. The risk is elevated at high altitudes and people living in high latitude areas where snow covers the ground right into early summer and sun positions even at zenith are low, are particularly at risk. Skin, the circadian system, and the immune system can also be affected.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the "erythemal action spectrum". The action spectrum shows that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with lighter skinned individuals being more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm, which is in the lower UV‑C band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt effects are not as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time and location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UV‑A and UV‑B bands.


title: Ultraviolet

text: Overexposure to UV‑B radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UV‑A) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.


title: Ultraviolet

text: All bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate aging of the skin. Both UV‑A and UV‑B destroy vitamin A in skin, which may cause further damage.


title: Ultraviolet

text: UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage. This cancer connection is one reason for concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole.


title: Ultraviolet

text: The most deadly form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by DNA damage independent from UV‑A radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature mutation in 92% of all melanoma. Occasional overexposure and sunburn are probably greater risk factors for melanoma than long-term moderate exposure. UV‑C is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic.


title: Ultraviolet

text: In the past, UV‑A was considered not harmful or less harmful than UV‑B, but today it is known to contribute to skin cancer via indirect DNA damage (free radicals such as reactive oxygen species). UV‑A can generate highly reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which in turn can damage DNA. The DNA damage caused indirectly to skin by UV‑A consists mostly of single-strand breaks in DNA, while the damage caused by UV‑B includes direct formation of thymine dimers or cytosine dimers and double-strand DNA breakage. UV‑A is immunosuppressive for the entire body (accounting for a large part of the immunosuppressive effects of sunlight exposure), and is mutagenic for basal cell keratinocytes in skin.


title: Ultraviolet

text: UVB photons can cause direct DNA damage. UV‑B radiation excites DNA molecules in skin cells, causing aberrant covalent bonds to form between adjacent pyrimidine bases, producing a dimer. Most UV-induced pyrimidine dimers in DNA are removed by the process known as nucleotide excision repair that employs about 30 different proteins. Those pyrimidine dimers that escape this repair process can induce a form of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or can cause DNA replication errors leading to mutation.


title: Ultraviolet

text: As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases when exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of radiation; this is commonly known as a sun tan. The purpose of melanin is to absorb UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless heat, protecting the skin against both direct and indirect DNA damage from the UV. UV‑A gives a quick tan that lasts for days by oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of the melanin from melanocytes. UV‑B yields a tan that takes roughly 2 days to develop because it stimulates the body to produce more melanin.