title: Primus (band)

text: Alexander left the band in 1996, and was replaced by Brain, with whom Primus recorded two more studio albums – "Brown Album" (1997) and "Antipop" (1999) – as well as the covers EP "Rhinoplasty" (1998) and the original theme song for the TV show "South Park". The band went on hiatus in 2000 but resumed activity in 2003, reuniting with Alexander for the EP/DVD "Animals Should Not Try to Act Like People" and touring sporadically throughout the 2000s before Alexander once again left in 2010. Lane rejoined the band and appeared on their seventh studio album – and first in twelve years – "Green Naugahyde" (2011). Following Lane's departure in 2013, Alexander returned to the band once again and Primus have since recorded three more albums with him – "Primus & the Chocolate Factory with the Fungi Ensemble" (2014) and "The Desaturating Seven" (2017) – and recently, the EP "Conspiranoid" (2022).


title: Primus (band)

text: Primus is characterized by its irreverent, quirky approach to music distinguished by Claypool's bass-first songwriting style and eccentric lyrical themes. In 1993, Robert Christgau remarked: "[Primus is] quite possibly the strangest top-10 band ever, and good for them."


title: Primus (band)

text: Primus began in El Sobrante, California, in 1984 under the name Primate with singer and bassist Les Claypool, guitarist Todd Huth, and a LinnDrum drum machine. The duo initially had trouble finding a drummer, until Claypool's friend Vince "Perm" Parker returned home from a stint in the army, and together the three of them recorded their first demo, financed by Claypool selling his car. Primate changed their name to Primus after "about a month" when they were approached by a group called the Primates threatening legal action over the similarity of their names. Parker was soon replaced by the band's second drummer, Peter Libby, who played on their first demo as Primus. After 2–3 years with the band he was himself replaced by Robbie Bean, Tim "Curveball" Wright had the drum chair for 6 months in 1988. After rising to fame in the local music scene with their brand of funk metal fusion, reaching the point where they were "selling out Berkeley Square", Wright was fired from Primus in the summer of 1988 to be replaced by Jay Lane, drummer with the Freaky Executives, who were "getting dicked around by their record company", as Claypool later described it.


title: Primus (band)

text: At the end of 1988, after recording another demo, titled "Sausage", Lane left Primus when "something good happened" with the Freaky Executives' record deal. Huth also soon left the band, expressing a desire to dedicate more time to his family. In 1987, Primus was put on hold briefly and Claypool rejoined his former band, Blind Illusion, who at the time also featured one-time Joe Satriani student and ex-Possessed guitarist Larry "Ler" LaLonde. Claypool recruited LaLonde to reform Primus together with Tim "Herb" Alexander, drummer with the Arizona-based group Major Lingo, and a month later, the trio recorded their first album: "Suck on This" (1989), a live recording culled from two of their Berkeley concerts, funded by a loan from Claypool's father. Brain (who later joined the band in 1996) was briefly a member of the band during this time period, before a broken foot forced him to leave the group.


title: Primus (band)

text: In 1990, the band released their first studio album, "Frizzle Fry", and released singles for "John the Fisherman" and "Too Many Puppies". With a music video featuring Kirk Hammett, a studio album and a tour with Jane's Addiction, Primus' popularity grew to the point where they attracted attention from Interscope Records, who signed them in 1990.


title: Primus (band)

text: Primus's major label debut was the album "Sailing the Seas of Cheese". The album was supported by the singles "Jerry Was a Race Car Driver" and "Tommy the Cat", both of which appeared on MTV. A third single, "Those Damned Blue-Collar Tweekers", was also released but did not feature a video. The band appeared as contestants for the Battle of the Bands in "Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey" and made music for a Beavis and Butt-Head tribute album with a song entitled "Poetry and Prose". With a major label behind them, "Sailing the Seas of Cheese" went gold. The band then toured in support of Rush, U2, Anthrax, Public Enemy, and Fishbone.


title: Primus (band)

text: After the release of "Sailing the Seas of Cheese", in 1992, Primus released a cover song EP "Miscellaneous Debris", with their version of XTC's "Making Plans for Nigel" receiving enough airplay to reach No. 30 on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks chart.


title: Primus (band)

text: In 1993, Primus released "Pork Soda", which managed to debut at No. 7 on the "Billboard" 200. The album was darker than previous Primus efforts, dealing with murder, suicide, and alienation. The band has commented that prior to recording, they had been touring for nearly two solid years and were thus in a sombre mood. "My Name Is Mud" was the first single, reaching No. 9 on the U.S. Alternative Songs chart. "DMV" and "Mr. Krinkle" followed, the latter made into a video featuring Claypool in a pig suit and tuxedo playing upright bass in an abandoned warehouse as a carnival of oddities parades behind him, including Claypool's wife and her twin sister. Claypool said he put his "heart and soul" into the video, but it received next to no airtime on MTV. In an interview with "Guitar World" magazine, Claypool disparaged the channel's unwillingness to air the video, saying "it got played like six times."


title: Primus (band)

text: "Pork Soda" was recorded at the band's rehearsal space in San Rafael. The band would subsequently record all of their albums at Claypool's home studio called Rancho Relaxo (a Simpsons TV show reference).


title: Primus (band)

text: In 1993, Primus headlined the alternative rock festival Lollapalooza. They also made an appearance at the Woodstock '94 Music Festival. They were pelted with mud while they performed "My Name Is Mud". About a minute into the song the band stopped playing, and Claypool said, "Well I opened a big-ass can of worms with that one, didn't I? The song is called 'My Name Is Mud', but keep the mud to yourselves you son-of-a-bitch."


title: Primus (band)

text: During a lull in 1994, the early Primus lineup of Claypool, Huth, and Lane reunited to record "Riddles Are Abound Tonight" under the band name Sausage, named after the demo they had recorded together in 1988. Among the songs they recorded is an early version of "The Toys Go Winding Down", retitled "Toyz 1988". The video for the title track "Riddles Are Abound Tonight" featured the band in blue leotards performing on stationary bicycles.


title: Primus (band)

text: In 1995, Primus released their fourth album, "Tales from the Punchbowl". It contained Primus's most successful single to date, which is the Grammy-nominated "Wynona's Big Brown Beaver". The song was accompanied by a video with the band members dressed up in cartoonish plastic cowboy costumes (similar to the suits worn in the then-current Duracell battery commercials). The band was invited to perform on the Late Show with David Letterman and Late Night with Conan O'Brien. On the David Letterman show, Primus appeared dressed in penguin tuxedos. Two other less successful singles, "Mrs. Blaileen" and "Southbound Pachyderm" (the latter of which featured a claymation video that received only minimal airplay on MTV) were also released.


title: Primus (band)

text: In 1996, Claypool self-produced his first solo album entitled "Les Claypool and the Holy Mackerel Presents Highball with the Devil". On this album many of the songs are done solely by Claypool himself. Claypool also employs the help of a number of other musicians. Experimental Bay Area guitarist M.I.R.V. joined Claypool and others. Performances include a spoken word piece from Henry Rollins on the song "Delicate Tendrils". This album was recorded at Rancho Relaxo.


title: Primus (band)

text: Alexander left the band and was replaced by Brain of Limbomaniacs and Praxis. Claypool stated "Herb's departure was like a marriage that just slowly decayed to an end." With Mantia aboard, Primus were asked in 1996 to compose the theme song to "South Park". Primus also later contributed to the "" album with the song "Mephisto and Kevin".


title: Primus (band)

text: "Brown Album" was released in 1997 and supported by the singles "Shake Hands with Beef" and "Over the Falls". In 1998, the band headlined the inaugural Sno-Core tour with the Aquabats, Long Beach Dub Allstars and Blink-182.


title: Primus (band)

text: In late 1998, Primus released the "Rhinoplasty" EP, which has covers of acts like XTC, the Police and Peter Gabriel. The EP also includes two live recordings of Primus, as well as bonus content accessed through a CD-ROM portion of the CD. It was shortly followed by the video release "Videoplasty".


title: Primus (band)

text: "Antipop" was released in 1999, and featured production and guest appearances from James Hetfield of Metallica, Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine, Matt Stone, one of the creators of "South Park", Stewart Copeland of The Police, Jim Martin of Faith No More, and Fred Durst of Limp Bizkit. While producing the song "Lacquer Head", Durst encouraged Primus to return to the more aggressive sound of their earlier albums for "Antipop". Some critics compared the album's murky downtuned guitars to nu metal, which was popular during the time. The band toured in support of "Antipop" at Ozzfest and on the Family Values Tour. The band released a music video for the album's only single, "Lacquer Head", which was banned from MTV because of references to and depictions of drug use, despite the song's anti-drug message. Tensions among the band rose considerably during this period, Claypool stated "there was some doubt at the label as to whether we knew what the hell we were doing anymore."


title: Primus (band)

text: In 2000, Primus performed a cover of Black Sabbaths song "N.I.B." featuring vocals by Ozzy Osbourne. The track originally appeared on the album "Nativity in Black II: A Tribute to Black Sabbath". The track was also released as part of Osbourne's 2005 "Prince of Darkness" box set.


title: Primus (band)

text: The band went on hiatus from 2000 to 2003, with Claypool later stating: "The end of the Nineties was an unhappy Primus camp. I hit a creative stagnation that wasn't helping us forward, and the personal elements, it just was time to stop. And I had been asked for many years, "How long can Primus go on?" And I always said, "I'll do it until it's not fun anymore." And it just wasn't fun anymore on many different levels."


title: Primus (band)

text: During this hiatus, Alexander released two albums with the band Laundry and performed with Blue Man Group, A Perfect Circle, and Born Naked, among others. Claypool explored the jam band scene with Oysterhead (featuring friend Trey Anastasio of Phish and Stewart Copeland of the Police) and his own Colonel Les Claypool's Fearless Flying Frog Brigade (featuring both Huth and Lane). He also collaborated with Brain, Buckethead and Bernie Worrell in the group Colonel Claypool's Bucket of Bernie Brains.


title: Primus (band)

text: In late 2003, Primus reunited with Alexander on drums to record a five track EP. Released alongside a DVD containing the band's music videos and clips from live performances, the resulting package was titled "Animals Should Not Try to Act Like People". The band staged a two-month tour performing two sets per show, the second consisting of their 1991 release "Sailing the Seas of Cheese" in its entirety. 2004 saw them continue touring, this time performing their 1990 release "Frizzle Fry" in its entirety. For these two tours, the band sold recordings directly recorded from the sound-board online. The performance in Chicago was videotaped and released as a DVD titled "Hallucino-Genetics: Live 2004". They also performed a set at Bonnarroo in 2004, a late night set featuring a cover of "YYZ" by Rush and a guest appearance by Adrian Belew on "Thela Hun Ginjeet" a King Crimson cover.


title: Primus (band)

text: In 2005, the band performed at Lollapalooza and Vegoose. Between Primus shows, Claypool created a new solo project called Les Claypool's Fancy Band which, like other projects, occasionally used Primus songs.


title: Primus (band)

text: A May 10, 2006 article on IGN revealed that Primus had signed on with RedOctane to allow the master recording of John the Fisherman to be used in Guitar Hero II, a game for the PlayStation 2 and .


title: Primus (band)

text: On October 17, 2006, Primus released both their first greatest hits CD "They Can't All Be Zingers", as well as their third DVD "Blame It on the Fish: an Abstract Look at the 2003 Primus Tour de Fromage". Containing live footage from the band's 2003 Tour de Fromage, interview segments and behind the scenes footage, the DVD includes a 70-minute feature film and 90 minutes of bonus material, including a 30-minute mockumentary about the band in the year 2065. "Blame it on the Fish" was directed by Matthew J. Powers. "They Can't All Be Zingers: The Best of Primus" includes 16 digitally remastered songs that span the band's career.


title: Primus (band)

text: In November 2006, Primus commenced another tour which concluded the following month. They played at a few festivals in 2008, including the Rothbury Festival (in Michigan), the Ottawa Blues Fest, the Quebec City Summer Festival, and the Outside Lands Festival (in San Francisco). On November 24, 2009, Prawn Song re-released the band's first studio album, "Frizzle Fry", on vinyl record, along with some of Claypool's solo albums.


title: Primus (band)

text: It was revealed in 2011 that Alexander lacked interest in continuing Primus, despite enthusiasm from LaLonde and Claypool. Claypool hinted that the band could have recorded with Alexander, but that "when we did readdress Primus in '03 and '06, it was more of a nostalgic thing. It was great at the time, but it just didn't have that creative spark as far as moving forward", and thus the reformation instead focused on touring.


title: Primus (band)

text: On March 18, 2010, it was announced by Phil Lesh on his official message board that former Primus drummer Lane would be leaving his previous band Furthur to rejoin Primus. On May 3, 2010, Primus announced a new tour with Gogol Bordello, Wolfmother, and the Dead Kenny G's. The press release for the tour revealed that the band were looking to "refine their chops before heading into the studio to record their first album of brand new music since 1999's "Antipop"." Correlating with this announcement, the Primus website was updated with an animation of an elevator with its twelfth floor featuring a stylized question mark, and a sign reading "Primus will be with you shortly", alluding to future plans. In 2011, Claypool elaborated on the band's decision to record an album, stating that "(Lane) coming back has just breathed life back into the project. We did some touring, and we decided, "Let's go make a record," because we were creating things on the road."


title: Primus (band)

text: On August 5, 2010, Primus released "June 2010 Rehearsal", a free four-track rehearsal EP available for download on their official website. The EP consists of new recordings of previously released Primus songs featuring Lane on drums.


title: Primus (band)

text: Primus began their second annual Oddity Faire tour on September 14, 2010, with opening acts Portugal. The Man, Split Lip Rayfield, Mariachi El Bronx, the New Orleans Bingo! Show, Mucca Pazza and Gogol Bordello. The Squidling Brothers Circus Sideshow performers also entertained the crowd between bands on select dates. To promote this tour, Primus appeared on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" in September. The Oddity Faire tour did not include dates in Primus's hometown, the San Francisco Bay Area, because for promotional purposes it was too near to the planned New Year's dates December 30 and 31 in Oakland.


title: Primus (band)

text: Their song "Jerry Was a Race Car Driver" is included in the video game "Rock Band 3", which was released on October 26, 2010.


title: Primus (band)

text: In interviews conducted backstage at the Soundwave Festival in March 2011, Claypool said of the new Primus album "we've recorded it, we just need to polish it", and that the release date "should be around May or so". He also described the new material as being "very reminiscent of "Frizzle Fry"". In May, it was revealed that the album was complete and had been named "Green Naugahyde", though the release date was pushed back to July to avoid the holidays. On June 6, a press release was issued announcing that the album would be released by ATO Records and Prawn Song on September 13, 2011. A second press release was later issued announcing that the album would be released in Europe on September 12. On August 17, the track "Tragedy's a' Comin'" was made available to stream via the "Spin" magazine website, followed by "HOINFODAMAN" on September 1 via the "Rolling Stone" site. On September 8, the TV show "South Park" made the entire album available for streaming to anybody who "likes" their Facebook page, including "Those Damned Blue-Collar Tweekers" as a bonus track.


title: Primus (band)

text: Primus continued to tour throughout 2011, playing a number of dates in North America in May and June, including the Bonnaroo Music Festival, followed by a tour of Europe from late June to mid July. They then returned to America to play a few more music festivals leading into early August, including a show at the Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Denver, Colorado with the Flaming Lips, before embarking on a "major fall tour" in support of the new album.


title: Primus (band)

text: In the fall of 2012, the band went on tour with the "first ever" 3D-enhanced live musical performance. Each show featured Quad Surround Sound and 3D visuals.


title: Primus (band)

text: In September 2013, Claypool revealed that Lane had departed Primus to focus on RatDog with Bob Weir. Previous drummer Alexander rejoined the band in his place. Claypool also revealed that the band were "talking about going into the studio in November. But it's all a little premature - we'll see what happens". In December, Alexander revealed that the band had been "in Les's studio working on stuff for the new year's show but I don't know if there are any plans for releasing that." When asked about performing new material during the 2014 Australia tour, he said "looking at [the band's touring schedule], it doesn't look like there's going to be any time to write anything new."


title: Primus (band)

text: The first official Primus show with Alexander back on drums was New Year's Eve 2013 at the Fox Theater in Oakland. The band performed their first set in front of the iconic "Suck On This" backdrop seen in the "Too Many Puppies" music video. For their second set, Primus were joined by "the Frog Brigade Ensemble", consisting of saxophonist Skerik and percussionist Mike Dillon, as they performed the soundtrack from the 1971 film "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory" in its entirety. The band later announced that a studio recording of the soundtrack, titled "Primus & the Chocolate Factory with the Fungi Ensemble", would be released on October 21, 2014.


title: Primus (band)

text: On September 16, 2014, a biography of the band was released via Akashic Books titled "Primus, Over the Electric Grapevine: Insight into Primus and the World of Les Claypool", written by music journalist and author Greg Prato in affiliation with Primus. The book chronicles the band's career alongside Claypool's other projects and features interviews with band members past and present, as well as Geddy Lee, Tom Waits, Tom Morello, Kirk Hammett, Stewart Copeland, Trey Anastasio, and Matt Stone, among others.


title: Primus (band)

text: In late October 2015, the band released the first music video from their "Primus & the Chocolate Factory with the Fungi Ensemble" album, for the track "Candyman".


title: Primus (band)

text: In mid-October 2016, the band performed at the fifth annual Desert Daze music festival in Joshua Tree, California.


title: Primus (band)

text: On July 31, 2017, Primus announced their ninth studio album "The Desaturating Seven" and a US tour. On that same day, the album's first single "The Seven" was also released. The album is inspired by the children's book "The Rainbow Goblins", written by Italian author Ul de Rico, which lead singer and bassist Claypool used to read to his children. It was released on September 29, 2017. During their co-headling tour with Mastodon in 2018, the band played the album in its entirety. Primus – alongside Ministry and Philip H. Anselmo & The Illegals – also opened for Slayer on the final North American leg of their farewell tour in November 2019.


title: Primus (band)

text: At the beginning of 2020, the band announced that they would be doing a tour in which every night they would cover Rush's 1977 album "A Farewell to Kings" in its entirety. The tour was postponed twice. Once due to the fact that Primus joined Slayer on their retirement tour and again due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In November 2020, they announced a livestream entitled "Alive From Pachyderm Station" that would air on December 11 at Primuslive.com if audience bought a ticket. The concert was filmed at Claypool's winery, "Claypool Cellars". The event marked the first time in 20 years that songs from "Antipop" were performed live, including the first official performance of the song (other than being played at soundcheck in Milwaukee in 1999) "Eclectic Electric". The "Tribute to Kings" tour commenced in August 2021 and originally wrapped up in October, followed by an encore extension beginning April 2022.


title: Primus (band)

text: In an August 2021 interview with "The Spokesman-Review", Claypool confirmed that a new Primus album is in the works: "Some ideas are being thrown around, but we're not there yet. We will have a new album at some point. We're focusing on this tour and "Farewell to Kings". That's enough for us for now." In March 2022, Claypool revealed that the band was planning to release a new twelve-inch single featuring a 13-minute track called "Conspiranoia" and two songs as its b-sides. The "Conspiranoid" EP was released on April 22, 2022.


title: Primus (band)

text: On August 9 and 10, 2022, Primus played the South Park 25th Anniversary Concert alongside Ween and South Park creators Matt Stone and Trey Parker. It was broadcast on Comedy Central on August 13 and on Paramount+ on August 14.


title: Primus (band)

text: Unlike other bands associated with the 1990s alternative music movement, Primus emerged from a mostly metal background, with Claypool and LaLonde previously a part of the 1980s Californian thrash metal underground. Kirk Hammett, guitarist of Bay Area thrash metal band Metallica, remarked in a 1991 interview that Primus are "unique, they're a square peg in a round hole". The music of Primus has been described as "thrash-funk meets Don Knotts, Jr." and "the Freak Brothers set to music". Also, Primus has been categorized as alternative rock, alternative metal, experimental rock, funk rock, funk metal, progressive rock, and "thrash-funk". Regarding the band's genre, Claypool stated in 1991 "We've been lumped in with the funk metal thing just about everywhere. I guess people just have to categorize you". "MTV" suggests that Primus is "a post-punk Rush spiked with the sensibility and humor of Frank Zappa". Les Claypool himself once described their music as "psychedelic polka." "Spin" have labelled Primus as "pranksters" and, in 1995, as an "unlikely gold-selling white trash purveyor of hard-ass pinballing funk metal".


title: Primus (band)

text: Primus is the only band with its own ID3 genre tag, 'Primus', as introduced by Winamp. Primus' primary influence is the Residents, an avant-garde band that are well known for their anonymity and surreal music. Claypool has said he is often accused of being a member of the Residents due to their similar musical style. Other influences include King Crimson, Rush, Pink Floyd and Hillel Slovak-era Red Hot Chili Peppers.


title: Primus (band)

text: The band have been credited as an influence to the nu metal genre, with bands such as Deftones, Korn, Limp Bizkit, Pressure 4-5 and Pleymo all having been inspired by Primus. Limp Bizkit's frontman Fred Durst, who produced a song on the Primus album "Antipop", stated in 1999 "I fucking love Primus. Spawned by pure rhythms, Primus has and always will be the most innovative and original source of groove to influence me in this decade. If you listen you will learn." Incubus vocalist Brandon Boyd has mentioned them as an influence, and said, "Primus was one of those bands that myself, José from our band, Mikey from our band, the three of us fully bonded over them. We would just crank their music in the car, outdoors."


title: Primus (band)

text: Primus is also known for their unique live performances that feature extended solos and improvisation. Many of their songs have been upgraded significantly with changed lyrics, added solos, and general alterations in musical composition. Claypool often plays the whamola during drum solos.


title: Louis Wain

text: Louis William Wain (5 August 1860 – 4 July 1939) was an English artist best known for his drawings, which consistently featured anthropomorphized large-eyed cats and kittens. Later in life, he was confined to mental institutions and struggled with mental illness.


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain was born on 5 August 1860 in Clerkenwell in London. His father, William Matthew Wain (1825–1880), was a textile trader and embroiderer; his mother, Julie Felicite Boiteux (1833–1910), was French. He was the first of six children and the only male child. None of his five sisters—Caroline E. M. (1862–1917), Josephine F. M. (1864–1939), Marie L. (1867–1913), Claire M. (1868–1945), and Felicie J. (1871–1940)—ever married. At 34 years old, his sister Marie was declared insane. She was admitted to an asylum in 1901, where she died in 1913. The remaining sisters lived with their mother for the duration of her life.


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain was born with a cleft lip; a doctor told his parents that he should not be sent to school or taught until he was ten. As a youth, he was often truant from school and spent much of his childhood wandering around London. He subsequently studied at the West London School of Art and was eventually a teacher there for a short period. At the age of 20, he was left to support his mother and his five sisters after his father's death in 1880. He moved out from home and rented a furnished room when in 1881 he had his first drawing—"Bullfinches on Laurel Bushes"—published in the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News.


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain soon quit his teaching position to become a freelance artist. In this role, he achieved great success. He specialized in drawing animals and country scenes, and worked for several journals including the "Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News", where he stayed for four years; and "The Illustrated London News", where he began in 1886. Through the 1880s, his work included detailed illustrations of English country houses and estates, and livestock he was commissioned to draw at agricultural shows. His work at this time included a wide variety of animals, and he maintained his ability to draw creatures of all kinds throughout his lifetime. At one point, he hoped to make a living by drawing dog portraits.


title: Louis Wain

text: At 23, Wain married his sisters' governess, Emily Richardson, who was ten years his senior (which was considered scandalous at the time) and moved with her to Hampstead in north London. She soon began to suffer from breast cancer and died three years later. Prior to her death, Wain discovered the subject that would define his career. During her illness, Emily was comforted by their pet cat Peter, a stray black-and-white kitten whom they rescued when they heard him meowing in the rain one night. Wain drew extensive sketches of Peter, which Emily encouraged him to have published. She died before this happened, but he continued to sketch cats. He later wrote of Peter, "To him, properly, belongs the foundation of my career, the developments of my initial efforts, and the establishing of my work." Peter can be recognized in many of Wain's early published works.


title: Louis Wain

text: In 1886, Wain's first drawing of anthropomorphized cats, "A Kitten's Christmas Party," was published in the Christmas issue of the "Illustrated London News". The magazine editor, Sir William Ingram, commissioned Wain to create this work, which probably represented the peak of his fame. It depicted 150 cats, many of which resembled Peter, engaged in activities such as sending invitations, holding a ball, playing games, and making speeches. It spread across eleven panels. The cats remain on all fours, unclothed, and without the variety of human-like expression which would characterize Wain's later work.


title: Louis Wain

text: Shortly after the success of "A Kitten’s Christmas Party," Emily died on January 2, 1887. After her death, Wain began to suffer from depression and cats soon became an obsession for him. As a result, the style in which he depicted them started to change. Emily’s death and future tragic events in his life—the death of his cat Peter and one of his sisters—most likely contributed to his mental breakdown.


title: Louis Wain

text: From 1906 to 1916, the widowed Louis Wain and his extended family lived in Westgate-on-Sea, Kent, as a tenant of his patron, Sir William Ingram. A blue plaque at Westgate Bay Avenue marks his time there.


title: Louis Wain

text: In subsequent years, his cats began to walk upright, smile broadly and use other exaggerated facial expressions, and wear sophisticated, contemporary clothing. He illustrated cats playing musical instruments, serving tea, playing cards, fishing, smoking, and enjoying nights at the opera. Such anthropomorphic portrayals of animals were popular in Victorian England and were often found in prints, on greeting cards and in satirical illustrations such as those of John Tenniel.


title: Louis Wain

text: Over the next 30 years, Wain was a prolific artist. He produced as many as several hundred drawings a year, and he illustrated about 100 children's books. His work appeared in papers, journals and magazines, including the "Louis Wain Annual", which ran from 1901 to 1915. His work was also reproduced on picture postcards, now highly valued collectors' items. In 1898 and 1911 he was chairman of the National Cat Club.


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain's illustrations often parody human behaviour, satirizing fads and fashions of the day. He wrote, "I take a sketch-book to a restaurant, or other public places, and draw the people in their different positions "as cats", getting as near to their human characteristics as possible. This gives me "doubly" nature, and these studies I think [to be] my best humorous work."


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain was involved with several animal charities, including the Governing Council of Our Dumb Friends League, the Society for the Protection of Cats, and the Anti-Vivisection Society. As mentioned earlier, he was active in the National Cat Club, and served as its president and chairman. He felt that he helped "to wipe out the contempt in which the cat has been held" in England.


title: Louis Wain

text: Despite his popularity, Wain suffered financial difficulty throughout his life. He remained responsible for supporting his mother and sisters and had little business sense. He was modest, naive, easily exploited, and ill-equipped for bargaining in the world of publishing. He often sold his drawings outright, retaining no rights over their reproduction. He was easily misled and found himself duped by the promise of a new invention or other money-making schemes.


title: Louis Wain

text: He travelled to New York in 1907, where he drew some comic strips, such as "Cats About Town" and "Grimalkin", for newspapers owned by the Hearst Corporation. His work was widely admired, although his critical attitude towards the city made him the subject of sniping in the press. He returned home with even less money, due to his imprudent investment in a new type of oil lamp.


title: Louis Wain

text: Circa 1914, Wain created a number of ceramic pieces produced by Amphora Ceramics. Dubbed the "futurist cat", the pieces were of cats and dogs in angular shapes and with geometrical markings. They are considered to be in the Cubist art style.


title: Louis Wain

text: It must be noted that Wain's presumed schizophrenia should not be attributed to toxoplasmosis, a disease precipitated by the parasite "Toxoplasma gondii", which is excreted by cats in their faeces. The old theory that toxoplasmosis can trigger schizophrenia, and which can be traced back as early as the mid-20th century, has been widely contested, for there is no solid evidence that supports the idea that toxoplasmosis may affect people's behaviour; and although research on the field continues, currently the connection between schizophrenia and toxoplasmosis seems to be a myth rather than a fact. It must also be noted that Wain was not the only person in his family afflicted by a mental disorder.


title: Louis Wain

text: In 1924, when his sisters could no longer cope with his erratic, and sometimes violent behaviour, Wain was committed to a pauper ward at the Springfield Mental Hospital in Tooting. When Wain was discovered there a year later, his circumstances were widely publicized, leading to appeals from such figures as H. G. Wells, and the personal intervention of Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin. Wain was transferred to the Bethlem Royal Hospital in Southwark, and again, in 1930, he was transferred to Napsbury Hospital near St Albans in Hertfordshire, north of London. Napsbury was relatively pleasant, with a garden and colony of cats, and he spent his final years there in peace. While he became more and more deluded, his erratic mood swings subsided, and he continued drawing for pleasure. His work from this period is marked by bright colours, flowers, and intricate and abstract patterns, though his primary subject of cats remained the same.


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain died on 4 July 1939 at Napsbury Mental Health Hospital, St Albans, Hertfordshire, England. He is buried in his father's grave at St. Mary's Roman Catholic Cemetery, Kensal Green, London.


title: Louis Wain

text: Writing in 2001, Michael Fitzgerald disputes the claim that Wain was schizophrenic, saying that he more likely had Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD). He indicates that while Wain's art became more abstract as he grew older, his technique and skill as a painter did not diminish, as one would expect with schizophrenia. He observes that elements of visual agnosia—the inability to recognize certain objects, even though a person can recall them if asked—are demonstrated in his painting. If Wain did have visual agnosia, it might have manifested itself as extreme attention to detail.


title: Louis Wain

text: Series of his paintings have commonly been used as examples in psychology textbooks to putatively show the change in his style as his psychological condition deteriorated. However, given that Wain did not date his works, it is not known if these works were created in the order presented in textbooks, which typically show more florid, abstract pictures as appearing later, indicative of Wain's mental state. Rodney Dale, author of "Louis Wain: The Man Who Drew Cats", has criticized this characterization, and argued: "Wain experimented with patterns and cats, and even quite late in life was still producing conventional cat pictures, perhaps 10 years after his [supposedly] 'later' productions which are patterns rather than cats."


title: Louis Wain

text: In 2012, Kevin Van Eeckelen proposed in an article about psychotic patterns that evidence of deterioration was found in Louis Wain's earlier (narrative) work, for instance in the "Louis Wain Kitten Book" (1903). This analysis is based on the mimetic (girardian) view of psychosis, which focuses on the continuity between 'normality' and 'madness'.


title: Louis Wain

text: In December 2012, psychiatrist David O’Flynn, at a gallery talk at an exhibition of "Kaleidoscopic Cats" at the Bethlem Royal Hospital Archives & Museum, proposed viewing the series as the creation of two men—"Louis Wain, who created them, and Walter Maclay (1902–1964), the psychiatrist who organised them into a series."


title: Louis Wain

text: O'Flynn suggested Maclay saw in the series a proof of his own ideas, partly based on his 1930s experiments with art and mescaline-induced psychosis. Maclay concluded that the creative ability of people with schizophrenia deteriorated. O'Flynn says that, based on examination of the work of outsider artists, the link between schizophrenia and the deterioration of artwork doesn't hold true. Looking at Wain's late work, O'Flynn sees greater experimentation and use of colour, not a deterioration. Despite the series being known to be assembled, and the pictures not dated since the 1960s, "their representation of something that doesn't exist, namely psychotic deterioration, has been surprisingly robust". The series has become "the Mona Lisa of asylum art".


title: Louis Wain

text: H. G. Wells said of Wain, "He made the cat his own. He invented a cat style, a cat society, a whole cat world. British cats that do not look and live like Louis Wain cats are ashamed of themselves."


title: Louis Wain

text: Although Wain's books are all in the public domain, to date none have been reprinted other than "Father Tuck's Struwwelpeter". A number of collections of his artwork, however, have been released.


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain's later work has been identified as an important precursor to 1960s psychedelic art. The 1960s saw renewed interest in Wain's psychedelic work, and psychedelia fans of the time "marveled at how Wain could produce these [psychedelic] images without taking any sort of substances."


title: Louis Wain

text: Wain's life is the subject of "The Electrical Life of Louis Wain", a 2021 Amazon Studios production starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Wain and Claire Foy as his wife Emily Richardson.


title: World's fair

text: A world's fair, also known as a universal exhibition or an expo, is a large international exhibition designed to showcase the achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in different parts of the world at a specific site for a period of time, typically between three and six months.


title: World's fair

text: The term "world's fair" is commonly used in the United States, while the French term, ("universal exhibition") is used in most of Europe and Asia; other terms include World Expo or Specialised Expo, with the word expo used for various types of exhibitions since at least 1958.


title: World's fair

text: Since the adoption of the 1928 Convention Relating to International Exhibitions, the Paris-based Bureau International des Expositions has served as an international sanctioning body for international exhibitions; four types of international exhibition are organised under its auspices: World Expos, Specialised Expos, Horticultural Expos (regulated by the International Association of Horticultural Producers) and the Milan Triennial.


title: World's fair

text: Astana, Kazakhstan, held the most recent Specialised Expo in 2017 while Dubai, United Arab Emirates hosted Expo 2020 (which was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Buenos Aires, Argentina, which had been selected to host the next Specialised Expo in 2023, announced its withdrawal with no reschedule date.


title: World's fair

text: In 1791 Prague organized the first World's Fair, Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic). The first industrial exhibition was on the occasion of the coronation of Leopold II as a king of Bohemia, which took place in Clementinum, and celebrated the considerable sophistication of manufacturing methods in the Czech lands during that time period.


title: World's fair

text: France had a tradition of national exhibitions, which culminated with the French Industrial Exposition of 1844 held in Paris. This fair was followed by other national exhibitions in Europe. In 1851, under the title "Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations", the World Expo was held in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, the United Kingdom. The Great Exhibition, as it is often called, was an idea of Prince Albert, Queen Victoria's husband, and is usually considered to be the first international exhibition of manufactured products. It influenced the development of several aspects of society, including art-and-design education, international trade and relations, and tourism. This expo was the precedent for the many international exhibitions, later called "World Expos", that have continued to be held to the present time.


title: World's fair

text: The character of world fairs, or expositions, has evolved since the first one in 1851. Three eras can be distinguished: the era of industrialization, the era of cultural exchange, and the era of nation branding.


title: World's fair

text: The first era, the era of "industrialization", roughly covered the years from 1850 to 1938. In these years, world expositions were largely focused on trade and displayed technological advances and inventions. World expositions were platforms for state-of-the-art science and technology from around the world. The world expositions of 1851 London, 1853 New York, 1862 London, 1876 Philadelphia, Paris 1878, 1888 Barcelona, 1889 Paris, 1891 Prague, 1893 Chicago, 1897 Brussels, 1900 Paris, 1904 St. Louis, 1915 San Francisco, and 1933–34 Chicago were notable in this respect. Inventions such as the telephone were first presented during this era. This era set the basic character of the world fair.


title: World's fair

text: The 1939–40 New York World's Fair, and those that followed, took a different approach, one less focused on technology and aimed more at cultural themes and social progress. For instance, the theme of the 1939 fair was "Building the World of Tomorrow"; at the 1964–65 New York World's Fair, it was "Peace Through Understanding"; at the 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal, it was "Man and His World". These fairs encouraged effective intercultural communication along with sharing of technological innovation.


title: World's fair

text: The 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal was promoted under the name "Expo 67". Event organizers retired the term "world's fair" in favor of "Expo" (the Montreal Expos, a former Major League Baseball team, was named for the 1967 fair).


title: World's fair

text: From World Expo 88 in Brisbane onwards, countries started to use expositions as a platform to improve their national image through their pavilions. Finland, Japan, Canada, France, and Spain are cases in point. A major study by Tjaco Walvis called "Expo 2000 Hanover in Numbers" showed that improving national image was the main goal for 73% of the countries participating in Expo 2000. Pavilions became a kind of advertising campaign, and the Expo served as a vehicle for "nation branding". According to branding expert Wally Olins, Spain used Expo '92 and the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona in the same year to underscore its new position as a modern and democratic country and to show itself as a prominent member of the European Union and the global community.


title: World's fair

text: At Expo 2000 Hanover, countries created their own architectural pavilions, investing, on average, €12 million each. Given these costs, governments are sometimes hesitant to participate, because the benefits may not justify the costs. However, while the effects are difficult to measure, an independent study for the Dutch pavilion at Expo 2000 estimated that the pavilion (which cost around €35 million) generated around €350 million of potential revenues for the Dutch economy. It also identified several key success factors for world-exposition pavilions in general.


title: World's fair

text: At present there are two types of international exhibition: World Expos (formally known as International Registered Exhibitions) and Specialised Expos (formally known as International Recognised Exhibitions). World Expos, previously known as universal expositions, are the biggest category events. At World Expos, participants generally build their own pavilions. They are therefore the most extravagant and most expensive expos. Their duration may be between six weeks and six months. Since 1995, the interval between two World Expos has been at least five years. World Expo 2015 was held in Milan, Italy, from 1 May to 31 October 2015.


title: World's fair

text: Specialised Expos are smaller in scope and investments and generally shorter in duration; between three weeks and three months. Previously, these Expos were called Special Exhibitions or International Specialized Exhibitions but these terms are no longer used officially. Their total surface area must not exceed 25 ha (62 acres) and organizers must build pavilions for the participating states, free of rent, charges, taxes and expenses. The largest country pavilions may not exceed 1,000m ( acre). Only one Specialised Expo can be held between two World Expos.


title: World's fair

text: An additional two types of international exhibition may be recognized by the BIE: horticultural exhibitions, which are joint BIE and AIPH-sanctioned 'garden' fairs in which participants present gardens and garden pavilions; and the semi-regular Milan Triennial (not always held every third year) art and design exhibition, held in Milan, Italy, with the BIE granting official international exhibition status to 14 editions of the Triennale between 1996 and 2016.


title: World's fair

text: World Expos (formally known as International Registered Exhibitions) encompass universal themes that affect the full gamut of human experience, and international and corporate participants are required to adhere to the theme in their representations. Registered expositions are held every 5 years because they are more expensive as they require total design of pavilion buildings from the ground up. As a result, nations compete for the most outstanding or memorable structure—for example Japan, France, Morocco, and Spain at Expo '92. Sometimes prefabricated structures are used to minimize costs for developing countries, or for countries from a geographical block to share space (i.e. Plaza of the Americas at Seville '92).


title: World's fair

text: In the 21st century the BIE has moved to sanction World Expos every five years; following the numerous expos of the 1980s and 1990s, some see this as a means to cut down potential expenditure by participating nations. The move was also seen by some as an attempt to avoid conflicting with the Summer Olympics. World Expos are restricted to every five years, with Specialized Expos in the in-between years.


title: World's fair

text: Specialized Expos (formally known as International Recognized Exhibitions) are usually united by a precise theme—such as 'Future Energy' (Expo 2017 Astana), 'The Living Ocean and Coast' (Expo 2012 Yeosu), or 'Leisure in the Age of Technology' (Brisbane, Expo '88). Such themes are more specific than the wider scope of world expositions.


title: World's fair

text: Specialized Expos are usually smaller in scale and cheaper to run for the host committee and participants because the architectural fees are lower and they only have to customize pavilion space provided free of charge from the Organiser, usually with the prefabricated structure already completed. Countries then have the option of 'adding' their own colours, design etc. to the outside of the prefabricated structure and filling in the inside with their own content.


title: World's fair

text: List of official world expositions (Universal and International/Specialised) according to the Bureau International des Expositions.


title: World's fair

text: Most of the structures are temporary and are dismantled after the fair closes, except for landmark towers. By far the most famous of these is the Eiffel Tower, built for the Exposition Universelle (1889). Although it is now the most recognized symbol of its host city Paris, there were contemporary critics opposed to its construction, and demands for it to be dismantled after the fair's conclusion.


title: World's fair

text: Some world's fair sites became (or reverted to) parks incorporating some of the expo elements, such as:


title: World's fair

text: The Brussels Expo '58 relocated many pavilions within Belgium: the pavilion of Jacques Chocolats moved to the town of Diest to house the new town swimming pool. Another pavilion was relocated to Willebroek and has been used as dance hall Carré ever since. One smaller pavilion still stands on the boulevard towards the Atomium: the restaurant "Salon 58" in the pavilion of Comptoir Tuilier.


title: World's fair

text: Many exhibitions and rides created by Walt Disney and his WED Enterprises company for the 1964 New York World's Fair (which was held over into 1965) were moved to Disneyland after the closing of the Fair. Many of the rides, including "It's a Small World", and "Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln", as well as the building that housed the Carousel of Progress are still in operation.


title: World's fair

text: Disney had contributed so many exhibits to the New York fair in part because the corporation had originally envisioned a "permanent World's Fair" at the Flushing site. That concept instead came to fruition with the Disney Epcot theme park, an extension of the Walt Disney World Resort, near Orlando, Florida. Epcot has many characteristics of a typical universal exposition: national pavilions and exhibits concerning technology and/or the future, along with more typical amusement park rides. Meanwhile, several of the 1964 attractions that were relocated to Disneyland have been duplicated at the Walt Disney World Resort.


title: World's fair

text: Occasionally other mementos of the fairs remain. In the New York City Subway system, signs directing people to Flushing Meadows, Queens remain from the 1964–65 event. In the Montreal subway at least one tile artwork of its theme, "Man and His World", remains. Also, a seemingly endless supply of souvenir items from fair visits can be found, and in the United States, at least, often turn up at garage or estate sales. Many fairs and expos produced postage stamps and commemorative coins.


title: World's fair

text: The 1904 Olympic Games, officially the Games of the III Olympiad, were held in conjunction with the 1904 St. Louis fair, although no explicit coordination is evident. The Exposition Universelle (1900) Paris was also concomitant with the Olympic Games.


title: World's fair

text: Expo 2023 was to be held at the Argentine capital and have a theme of "Science, Innovation, Art and Creativity for Human Development. Creative Industries in Digital Convergence".


title: World's fair

text: At the end of the project examination phase, BIE Member States voted for Buenos Aires as the host city of Expo 2022/23 via a secret ballot at the BIE General Assembly, held in November 2017.


title: World's fair

text: Expo 2025 will be held at the Japanese city of Osaka and will have a theme of "Designing Future Society for Our Lives!”.


title: World's fair

text: Osaka made its official bid for the Expo on 24 April 2017 with the theme "Designing Future Society for Our Lives".


title: World's fair

text: The French capital was the first to declare its candidacy, under the theme "Sharing our Knowledge, Caring for our Planet". The candidacy was withdrawn in January 2018 because of budget constraints.


title: World's fair

text: The Russian city entered its candidacy on 22 May 2017 under the theme "Changing world: inclusive innovation is for our children and future generations".


title: World's fair

text: At the end of the project examination phase, BIE Member States voted for Osaka as the host city of Expo 2025 via a secret ballot at the BIE General Assembly, held in November 2018.


title: World's fair

text: Potential host countries may apply to host Expo 2030 between 6 and 9 years before its proposed opening date. Once one country has submitted an application, alternative countries have 6 months to submit theirs.


title: World's fair

text: At the 167th BIE general assembly both South Korea and Russia indicated their intention to bid for this expo.


title: World's fair

text: The only Expo to be held without BIE approval was the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair; the sanctioning organization at Paris denied it "official" status because its president, Robert Moses, would not comply with the BIE rule limiting the duration of universal expositions to six months. The Fair proceeded without BIE approval, and turned to tourism and trade organizations to host national pavilions in lieu of official government sponsorship. Many countries participated in that fair, including several newly independent African and Asian states. The two World's Fairs in New York (1939–40 and 1964–65) and the Century of Progress in Chicago (1934-1935) are the only two-year world expositions that have been held.


title: World's fair

text: Frederick Pittera, a producer of international exhibitions and author of the history of world's fairs in the "Encyclopædia Britannica" and "Compton Encyclopedia", was commissioned by Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. of New York City in 1959 to prepare the first feasibility studies for the 1964 New York World's Fair. Pittera was joined in his study by Austrian architect Victor Gruen (Inventor of the 'Shopping Mall'). The Eisenhower Commission ultimately awarded the world's fair bid to New York City against several major U.S. cities.


title: World's fair

text: Because the U.S. government withdrew its membership in the Bureau International des Expositions from 2002 to 2017, Worlds Fair Nano is the first private effort in history to host a six-month World's Fair. Worlds Fair Nano is organizing a series of mini-World's Fairs around the country called World's Fair Nano in cities like San Francisco and New York City in order to build excitement for the six month World's Fair, which Worlds Fair Nano hopes to organize within the decade.


title: World's fair

text: The Philippines International Fair of 1953 is another non-BIE exposition. It featured participation from 12 nations (11 foreign plus the host Philippines). It was the first world exposition after World War 2 and the first ever in Asia.


title: World's fair

text: The BIE, since 1959 grants recognition to the International Horticultural Exhibitions (Category A1) approved by the International Association of Horticultural Producers (AIPH) subject to it meeting certain criteria including being approved by the BIE general assembly.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix (Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard, ; born 31 January 1938) is a member of the Dutch royal house who reigned as Queen of the Netherlands from 1980 until her abdication in 2013.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix is the eldest daughter of Queen Juliana and her husband, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. Upon her mother's accession in 1948, she became heir presumptive. Beatrix attended a public primary school in Canada during World War II, and then finished her primary and secondary education in the Netherlands in the post-war period. In 1961, she received her law degree from Leiden University. In 1966, Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg, a German diplomat, with whom she had three children. When her mother abdicated on 30 April 1980, Beatrix succeeded her as queen.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix's reign saw the country's Caribbean possessions reshaped with Aruba's secession and becoming its own constituent country within the kingdom in 1986. This was followed by the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010, which created the new special municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba, and the two new constituent countries of Curaçao and Sint Maarten.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On Koninginnedag ("Queen's Day"), 30 April 2013, Beatrix abdicated in favour of her eldest son, Willem-Alexander. At the time of her abdication at age 75, Beatrix was the oldest reigning monarch in the country's history.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard was born on 31 January 1938 at Soestdijk Palace in Baarn, Netherlands, as the first child of Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. Beatrix was baptised on 12 May 1938 in the Great Church in The Hague. Her five godparents were King Leopold III of Belgium; Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone; Elisabeth, Princess of Erbach-Schönberg; Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg; and Countess Allene de Kotzebue. Beatrix's middle names are the first names of her maternal grandmother (the then reigning Queen Wilhelmina) and her paternal grandmother (Princess Armgard of Sierstorpff-Cramm).


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: World War II broke out in the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 (Westfeldzug). On 13 May, the Dutch Royal Family evacuated to London, United Kingdom. One month later, Beatrix went to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, with her mother Juliana and her sister Irene, while her father Bernhard and maternal grandmother Queen Wilhelmina remained in London. The family lived at the Stornoway residence (now the residence of the Leader of the Opposition in the Parliament of Canada). With bodyguards and ladies in waiting, the family summered at Bigwin Inn on Lake of Bays, Ontario where four private stone cottages of the resort served as their retreat. While on Bigwin Island, the constitution of the Netherlands was stored in the safe of Bigwin Inn's rotunda building. Princess Juliana and her family were remembered for their "down to earth" friendliness, general gratefulness and great reverence for their homeland and people, to whom they paid homage by refraining from all luxuries offered to guests at the resort that was once billed as the largest and most luxurious summer resort in Canada. To provide them with a greater sense of security, culinary chefs and staff catered to personal orders at meal time. Upon their departure, the hotel musicians of the Bigwin Inn Orchestra assembled dockside; and at every public performance afterward through to the end of World War II, the "Wilhelmus" was played. In the years following the shuttering and neglect of the island resort, the "Juliana" cottages were well maintained and preserved in an informal tribute to Princess Juliana and her family. In thanks for the protection of her and her daughters, Princess Juliana established the custom of the delivery to the Canadian government every spring of tulips, which are the centrepiece of the Canadian Tulip Festival.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: The second sister of Beatrix, Princess Margriet, was born in Ottawa in 1943. During their exile in Canada, Beatrix attended nursery and Rockcliffe Park Public School, a primary school where she was known as "Trixie Orange".


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 5 May 1945, the German troops in the Netherlands surrendered. The family returned to the Netherlands on 2 August 1945. Beatrix went to the progressive primary school "De Werkplaats" in Bilthoven run by pacifist social reformers Kees Boeke and Beatrice Boeke-Cadbury. Her third sister Princess Christina was born in 1947. On 6 September 1948, her mother succeeded her grandmother Wilhelmina as Queen of the Netherlands, and as there was no male issue for queen Juliana and prince Bernhard, Beatrix became the heir presumptive to the Dutch throne at the age of ten.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: In April 1950, Princess Beatrix entered the Incrementum, a part of Baarnsch Lyceum, where, in 1956, she passed her school graduation examinations in the subjects of arts and classics. Her tutor from April 1951 was , who remained a close confidant until Miss B.B.'s death in 1982.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 31 January 1956 Beatrix celebrated her 18th birthday. From that date, under the Constitution of the Netherlands, she was entitled to assume the Royal Prerogative. At that time, her mother installed her in the Council of State.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: The same year her studies at Leiden University began. In her first years at the university, she studied sociology, jurisprudence, economics, parliamentary history and constitutional law. In the course of her studies she also attended lectures on the cultures of Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, international affairs, international law, history and European law.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: The princess also visited various European and international organisations in Geneva, Strasbourg, Paris, and Brussels. She was also an active member of the VVSL (Female Union for Students in Leiden), now called L.S.V. Minerva, after merging with the Leidsch Studenten Corps (which before then was male-only). In the summer of 1959, she passed her preliminary examination in law, and she obtained her law degree in July 1961.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: In 1965, Beatrix became engaged to the German aristocrat Claus von Amsberg, a diplomat working for the German Foreign Office. There was a massive protest on their wedding day in Amsterdam on 10 March 1966. Prince Claus had served in the Hitler Youth and the Wehrmacht and therefore was easily associated with German Nazism. Protests included slogans like ""Claus 'raus!"" (Claus out!) and ""Mijn fiets terug"" ("Return my bicycle" – a reference to German soldiers confiscating Dutch bicycles during WWII). A group of Provos threw a smoke bomb at the Golden Coach, resulting in a street battle with the police.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: As time went on, Prince Claus became one of the most popular members of the Dutch monarchy, and his death in 2002 was widely mourned.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 25 November 1975, Beatrix and Prince Claus attended the independence ceremony of Suriname, held in the new nation's capital, Paramaribo, representing her mother the Queen.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: As a monarch, Beatrix had weekly meetings with the prime minister. She signed all new Acts of Parliament and royal decrees, and until a constitutional change late in her reign, appointed the "informateur", an official who is responsible for chairing coalition talks in the formation of new governments. At the state opening of parliament each September, she made a Speech from the Throne, in which the government announced its plans for the coming parliamentary year. As Queen, she was president of the Council of State. Her role was largely ceremonial and as a focus of national unity, she did not make legislative or executive decisions.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 28 June 1965, the engagement of Princess Beatrix to the German diplomat Claus von Amsberg was announced. Claus and Beatrix had met at the wedding-eve party of Princess Tatjana of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and Moritz, Landgrave of Hesse, in summer 1964. After Parliament consented to the marriage, Claus von Amsberg became a Dutch citizen, and upon his marriage became Prince Claus of the Netherlands, Jonkheer van Amsberg.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg on 10 March 1966 in civil and religious ceremonies. The bride wore a traditional gown with train in duchesse silk satin, designed by Caroline Bergé-Farwick of Maison Linette, in Den Bosch, and the Württemberg Ornate Pearl Tiara. The senior bridesmaids were the bride's youngest sister, Princess Christina of the Netherlands; Princess Christina of Sweden; Lady Elizabeth Anson; Joanna Roëll; Eugénie Loudon; and the bridegroom's sister, Christina von Amsberg. The junior bridesmaids were Daphne Stewart-Clark and Carolijn Alting von Geusau, with page boys Joachim Jencquel and Markus von Oeynhausen-Sierstorpff.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: The royal couple travelled to the ceremony together in the gold state carriage. The civil ceremony was conducted by the Mayor of Amsterdam, Gijsbert van Hall, at Amsterdam City Hall. The marriage blessing took place in the Westerkerk, conducted by the Rev. Hendrik Jan Kater, with a sermon by the Rev. Johannes Hendrik Sillevis Smitt.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: They lived at Drakensteyn Castle in Lage Vuursche with their children until Beatrix ascended the throne. In 1981, they moved into Huis ten Bosch Palace in The Hague.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: From the 1970s, Beatrix began to prepare more intensively for her future position as head of state. She made many trips abroad with Prince Claus, including a controversial one to the Soviet Union.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: After the Lockheed affair, Beatrix and Claus began to delve into the royal household and made plans to adapt it. In addition, they asked advisers to prepare for Beatrix's reign. On 31 January 1980, the birthday of her eldest daughter and heir presumptive, Queen Juliana announced during a live television speech that she wished to abdicate on 30 April in favor of her daughter Beatrix.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: That Beatrix would succeed her mother as queen was not a matter of course when she was born. It was not until 1983 that the Constitution was amended in such a way that the eldest child of the head of state becomes the legal heir to the throne. Until then, it had been arranged that the eldest son always had priority over a daughter. Only after Juliana was biologically unable to have more children, Beatrix was certain that she was the intended successor.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 30 April 1980, Beatrix became the monarch when her mother abdicated. She was sworn in and inaugurated as monarch during a joint session of the two chambers of the States General at a ceremony held in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam later that day.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix's constitutional duties included those typically accorded to a head of state; this includes having to sign every piece of legislation before it becomes law, formally appointing various officials, receiving and accrediting ambassadors, and awarding honours and medals, among others. Outside of these constitutional duties, her other informal roles included being the highest representative of the kingdom internationally and to be a unifying figure locally.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix was rarely quoted directly in the press during her reign, for the government information service ("Rijksvoorlichtingsdienst") made it a condition of interviews that she should not be quoted. This policy was introduced shortly after her inauguration, reportedly to protect her from political complications that might arise from "off-the-cuff" remarks. It did not apply to her son Prince Willem-Alexander.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Throughout much of her reign, Beatrix had a considerable role in the cabinet formation process; notably she appointed the "informateur", the person who leads the negotiations that ultimately lead to the formation of a government. However, this was changed in 2012, and now the largest party in the States General appoints a "scout" who then appoints an "informateur".


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 1 January 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles and became a separate constituent country in the Dutch Kingdom.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 6 October 2002, the Queen's husband, Prince Claus, died after a long illness. A year and a half later her mother died after long suffering from senile dementia, while her father succumbed to cancer in December 2004.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 8 February 2005, Beatrix received a rare honorary doctorate from Leiden University, an honour the Queen does not usually accept. In her acceptance speech she reflected on the monarchy and her own 25 years as Queen. The speech was broadcast live.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 29 and 30 April 2005, she celebrated the 25th anniversary of her reign. She was interviewed on Dutch television, was offered a concert on Dam Square in Amsterdam, and a celebration took place in The Hague, the country's seat of government.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 31 May 2006 the "6th Polish Air Assault Brigade" would receive the "Militaire Willemsorde der 4e klasse" in The Hague. Beatrix was to tie the prestigious medal to the standard of the incumbents of the 1st Independent Polish Parachute Brigade.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were formally dissolved. The new municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba and the new constituent countries of Curaçao and Sint Maarten were established in its place. The dissolution ceremony in the Netherlands Antilles' capital, Willemstad, was attended by the then-Prince and Princess of Orange, Willem-Alexander and his wife Máxima, representing the Queen.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: During 1988 Queen's Day, Queen Beatrix was kissed by a bystander, later identified as Maarten Rijkers, when she walked through the crowd of people at a flea market in the Jordaan. When Beatrix walked alongside Rijkers he said "Give me a kiss, girl", after which he gave her a hug and two kisses. It received wide media attention and appeared to be a historic moment. An image of this scene was published in large on the front page of "De Telegraaf". Even 25 years later in 2013, NRC Handelsblad wrote an article about it and the impact of it.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: The reaction of the Queen was seen by people as very positive and was a boost for her reputation in the "Jordaan" region of Amsterdam. The visit was promoted as a "spontaneous visit" to boost her popularity as she wasn't very popular in said region. Historian and Dutch royalty watcher J.G. Kikkert claimed in a lecture that the kiss had been staged, based on what he called "usually very reliable sources". He also noted that although the visit and the kiss might not have been her idea, but that of others, she certainly would have given her approval for she was known to leave no space for coincidence.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: On 30 April 2009, the Queen and other members of the royal family were targeted in a car attack by a man named Karst Tates. Tates crashed his Suzuki Swift into a parade in Apeldoorn, narrowly missing a bus carrying the Queen. Five people were killed instantly and two victims and the assailant Tates died later. Other victims of the crash were critically hurt. One week after the attack, another victim succumbed to the injuries he had sustained. The royal party were unharmed, but the Queen and members of her family saw the crash at close range. Within hours, Beatrix made a rare televised address to express her shock and condolences. The man reportedly told police he was deliberately targeting the royal family.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: In a broadcast on national media on 28 January 2013, Beatrix announced her intention to abdicate on 30 April (Queen's Day), when she would have been on the throne for exactly 33 years. Beatrix stated that it was time to "place the responsibility for the country in the hands of a new generation." Her heir apparent was her eldest son, Prince Willem-Alexander. She was the third successive Dutch monarch to abdicate, following her grandmother and her mother. The broadcast was followed by a statement from Prime Minister Mark Rutte who paid tribute to Beatrix, saying "Since her investiture in 1980, she has applied herself heart and soul to Dutch society."


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: The official programme for the abdication and inauguration took place on 30 April 2013. Beatrix signed the instrument of abdication in the Vroedschapkamer (also known as Mozeszaal) in the Royal Palace, Amsterdam at 10:07 a.m. local time. With the completion of her signature, she was no longer monarch. The inauguration of Willem-Alexander as king took place that afternoon in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix continues to undertake some royal duties and is patron of many organisations. She lives in the small moated Drakensteyn Castle near the village of Lage Vuursche, and a townhouse near Noordeinde Palace.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: It has been speculated that Beatrix is De Onbekende Beeldhouwer (Unknown Sculptor), whose work has been appearing in Amsterdam since 1983. There has been no confirmation of this.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Princess Beatrix has held titles throughout her life, as a granddaughter or daughter of a monarch, and eventually as the Sovereign. Beatrix's official title was "Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, etc., etc., etc". The triple "etc." refers to the monarch's many dormant titles. She signed official documents with only "Beatrix". In common parlance she was referred to as "The Queen" ("de koningin" or "de vorstin") or "Her Majesty" (Hare Majesteit). But when in conversation with the queen the practice was to initially address her as "Your Majesty" or in Dutch as "Uwe Majesteit" and thereafter as "Mevrouw" (ma'am).


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: Beatrix has received honours and awards from countries around the world, both during her life as a princess and as a monarch. In her capacity as the Sovereign she was Grand Master of the Military Order of William ("Militaire Willemsorde") and the other Dutch orders of merit. She is a Stranger Lady of the Most Noble Order of the Garter and the 1,187th Dame of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain, and she has received numerous other medals and decorations.


title: Beatrix of the Netherlands

text: From birth till her inauguration as queen she had the following name and titles, to which she reverted after her abdication: "Her Royal Highness Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld".


title: Vegetable

text: Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. An alternative definition of the term is applied somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural tradition. It may exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits, flowers, nuts, and cereal grains, but include savoury fruits such as tomatoes and courgettes, flowers such as broccoli, and seeds such as pulses.


title: Vegetable

text: Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables, and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries. The scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing.


title: Vegetable

text: Vegetables can be eaten either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates, but high in vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, five or more portions a day often being recommended.


title: Vegetable

text: The word "vegetable" was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was originally applied to all plants; the word is still used in this sense in biological contexts. It derives from Medieval Latin "vegetabilis" "growing, flourishing" (i.e. of a plant), a semantic change from a Late Latin meaning "to be enlivening, quickening".


title: Vegetable

text: The meaning of "vegetable" as a "plant grown for food" was not established until the 18th century. In 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a "plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root". The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term "veggie".


title: Vegetable

text: As an adjective, the word "vegetable" is used in scientific and technical contexts with a different and much broader meaning, namely of "related to plants" in general, edible or not—as in "vegetable matter", "vegetable kingdom", "vegetable origin", etc.


title: Vegetable

text: The exact definition of "vegetable" may vary simply because of the many parts of a plant consumed as food worldwide—roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The broadest definition is the word's use adjectivally to mean "matter of plant origin". More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as "any plant, part of which is used for food", a secondary meaning then being "the edible part of such a plant". A more precise definition is "any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, but including mature fruits that are eaten as part of a main meal". Falling outside these definitions are edible fungi (such as edible mushrooms) and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables.


title: Vegetable

text: In the latter-mentioned definition of "vegetable", which is used in everyday language, the words "fruit" and "vegetable" are mutually exclusive. "Fruit" has a precise botanical meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the word's culinary meaning. While peaches, plums, and oranges are "fruit" in both senses, many items commonly called "vegetables", such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893. The court ruled unanimously in "Nix v. Hedden" that a tomato is correctly identified as, and thus taxed as, a vegetable, for the purposes of the Tariff of 1883 on imported produce. The court did acknowledge, however, that, botanically speaking, a tomato is a fruit.


title: Vegetable

text: Before the advent of agriculture, humans were hunter-gatherers. They foraged for edible fruit, nuts, stems, leaves, corms, and tubers and hunted animals for food. Forest gardening in a tropical jungle clearing is thought to be the first example of agriculture; useful plant species were identified and encouraged to grow while undesirable species were removed. Plant breeding through the selection of strains with desirable traits such as large fruit and vigorous growth soon followed. While the first evidence for the domestication of grasses such as wheat and barley has been found in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, it is likely that various peoples around the world started growing crops in the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC. Subsistence agriculture continues to this day, with many rural farmers in Africa, Asia, South America, and elsewhere using their plots of land to produce enough food for their families, while any surplus produce is used for exchange for other goods.


title: Vegetable

text: Throughout recorded history, the rich have been able to afford a varied diet including meat, vegetables and fruit, but for poor people, meat was a luxury and the food they ate was very dull, typically comprising mainly some staple product made from rice, rye, barley, wheat, millet or maize. The addition of vegetable matter provided some variety to the diet. The staple diet of the Aztecs in Central America was maize and they cultivated tomatoes, avocados, beans, peppers, pumpkins, squashes, peanuts, and amaranth seeds to supplement their tortillas and porridge. In Peru, the Incas subsisted on maize in the lowlands and potatoes at higher altitudes. They also used seeds from quinoa, supplementing their diet with peppers, tomatoes, and avocados.


title: Vegetable

text: In Ancient China, rice was the staple crop in the south and wheat in the north, the latter made into dumplings, noodles, and pancakes. Vegetables used to accompany these included yams, soybeans, broad beans, turnips, spring onions, and garlic. The diet of the ancient Egyptians was based on bread, often contaminated with sand which wore away their teeth. Meat was a luxury but fish was more plentiful. These were accompanied by a range of vegetables including marrows, broad beans, lentils, onions, leeks, garlic, radishes, and lettuces.


title: Vegetable

text: The mainstay of the Ancient Greek diet was bread, and this was accompanied by goat's cheese, olives, figs, fish, and occasionally meat. The vegetables grown included onions, garlic, cabbages, melons, and lentils. In Ancient Rome, a thick porridge was made of emmer wheat or beans, accompanied by green vegetables but little meat, and fish was not esteemed. The Romans grew broad beans, peas, onions and turnips and ate the leaves of beets rather than their roots.


title: Vegetable

text: Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition. Most are low in fat and calories but are bulky and filling. They supply dietary fiber and are important sources of essential vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. Particularly important are the antioxidant vitamins A, C, and E. When vegetables are included in the diet, there is found to be a reduction in the incidence of cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic ailments. Research has shown that, compared with individuals who eat less than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day, those that eat more than five servings have an approximately twenty percent lower risk of developing coronary heart disease or stroke.


title: Vegetable

text: The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat, and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B; provitamins; dietary minerals; and carbohydrates.


title: Vegetable

text: The consumption of crunchy and hard to chew foods, such as raw vegetables, during youth, while the bones are still growing, is needed for the human's, and other animals', jaws' proper development, and without their consumption, the jaws don't grow to their full size, thus not leaving enough room for the teeth to grow in correctly, causing crooked and impacted teeth.


title: Vegetable

text: However, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients which interfere with the absorption of nutrients. These include α-solanine, α-chaconine, enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, tannins and others. These toxins are natural defenses, used to ward off the insects, predators and fungi that might attack the plant. Some beans contain phytohaemagglutinin, and cassava roots contain cyanogenic glycoside as do bamboo shoots. These toxins can be deactivated by adequate cooking. Green potatoes contain glycoalkaloids and should be avoided.


title: Vegetable

text: Fruit and vegetables, particularly leafy vegetables, have been implicated in nearly half the gastrointestinal infections caused by norovirus in the United States. These foods are commonly eaten raw and may become contaminated during their preparation by an infected food handler. Hygiene is important when handling foods to be eaten raw, and such products need to be properly cleaned, handled, and stored to limit contamination.


title: Vegetable

text: The USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming five to nine servings of fruit and vegetables daily. The total amount consumed will vary according to age and gender, and is determined based upon the standard portion sizes typically consumed, as well as general nutritional content. Potatoes are not included in the count as they are mainly providers of starch. For most vegetables and vegetable juices, one serving is half of a cup and can be eaten raw or cooked. For leafy greens, such as lettuce and spinach, a single serving is typically a full cup. A variety of products should be chosen as no single fruit or vegetable provides all the nutrients needed for health.


title: Vegetable

text: International dietary guidelines are similar to the ones established by the USDA. Japan, for example, recommends the consumption of five to six servings of vegetables daily. French recommendations provide similar guidelines and set the daily goal at five servings. In India, the daily recommendation for adults is of vegetables per day.


title: Vegetable

text: Vegetables have been part of the human diet from time immemorial. Some are staple foods but most are accessory foodstuffs, adding variety to meals with their unique flavors and at the same time, adding nutrients necessary for health. Some vegetables are perennials but most are annuals and biennials, usually harvested within a year of sowing or planting. Whatever system is used for growing crops, cultivation follows a similar pattern; preparation of the soil by loosening it, removing or burying weeds, and adding organic manures or fertilisers; sowing seeds or planting young plants; tending the crop while it grows to reduce weed competition, control pests, and provide sufficient water; harvesting the crop when it is ready; sorting, storing, and marketing the crop or eating it fresh from the ground.


title: Vegetable

text: Different soil types suit different crops, but in general in temperate climates, sandy soils dry out fast but warm up quickly in the spring and are suitable for early crops, while heavy clays retain moisture better and are more suitable for late season crops. The growing season can be lengthened by the use of fleece, cloches, plastic mulch, polytunnels, and greenhouses. In hotter regions, the production of vegetables is constrained by the climate, especially the pattern of rainfall, while in temperate zones, it is constrained by the temperature and day length.


title: Vegetable

text: On a domestic scale, the spade, fork, and hoe are the tools of choice while on commercial farms a range of mechanical equipment is available. Besides tractors, these include ploughs, harrows, drills, transplanters, cultivators, irrigation equipment, and harvesters. New techniques are changing the cultivation procedures involved in growing vegetables with computer monitoring systems, GPS locators, and self-steer programs for driverless machines giving economic benefits.


title: Vegetable

text: When a vegetable is harvested, it is cut off from its source of water and nourishment. It continues to transpire and loses moisture as it does so, a process most noticeable in the wilting of green leafy crops. Harvesting root vegetables when they are fully mature improves their storage life, but alternatively, these root crops can be left in the ground and harvested over an extended period. The harvesting process should seek to minimise damage and bruising to the crop. Onions and garlic can be dried for a few days in the field and root crops such as potatoes benefit from a short maturation period in warm, moist surroundings, during which time wounds heal and the skin thickens up and hardens. Before marketing or storage, grading needs to be done to remove damaged goods and select produce according to its quality, size, ripeness, and color.


title: Vegetable

text: All vegetables benefit from proper post harvest care. A large proportion of vegetables and perishable foods are lost after harvest during the storage period. These losses may be as high as thirty to fifty percent in developing countries where adequate cold storage facilities are not available. The main causes of loss include spoilage caused by moisture, moulds, micro-organisms, and vermin.


title: Vegetable

text: Storage can be short-term or long-term. Most vegetables are perishable and short-term storage for a few days provides flexibility in marketing. During storage, leafy vegetables lose moisture, and the vitamin C in them degrades rapidly. A few products such as potatoes and onions have better keeping qualities and can be sold when higher prices may be available, and by extending the marketing season, a greater total volume of crop can be sold. If refrigerated storage is not available, the priority for most crops is to store high-quality produce, to maintain a high humidity level, and to keep the produce in the shade.


title: Vegetable

text: Proper post-harvest storage aimed at extending and ensuring shelf life is best effected by efficient cold chain application. Cold storage is particularly useful for vegetables such as cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, radish, spinach, potatoes, and tomatoes, the optimum temperature depending on the type of produce. There are temperature-controlling technologies that do not require the use of electricity such as evaporative cooling. Storage of fruit and vegetables in controlled atmospheres with high levels of carbon dioxide or high oxygen levels can inhibit microbial growth and extend storage life.


title: Vegetable

text: The irradiation of vegetables and other agricultural produce by ionizing radiation can be used to preserve it from both microbial infection and insect damage, as well as from physical deterioration. It can extend the storage life of food without noticeably changing its properties.


title: Vegetable

text: The objective of preserving vegetables is to extend their availability for consumption or marketing purposes. The aim is to harvest the food at its maximum state of palatability and nutritional value, and preserve these qualities for an extended period. The main causes of deterioration in vegetables after they are gathered are the actions of naturally-occurring enzymes and the spoilage caused by micro-organisms. Canning and freezing are the most commonly used techniques, and vegetables preserved by these methods are generally similar in nutritional value to comparable fresh products with regards to carotenoids, vitamin E, minerals. and dietary fiber.


title: Vegetable

text: Canning is a process during which the enzymes in vegetables are deactivated and the micro-organisms present killed by heat. The sealed can excludes air from the foodstuff to prevent subsequent deterioration. The lowest necessary heat and the minimum processing time are used in order to prevent the mechanical breakdown of the product and to preserve the flavor as far as is possible. The can is then able to be stored at ambient temperatures for a long period.


title: Vegetable

text: Freezing vegetables and maintaining their temperature at below will prevent their spoilage for a short period, whereas a temperature of is required for longer-term storage. The enzyme action will merely be inhibited, and blanching of suitably sized prepared vegetables before freezing mitigates this and prevents off-flavors developing. Not all micro-organisms will be killed at these temperatures and after thawing the vegetables should be used promptly because otherwise, any microbes present may proliferate.


title: Vegetable

text: Traditionally, sun drying has been used for some products such as tomatoes, mushrooms, and beans, spreading the produce on racks and turning the crop at intervals. This method suffers from several disadvantages including lack of control over drying rates, spoilage when drying is slow, contamination by dirt, wetting by rain, and attack by rodents, birds, and insects. These disadvantages can be alleviated by using solar powered driers. The dried produce must be prevented from reabsorbing moisture during storage.


title: Vegetable

text: High levels of both sugar and salt can preserve food by preventing micro-organisms from growing. Green beans can be salted by layering the pods with salt, but this method of preservation is unsuited to most vegetables. Marrows, beetroot, carrot, and some other vegetables can be boiled with sugar to create jams. Vinegar is widely used in food preservation; a sufficient concentration of acetic acid prevents the development of destructive micro-organisms, a fact made use of in the preparation of pickles, chutneys and relishes. Fermentation is another method of preserving vegetables for later use. Sauerkraut is made from chopped cabbage and relies on lactic acid bacteria which produce compounds that are inhibitory to the growth of other micro-organisms.


title: Vegetable

text: In 2010, China was the largest vegetable producing nation, with over half the world's production. India, the United States, Turkey, Iran, and Egypt were the next largest producers. China had the highest area of land devoted to vegetable production, while the highest average yields were obtained in Spain and the Republic of Korea.


title: Vegetable

text: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets international standards to ensure that products and services are safe, reliable, and of good quality. There are a number of ISO standards regarding fruits and vegetables. ISO 1991-1:1982 lists the botanical names of sixty-one species of plants used as vegetables along with the common names of the vegetables in English, French, and Russian. ISO 67.080.20 covers the storage and transport of vegetables and their derived products.


title: Staphylococcus aureus

text: Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive spherically shaped bacterium, a member of the Bacillota, and is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. Although "S. aureus" usually acts as a commensal of the human microbiota, it can also become an opportunistic pathogen, being a common cause of skin infections including abscesses, respiratory infections such as sinusitis, and food poisoning. Pathogenic strains often promote infections by producing virulence factors such as potent protein toxins, and the expression of a cell-surface protein that binds and inactivates antibodies. "S. aureus" is one of the leading pathogens for deaths associated with antimicrobial resistance and the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant "S. aureus" (MRSA), is a worldwide problem in clinical medicine. Despite much research and development, no vaccine for "S. aureus" has been approved.


title: Staphylococcus aureus

text: An estimated 20% to 30% of the human population are long-term carriers of "S. aureus", which can be found as part of the normal skin flora, in the nostrils, and as a normal inhabitant of the lower reproductive tract of women. "S. aureus" can cause a range of illnesses, from minor skin infections, such as pimples, impetigo, boils, cellulitis, folliculitis, carbuncles, scalded skin syndrome, and abscesses, to life-threatening diseases such as pneumonia, meningitis, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, toxic shock syndrome, bacteremia, and sepsis. It is still one of the five most common causes of hospital-acquired infections and is often the cause of wound infections following surgery. Each year, around 500,000 hospital patients in the United States contract a staphylococcal infection, chiefly by "S. aureus". Up to 50,000 deaths each year in the U.S. are linked to "S. aureus" infections.


title: Staphylococcus aureus

text: In 1880, Alexander Ogston, a Scottish surgeon, discovered that "Staphylococcus" can cause wound infections after noticing groups of bacteria in pus from a surgical abscess during a procedure he was performing. He named it "Staphylococcus" after its clustered appearance evident under a microscope. Then, in 1884, German scientist Friedrich Julius Rosenbach identified "Staphylococcus aureus", discriminating and separating it from "Staphylococcus albus", a related bacterium. In the early 1930s, doctors began to use a more streamlined test to detect the presence of an "S. aureus" infection by the means of coagulase testing, which enables detection of an enzyme produced by the bacterium. Prior to the 1940s, "S. aureus" infections were fatal in the majority of patients. However, doctors discovered that the use of penicillin could cure "S. aureus" infections. Unfortunately, by the end of the 1940s, penicillin resistance became widespread amongst this bacterium population and outbreaks of the resistant strain began to occur.


title: Staphylococcus aureus

text: "Staphylococcus aureus" can be sorted into ten dominant human lineages. There are numerous minor lineages as well, but these are not seen in the population as often. Genomes of bacteria within the same lineage are mostly conserved, with the exception of mobile genetic elements. Mobile genetic elements that are common in "S. aureus" include bacteriophages, pathogenicity islands, plasmids, transposons, and staphylococcal cassette chromosomes. These elements have enabled "S. aureus" to continually evolve and gain new traits. There is a great deal of genetic variation within the "S. aureus" species"." A study by Fitzgerald et al. (2001) revealed that approximately 22% of the "S. aureus" genome is non-coding and thus can differ from bacterium to bacterium. An example of this difference is seen in the species' virulence. Only a few strains of "S. aureus" are associated with infections in humans. This demonstrates that there is a large range of infectious ability within the species.


title: Staphylococcus aureus

text: It has been proposed that one possible reason for the great deal of heterogeneity within the species could be due to its reliance on heterogeneous infections. This occurs when multiple different types of "S. aureus" cause an infection within a host. The different strains can secrete different enzymes or bring different antibiotic resistances to the group, increasing its pathogenic ability. Thus, there is a need for a large number of mutations and acquisitions of mobile genetic elements.