title: Osteoarthritis

text: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a type of degenerative joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone which affects 1 in 7 adults in the United States. It is believed to be the fourth leading cause of disability in the world. The most common symptoms are joint pain and stiffness. Usually the symptoms progress slowly over years. Initially they may occur only after exercise but can become constant over time. Other symptoms may include joint swelling, decreased range of motion, and, when the back is affected, weakness or numbness of the arms and legs. The most commonly involved joints are the two near the ends of the fingers and the joint at the base of the thumbs; the knee and hip joints; and the joints of the neck and lower back. Joints on one side of the body are often more affected than those on the other. The symptoms can interfere with work and normal daily activities. Unlike some other types of arthritis, only the joints, not internal organs, are affected.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Causes include previous joint injury, abnormal joint or limb development, and inherited factors. Risk is greater in those who are overweight, have legs of different lengths, or have jobs that result in high levels of joint stress. Osteoarthritis is believed to be caused by mechanical stress on the joint and low grade inflammatory processes. It develops as cartilage is lost and the underlying bone becomes affected. As pain may make it difficult to exercise, muscle loss may occur. Diagnosis is typically based on signs and symptoms, with medical imaging and other tests used to support or rule out other problems. In contrast to rheumatoid arthritis, in osteoarthritis the joints do not become hot or red.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Treatment includes exercise, decreasing joint stress such as by rest or use of a cane, support groups, and pain medications. Weight loss may help in those who are overweight. Pain medications may include paracetamol (acetaminophen) as well as NSAIDs such as naproxen or ibuprofen. Long-term opioid use is not recommended due to lack of information on benefits as well as risks of addiction and other side effects. Joint replacement surgery may be an option if there is ongoing disability despite other treatments. An artificial joint typically lasts 10 to 15 years.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Another alternative therapy for osteoarthritis is stem cell transplantation where allogenic mesenchymal stem cells or autologous chondrocyte injected to the patients.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, affecting about 237million people or 3.3% of the world's population. It becomes more common as people become older. Among those over 60 years old, about 10% of males and 18% of females are affected. Osteoarthritis is the cause of about 2% of years lived with disability.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: The main symptom is pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. The pain is typically made worse by prolonged activity and relieved by rest. Stiffness is most common in the morning, and typically lasts less than thirty minutes after beginning daily activities, but may return after periods of inactivity. Osteoarthritis can cause a crackling noise (called "crepitus") when the affected joint is moved, especially shoulder and knee joint. A person may also complain of joint locking and joint instability. These symptoms would affect their daily activities due to pain and stiffness. Some people report increased pain associated with cold temperature, high humidity, or a drop in barometric pressure, but studies have had mixed results.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Osteoarthritis commonly affects the hands, feet, spine, and the large weight-bearing joints, such as the hips and knees, although in theory, any joint in the body can be affected. As osteoarthritis progresses, movement patterns (such as gait), are typically affected. Osteoarthritis is the most common cause of a joint effusion of the knee.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: In smaller joints, such as at the fingers, hard bony enlargements, called Heberden's nodes (on the distal interphalangeal joints) or Bouchard's nodes (on the proximal interphalangeal joints), may form, and though they are not necessarily painful, they do limit the movement of the fingers significantly. Osteoarthritis of the toes may be a factor causing formation of bunions, rendering them red or swollen.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Damage from mechanical stress with insufficient self repair by joints is believed to be the primary cause of osteoarthritis. Sources of this stress may include misalignments of bones caused by congenital or pathogenic causes; mechanical injury; excess body weight; loss of strength in the muscles supporting a joint; and impairment of peripheral nerves, leading to sudden or uncoordinated movements. However exercise, including running in the absence of injury, has not been found to increase the risk of knee osteoarthritis. Nor has cracking one's knuckles been found to play a role. The risk of osteoarthritis increases with ageing.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: The development of osteoarthritis is correlated with a history of previous joint injury and with obesity, especially with respect to knees. Changes in sex hormone levels may play a role in the development of osteoarthritis, as it is more prevalent among post-menopausal women than among men of the same age. Conflicting evidence exists for the differences in hip and knee osteoarthritis in African Americans and Caucasians.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Increased risk of developing knee and hip osteoarthritis was found among those who work with manual handling (e.g. lifting), have physically demanding work, walk at work, and have climbing tasks at work (e.g. climb stairs or ladders). With hip osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk of development over time was found among those who work in bent or twisted positions. For knee osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk was found among those who work in a kneeling or squatting position, experience heavy lifting in combination with a kneeling or squatting posture, and work standing up. Women and men have similar occupational risks for the development of osteoarthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: This type of osteoarthritis is caused by other factors but the resulting pathology is the same as for primary osteoarthritis:


title: Osteoarthritis

text: While osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease that may cause gross cartilage loss and morphological damage to other joint tissues, more subtle biochemical changes occur in the earliest stages of osteoarthritis progression. The water content of healthy cartilage is finely balanced by compressive force driving water out and hydrostatic and osmotic pressure drawing water in. Collagen fibres exert the compressive force, whereas the Gibbs–Donnan effect and cartilage proteoglycans create osmotic pressure which tends to draw water in.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: However, during onset of osteoarthritis, the collagen matrix becomes more disorganized and there is a decrease in proteoglycan content within cartilage. The breakdown of collagen fibers results in a net increase in water content. This increase occurs because whilst there is an overall loss of proteoglycans (and thus a decreased osmotic pull), it is outweighed by a loss of collagen.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Other structures within the joint can also be affected. The ligaments within the joint become thickened and fibrotic, and the menisci can become damaged and wear away. Menisci can be completely absent by the time a person undergoes a joint replacement. New bone outgrowths, called "spurs" or osteophytes, can form on the margins of the joints, possibly in an attempt to improve the congruence of the articular cartilage surfaces in the absence of the menisci. The subchondral bone volume increases and becomes less mineralized (hypomineralization). All these changes can cause problems functioning. The pain in an osteoarthritic joint has been related to thickened synovium and to subchondral bone lesions.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Diagnosis is made with reasonable certainty based on history and clinical examination. X-rays may confirm the diagnosis. The typical changes seen on X-ray include: joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis (increased bone formation around the joint), subchondral cyst formation, and osteophytes. Plain films may not correlate with the findings on physical examination or with the degree of pain.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: In 1990, the American College of Rheumatology, using data from a multi-center study, developed a set of criteria for the diagnosis of hand osteoarthritis based on hard tissue enlargement and swelling of certain joints. These criteria were found to be 92% sensitive and 98% specific for hand osteoarthritis versus other entities such as rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathies.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Both primary generalized nodal osteoarthritis and erosive osteoarthritis (EOA, also called inflammatory osteoarthritis) are sub-sets of primary osteoarthritis. EOA is a much less common, and more aggressive inflammatory form of osteoarthritis which often affects the distal interphalangeal joints of the hand and has characteristic articular erosive changes on X-ray.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Lifestyle modification (such as weight loss and exercise) and pain medications are the mainstays of treatment. Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol) is recommended first line with NSAIDs being used as add on therapy only if pain relief is not sufficient. Medications that alter the course of the disease have not been found as of 2018. Recommendations include modification of risk factors through targeted interventions including 1) obesity and overweight, 2) physical activity, 3) dietary exposures, 4) comorbidity, 5) biomechanical factors, 6) occupational factors.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Successful management of the condition is often made more difficult by differing priorities and poor communication between clinicians and people with osteoarthritis. Realistic treatment goals can be achieved by developing a shared understanding of the condition, actively listening to patient concerns, avoiding medical jargon and tailoring treatment plans to the patient's needs.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: For overweight people, weight loss may be an important factor. Weight loss and exercise provides long-term treatment and advocated in patients with OA. As an adjunct to these lifestyle changes, use of analgesia, intra-articular cortisone injection and consideration of hyaluronic acids and platelet-rich plasma are recommended for pain relief in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Patient education has been shown to be helpful in the self-management of arthritis. It decreases pain, improves function, reduces stiffness and fatigue, and reduces medical usage. Patient education can provide on average 20% more pain relief when compared to NSAIDs alone.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Moderate exercise may be beneficial with respect to pain and function in those with osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. These exercises should occur at least three times per week. While some evidence supports certain physical therapies, evidence for a combined program is limited. Providing clear advice, making exercises enjoyable, and reassuring people about the importance of doing exercises may lead to greater benefit and more participation. Limited evidence suggests that supervised exercise therapy may improve exercise adherence. There is not enough evidence to determine the effectiveness of massage therapy. The evidence for manual therapy is inconclusive. A 2015 review indicated that aquatic therapy is safe, effective, and can be an adjunct therapy for knee osteoarthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Functional, gait, and balance training have been recommended to address impairments of position sense, balance, and strength in individuals with lower extremity arthritis, as these can contribute to a higher rate of falls in older individuals. For people with hand osteoarthritis, exercises may provide small benefits for improving hand function, reducing pain, and relieving finger joint stiffness.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Lateral wedge insoles and neutral insoles do not appear to be useful in osteoarthritis of the knee. Knee braces may help but their usefulness has also been disputed. For pain management heat can be used to relieve stiffness, and cold can relieve muscle spasms and pain. Among people with hip and knee osteoarthritis, exercise in water may reduce pain and disability, and increase quality of life in the short term. Also therapeutic exercise programs such as aerobics and walking reduce pain and improve physical functioning for up to 6 months after the end of the program for people with knee osteoarthritis. Hydrotherapy might also be an advantage on the management of pain, disability and quality of life reported by people with osteoarthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: The pain medication paracetamol (acetaminophen) is the first line treatment for osteoarthritis. Pain relief does not differ according to dosage. However, a 2015 review found acetaminophen to have only a small short-term benefit with some laboratory concerns of liver inflammation. For mild to moderate symptoms effectiveness of acetaminophen is similar to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as naproxen, though for more severe symptoms NSAIDs may be more effective. NSAIDs are associated with greater side effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Another class of NSAIDs, COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as celecoxib) are equally effective when compared to nonselective NSAIDs, and have lower rates of adverse gastrointestinal effects, but higher rates of cardiovascular disease such as myocardial infarction. They are also more expensive than non-specific NSAIDs. Benefits and risks vary in individuals and need consideration when making treatment decisions, and further unbiased research comparing NSAIDS and COX-2 selective inhibitors is needed. NSAIDS applied topically are effective for a small number of people. The COX-2 selective inhibitor rofecoxib was removed from the market in 2004, as cardiovascular events were associated with long term use.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Failure to achieve desired pain relief in osteoarthritis after two weeks should trigger reassessment of dosage and pain medication. Opioids by mouth, including both weak opioids such as tramadol and stronger opioids, are also often prescribed. Their appropriateness is uncertain, and opioids are often recommended only when first line therapies have failed or are contraindicated. This is due to their small benefit and relatively large risk of side effects. The use of tramadol likely does not improve pain or physical function and likely increases the incidence of adverse side effects. Oral steroids are not recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Use of the antibiotic doxycycline orally for treating osteoarthritis is not associated with clinical improvements in function or joint pain. Any small benefit related to the potential for doxycycline therapy to address the narrowing of the joint space is not clear, and any benefit is outweighed by the potential harm from side effects.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: There are several NSAIDs available for topical use, including diclofenac. A Cochrane review from 2016 concluded that reasonably reliable evidence is available only for use of topical diclofenac and ketoprofen in people aged over 40 years with painful knee arthritis. Transdermal opioid pain medications are not typically recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis. The use of topical capsaicin to treat osteoarthritis is controversial, as some reviews found benefit while others did not.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Local drug delivery by intra-articular (IA) injection may be more effective and safer in terms of increased bioavailability, less systemic exposure and reduced adverse events. Several intra-articular medications for symptomatic are available on the market as follow.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Joint injection of glucocorticoids (such as hydrocortisone) leads to short-term pain relief that may last between a few weeks and a few months.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: A 2015 Cochrane review found that intra-articular corticosteroid injections of the knee did not benefit quality of life and had no effect on knee joint space; clinical effects one to six weeks after injection could not be determined clearly due to poor study quality. Another 2015 study reported negative effects of intra-articular corticosteroid injections at higher doses, and a 2017 trial showed reduction in cartilage thickness with intra-articular triamcinolone every 12 weeks for 2 years compared to placebo. A 2018 study found that intra-articular triamcinolone is associated with an increase in intraocular pressure.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Injections of hyaluronic acid have not produced improvement compared to placebo for knee arthritis, but did increase risk of further pain. In ankle osteoarthritis, evidence is unclear.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: The effectiveness of injections of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is unclear; there are suggestions that such injections improve function but not pain, and are associated with increased risk. A Cochrane review of studies involving PRP found the evidence to be insufficient.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Arthrodesis (fusion) of the bones may be an option in some types of osteoarthritis. An example is ankle osteoarthritis, in which ankle fusion is considered to be the gold standard treatment in end-stage cases.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: If the impact of symptoms of osteoarthritis on quality of life is significant and more conservative management is ineffective, joint replacement surgery or resurfacing may be recommended. Evidence supports joint replacement for both knees and hips as it is both clinically effective and cost-effective. People who underwent total knee replacement had improved SF-12 quality of life scores, were feeling better compared to those who did not have surgery, and may have short- and long-term benefits for quality of life in terms of pain and function. The beneficial effects of these surgeries may be time-limited due to various environmental factors, comorbidities, and pain in other regions of the body.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: For people who have shoulder osteoarthritis and do not respond to medications, surgical options include a shoulder hemiarthroplasty (replacing a part of the joint), and total shoulder arthroplasty (replacing the joint).


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Biological joint replacement involves replacing the diseased tissues with new ones. This can either be from the person (autograft) or from a donor (allograft). People undergoing a joint transplant (osteochondral allograft) do not need to take immunosuppressants as bone and cartilage tissues have limited immune responses. Autologous articular cartilage transfer from a non-weight-bearing area to the damaged area, called osteochondral autograft transfer system, is one possible procedure that is being studied. When the missing cartilage is a focal defect, autologous chondrocyte implantation is also an option.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: For those with osteoarthritis in the shoulder, a complete shoulder replacement is sometimes suggested to improve pain and function. Demand for this treatment is expected to increase by 750% by the year 2030. There are different options for shoulder replacement surgeries, however, there is a lack of evidence in the form of high-quality randomized controlled trials, to determine which type of shoulder replacement surgery is most effective in different situations, what are the risks involved with different approaches, or how the procedure compares to other treatment options. There is some low-quality evidence that indicates that when comparing total shoulder arthroplasty over hemiarthroplasty, no large clinical benefit was detected in the short term. It is not clear if the risk of harm differs between total shoulder arthroplasty or a hemiarthroplasty approach.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Osteotomy may be useful in people with knee osteoarthritis, but has not been well studied and it is unclear whether it is more effective than non-surgical treatments or other types of surgery. Arthroscopic surgery is largely not recommended, as it does not improve outcomes in knee osteoarthritis, and may result in harm. It is unclear whether surgery is beneficial in people with mild to moderate knee osteoarthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: The effectiveness of glucosamine is controversial. Reviews have found it to be equal to or slightly better than placebo. A difference may exist between glucosamine sulfate and glucosamine hydrochloride, with glucosamine sulfate showing a benefit and glucosamine hydrochloride not. The evidence for glucosamine sulfate having an effect on osteoarthritis progression is somewhat unclear and if present likely modest. The Osteoarthritis Research Society International recommends that glucosamine be discontinued if no effect is observed after six months and the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence no longer recommends its use. Despite the difficulty in determining the efficacy of glucosamine, it remains a treatment option. The European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis (ESCEO) recommends glucosamine sulfate and chondroitin sulfate for knee osteoarthritis. Its use as a therapy for osteoarthritis is usually safe.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: A 2015 Cochrane review of clinical trials of chondroitin found that most were of low quality, but that there was some evidence of short-term improvement in pain and few side effects; it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Avocado–soybean unsaponifiables (ASU) is an extract made from avocado oil and soybean oil sold under many brand names worldwide as a dietary supplement and as a prescription drug in France. A 2014 Cochrane review found that while ASU might help relieve pain in the short term for some people with osteoarthritis, it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints. The review noted a high-quality, two-year clinical trial comparing ASU to chondroitin which has uncertain efficacy in osteoarthritis with no difference between the two agents. The review also found there is insufficient evidence of ASU safety.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: A few high-quality studies of "Boswellia serrata" show consistent, but small, improvements in pain and function. Curcumin, phytodolor, and s-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) may be effective in improving pain. A 2009 Cochrane review recommended against the routine use of SAMe, as there has not been sufficient high-quality clinical research to prove its effect. A 2021 review found that hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) had no benefit in reducing pain and improving physical function in hand or knee osteoarthritis, and the off-label use of HCQ for people with osteoarthritis should be discouraged. There is no evidence for the use of colchicine for treating the pain of hand or knee arthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: There is limited evidence to support the use of hyaluronan, methylsulfonylmethane, rose hip, capsaicin, or vitamin D.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: While acupuncture leads to improvements in pain relief, this improvement is small and may be of questionable importance. Waiting list–controlled trials for peripheral joint osteoarthritis do show clinically relevant benefits, but these may be due to placebo effects. Acupuncture does not seem to produce long-term benefits.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Electrostimulation techniques such as TENS have been used for twenty years to treat osteoarthritis in the knee. However, there is no conclusive evidence to show that it reduces pain or disability. A Cochrane review of low-level laser therapy found unclear evidence of benefit, whereas another review found short-term pain relief for osteoarthritic knees.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Further research is needed to determine if balnotherapy for osteoarthritis (mineral baths or spa treatments) improves a person's quality of life or ability to function. The use of ice or cold packs may be beneficial; however, further research is needed. There is no evidence of benefit from placing hot packs on joints.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: There is low quality evidence that therapeutic ultrasound may be beneficial for people with osteoarthritis of the knee; however, further research is needed to confirm and determine the degree and significance of this potential benefit.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Therapeutic ultrasound may relieve pain compared to conventional non-drug ultrasound however phonopheresis does not produce additional benefits to functional improvement. It is safe treatment to relieve pain and improve physical function in patients with knee osteoarthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Continuous and pulsed ultrasound modes (especially 1 MHz, 2.5 W/cm, 15min/ session, 3 session/ week, during 8 weeks protocol) can be effective in improving patients physical function and pain.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: There is weak evidence suggesting that electromagnetic field treatment may result in moderate pain relief; however, further research is necessary and it is not known if electromagnetic field treatment can improve quality of life or function.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Viscosupplementation for osteoarthritis of the knee may have positive effects on pain and function at 5 to 13 weeks post-injection.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Globally, , approximately 250million people had osteoarthritis of the knee (3.6% of the population). Hip osteoarthritis affects about 0.85% of the population.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: , osteoarthritis globally causes moderate to severe disability in 43.4 million people. Together, knee and hip osteoarthritis had a ranking for disability globally of 11th among 291 disease conditions assessed.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: , osteoarthritis affected 52.5million people in the United States, approximately 50% of whom were 65 years or older. It is estimated that 80% of the population have radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis by age 65, although only 60% of those will have symptoms. The rate of osteoarthritis in the United States is forecast to be 78million (26%) adults by 2040.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: In the United States, there were approximately 964,000 hospitalizations for osteoarthritis in 2011, a rate of 31 stays per 10,000 population. With an aggregate cost of $14.8billion ($15,400 per stay), it was the second-most expensive condition seen in U.S. hospital stays in 2011. By payer, it was the second-most costly condition billed to Medicare and private insurance.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Osteoarthritis is derived from the prefix "osteo-" (from ) combined with "arthritis" (from , , ), which is itself derived from "arthr-" (from , , ) and "-itis" (from , , ), the latter suffix having come to be associated with inflammation. The "-itis" of osteoarthritis could be considered misleading as inflammation is not a conspicuous feature. Some clinicians refer to this condition as "osteoarthrosis" to signify the lack of inflammatory response, the suffix "-osis" (from , , ) simply referring to the pathosis itself.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Pharmaceutical agents that will alter the natural history of disease progression by arresting joint structural change and ameliorating symptoms are termed as disease modifying therapy (DMOAD). Therapies under investigation include the following:


title: Osteoarthritis

text: As well as attempting to find disease-modifying agents for osteoarthritis, there is emerging evidence that a system-based approach is necessary to find the causes of osteoarthritis.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: Guidelines outlining requirements for inclusion of soluble biomarkers in osteoarthritis clinical trials were published in 2015, but there are no validated biomarkers used clinically to detect osteoarthritis, as of 2021.


title: Osteoarthritis

text: A 2015 systematic review of biomarkers for osteoarthritis looking for molecules that could be used for risk assessments found 37 different biochemical markers of bone and cartilage turnover in 25 publications. The strongest evidence was for urinary C-terminal telopeptide of type II collagen (uCTX-II) as a prognostic marker for knee osteoarthritis progression, and serum cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) levels as a prognostic marker for incidence of both knee and hip osteoarthritis. A review of biomarkers in hip osteoarthritis also found associations with uCTX-II. Procollagen type II C-terminal propeptide (PIICP) levels reflect type II collagen synthesis in body and within joint fluid PIICP levels can be used as a prognostic marker for early osteoarthritis.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Longmire is an American modern Western crime drama television series that premiered on June 3, 2012 on the A&E network, developed by John Coveny and Hunt Baldwin. The series is based on the "Walt Longmire Mysteries" series of novels by Craig Johnson. It centers on Walt Longmire, a sheriff in fictional Absaroka County, Wyoming. He is assisted by staff, friends, and his daughter in investigating major crimes within his jurisdiction.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: "Longmire" became the "highest-rated original drama series" on A&E; however, the network announced in August 2014 that it would not renew the series after the third season. Warner Horizon Television offered it to other networks and Netflix picked it up, starting with season four. Netflix released the sixth and final season on November 17, 2017. All episodes are available for streaming via Netflix in the United States.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Walt Longmire (Robert Taylor) is the sheriff of fictional Absaroka County. Sheriff Longmire's longtime friend Henry Standing Bear (Lou Diamond Phillips), a Cheyenne, provides insight to and sometimes aids in dealing with tribal police. (The Indian reservation has its own police force, which has authority within the reservation boundaries, except for capital crimes.) As the series progresses, the friends deal with issues of gambling at a casino on the reservation, issues of competing jurisdictional authority for protecting people and prosecuting crimes, and other issues of contemporary Native American life.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Walt's adult daughter Cady (Cassidy Freeman) is concerned that her father has been stuck since the death of her mother. While preparing to run for re-election, Walt has delegated most police duties to deputies Branch Connally (Bailey Chase) and "The Ferg" (Adam Bartley). Branch has also entered the election, to unseat Longmire, and he is secretly dating Cady. Victoria "Vic" Moretti (Katee Sackhoff), a transplanted Philadelphia homicide detective, arrived in Wyoming six months prior and works as one of Walt's deputies.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: In random flashback scenes, Walt and Henry travel separately to Denver, Colorado, where Walt attacks someone in a meth house. Denver Police Homicide Detective Fales (Charles S. Dutton) later comes to Wyoming to talk to Walt and Cady about Cady's mother's death. Cady is shocked to learn her mother was murdered, as Walt had told her she died of cancer. Fales tells Walt they found the murder suspect buried in a shallow grave. Walt denies killing the man; however, Detective Fales suspects that if Walt did not commit the murder, then Henry did.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Cady goes to Denver to speak to Detective Fales, who gives her the details of her mother's murder and informs her the suspected murderer has also been killed. When Fales questions her, she says that her father confides in Henry Standing Bear, inadvertently giving Fales a new target of investigation. Henry tells Walt that he killed the murderer because Walt was unable to do so. Vic encounters Ed Gorski (Lee Tergesen), a retired cop from Philadelphia. They discuss the suicide of Gorski's former partner, whom Vic had implicated in a corruption scandal that prompted an internal affairs investigation. Gorski blames Vic for his partner's death and begins to stalk her. Frightened by Gorski's manner, Vic asks Henry for help, and Walt visits Gorski to warn him away. Gorski is subsequently beaten severely. Hector (Jeffrey De Serrano), a Cheyenne mercenary believed to have assaulted Gorski, is protected by Walt. Henry confesses to Walt that he hired Hector to kill Miller Beck, the murderer of Walt's wife, but Hector explains that he did not kill the murderer, but only beat him and took his teeth as trophies. Fales and his team find the teeth at Henry's bar and arrest him. Walt wins the election. Cady is hospitalized after being hit by a car after hers is sabotaged. Branch investigates, leading to a confrontation with members of the local Cheyenne reservation, in which Branch is severely injured and calls Walt for help.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: As Branch recovers from being shot, he comes to believe he was shot by David Ridges (David Midthunder), a Cheyenne who was thought to have committed suicide and been cremated. Walt and the others do not believe him, and he begins his own investigation. In prison, Henry is abused by other Native Americans, led by former Cheyenne reservation police chief Malachi Strand (Graham Greene). Strand believes Henry contributed to his arrest through his friendship with Walt. When Malachi makes it difficult for Henry to obtain an attorney, Cady decides to represent him. Henry gets released on bail and sets out to prove his innocence.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Malachi is also released and begins working as security for Jacob Nighthorse (A Martinez), a prominent Cheyenne businessman and developer. Both Branch and Henry uncover clues that point to Nighthorse's being involved in their cases, with Ridges as a key figure. Walt believes Nighthorse might have had a part in his wife's murder. He begins to believe that Branch is obsessed by his ideas about Ridges and suspends him temporarily, putting him in the care of his father Barlow (Gerald McRaney). Walt and Henry learn that Ridges killed Miller Beck. Walt learns of Ridges' hideout location and kills him in a confrontation, in self defence. Confronted by evidence that proves that Ridges, and not Henry killed Miller Beck, Fales is forced to drop all charges against Henry, but the investigations continue. Branch questions his father, who admits to having paid Nighthorse to hire Ridges to kill Walt's wife in hopes of helping Branch become sheriff. The season ends with the sound of a gunshot.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Walt, Vic, and Ferg set out to search for Branch, after finding a disturbing typewritten note on his home computer. Walt finds him dead in a river from what appears to be a self-inflicted shotgun wound. Walt finds soil in the shotgun shell, implying that the shell had been ejected after firing and replaced in the gun. Walt hence refuses to rule Branch's death a suicide, and begins thinking that Nighthorse is behind the murder. A drunken Barlow Connolly confesses to killing Branch. He commits suicide by cop trying to kill Walt. Afterward, Walt looks into hiring another deputy, Zach Heflin (Barry Sloane) to replace Branch. The department investigates the rape of a Cheyenne girl named Gabriella (Julia Jones) by a group of oil rig workers, but is unable to do anything. Henry, meanwhile, takes up Hector's role as avenger. When the rapists turn up dead, both Walt and the workers try to find the murderer, believed to be Gabriella or the new Hector. Walt begins spending time with his new love interest, Dr. Donna Monaghan (Ally Walker). Monaghan and Walt are attacked in his home, Walt is injured and she is kidnapped


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Walt conducts an intense search for the person who kidnapped Donna after the home invasion and seriously wounded him. Walt and Donna continue their relationship. Nighthorse becomes increasingly suspicious of Malachi's activities, and suspects he is skimming at the casino or otherwise earning illegal money. Mathias (Zahn McClarnon), the Chief of Police on the Cheyenne Reservation, figures out that Henry has taken over Hector's duties as vigilante and uses that to his advantage. Archie (The Ferg) begins a relationship with a local nurse. A heroin operation by the Irish mob is discovered in Walt's jurisdiction. Uncovering who is selling heroin on the reservation leads Walt to arrest their local enforcer Eddie Harp (Dan Donohue). Archie is held up at gunpoint delivering Eddie to the FBI, traumatizing him. Walt defends a wrongful-death suit; if he loses, he will lose everything he owns, and probably his job. Vic learns she is pregnant but is unsure if the father is her ex-boyfriend Eamonn (Josh Cooke) or Travis (Derek Phillips), Branch's childhood best friend with whom she had a drunken one-night stand. Walt ends his relationship with Donna. A future possibility of a relationship with Vic is suggested as they acknowledge their feelings toward each other. Chance (Peter Stormare) tells Vic where to find a murder weapon so that he can get the death sentence, but Vic gets assaulted recovering it. Walt travels to Boston to confront the head of the Irish Mafia, Shane Muldoon (Dylan Walsh) and tell him to stop selling heroin or else he will divulge Muldoon's identity to the FBI. Some time later a photo arrives for Walt from Shane showing Eddie dead. Tucker Baggett (Brett Rice), an attorney and close friend of Barlow Connally tells Walt that the real reason he is prosecuting the civil suit is so that he can bankrupt him and Barlow's real estate company can take over Walt's land for a 36-hole golf course. As Henry gives a ride home to a presumably drunk woman, Malachi and his men kidnap him. He is taken to a remote area of the neighboring Crow reservation, staked to the ground, and left to die.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: In the first episode, Henry is still being held by kidnappers (led by Malachi) on the Crow reservation and might die if not found, but is finally freed by Walt with the help of the Crow medicine woman. Walt investigates a bank robbery with some unusual aspects. Based on the use of Jacob Nighthorse's wooden stakes in the Henry kidnapping, Walt still suspects Jacob of being behind Malachi but due to Jacob's fear of Malachi, Henry arranges a reconciliation with Walt. As a result, Jacob agrees to present Malachi’s “Red Pony” ledger to the FBI as proof that Malachi was using the Red Pony to syphon illegal profits. Walt discovers that Vic is pregnant. Walt starts his trial as does Chance who pleads guilty and then engineers his escape. In finding Chance Vic gets shot, and loses the baby. Another "Hector" appears, running Jacob and Henry off the road. Walt's civil trial goes badly, but the shooting of Tucker (who is also the attorney for the plaintiff) further complicates matters as Walt is immediately under suspicion. Vic attempts suicide. The death of former sheriff Lucian Connally (Peter Weller) (Walt's mentor, and Barlow's brother) upsets Walt and makes him consider retirement. Jacob testifies to the collusion between Tucker Baggett and Barlow so that Walt's land can be taken and used for a golf course, revealing that despite their differences, he has a great deal of respect for Walt. As a result of emails that Jacob makes available, all charges in the civil suit are dropped. The death of the Irish Mob enforcer Eddie Harp is revealed to have been staged and he is discovered back selling heroin on the reservation. Walt remains unconvinced of Jacob's innocence particularly after he confessed to having accepted funding from Shane Muldoon. Malachi kills Muldoon and then kidnaps Henry and Jacob to force Jacob to cede the deeds for the casino to him. Malachi and his men face a final showdown with Walt, Vic, Ferg and the recently re-instated Zach Heflin, joined by Mathias' Cheyenne Tribal Police, ending with Walt killing Malachi and Henry killing Darius Burns (Joseph Daniel Havenstar), his second in command. Walt and Vic commence a relationship, as do Cady and Zach. Walt retires after convincing Cady to run for the job of Sheriff. Walt leaves searching for the buried treasure that Lucian had convinced him that he had found, while Henry takes over Jacob's casino.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: "Longmire" received a pilot order on December 14, 2010. The pilot was written by John Coveny and Hunt Baldwin, and directed by Christopher Chulack. Coveny, Baldwin, and Chulack serve as executive producers alongside Greer Shephard, Michael M. Robin, and the production companies Warner Horizon Television and the Shephard/Robin Company. The series is an adaptation of the Longmire mystery novels written by best-selling author, Craig Johnson.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: The story is set in northern Wyoming, but the series has been filmed in several locations in New Mexico, including Santa Fe, Eagle Nest, Espanola, and Red River, and Las Vegas, New Mexico, Pecos, New Mexico. Buffalo, in Johnson County, in northeast Wyoming, is the setting for some scenes set in the fictional town of Durant, county seat of Absaroka.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Casting announcements began in February 2011, with Robert Taylor cast first in the lead role of Sheriff Walt Longmire. Katee Sackhoff, Bailey Chase, Cassidy Freeman, and Lou Diamond Phillips followed, with Sackhoff cast in the role of Victoria "Vic" Moretti, Chase cast as Branch Connally, Freeman cast as Cady Longmire, and Phillips cast as Henry Standing Bear.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: On August 26, 2011, A&E picked up the series for a 10-episode first season. A&E renewed it for a second season on June 29, 2012, following early success as the highest-rated summer scripted drama debut, and as A&E's highest-rated scripted drama. The network renewed it for a third season on November 25, 2013.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: In 2013, massive wildfires scorched the Valles Caldera National Preserve, which disrupted the series production. Three fires started over a three-week period, two at the same time. The Prescott Fire Department's Granite Mountain Hotshots assisted in preventing the destruction of the area around where Walt's house is filmed. Nineteen of the Hotshots' 20 members were later killed battling the 2013 Yarnell Hill Fire in Arizona. The second season's finale honored them in the closing credits.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Production for the third season began in early 2014. Filming of the interiors took place in New Mexico at Garson Studios, on the campus of Santa Fe University of Art and Design. According to the New Mexico State Film Office, exteriors were filmed in and around Santa Fe and at Garson Studios.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: On August 28, 2014, A&E announced that "Longmire" was cancelled after completing its third season, despite consistently strong viewership that made it "the most-watched original series in A&E history, packing almost 6 million viewers" per episode, "reportedly because it appealed to an older demographic that was unappealing to advertisers" and was produced by an external studio.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Three months later, Netflix confirmed that it had picked up the series (based, in contrast to A&E, on its strong appeal to a specific segment of the audience) and would film additional episodes. The 10-episode fourth season filmed on location in New Mexico, and was made available for viewing in North America and Oceania on September 10, 2015.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Season-five location filming was scheduled for late March to late June, 2016. It took place primarily in Las Vegas, New Mexico, the town shown in the series. Other locations included towns in the surrounding area. The studio work was completed at Garson Studios at Santa Fe University of Art and Design. The 10-episode fifth season was made available for viewing on September 23, 2016.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: According to Eric Witt, director of the Santa Fe Film Office, season-six filming was scheduled to begin in March 2017. By June, the interior scenes had been filmed at Garson Studios; location photography was underway in various New Mexico locations including Santa Fe, Las Vegas, Valles Caldera, Pecos, and other sites in the northern part of the state. The director was T.J. Scott and the producers included Hunt Baldwin, John Coveny, Greer Shephard, and Michael M. Robin. Filming concluded the last week of June.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: "Longmire" began airing in the United Kingdom on TCM, on March 17, 2013, at 9 pm, in Australia on GEM on May 15, 2013, at 9:30 pm. Season two began airing in Australia on July 31, 2013, and in Italy on Rete 4 on July 4, 2013, at 9 pm.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: The series is shown in Ireland on RTÉ One and in Germany on RTL Nitro, as of January 10, 2014, at 10:05 pm. It made its Canadian debut in English, in January 2014 on APTN, and in French on May 26, 2014, on Séries+. International broadcasters retain the rights to new Netflix-commissioned seasons of the show until their licenses expire.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: The first season of "Longmire" was released on May 28, 2013. It featured a documentary about filming in New Mexico, when the setting is in Wyoming, a gallery of photographic stills, and some unaired scenes. The second season was released on May 13, 2014. The three-disc set included an extended directors' cut version of the seventh episode, "Sound and Fury", as well as the season finale, "Bad Medicine". A bonus featurette, "Testing Courage: The Storm Defines the Man", was also included. The third season, including a bonus featurette, "The Ghost in the Storm", was released on March 3, 2015. The first three seasons were added to Netflix in the United States in June 2015. The fourth season was released on September 16, 2016, in a three-disc, 10-episode set. The Blu-ray releases of the series were handled by the Warner Archive Collection.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: In its first season, Nancy DeWolf Smith of "The Wall Street Journal" called the series "the best of two worlds: a modern crime drama with dry wit and sometimes heart-wrenching emotion that's also got a glorious setting under the big sky of Wyoming ["sic": Longmire was filmed in New Mexico]." She added: "If it weren't for a few modern conveniences, like cellphones and trucks, it might as well be 1875, so rugged and unspoiled does the scenery look." "Newsday"s Verne Gay stated: ""Longmire" arrives as silently as a dust devil kicked up by a high wind on the Wyoming plains. With little in the way of fanfare and a lead actor unacquainted with household name status, it must instead rely on a quiet fortitude, much like its namesake." He added: "Unassuming "Longmire" doesn't shout 'Love Me!' but instead works its charms subtly, quietly. There's promise here." Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said of season one, "there's a sense of place to the show that makes it feel unlike every other cop show on television", and he would "like to see the mysteries grow more engaging as the series moves along, but "Longmire" at least starts with a good foundation in Walt, his sidekicks, and the wide, open spaces they travel."


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: The "San Francisco Chronicle"s David Wiegand was critical, writing that the series "has the look and feel of a show cooked up by a bunch of bored TV industry types while they were waiting for the valet to bring their car to them at the Beverly Hills Chuck E. Cheese." He added: "There's very little drama, and the pilot episode lumbers along like an overfed elk."


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Three years later, after viewing the first three episodes of season four, Brian Tallerico wrote on the Roger Ebert site, "It sometimes sounds like faint praise to describe a series like you would a reliable car, but "Longmire" is just a sturdy show. It is well-constructed all around—confidently made, well-acted, and the writing is much smarter than many shows like it. It hums, each episode these three feeling more well-paced than the one before." At the same point in the series, Mike Hale of "The New York Times" also filed a favorable review, with particular praise for actor Robert Taylor, described as a "modern-day Gary Cooper or Joel McCrea".


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: In the aggregate, "Longmire" received favorable reviews on Metacritic and Rotten Tomatoes. For example, season four received an average rating of 8.5/10 based on seven reviews on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: In 2013, the pilot episode of "Longmire", whose teleplay was written by Hunt Baldwin and John Coveny, was nominated for an Edgar Award by the Mystery Writers of America. The season-two episode, "Party's Over", was nominated by the Entertainment Industries Council for a PRISM Award for Best Drama Series Episode – Substance Use. Also in 2013, the series won the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum's Bronze Wrangler for Fictional Television Drama. The series won a Bronze Key Art Award for its season-two television advertisement, titled "The Oath".


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: In 2014, Steve La Porte was nominated for a Makeup Artists and Hairstylist Guild Award for Best Special Makeup Effects.


title: Longmire (TV series)

text: Over the years, the series has also received two Key Art Awards and two Red Nation Film Awards of Excellence, the latter for Supporting Actor A Martinez and Graham Greene.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Poltergeist is a 1982 American supernatural horror film directed by Tobe Hooper and written by Steven Spielberg, Michael Grais and Mark Victor from a story by Spielberg. It stars JoBeth Williams, Craig T. Nelson and Beatrice Straight, and was produced by Spielberg and Frank Marshall. The film focuses on a suburban family whose home is invaded by malevolent ghosts that abduct their youngest daughter.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: As Spielberg was contractually unable to direct another film while he made "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial," Hooper was selected based on his work on "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" and "The Funhouse". Spielberg conceived "Poltergeist" as a horror sequel to his 1977 film "Close Encounters of the Third Kind" titled "Night Skies"; however, Hooper was less interested in the sci-fi elements and suggested they collaborate on a ghost story. Accounts differ as to the level of Spielberg's involvement, but it is clear that he was frequently on set during filming and exerted significant creative control. For that reason, some have expressed the view that Spielberg should be considered the film's co-director or even main director, though both Spielberg and Hooper have disputed this.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer on June 4, 1982, "Poltergeist" was a major critical and commercial success, becoming the eighth-highest-grossing film of 1982. Years since its release, the film has been recognized as a horror classic. It was nominated for three Academy Awards, named by the Chicago Film Critics Association as the 20th-scariest film ever made, and the scene of the clown doll attack was ranked as No. 80 on Bravo's "100 Scariest Movie Moments." The film also appeared at No. 84 on American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Thrills, a list of America's most heart-pounding movies. It was followed by "" (1986), "Poltergeist III" (1988), and a 2015 remake.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Steven and Diane Freeling live in Cuesta Verde, a California planned community. Steven is a successful real estate agent, and Diane looks after their three children: sixteen-year-old Dana, eight-year-old Robbie, and five-year-old Carol Anne. Late one night, Carol Anne inexplicably converses with the family's television set while it displays post-broadcast static. The next night, she again fixates on the TV, and a ghostly white hand emerges from the screen, followed by a violent earthquake. As the family awakens from the quake, Carol Anne eerily declares "They're here."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Bizarre events occur the following day: a glass of milk spontaneously breaks, silverware bends, and furniture moves on its own. These phenomena initially seem benign, but soon grow more sinister. During a severe thunderstorm, the gnarled backyard tree seemingly comes alive. A large limb crashes through the children's bedroom window and grabs Robbie, and attempts to devour him. While the family rushes outside to rescue Robbie, Carol Anne is drawn into a portal inside the closet. After saving Robbie from the tree, which got sucked into a tornado, the family frantically search for Carol Anne, only for her voice to call out from the TV.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Parapsychologist Dr. Martha Lesh arrives with team members Ryan and Marty to investigate. They determine there is a poltergeist intrusion involving multiple ghosts. Meanwhile, Steven learns from his boss, Mr. Lewis Teague, that the Cuesta Verde development was built on a former cemetery and the graves were moved to a nearby location.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Dana and Robbie are sent away for safety, while Dr. Lesh calls in Tangina Barrons, a spiritual medium. Tangina determines the spirits are lingering in a different "sphere of consciousness" and are not at rest. They are attracted to Carol Anne's life force. Tangina also detects a dark presence she calls the "Beast," who is restraining Carol Anne and manipulating her life force in order to prevent the other spirits from crossing over.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The entrance to the other dimension is in the children's bedroom closet and exits through the living room ceiling. Diane, secured by a rope, passes through the portal, guided by another rope previously threaded through both portals. Diane retrieves Carol Anne, and they drop through the ceiling to the living room floor, covered in ectoplasm. As they recover from the ordeal, Tangina proclaims the house is "clean."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Shortly after, the Freeling family have nearly finished packing to move out of the house. Before the family is to leave for the Holiday Inn, Steven goes to his office while Dana is on a date, leaving Diane at home with Robbie and Carol Anne. The "Beast" ambushes Diane and the children, aiming for a second kidnapping attempt. The unseen force drives Diane to the backyard in the pouring rain, dragging her into the flooded swimming pool excavation. Skeletal corpses and coffins float up around her in the muddy hole. Diane crawls out and rushes back into the house. She rescues the children, and they escape to the outside as more coffins and bodies erupt from the ground.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Steven, accompanied by Teague, arrives home to the mayhem and realizes that only the gravestones were relocated; the development was built over the abandoned bodies. The Freelings jump into their car and collect Dana just as she returns home. They flee Cuesta Verde as the house implodes into the portal while stunned neighbors look on. The family checks into their room at a Holiday Inn, where Steven promptly rips out the TV and shoves it outside.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Michael Grais and Mark Victor had written an unproduced comedy called "Turn Left And Die" and the action film "Death Hunt" when Steven Spielberg decided to invite them to possibly work with him. After screening them "A Guy Named Joe" and saying he wanted to remake that film – which he would in 1989's "Always" – Spielberg also mentioned that he had thought of a ghost story and intended to turn it into a script. Grais called him the next day saying he and Victor only had interest in the ghost story, and after plans with another writer fell through, Spielberg brought the two to the job.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Principal photography rolled mostly on Roxbury Street in Simi Valley, California. Following completion of principal photography in the first week of August 1981, Hooper went on to spend ten weeks in the editing room compiling the first cut of the film. During much of this time, Spielberg was at Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) supervising the VFX photography.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: A clause in the Universal Studios contract prevented Steven Spielberg from directing another film while preparing "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial". According to Tobe Hooper, the very core concept of the film was an idea he pitched to Spielberg after turning down the offer to direct "Night Skies." Writer Michael Grais stated that "we weren't really "working" with Spielberg because he was on "E.T."", and that Spielberg only had sporadic meetings with the writers at MGM's cafeteria. "E.T." and "Poltergeist" were released a week apart in June, 1982; "Time" and "Newsweek" referred to it as "The Spielberg Summer". There were suggestions that Spielberg, in addition to being "Poltergeist"'s co-producer and co-writer, had also served as its de facto co-director. This view was bolstered by various statements Spielberg made about his involvement, including a "Los Angeles Times" quote on May 24, 1982: "Tobe isn't ... a take-charge sort of guy. If a question was asked and an answer wasn't immediately forthcoming, I'd jump in and say what we could do. Tobe would nod agreement, and that became the process of collaboration."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: That same article noted that the Directors Guild of America had "opened an investigation into the question of whether or not Hooper's official credit was being denigrated by statements Spielberg has made, apparently claiming authorship." The investigation ended in an arbitrator's ruling that "MGM/UA Entertainment Co. must pay $15,000 to director Tobe Hooper because the studio gave producer Steven Spielberg a bigger credit than Hooper got in its trailers," although also noting that "broader issues of dispute exist between producer-writer (Spielberg) and the director" (original damages of $200,000 were originally sought by the DGA). Co-producer Frank Marshall told the "LA Times" that "the creative force of the movie was Steven. Tobe was the director and was on the set every day. But Steven did the design for every storyboard and he was on the set every day except for three days when he was in Hawaii with Lucas." However, Hooper stated that he "did fully half of the storyboards."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The week of the film's release, "The Hollywood Reporter" printed an open letter to Hooper from Spielberg.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Regrettably, some of the press has misunderstood the rather unique, creative relationship which you and I shared throughout the making of "Poltergeist".


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: I enjoyed your openness in allowing me, as a writer and a producer, a wide berth for creative involvement, just as I know you were happy with the freedom you had to direct "Poltergeist" so wonderfully.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Through the screenplay you accepted a vision of this very intense movie from the start, and as the director, you delivered the goods. You performed responsibly and professionally throughout, and I wish you great success on your next project.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: In a 2007 "Ain't It Cool News" interview, Zelda Rubinstein discussed her recollections of the shooting process. She said "Steven directed all six days" she was on set: "Tobe set up the shots and Steven made the adjustments." She also alleged that Hooper "allowed some unacceptable chemical agents into his work," and that during her audition, "Tobe was only partially there." Comments from actor James Karen, concerning a 25th-anniversary Q&A event which both attended, categorized Rubinstein's remarks as unfair to Hooper. "She laid into Tobe and I don't know why ... Tobe was kind to her."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: In a 2012 "Rue Morgue" article commemorating "Poltergeist"'s 30th anniversary, interviews were conducted with several cast and crew members. In response to the magazine's query about the authorship issue, cast members unanimously sided with Hooper. James Karen said, "Tobe had a hard time on that film. It's tough when a producer is on set every day and there's always been a lot of talk about that. I considered Tobe my director. That's my stand on all those rumours." Martin Casella stated: "So much of "Poltergeist" looks and feels like a Spielberg movie but my recollection is that Tobe was mostly directing." Oliver Robins: "The guy who sets up the shots, blocks the actors and works with the crew to create a vision is the director. In those terms, Tobe was the director. He's the one who directed me, anyway." Make-up and effects artist Craig Reardon said Spielberg often had the final say. The original version of the cancerous steak, for instance, was created by Reardon per Hooper's specifications—but vetoed by Spielberg: "Although the first steak did not represent a killing amount of work, it had consumed enough time and effort—none of which I could afford to waste—that I determined in the future to make certain whatever I prepped would be approved in advance by Spielberg as well as Hooper."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Hooper was asked about the controversy in a 2015 interview with online journal "Film Talk" and said the rumors originated from a "Los Angeles Times" article which reported on Spielberg shooting footage of "little race cars" in front of the house while Hooper was busy elsewhere shooting another scene. "From there it became its own legend. That is how I remember it; I was making the movie and later on, I heard this stuff after it was finished. I really can’t set the record much straighter than that."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: According to the Blumhouse Productions website, first assistant cameraman John R. Leonetti reported that Spielberg directed the film more so than Hooper, stating, "Hooper was so nice and just happy to be there. He creatively had input. Steven developed the movie, and it was his to direct, except there was anticipation of a director's strike, so he was 'the producer' but really he directed it in case there was going to be a strike and Tobe was cool with that. It wasn't anything against Tobe. Every once in a while, he would actually leave the set and let Tobe do a few things just because. But really, Steven directed it."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Following Hooper's passing on August 27, 2017, director Mick Garris, a publicist on the film who made several on-set visits, came to Hooper's defense on the "Post Mortem" podcast:


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Tobe was always calling action and cut. Tobe had been deeply involved in all of the pre-production and everything. But Steven is a guy who will come in and call the shots. And so, you're on your first studio film, hired by Steven Spielberg, who is enthusiastically involved in this movie. Are you gonna say, 'Stop that... let me do this'? Which [Tobe] did.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: [...] Tobe was a terrific filmmaker. I don't think it's that Steven was controlling. I think it was Steven was enthusiastic. And nobody was there to protect Tobe. But all of the pre-production was done by Tobe. Tobe was there throughout. Tobe's vision is very much realized there. And Tobe got credit because he deserved credit. Including... Steven Spielberg said that.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The special effects for "Poltergeist" were produced by Industrial Light and Magic and overseen by Richard Edlund. The film won the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects and earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, which it lost to Spielberg's other summer hit, "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial".


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Goldsmith wrote several themes for the score including the lullaby "Carol Anne's Theme" to represent blissful suburban life and the young female protagonist, an elegant semi-religious melody for dealings of the souls caught between worlds, and several dissonant, atonal blasts during moments of terror. The score went on to garner Goldsmith an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score, though he lost to fellow composer John Williams for "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial".


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Goldsmith's score was first released in 1982 on LP through MGM Records in a 38-minute version. Rhino Movie Music later released a 68-minute cut on CD in 1997. A two-disc soundtrack album later followed on December 9, 2010 by Film Score Monthly featuring additional source and alternate material. The 2010 release also included previously unreleased tracks from Goldsmith's score to "The Prize" (1963).


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: There is an alternate version of "Carol Anne's theme" which has lyrics. That version is unofficially titled "Bless this House" (which is a line from the chorus). It was not featured in the film, but was part of the original album.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: "Poltergeist" initially received an R rating from the MPAA. Steven Spielberg and Tobe Hooper disagreed with the R rating and succeeded in having it changed to PG on appeal.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The film was reissued on October 29, 1982 to take advantage of the Halloween weekend. It was shown in theaters for one night only on October 4, 2007 to promote the new restored and remastered 25th-anniversary DVD, released five days later. This event also included the documentary "They Are Here: The Real World of Poltergeists", which was created for the new DVD.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The "Poltergeist" franchise is believed by some to be cursed due to the premature deaths of several people associated with the film (including that of Heather O'Rourke), a notion that was the focus of an "E! True Hollywood Story".


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: "Poltergeist" was released on VHS, Betamax, CED, and LaserDisc in 1982. On April 8, 1997, MGM Home Entertainment released "Poltergeist" on DVD in a snap case, and the only special feature was a trailer. In 1998, "Poltergeist" was re-released on DVD with the same cover and disc as the 1997 release, but in a keep case and with an eight-page booklet. In 1999, a snap case edition with the same DVD disc, but a different cover was released by Warner Home Video after the pre-1986 MGM library was acquired by the Time Warner-owned Turner Entertainment. Warner Home Video tentatively scheduled releases for the 25th-anniversary edition of the film on standard DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray in Spain and the US on October 9, 2007. The re-release was billed as having digitally remastered picture and sound, and a two-part documentary: "They Are Here: The Real World of Poltergeists", which makes extensive use of clips from the film. The remastered DVD of the film was released as scheduled, but both high-definition releases were eventually canceled. Warner rescheduled the high-definition version of the film and eventually released it only on the Blu-ray format on October 14, 2008.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: "Poltergeist" was released by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment on 4K UHD Blu-ray on September 20, 2022.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: A novelization was written by James Kahn, adapted from the film's original screenplay. It was printed in the United States through Warner Books, with the first printing in May 1982. While the film focuses mainly on the Freeling family, much of the book leans toward the relationship between Tangina and Dr. Lesh away from the family. The novel also expands upon many scenes from the film, such as the nighttime manifestation of outer-dimensional entities of fire and shadows in the Freelings' living room, and an extended version of the kitchen scene in which Marty watches a steak crawl across a countertop. In the book, Marty is frozen in place and skeletonized by spiders and rats. There are also additional elements not in the film, such as Robbie's mysterious discovery of the clown doll in the yard during his birthday party, and a benevolent spirit, "The Waiting Woman", who protects Carol Anne in the spirit world.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: "Poltergeist" was released theatrically by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer on June 4, 1982. The film was a commercial success and earned $76,606,280 in the United States, making it the highest-grossing horror film of 1982 and eighth overall for the year.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The film was well received by critics and is considered by many as a classic of the horror genre as well as one of the best films of 1982. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 88% based on reviews from 72 critics, with an average rating of 7.40/10. The site's consensus reads: "Smartly filmed, tightly scripted, and—most importantly—consistently frightening, "Poltergeist" is a modern horror classic." On Metacritic it has a score of 79% based on reviews from 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Roger Ebert gave "Poltergeist" three stars out of four and called it "an effective thriller, not so much because of the special effects, as because Hooper and Spielberg have tried to see the movie's strange events through the eyes of the family members, instead of just standing back and letting the special effects overwhelm the cast along with the audience." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called it "a marvelously spooky ghost story" with "extraordinary technical effects" that were "often eerie and beautiful but also occasionally vividly gruesome." Andrew Sarris, in "The Village Voice", wrote that when Carol Anne is lost, the parents and the two older children "come together in blood-kin empathy to form a larger-than-life family that will reach down to the gates of hell to save its loved ones." In the "Los Angeles Herald Examiner", Peter Rainer wrote:


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Buried within the plot of "Poltergeist" is a basic, splendid fairy tale scheme: the story of a little girl who puts her parents through the most outrageous tribulation to prove their love for her. Underlying most fairy tales is a common theme: the comforts of family. Virtually all fairy tales begin with a disrupting of the family order, and their conclusion is usually a return to order.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Not all reviews were as positive. Gene Siskel gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four, writing that "Poltergeist" "is very good at getting the details of suburban life right—in other words, it sets its stage beautifully—but when it comes time for the terror to begin, the whole thing is very, very silly." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" observed that the film "looks and feels decidedly patchy, as if it had been assembled by different hands frequently working at cross purposes." Sheila Benson of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "In terms of simple, flat-out, roof-rattling fright, 'Poltergeist' gives full value. In terms of story, however, simple is indeed the word, and dumb might be a better one. And when so many effects are lavished on a story this frail, you have a lopsided film."


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The film has continued to receive recognition 40 years after its release. "Poltergeist" was selected by "The New York Times" as one of "The Best 1000 Movies Ever Made". It also received recognition from the American Film Institute, with a number 84 ranking on AFI's "100 Years...100 Thrills" list; "They're here" was named the 69th-greatest movie quote on AFI's "100 Years...100 Movie Quotes".


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The film received three Oscar nominations: Best Original Score, Best Sound Effects Editing, and Best Visual Effects, losing them all to Spielberg's "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial".


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: In 1986, "" retained the family but introduced a new motive for the Beast's behavior, tying him to an evil cult leader named Henry Kane, who led his religious sect to their doom in the 1820s. As the Beast, Kane went to extraordinary lengths to keep his "flock" under his control, even in death. The original motive of the cemetery's souls disturbed by the housing development was thereby altered; the cemetery was now explained to be built above a cave where Kane and his flock met their ends. It also reveals that the women of the family are actually psychics.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: "Poltergeist III" in 1988 finds Carol Anne as the sole original family member living in an elaborate Chicago skyscraper owned and inhabited by her aunt, uncle and cousin. Kane follows her there and uses the building's ubiquitous decorative mirrors as a portal to the Earthly plane.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: A remake of the original film was made by MGM and 20th Century Fox, directed by Gil Kenan. Sam Raimi, Rob Tapert, and Roy Lee produced the film, which stars Sam Rockwell, Jared Harris, and Rosemarie DeWitt. "Poltergeist" was released on May 22, 2015.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The song "Shining" by horror punk band Misfits, on their 1997 album "American Psycho", is based directly on the film, with the chorus centered on the refrain: "Carol Anne, Carol Anne".


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Swedish singer E-Type parodied the film in his music video for his 1998 single "Here I Go Again". In the clip, Nana Hedin (who sang the chorus in the song) portrays a benevolent ghost.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: Two separate Seth MacFarlane series also parody the movie. The 2006 "Family Guy" episode, "Petergeist" parodies "Poltergeist". While attempting to build a multiplex in his backyard, Peter discovers an Indian burial ground. When he takes an Indian chief's skull, a poltergeist invades the Griffins' home. The episode used some of the same musical cues heard in the film and recreates several of its scenes. "American Dad!" also parodied the film with the season 10 episode "Poltergasm", in which the Smith house has become haunted by Francine's unsatisfied sex drive.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: The 2001 comedy horror film "Scary Movie 2" parodies the movie's clown doll attack in Robbie's bedroom, as well as Diane’s levitation.


title: Poltergeist (1982 film)

text: "Poltergeist" was the subject of walk through attractions at both Universal Studios Orlando and Hollywood's annual Halloween Horror Nights event.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies (; also sometimes known as the seven-year itch) is a contagious skin infestation by the mite "Sarcoptes scabiei". The most common symptoms are severe itchiness and a pimple-like rash. Occasionally, tiny burrows may appear on the skin. In a first-ever infection, the infected person usually develops symptoms within two to six weeks. During a second infection, symptoms may begin within 24 hours. These symptoms can be present across most of the body or just certain areas such as the wrists, between fingers, or along the waistline. The head may be affected, but this is typically only in young children. The itch is often worse at night. Scratching may cause skin breakdown and an additional bacterial infection in the skin.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies is caused by infection with the female mite "Sarcoptes scabiei "var." hominis", an ectoparasite. The mites burrow into the skin to live and deposit eggs. The symptoms of scabies are due to an allergic reaction to the mites. Often, only between 10 and 15 mites are involved in an infection. Scabies is most often spread during a relatively long period of direct skin contact with an infected person (at least 10 minutes) such as that which may occur during sex or living together. Spread of the disease may occur even if the person has not developed symptoms yet. Crowded living conditions, such as those found in child-care facilities, group homes, and prisons, increase the risk of spread. Areas with a lack of access to water also have higher rates of disease. Crusted scabies is a more severe form of the disease. It typically only occurs in those with a poor immune system and people may have millions of mites, making them much more contagious. In these cases, spread of infection may occur during brief contact or by contaminated objects. The mite is very small and at the limit of detection with the human eye. It is not readily obvious; factors that aid in detection are good lighting, magnification, and knowing what to look for. Diagnosis is based either on detecting the mite (confirmed scabies), detecting typical lesions in a typical distribution with typical historical features (clinical scabies), or detecting atypical lesions or atypical distribution of lesions with only some historical features present (suspected scabies).


title: Scabies

text: Several medications are available to treat those infected, such as ivermectin or permethrin, crotamiton, and lindane creams. Sexual contacts within the last month and people who live in the same house should also be treated at the same time. Bedding and clothing used in the last three days should be washed in hot water and dried in a hot dryer. As the mite does not live for more than three days away from human skin, more washing is not needed. Symptoms may continue for two to four weeks following treatment. If after this time symptoms continue, retreatment may be needed.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies is one of the three most common skin disorders in children, along with ringworm and bacterial skin infections. As of 2015, it affects about 204 million people (2.8% of the world population). It is equally common in both sexes. The young and the old are more commonly affected. It also occurs more commonly in the developing world and tropical climates. The word scabies is from "", 'to scratch'. Other animals do not spread human scabies. Infection in other animals is typically caused by slightly different but related mites and is known as sarcoptic mange.


title: Scabies

text: The characteristic symptoms of a scabies infection include intense itching and superficial burrows. Because the host develops the symptoms as a reaction to the mites' presence over time, typically a delay of four to six weeks occurs between the onset of infestation and the onset of itching. Similarly, symptoms often persist for one to several weeks after successful eradication of the mites. As noted, those re-exposed to scabies after successful treatment may exhibit symptoms of the new infestation in a much shorter period—as little as one to four days.


title: Scabies

text: In the classic scenario, the itch is made worse by warmth, and is usually experienced as being worse at night, possibly because distractions are fewer. As a symptom, it is less common in the elderly.


title: Scabies

text: The superficial burrows of scabies usually occur in the area of the finger webs, feet, ventral wrists, elbows, back, buttocks, and external genitals. Except in infants and the immunosuppressed, infection generally does not occur in the skin of the face or scalp. The burrows are created by excavation of the adult mite in the epidermis. Acropustulosis, or blisters and pustules on the palms and soles of the feet, are characteristic symptoms of scabies in infants.


title: Scabies

text: In most people, the trails of the burrowing mites are linear or S-shaped tracks in the skin, often accompanied by rows of small, pimple-like mosquito or insect bites. These signs are often found in crevices of the body, such as on the webs of fingers and toes, around the genital area, in stomach folds of the skin, and under the breasts.


title: Scabies

text: Symptoms typically appear two to six weeks after infestation for individuals never before exposed to scabies. For those having been previously exposed, the symptoms can appear within several days after infestation. However, symptoms may appear after several months or years.


title: Scabies

text: The elderly, disabled, and people with impaired immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or those on immunosuppressive medications, are susceptible to crusted scabies (also called Norwegian scabies). On those with weaker immune systems, the host becomes a more fertile breeding ground for the mites, which spread over the host's body, except the face. The mites in crusted scabies are not more virulent than in noncrusted scabies; however, they are much more numerous (up to two million). People with crusted scabies exhibit scaly rashes, slight itching, and thick crusts of skin that contain large numbers of scabies mites. For this reason, persons with crusted scabies are more contagious to others than those with typical scabies. Such areas make eradication of mites particularly difficult, as the crusts protect the mites from topical miticides/scabicides, necessitating prolonged treatment of these areas.


title: Scabies

text: In the 18th century, Italian biologists Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo and Diacinto Cestoni (1637–1718) described the mite now called "Sarcoptes scabiei", variety "hominis", as the cause of scabies. "Sarcoptes" is a genus of skin parasites and part of the larger family of mites collectively known as scab mites. These organisms have eight legs as adults, and are placed in the same phylogenetic class (Arachnida) as spiders and ticks.


title: Scabies

text: "S. scabiei" mites are under 0.5 mm in size, but are sometimes visible as pinpoints of white. Gravid females tunnel into the dead, outermost layer (stratum corneum) of a host's skin and deposit eggs in the shallow burrows. The eggs hatch into larvae in three to ten days. These young mites move about on the skin and molt into a "nymphal" stage, before maturing as adults, which live three to four weeks in the host's skin. Males roam on top of the skin, occasionally burrowing into the skin. In general, the total number of adult mites infesting a healthy hygienic person with noncrusted scabies is small, about 11 females in burrows, on average.


title: Scabies

text: The movement of mites within and on the skin produces an intense itch, which has the characteristics of a delayed cell-mediated inflammatory response to allergens. IgE antibodies are present in the serum and the site of infection, which react to multiple protein allergens in the body of the mite. Some of these cross-react to allergens from house dust mites. Immediate antibody-mediated allergic reactions (wheals) have been elicited in infected persons, but not in healthy persons; immediate hypersensitivity of this type is thought to explain the observed far more rapid allergic skin response to reinfection seen in persons having been previously infected (especially having been infected within the previous year or two).


title: Scabies

text: Scabies is contagious and can be contracted through prolonged physical contact with an infested person. This includes sexual intercourse, although a majority of cases are acquired through other forms of skin-to-skin contact. Less commonly, scabies infestation can happen through the sharing of clothes, towels, and bedding, but this is not a major mode of transmission; individual mites can survive for only two to three days, at most, away from human skin at room temperature. As with lice, a latex condom is ineffective against scabies transmission during intercourse, because mites typically migrate from one individual to the next at sites other than the sex organs.


title: Scabies

text: Healthcare workers are at risk of contracting scabies from patients, because they may be in extended contact with them.


title: Scabies

text: The symptoms are caused by an allergic reaction of the host's body to mite proteins, though exactly which proteins remains a topic of study. The mite proteins are also present from the gut, in mite feces, which are deposited under the skin. The allergic reaction is both of the delayed (cell-mediated) and immediate (antibody-mediated) type, and involves IgE (antibodies are presumed to mediate the very rapid symptoms on reinfection). The allergy-type symptoms (itching) continue for some days, and even several weeks, after all mites are killed. New lesions may appear for a few days after mites are eradicated. Nodular lesions from scabies may continue to be symptomatic for weeks after the mites have been killed.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies may be diagnosed clinically in geographical areas where it is common when diffuse itching presents along with either lesions in two typical spots or itchiness is present in another household member. The classical sign of scabies is the burrow made by a mite within the skin. To detect the burrow, the suspected area is rubbed with ink from a fountain pen or a topical tetracycline solution, which glows under a special light. The skin is then wiped with an alcohol pad. If the person is infected with scabies, the characteristic zigzag or S pattern of the burrow will appear across the skin; however, interpreting this test may be difficult, as the burrows are scarce and may be obscured by scratch marks. A definitive diagnosis is made by finding either the scabies mites or their eggs and fecal pellets. Searches for these signs involve either scraping a suspected area, mounting the sample in potassium hydroxide and examining it under a microscope, or using dermoscopy to examine the skin directly.


title: Scabies

text: Symptoms of early scabies infestation mirror other skin diseases, including dermatitis, syphilis, erythema multiforme, various urticaria-related syndromes, allergic reactions, ringworm-related diseases, and other ectoparasites such as lice and fleas.


title: Scabies

text: Mass-treatment programs that use topical permethrin or oral ivermectin have been effective in reducing the prevalence of scabies in a number of populations. No vaccine is available for scabies. The simultaneous treatment of all close contacts is recommended, even if they show no symptoms of infection (asymptomatic), to reduce rates of recurrence. Since mites can survive for only two to three days without a host, other objects in the environment pose little risk of transmission except in the case of crusted scabies. Therefore, cleaning is of little importance. Rooms used by those with crusted scabies require thorough cleaning.


title: Scabies

text: Several medications are effective in treating scabies. Treatment should involve the entire household, and any others who have had recent, prolonged contact with the infested individual. Options to control itchiness include antihistamines and prescription anti-inflammatory agents. Bedding, clothing and towels used during the previous three days should be washed in hot water and dried in a hot dryer.


title: Scabies

text: Permethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide, is the most effective treatment for scabies, and remains the treatment of choice. It is applied from the neck down, usually before sleep, and left on for about eight to 14 hours, then washed off in the morning. Care should be taken to coat the entire skin surface, not just symptomatic areas; any patch of skin left untreated can provide a "safe haven" for one or more mites to survive. One application is normally sufficient, as permethrin kills eggs and hatchlings, as well as adult mites, though many physicians recommend a second application three to seven days later as a precaution. Crusted scabies may require multiple applications, or supplemental treatment with oral ivermectin (below). Permethrin may cause slight irritation of the skin that is usually tolerable.


title: Scabies

text: Oral ivermectin is effective in eradicating scabies, often in a single dose. It is the treatment of choice for crusted scabies, and is sometimes prescribed in combination with a topical agent. It has not been tested on infants, and is not recommended for children under six years of age.


title: Scabies

text: Topical ivermectin preparations have been shown to be effective for scabies in adults, though only one such formulation is available in the United States at present, and it is not FDA-approved as a scabies treatment. It has also been useful for sarcoptic mange (the veterinary analog of human scabies).


title: Scabies

text: One review found that the efficacy of permethrin is similar to that of systemic or topical ivermectin. A separate review found that although oral ivermectin is usually effective for treatment of scabies, it does have a higher treatment failure rate than topical permethrin. Another review found that oral ivermectin provided a reasonable balance between efficacy and safety. A study has demonstrated that scabies is markedly reduced in populations taking ivermectin regularly; the drug is widely used for treating scabies and other parasitic diseases particularly among the poor and disadvantaged in the tropics, beginning with the developer Merck providing the drug at no cost to treat onchocerciasis from 1987.


title: Scabies

text: Other treatments include lindane, benzyl benzoate, crotamiton, malathion, and sulfur preparations. Lindane is effective, but concerns over potential neurotoxicity have limited its availability in many countries. It is banned in California, but may be used in other states as a second-line treatment. Sulfur ointments or benzyl benzoate are often used in the developing world due to their low cost; Some 10% sulfur solutions have been shown to be effective, and sulfur ointments are typically used for at least a week, though many people find the odor of sulfur products unpleasant. Crotamiton has been found to be less effective than permethrin in limited studies. Crotamiton or sulfur preparations are sometimes recommended instead of permethrin for children, due to concerns over dermal absorption of permethrin.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies is endemic in many developing countries, where it tends to be particularly problematic in rural and remote areas. In such settings, community-wide control strategies are required to reduce the rate of disease, as treatment of only individuals is ineffective due to the high rate of reinfection. Large-scale mass drug administration strategies may be required where coordinated interventions aim to treat whole communities in one concerted effort. Although such strategies have shown to be able to reduce the burden of scabies in these kinds of communities, debate remains about the best strategy to adopt, including the choice of drug.


title: Scabies

text: The resources required to implement such large-scale interventions in a cost-effective and sustainable way are significant. Furthermore, since endemic scabies is largely restricted to poor and remote areas, it is a public health issue that has not attracted much attention from policy makers and international donors.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies is one of the three most common skin disorders in children, along with tinea and pyoderma. As of 2010, it affects about 100 million people (1.5% of the population) and its frequency is not related to gender. The mites are distributed around the world and equally infect all ages, races, and socioeconomic classes in different climates. Scabies is more often seen in crowded areas with unhygienic living conditions. Globally as of 2009, an estimated 300 million cases of scabies occur each year, although various parties claim the figure is either over- or underestimated. About 1–10% of the global population is estimated to be infected with scabies, but in certain populations, the infection rate may be as high as 50–80%.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies has been observed in humans since ancient times. Archeological evidence from Egypt and the Middle East suggests scabies was present as early as 494 BC. In the fourth century BC, Aristotle reported on "lice" that "escape from little pimples if they are pricked" – a description consistent with scabies. Arab physician Ibn Zuhr is believed to have been the first to provide a clinical description of the scabies mites.


title: Scabies

text: Roman encyclopedist and medical writer Aulus Cornelius Celsus ("circa" 25 BC – 50 AD) is credited with naming the disease "scabies" and describing its characteristic features. The parasitic etiology of scabies was documented by Italian physician Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo (1663–1696) in his 1687 letter, "Observations concerning the fleshworms of the human body". Bonomo's description established scabies as one of the first human diseases with a well-understood cause.


title: Scabies

text: In Europe in the late 19th through mid-20th centuries, a sulfur-bearing ointment called by the medical eponym of Wilkinson's ointment was widely used for topical treatment of scabies. The contents and origins of several versions of the ointment were detailed in correspondence published in the "British Medical Journal" in 1945.


title: Scabies

text: The International Alliance for the Control of Scabies was started in 2012, and brings together over 150 researchers, clinicians, and public-health experts from more than 15 countries. It has managed to bring the global health implications of scabies to the attention of the World Health Organization (WHO). Consequently, the WHO has included scabies on its official list of neglected tropical diseases and other neglected conditions.


title: Scabies

text: Scabies may occur in a number of domestic and wild animals; the mites that cause these infestations are of different subspecies from the one typically causing the human form. These subspecies can infest animals that are not their usual hosts, but such infections do not last long. Scabies-infected animals experience severe itching and secondary skin infections. They often lose weight and become frail.


title: Scabies

text: The most frequently diagnosed form of scabies in domestic animals is sarcoptic mange, caused by the subspecies "Sarcoptes scabiei canis", most commonly in dogs and cats. Sarcoptic mange is transmissible to humans who come into prolonged contact with infested animals, and is distinguished from human scabies by its distribution on skin surfaces covered by clothing. Scabies-infected domestic fowl develop what is known as "scaly leg". Domestic animals that have gone feral and have no veterinary care are frequently affected by scabies and a host of other ailments. Nondomestic animals have also been observed to develop scabies. Gorillas, for instance, are known to be susceptible to infection by contact with items used by humans, and it is a fatal disease of wombats.


title: Scabies

text: Moxidectin is being evaluated as a treatment for scabies. It is established in veterinary medicine to treat a range of parasites, including sarcoptic mange. Its advantage over ivermectin is its longer half-life in humans, thus potential duration of action.


title: Athletic Bilbao

text: Athletic Club (; ), commonly known as Athletic Bilbao or just Athletic, is a professional football club based in the city of Bilbao in the Basque Country of Spain. They are known as "Los Leones" (The Lions) because their stadium was built near a church called "San Mamés", which was named after Saint Mammes, an early Christian thrown to the lions by the Romans. Mammes pacified the lions and was later made a saint. The team plays its home matches at the San Mamés Stadium. Its home colours are red and white-striped shirts with black shorts.


title: Athletic Bilbao

text: Athletic are the fourth most successful club in "La Liga" with eight titles to their name. In the table of "Copa del Rey" titles, Athletic is second only to Barcelona, having won it 23 times. It is also the most successful Basque football club in both league and cup titles won. The club also has one of the most successful women's teams in Spain, which has won five championships in the "Primera División Femenina".


title: Athletic Bilbao

text: The club is one of three founding members of the "Primera División" that have never been relegated from the top division since its inception in 1929, the others being Real Madrid and Barcelona. These three clubs, along with Osasuna, are the only four professional clubs in Spain that are not sports corporations; instead they are owned and operated by club members. Athletic's main rivals are Real Sociedad, against whom it contests the Basque derby, and Real Madrid, due to sporting and political identity; a minor rivalry also exists with Barcelona due to historical significance. At various points in the club's history, further Basque league derbies have been contested against Alavés, Eibar and Osasuna.


title: Athletic Bilbao

text: The club is known for its "cantera" policy of bringing young Basque players through the ranks, as well as recruiting players from other Basque clubs. Athletic's official policy is to sign players native to or trained in football in the greater Basque Country, which includes Biscay, Gipuzkoa, Álava and Navarre (in Spain), as well as Labourd, Soule and Lower Navarre (in France). Since 1912, Athletic has played exclusively with players meeting its own criteria to be deemed Basque. This can be seen as a unique case in European football; it has gained Athletic both admirers and critics. The club has been praised for promoting home grown players and club loyalty. The rule does not apply to coaching staff, with several examples of non-Basques both from Spain and abroad having coached the first team.


title: Athletic Bilbao

text: Despite the implications of the name 'Athletic Club' in English, and unlike some of the other major Spanish teams which have several departments, it is not a multi-sport club, participating only in football, although sections for cycling and other sports existed prior to the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s.


title: Athletic Bilbao

text: Football was introduced to Bilbao by two distinct groups with British connections: British workers and Basque students returning from schools in Britain. In the late 19th century, Bilbao was a leading industrial town and attracted many migrant workers, including miners from the north-east of England and shipyard workers from Southampton, Portsmouth and Sunderland. They brought with them the game of football and came together to form Bilbao Football Club. Meanwhile, sons of the Basque educated classes, such as Juan Astorquia, went to Britain to complete their studies, and developed an interest in football, so when they returned they began to arrange games with British workers. In 1898, Juan Astorquia and 6 other students belonging to the Gymnasium Zamacois founded the "Athletic Club", using the English spelling. Luis Márquez become the club's first president in 1900.