title: Phosphorus

text: Phosphate rock, which usually contains calcium phosphate, was first used in 1850 to make phosphorus, and following the introduction of the electric arc furnace by James Burgess Readman in 1888 (patented 1889), elemental phosphorus production switched from the bone-ash heating, to electric arc production from phosphate rock. After the depletion of world guano sources about the same time, mineral phosphates became the major source of phosphate fertiliser production. Phosphate rock production greatly increased after World War II, and remains the primary global source of phosphorus and phosphorus chemicals today. See the article on peak phosphorus for more information on the history and present state of phosphate mining. Phosphate rock remains a feedstock in the fertiliser industry, where it is treated with sulfuric acid to produce various "superphosphate" fertiliser products.


title: Phosphorus

text: White phosphorus was first made commercially in the 19th century for the match industry. This used bone ash for a phosphate source, as described above. The bone-ash process became obsolete when the submerged-arc furnace for phosphorus production was introduced to reduce phosphate rock. The electric furnace method allowed production to increase to the point where phosphorus could be used in weapons of war. In World War I, it was used in incendiaries, smoke screens and tracer bullets. A special incendiary bullet was developed to shoot at hydrogen-filled Zeppelins over Britain (hydrogen being highly flammable). During World War II, Molotov cocktails made of phosphorus dissolved in petrol were distributed in Britain to specially selected civilians within the British resistance operation, for defence; and phosphorus incendiary bombs were used in war on a large scale. Burning phosphorus is difficult to extinguish and if it splashes onto human skin it has horrific effects.


title: Phosphorus

text: Early matches used white phosphorus in their composition, which was dangerous due to its toxicity. Murders, suicides and accidental poisonings resulted from its use. (An apocryphal tale tells of a woman attempting to murder her husband with white phosphorus in his food, which was detected by the stew's giving off luminous steam). In addition, exposure to the vapours gave match workers a severe necrosis of the bones of the jaw, known as "phossy jaw". When a safe process for manufacturing red phosphorus was discovered, with its far lower flammability and toxicity, laws were enacted, under the Berne Convention (1906), requiring its adoption as a safer alternative for match manufacture. The toxicity of white phosphorus led to discontinuation of its use in matches. The Allies used phosphorus incendiary bombs in World War II to destroy Hamburg, the place where the "miraculous bearer of light" was first discovered.


title: Phosphorus

text: In 2017, the USGS estimated 68 billion tons of world reserves, where reserve figures refer to the amount assumed recoverable at current market prices; 0.261 billion tons were mined in 2016. Critical to contemporary agriculture, its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. The production of phosphorus may have peaked before 2011 and some scientists predict reserves will be depleted in before the end of the 21st Century." Phosphorus comprises about 0.1% by mass of the average rock, and consequently, the Earth's supply is vast, though dilute.


title: Phosphorus

text: Most phosphorus-bearing material is for agriculture fertilisers. In this case where the standards of purity are modest, phosphorus is obtained from phosphate rock by what is called the "wet process." The minerals are treated with sulfuric acid to give phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid is then neutralized to give various phosphate salts, which comprise fertilizers. In the wet process, phosphorus does not undergo redox. About five tons of phosphogypsum waste are generated per ton of phosphoric acid production. Annually, the estimated generation of phosphogypsum worldwide is 100 to 280 Mt.


title: Phosphorus

text: For the use of phosphorus in drugs, detergents, and foodstuff, the standards of purity are high, which led to the development of the thermal process. In this process, phosphate minerals are converted to white phosphorus, which can be purified by distillation. The white phosphorus is then oxidised to phosphoric acid and subsequently neutralised with a base to give phosphate salts. The thermal process is energy intensive. Presently, about of elemental phosphorus is produced annually. Calcium phosphate (phosphate rock), mostly mined in Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1,200–1,500 °C with sand, which is mostly , and coke to produce . The product, being volatile, is readily isolated:


title: Phosphorus

text: Side products from the thermal process include ferrophosphorus, a crude form of FeP, resulting from iron impurities in the mineral precursors. The silicate slag is a useful construction material. The fluoride is sometimes recovered for use in water fluoridation. More problematic is a "mud" containing significant amounts of white phosphorus. Production of white phosphorus is conducted in large facilities in part because it is energy intensive. The white phosphorus is transported in molten form. Some major accidents have occurred during transportation.


title: Phosphorus

text: Historically, before the development of mineral-based extractions, white phosphorus was isolated on an industrial scale from bone ash. In this process, the tricalcium phosphate in bone ash is converted to monocalcium phosphate with sulfuric acid:


title: Phosphorus

text: When ignited to a white heat (~1300C) with charcoal, calcium metaphosphate yields two-thirds of its weight of white phosphorus while one-third of the phosphorus remains in the residue as calcium orthophosphate:


title: Phosphorus

text: Food-grade phosphoric acid (additive E338) is used to acidify foods and beverages such as various colas and jams, providing a tangy or sour taste. The phosphoric acid also serves as a preservative. Soft drinks containing phosphoric acid, which would include Coca-Cola, are sometimes called phosphate sodas or phosphates. Phosphoric acid in soft drinks has the potential to cause dental erosion. Phosphoric acid also has the potential to contribute to the formation of kidney stones, especially in those who have had kidney stones previously.


title: Phosphorus

text: Phosphorus is an essential plant nutrient (the most often limiting nutrient, after nitrogen), and the bulk of all phosphorus production is in concentrated phosphoric acids for agriculture fertilisers, containing as much as 70% to 75% PO. That led to large increase in phosphate (PO) production in the second half of the 20th century. Artificial phosphate fertilisation is necessary because phosphorus is essential to all living organisms; it is involved in energy transfers, strength of root and stems, photosynthesis, the expansion of plant roots, formation of seeds and flowers, and other important factors effecting overall plant health and genetics.


title: Phosphorus

text: Natural phosphorus-bearing compounds are mostly inaccessible to plants because of the low solubility and mobility in soil. Most phosphorus is very stable in the soil minerals or organic matter of the soil. Even when phosphorus is added in manure or fertilizer it can become fixed in the soil. Therefore, the natural cycle of phosphorus is very slow. Some of the fixed phosphorus is released again over time, sustaining wild plant growth, however, more is needed to sustain intensive cultivation of crops. Fertiliser is often in the form of superphosphate of lime, a mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate (Ca(HPO)), and calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO·2HO) produced reacting sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.


title: Phosphorus

text: Processing phosphate minerals with sulfuric acid for obtaining fertiliser is so important to the global economy that this is the primary industrial market for sulfuric acid and the greatest industrial use of elemental sulfur.


title: Phosphorus

text: White phosphorus is widely used to make organophosphorus compounds through intermediate phosphorus chlorides and two phosphorus sulfides, phosphorus pentasulfide and phosphorus sesquisulfide. Organophosphorus compounds have many applications, including in plasticisers, flame retardants, pesticides, extraction agents, nerve agents and water treatment.


title: Phosphorus

text: Phosphorus is also an important component in steel production, in the making of phosphor bronze, and in many other related products. Phosphorus is added to metallic copper during its smelting process to react with oxygen present as an impurity in copper and to produce phosphorus-containing copper (CuOFP) alloys with a higher hydrogen embrittlement resistance than normal copper.


title: Phosphorus

text: The first striking match with a phosphorus head was invented by Charles Sauria in 1830. These matches (and subsequent modifications) were made with heads of white phosphorus, an oxygen-releasing compound (potassium chlorate, lead dioxide, or sometimes nitrate), and a binder. They were poisonous to the workers in manufacture, sensitive to storage conditions, toxic if ingested, and hazardous when accidentally ignited on a rough surface. Production in several countries was banned between 1872 and 1925. The international Berne Convention, ratified in 1906, prohibited the use of white phosphorus in matches.


title: Phosphorus

text: In consequence, phosphorous matches were gradually replaced by safer alternatives. Around 1900 French chemists Henri Sévène and Emile David Cahen invented the modern strike-anywhere match, wherein the white phosphorus was replaced by phosphorus sesquisulfide (PS), a non-toxic and non-pyrophoric compound that ignites under friction. For a time these safer strike-anywhere matches were quite popular but in the long run they were superseded by the modern safety match.


title: Phosphorus

text: Safety matches are very difficult to ignite on any surface other than a special striker strip. The strip contains non-toxic red phosphorus and the match head potassium chlorate, an oxygen-releasing compound. When struck, small amounts of abrasion from match head and striker strip are mixed intimately to make a small quantity of Armstrong's mixture, a very touch sensitive composition. The fine powder ignites immediately and provides the initial spark to set off the match head. Safety matches separate the two components of the ignition mixture until the match is struck. This is the key safety advantage as it prevents accidental ignition. Nonetheless, safety matches, invented in 1844 by Gustaf Erik Pasch and market ready by the 1860s, didn't gain consumer acceptance until the prohibition of white phosphorus. Using a dedicated striker strip was considered clumsy.


title: Phosphorus

text: Sodium tripolyphosphate made from phosphoric acid is used in laundry detergents in some countries, but banned for this use in others. This compound softens the water to enhance the performance of the detergents and to prevent pipe/boiler tube corrosion.


title: Phosphorus

text: Inorganic phosphorus in the form of the phosphate is required for all known forms of life. Phosphorus plays a major role in the structural framework of DNA and RNA. Living cells use phosphate to transport cellular energy with adenosine triphosphate (ATP), necessary for every cellular process that uses energy. ATP is also important for phosphorylation, a key regulatory event in cells. Phospholipids are the main structural components of all cellular membranes. Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening bones. Biochemists commonly use the abbreviation "Pi" to refer to inorganic phosphate.


title: Phosphorus

text: Every living cell is encased in a membrane that separates it from its surroundings. Cellular membranes are composed of a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer. Phospholipids are derived from glycerol with two of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons replaced by fatty acids as an ester, and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol.


title: Phosphorus

text: An average adult human contains about 0.7 kg of phosphorus, about 85–90% in bones and teeth in the form of apatite, and the remainder in soft tissues and extracellular fluids (~1%). The phosphorus content increases from about 0.5% by mass in infancy to 0.65–1.1% by mass in adults. Average phosphorus concentration in the blood is about 0.4 g/L, about 70% of that is organic and 30% inorganic phosphates. An adult with healthy diet consumes and excretes about 1–3 grams of phosphorus per day, with consumption in the form of inorganic phosphate and phosphorus-containing biomolecules such as nucleic acids and phospholipids; and excretion almost exclusively in the form of phosphate ions such as and . Only about 0.1% of body phosphate circulates in the blood, paralleling the amount of phosphate available to soft tissue cells.


title: Phosphorus

text: The main component of bone is hydroxyapatite as well as amorphous forms of calcium phosphate, possibly including carbonate. Hydroxyapatite is the main component of tooth enamel. Water fluoridation enhances the resistance of teeth to decay by the partial conversion of this mineral to the still harder material called fluoroapatite:


title: Phosphorus

text: In medicine, phosphate deficiency syndrome may be caused by malnutrition, by failure to absorb phosphate, and by metabolic syndromes that draw phosphate from the blood (such as in refeeding syndrome after malnutrition) or passing too much of it into the urine. All are characterised by hypophosphatemia, which is a condition of low levels of soluble phosphate levels in the blood serum and inside the cells. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include neurological dysfunction and disruption of muscle and blood cells due to lack of ATP. Too much phosphate can lead to diarrhoea and calcification (hardening) of organs and soft tissue, and can interfere with the body's ability to use iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc.


title: Phosphorus

text: Phosphorus is an essential macromineral for plants, which is studied extensively in edaphology to understand plant uptake from soil systems. Phosphorus is a limiting factor in many ecosystems; that is, the scarcity of phosphorus limits the rate of organism growth. An excess of phosphorus can also be problematic, especially in aquatic systems where eutrophication sometimes leads to algal blooms.


title: Phosphorus

text: The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for phosphorus in 1997. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EAR for phosphorus for people ages 19 and up is 580 mg/day. The RDA is 700 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy and lactation are also 700 mg/day. For people ages 1–18 years the RDA increases with age from 460 to 1250 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of phosphorus the UL is 4000 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).


title: Phosphorus

text: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For people ages 15 and older, including pregnancy and lactation, the AI is set at 550 mg/day. For children ages 4–10 the AI is 440 mg/day, and for ages 11–17 it is 640 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S RDAs. In both systems, teenagers need more than adults. The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and decided that there was not sufficient information to set a UL.


title: Phosphorus

text: For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For phosphorus labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 1000 mg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 1250 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.


title: Phosphorus

text: The main food sources for phosphorus are the same as those containing protein, although proteins do not contain phosphorus. For example, milk, meat, and soya typically also have phosphorus. As a rule, if a diet has sufficient protein and calcium, the amount of phosphorus is probably sufficient.


title: Phosphorus

text: Organic compounds of phosphorus form a wide class of materials; many are required for life, but some are extremely toxic. Fluorophosphate esters are among the most potent neurotoxins known. A wide range of organophosphorus compounds are used for their toxicity as pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.) and weaponised as nerve agents against enemy humans. Most inorganic phosphates are relatively nontoxic and essential nutrients.


title: Phosphorus

text: The white phosphorus allotrope presents a significant hazard because it ignites in air and produces phosphoric acid residue. Chronic white phosphorus poisoning leads to necrosis of the jaw called "phossy jaw". White phosphorus is toxic, causing severe liver damage on ingestion and may cause a condition known as "Smoking Stool Syndrome".


title: Phosphorus

text: In the past, external exposure to elemental phosphorus was treated by washing the affected area with 2% copper sulfate solution to form harmless compounds that are then washed away. According to the recent "US Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries", "Cupric (copper(II)) sulfate has been used by U.S. personnel in the past and is still being used by some nations. However, copper sulfate is toxic and its use will be discontinued. Copper sulfate may produce kidney and cerebral toxicity as well as intravascular hemolysis."


title: Phosphorus

text: The manual suggests instead "a bicarbonate solution to neutralise phosphoric acid, which will then allow removal of visible white phosphorus. Particles often can be located by their emission of smoke when air strikes them, or by their phosphorescence in the dark. In dark surroundings, fragments are seen as luminescent spots. Promptly debride the burn if the patient's condition will permit removal of bits of WP (white phosphorus) that might be absorbed later and possibly produce systemic poisoning. DO NOT apply oily-based ointments until it is certain that all WP has been removed. Following complete removal of the particles, treat the lesions as thermal burns." As white phosphorus readily mixes with oils, any oily substances or ointments are not recommended until the area is thoroughly cleaned and all white phosphorus removed.


title: Phosphorus

text: People can be exposed to phosphorus in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the phosphorus exposure limit (Permissible exposure limit) in the workplace at 0.1 mg/m over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 5 mg/m, phosphorus is immediately dangerous to life and health.


title: Phosphorus

text: Phosphorus can reduce elemental iodine to hydroiodic acid, which is a reagent effective for reducing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. For this reason, red and white phosphorus were designated by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration as List I precursor chemicals under 21 CFR 1310.02 effective on November 17, 2001. In the United States, handlers of red or white phosphorus are subject to stringent regulatory controls.


title: GG Allin

text: Kevin Michael "GG" Allin (born Jesus Christ Allin; August 29, 1956 – June 28, 1993) was an American punk rock musician who performed and recorded with many groups during his career. Allin was best known for his controversial live performances, which often featured transgressive acts, including self-mutilation, defecating on stage, and assaulting audience members, for which he was arrested and imprisoned on multiple occasions. AllMusic called him "the most spectacular degenerate in rock n' roll history", while G4TV's "That's Tough" labelled him the "toughest rock star in the world".


title: GG Allin

text: Known more for his notorious stage antics than for his music, Allin recorded prolifically, not only in the punk rock genre, but also in spoken word, country, and more traditional-style rock. His lyrics often expressed themes of violence and misanthropy.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin's music was often poorly recorded and produced, given limited distribution, and met with mostly negative reviews from critics, although he maintained a cult following throughout and after his career. Allin promised for several years that he would commit suicide on stage during one of his concerts, but he instead died from an accidental drug overdose on June 28, 1993, at age 36.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin was born Jesus Christ Allin at Weeks Memorial Hospital in Lancaster, New Hampshire, the younger of two sons born to Merle Colby Allin Sr. (1923–2001) and Arleta Gunther (1936–2019). He was given this name because his father told his wife that Jesus Christ had visited him, and told him that his newborn son would be a great man in the vein of the Messiah. During early childhood, Allin's older brother Merle Jr. was unable to pronounce "Jesus" properly and called him "Jeje", which became "GG".


title: GG Allin

text: Allin's family lived in a log cabin with no running water or electricity in Groveton, New Hampshire. His father was an abusive religious fanatic who threatened his family with death, digging graves in their cellar and threatening to fill them in the near future. In an essay titled "The First Ten Years", Allin wrote that Merle Sr. wanted to kill his family in a murder–suicide. He "despised pleasure" and allowed his family "very little contact with others". They lived a "primitive existence" and "were more like prisoners than a family". Allin also stated that his mother attempted to escape before she filed for divorce, but Merle Sr. thwarted the attempt by kidnapping Allin. Allin said that he was glad to experience such an upbringing, and that it "made [him] a warrior soul at an early age."


title: GG Allin

text: In 1961, Arleta filed for divorce from Merle Sr., as his mental instability was worsening. Allin and his brother were from that time raised by their mother and stepfather, and settled in East St. Johnsbury, Vermont, in 1966. Allin, a poor student, was placed in special education classes and required to repeat the third grade. According to his older brother, he experienced bullying by fellow students for nonconformity. In his second year of high school, he began attending school cross-dressed, which he said was inspired by the New York Dolls. When asked about his childhood, Allin said that it was "very chaotic. Full of chances and dangers. We sold drugs, stole, broke into houses, cars. Did whatever we wanted to for the most part – including all the bands we played in. People even hated us back then."


title: GG Allin

text: Allin's earliest musical influences were 1960s British Invasion bands including Mott the Hoople and the Dave Clark Five. In the early 1970s, Alice Cooper became an important influence on Allin. Allin's earliest recorded musical endeavors were as a drummer. He also wrote most of his songs on an acoustic guitar. In his mid-teens, he and his older brother Merle, who plays bass guitar, formed their first band, Little Sister's Date, which lasted a little over a year. The group covered songs by Aerosmith, Kiss, and other popular rock bands of the time period. Both Allin and Merle gained a strong interest in punk rock. The Ramones, the MC5, and the Stooges were major influences on Allin.


title: GG Allin

text: He graduated from Concord High School in Concord, Vermont, in 1975, and shortly after formed the band Malpractice with his older brother, local musician Jeff Penney, and Brian Demurs (a high school friend). Allin played the drums for Malpractice until the band separated in 1977.


title: GG Allin

text: In September 1977 to April 1984, he started fronting the Jabbers. Allin's 1980 debut album was "Always Was, Is and Always Shall Be" for Orange Records. In addition to singing, he played drums on most tracks. It would be reissued for the first time on CD in 1995 by the Halycon imprint. At one point, industry veteran and the Dead Boys producer Genya Ravan served as his manager. Tension within the Jabbers mounted as Allin grew uncontrollable, uncompromising, and vicious. The Jabbers disbanded the spring of 1984. Their second to last show was opening for Charged GBH.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin fronted many acts during the early to mid-1980s. This includes albums from the Scumfucs, the Texas Nazis, and the Cedar St. Sluts. Allin remained in the underground hardcore scene, yet was not part of the East Coast hardcore scene. His performances in Manchester, New Hampshire earned him the nickname of "the Madman of Manchester".


title: GG Allin

text: Allin gained wider attention with the ROIR cassette-only release of "Hated in the Nation" containing tracks from Allin's out-of-print catalog with the Jabbers, the Scumfucs, and the Cedar St. Sluts. The tape also featured several in-studio and in-concert recordings with an all-star band assembled by producer "Maximum RocknRoll" and early Allin patron Mykel Board. This band featured J Mascis of Dinosaur Jr. on lead guitar and Bongwater record producer/musician Mark Kramer on bass.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin first defecated onstage in 1985 at a show in Peoria, Illinois. According to fellow performer Bloody Mess, "I was with him when he bought the Ex-Lax. Unfortunately, he ate it hours before the show, so he constantly had to hold it in or he would've shit before he got onstage... After he shit onstage, complete chaos broke out in the hall... All of the old men in charge of the hall went fucking NUTS!.. Hundreds of confused punk kids were flipping out, running out the door, because the smell was INCREDIBLE." Defecation became a regular part of his stage act.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin idolized country music legend Hank Williams and saw himself as a kindred spirit. Both were relative loners and outsiders, both were habitual users of intoxicants, both lived with few (if any) possessions, and both traveled the country relentlessly. Allin's acoustic output, documented on the EP "The Troubled Troubador", was heavily influenced by Williams. He recorded his own rewrites of Hank Williams Jr.'s "Family Tradition" and David Allan Coe's "Longhaired Redneck", calling his own versions "Scumfuc Tradition" and "Outlaw Scumfuc", respectively. Later, Allin also released another country album, "", his most refined set of recordings.


title: GG Allin

text: During this period, Allin also began performing many spoken word pieces. Video footage of these is available but rare. Unwilling to seek steady employment, Allin supported himself by selling his own records. Allin was also fascinated with serial killers. He wrote to and visited John Wayne Gacy in prison a number of times, and Gacy painted a portrait of Allin, which became the album cover to the soundtrack of the film "".


title: GG Allin

text: By this point, Allin's performances, which often resulted in considerable damage to venues and sound equipment, were regularly stopped by police or venue owners after only a few songs. Allin was charged with assault and battery or indecent exposure a number of times. His constant touring was only stopped by jail time or by long hospital stays for broken bones, blood poisoning, and other physical trauma.


title: GG Allin

text: Another attraction to Allin performances was his continual threats of suicide. In 1989, Allin wrote to "Maximum RocknRoll" stating that he would commit suicide on stage on Halloween 1989. However, he was in jail when that day came. He continued his threat each following year but ended up imprisoned each following Halloween. When asked why he did not follow through with his threats, Allin stated, "With GG, you don't get what you expect—you get what you deserve." He also stated that suicide should only be done when one had reached one's peak, meeting the afterlife at one's strongest point and not at one's weakest.


title: GG Allin

text: In June 1993, Allin made an appearance on "The Jane Whitney Show". This interview is infamous for being his last interview and for Allin's aggression toward the audience. Allin openly stated that he would commit suicide and take his fans with him. When questioned by Jane, he clarified that he would make them commit suicide as well or he would kill them. Allin also stated that, at 35, he could sleep with 12-, 13- and 16-year-old girls, boys, and animals, and claimed that he raped both women and men at his concerts.


title: GG Allin

text: In late 1989, Allin was arrested and charged with "assault with intent to do great bodily harm less than murder" of a female acquaintance in Ann Arbor, Michigan.


title: GG Allin

text: In a psychological evaluation made as part of the trial, Allin was judged as having at least average intelligence, and was described as "courteous, cooperative and candid". The unnamed evaluator noted that Allin did not appear psychotic, and seemed comfortable with his unorthodox lifestyle. However, the evaluator asserted Allin was dependent on alcohol and had a mixed personality disorder with narcissistic, borderline and masochistic features.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin initially denied the charges, claiming that the woman was a willing participant in their sexual activities. Allin admitted to cutting her, burning her, and drinking her blood, but insisted that she did the same thing to him. Allin also claimed that inconsistencies in the woman's statements to authorities supported his assertions. The judge in the case agreed there were substantial inconsistencies in the woman's account. Ultimately, however, Allin plea bargained to the reduced charge of felonious assault, and he was imprisoned from December 25, 1989, to March 26, 1991.


title: GG Allin

text: It was during this time in prison that Allin began feeling re-energized about his life and "mission". He wrote "The GG Allin Manifesto" during this period.


title: GG Allin

text: After his release from prison, Allin skipped parole to go on another tour, footage of which was shot for Todd Phillips's documentary "". The film contained graphic scenes from a performance Allin gave at the rock club Space at Chase in Manhattan's East Village. A heavily intoxicated Allin stripped naked, defecated on the floor, wiped his feces on himself and threw feces into the audience. He also threw beer bottles, breaking a woman's nose, and assaulted several other people in the crowd. Clips were included from other Allin appearances, as well as interviews with Allin, his band, and their fans. The film was released in 1993 and later followed on DVD in 1997.


title: GG Allin

text: In 1991, GG recorded an album entitled "Murder Junkies", released by New Rose Records, featuring Antiseen as his backing band. This album contained 10 musical tracks and 10 spoken-word pieces. Other than "Freaks, Faggots, Drunks and Junkies", Allin considered this album to be that which most accurately captured his persona and stated philosophy on life. It was also during this period that Allin recorded the album "War in My Head – I'm Your Enemy", released on Awareness Records and featuring the band Shrinkwrap. This particular album consists of one 45-minute track that is a collage of spoken-word pieces (mainly from the same recordings as "Murder Junkies") which Shrinkwrap put to music.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin's growing notoriety led to appearances on various television shows: "Geraldo", "The Jerry Springer Show" and "The Jane Whitney Show". At the time of his death, Allin was making plans for a spoken-word album. He also mentioned a somewhat unlikely European tour, enthusiastically talking about it in the hours before his death.


title: GG Allin

text: In the mid-1980s, Allin became involved with a teenage girl from Garland, Texas named Tracy Deneault. She became pregnant, and their daughter, Nico Ann Deneault, was born March 13, 1986. Nico chose to distance herself from her family. Allin and Tracey Deneault never married. At the time of his death, GG Allin's "girlfriend" was Liz Mankowski. They appeared together on "The Jane Whitney Show", in 1993, with another Allin fan called Wendy.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin was a self-identified extreme individualist, misanthrope, and anti-authoritarian, promoting lawlessness and violence against police officers in many of his lyrics; his essay, "The GG Allin Manifesto", was intended to summarize his personal philosophy. He revealed on "Geraldo" that he believed his body to be a temple of rock and roll, and that his flesh, blood, and bodily fluids were a communion to the people. Another reason given for his onstage antics (by Dino, the drummer of his band) was that he wanted to draw a parallel between his actions and "a society that's going crazy with violence". He has also said that if he was not a performer, he would probably be a serial killer or a mass murderer.


title: GG Allin

text: Regarding Allin's views on death, he believed in some form of an afterlife. He planned to kill himself onstage on Halloween many times in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but was stopped due to prison sentences around Halloween each year. He explained his views on death in the film "", stating: "It's like I've got this wild soul that just wants to get out of this life. It's too confined in this life. I think that to take yourself out at your peak... if you could die at your peak, your strongest point, then your soul will be that much stronger in the next existence."


title: GG Allin

text: GG Allin's last show was on June 27, 1993, at a small club called The Gas Station, a punk venue located inside a former gas station at 194 East 2nd Street in Manhattan. In a first-hand account by Michael Bowling, the show ended after three songs, when a melee broke out. Allin ended up outside, leading a group of fans through the neighborhood.


title: GG Allin

text: Bowling continued his recount of the evening after the show. After walking the streets for almost an hour, Allin eventually went to Johnny Puke's apartment. There, he and others continued to party and use drugs. Along with Johnny Puke, Allin ingested large amounts of heroin, on which he overdosed and slipped into an unconscious state. Sometime in the early morning of June 28, Allin died from the effects of his heroin overdose. Later that morning, Puke noticed that Allin still lay motionless in the same place where he had left him and posed for Polaroids with the corpse before calling for an ambulance. Allin was pronounced dead at the scene. He was two months short of his 37th birthday.


title: GG Allin

text: Allin's funeral took place on July 3, 1993, in his native New Hampshire, at the St. Rose Cemetery, Littleton. At his funeral, Allin's bloated corpse was dressed in his black leather jacket and trademark jock strap. Allin's funeral became a low-level party.


title: GG Allin

text: Video footage of the soundcheck, concert, and aftermath from Allin's final concert on the day of his death was appended to the 1997 DVD release of "Hated".


title: GG Allin

text: GG Allin's grave was frequently vandalized with urine, feces, cigarette butts, and alcohol by fans, an act that was greatly discouraged by GG's mother Arleta. His tombstone was removed in 2010 after it was knocked off the base by a fan, GG's brother had just moved and his mother went to Florida for the winter while this happened.


title: GG Allin

text: Hank Williams III's 2008 album "Damn Right, Rebel Proud" features the song "P.F.F.", which features the line "This song is written and dedicated for GG Allin" spoken at the beginning.


title: GG Allin

text: On December 13, 2018, Showtime premiered the 2017 documentary "GG Allin: All in the Family" which documented Allin's life, career and death and how his brother and mother were coping with his death 20 years later.


title: Kim Kardashian, Superstar

text: Kim Kardashian, Superstar (also known simply as Kim K Superstar) is a 2007 pornographic film featuring American television personality Kim Kardashian and singer-actor Ray J. It depicts the pair having sexual intercourse in October 2003 while on vacation in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico.


title: Kim Kardashian, Superstar

text: The film features Kim Kardashian and Ray J in October 2003, in a luxury Esperanza resort in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico, for Kardashian's 23rd birthday. Ray J filmed much of the holiday with a handheld camcorder, capturing him and Kardashian "goofing around" and also having oral sex and sexual intercourse.


title: Kim Kardashian, Superstar

text: Kardashian was relatively unknown before the tape's release. She was known mainly as the daughter of Robert Kardashian, who was O. J. Simpson's defense attorney during Simpson's 1995 murder trial. She was also known as a friend and personal stylist for Paris Hilton after she appeared in three episodes of Hilton's show "The Simple Life" in 2006. She met Ray J in 2002 while working as a personal stylist to his sister, Brandy Norwood.


title: Kim Kardashian, Superstar

text: In December 2018, Kardashian claimed she had been on the drug ecstasy (MDMA) while the tape was recorded.


title: Kim Kardashian, Superstar

text: The film was released on March 21, 2007, by Vivid Entertainment. According to a press release they issued, they purchased the tape from a "third party" for $1 million.


title: Kim Kardashian, Superstar

text: In February 2007, before its release, Kardashian sued Vivid Entertainment for invasion of privacy and for the profits from and ownership of the tape. She dropped the suit in late April 2007, settling with Vivid Entertainment for $5 million.


title: Kim Kardashian, Superstar

text: In April 2016, Ian Halperin alleged in his book "Kardashian Dynasty" that Kardashian and her mother, Kris Jenner, deliberately leaked the sex tape to Vivid Entertainment. According to Halperin, "A mutual friend of Kim and Paris Hilton had advised her that if she wanted to achieve fame, a sex tape would be the way to go ... Kim had discussed the idea of producing a tape with her family beforehand ... It was Kris who engineered the deal behind the scenes [with Vivid Entertainment] and was responsible for the tape seeing the light of day". On the release of "Kardashian Dynasty", a representative for Kardashian and Jenner denied all of Halperin's assertions.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: The Pulitzer Prize () is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine, online journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of Joseph Pulitzer, who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, and is administered by Columbia University. Prizes are awarded annually in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each winner receives a certificate and a US$15,000 cash award (raised from $10,000 in 2017). The winner in the public service category is awarded a gold medal.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, but only those that have specifically been entered. (There is a $75 entry fee, for each desired entry category.) Entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also be entered only in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Each year, more than 100 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 22 separate juries for the 23 award categories; one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. Most juries consist of five members, except for those for Public Service, Investigative Reporting, Explanatory Reporting, Feature Writing, Commentary and Audio Reporting categories, which have seven members; however, all book juries have five members. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations. The board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations, or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75 percent majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award. The board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work; however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive honoraria for the year.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an "entrant". The jury selects a group of "nominated finalists" and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists and authors who were only submitted, but not nominated as finalists, still claim to be Pulitzer nominees in promotional material.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: The Pulitzer board has cautioned entrants against claiming to be nominees. The Pulitzer Prize website's Frequently Asked Questions section describes their policy as follows: "Nominated Finalists are selected by the Nominating Juries for each category as finalists in the competition. The Pulitzer Prize Board generally selects the Pulitzer Prize Winners from the three nominated finalists in each category. The names of nominated finalists have been announced only since 1980. Work that has been submitted for Prize consideration but not chosen as either a nominated finalist or a winner is termed an entry or submission. No information on entrants is provided. Since 1980, when we began to announce nominated finalists, we have used the term 'nominee' for entrants who became finalists. We discourage someone saying he or she was 'nominated' for a Pulitzer simply because an entry was sent to us."


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Bill Dedman of NBC News, the recipient of the 1989 investigative reporting prize, pointed out in 2012 that financial journalist Betty Liu was described as "Pulitzer Prize–Nominated" in her Bloomberg Television advertising and the jacket of her book, while "National Review" writer Jonah Goldberg made similar claims of "Pulitzer nomination" to promote his books. Dedman wrote, "To call that submission a Pulitzer 'nomination' is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters "That's My Boy" in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars don't work that way—the studios don't pick the nominees. It's just a way of slipping 'Academy Awards' into a bio. The Pulitzers also don't work that way, but fewer people know that."


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Nominally, the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service is awarded only to news organizations, not individuals. In rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs; infrequently, staff Prize citations also distinguish the work of prominent contributors.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Pulitzer Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships. He specified "four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships." After his death on October 29, 1911, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4, 1917 (they are now announced in April). The "Chicago Tribune" under the control of Colonel Robert R. McCormick felt that the Pulitzer Prize was nothing more than a 'mutual admiration society' and not to be taken seriously; the paper refused to compete for the prize during McCormick's tenure up until 1961. Until 1975, the prizes were overseen by the trustees of Columbia University.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction. Reports and photographs by United States–based newspapers, magazines and news organizations (including news websites) that "[publish] regularly" are eligible for the journalism prize. Beginning in 2007, "an assortment of online elements will be permitted in all journalism categories except for the competition's two photography categories, which will continue to restrict entries to still images." In December 2008, it was announced that for the first time content published in online-only news sources would be considered.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Although certain winners with magazine affiliations (most notably Moneta Sleet Jr.) were allowed to enter the competition due to eligible partnerships or concurrent publication of their work in newspapers, the Pulitzer Prize Advisory Board and the Pulitzer Prize Board historically resisted the admission of magazines into the competition, resulting in the formation of the National Magazine Awards at the Columbia Journalism School in 1966.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: In 2015, magazines were allowed to enter for the first time in two categories (Investigative Reporting and Feature Writing). By 2016, this provision had expanded to three additional categories (International Reporting, Criticism and Editorial Cartooning). That year, Kathryn Schulz (Feature Writing) and Emily Nussbaum (Criticism) of "The New Yorker" became the first magazine affiliates to receive the prize under the expanded eligibility criterion.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: In October 2016, magazine eligibility was extended to all journalism categories. Hitherto confined to the local reporting of breaking news, the Breaking News Reporting category was expanded to encompass all domestic breaking news events in 2017.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: In 2020, the Audio Reporting category was added. The first prize in this category was awarded to "The Out Crowd", an episode of the public radio program "This American Life". In the second year, the Pulitzer was awarded for the NPR podcast "No Compromise."


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: There have been dozens of Special Citations and Awards: more than ten each in Arts, Journalism, and Letters, and five for Pulitzer Prize service, most recently to Joseph Pulitzer, Jr. in 1987.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: In addition to the prizes, Pulitzer Travelling Fellowships are awarded to four outstanding students of the Graduate School of Journalism as selected by the faculty.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Over the years, awards have been discontinued either because the field of the award has been expanded to encompass other areas; the award has been renamed because the common terminology changed; or the award has become obsolete, such as the prizes for telegraphic reporting.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: An example of a writing field that has been expanded was the former Pulitzer Prize for the Novel (awarded 1918–1947), which has been changed to the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, which also includes short stories, novellas, novelettes, and poetry, as well as novels.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: The 19-member Pulitzer Prize Board convenes semi-annually, traditionally in the Joseph Pulitzer World Room at Columbia University's Pulitzer Hall. It comprises major editors, columnists and media executives in addition to six members drawn from academia and the arts, including the president of Columbia University, the dean of the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism and the administrator of the prizes, who serves as the Board's secretary. The administrator and the dean (who served on the Board from its inception until 1954 and beginning again in 1976) participate in the deliberations as "ex officio" members, but cannot vote. Aside from the president and dean (who serve as permanent members for the duration of their respective appointments) and the administrator (who is re-elected annually), the Board elects its own members for a three-year term; members may serve a maximum of three terms. Members of the Board and the juries are selected with close attention "given to professional excellence and affiliation, as well as diversity in terms of gender, ethnic background, geographical distribution and size of news organization."


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Former Associated Press and "Los Angeles Times" editor Marjorie Miller was named administrator in April 2022. She succeeded former "New York Times" senior editor Dana Canedy, who served in the role from 2017 to 2020. Canedy was the first woman and first person of color to hold the position. Edward Kliment, the program's longtime deputy administrator, was appointed acting administrator in July 2020 when Canedy became senior vice president and publisher of Simon & Schuster's flagship eponymous imprint. He chose not to contend for the position and returned to his previous role upon Miller's appointment.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: In addition to Canedy, past administrators include John Hohenberg (the youngest person to hold the position to date; 1954–1976), fellow Graduate School of Journalism professor Richard T. Baker (1976–1981), former "Newsweek" executive editor Robert Christopher (1981–1992), former "New York Times" managing editor Seymour Topping (1993–2002), former "Milwaukee Journal" editor Sig Gissler (2002–2014) and former "Concord Monitor" editor Mike Pride (the only former board member to hold the position to date; 2014–2017). Prior to the installation of Hohenberg, the program was jointly administered by members of the Journalism School's faculty (most notably longtime dean Carl W. Ackerman) and officials in Columbia's central administration under the aegis of Frank D. Fackenthal.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Following the retirement of Joseph Pulitzer Jr. (a grandson of the endower who served as permanent chair of the board for 31 years) in 1986, the chair has typically rotated to the most senior member (or members, in the case of concurrent elections) on an annual basis.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Since 1975, the Board has made all prize decisions; prior to this point, the Board's recommendations were ratified by a majority vote of the trustees of Columbia University. Although the administrator's office and staff are housed alongside the Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia's Pulitzer Hall and several administrators have held concurrent full-time or adjunct faculty appointments at the Journalism School, the Board and administration have been operationally separate from the School since 1950.


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: Some critics of the Pulitzer Prize have accused the organization of favoring those who support liberal causes or oppose conservative causes. Syndicated columnist L. Brent Bozell Jr. said that the Pulitzer Prize has a "liberal legacy", particularly in its prize for commentary. He pointed to a 31-year period in which only five conservatives won prizes for commentary. 2010 Pulitzer Prize winner for commentary Kathleen Parker wrote, "It's only because I'm a conservative basher that I'm now recognized." Alexander Theroux describes the Pulitzer Prize as "an eminently silly award, [that] has often been handed out as a result of pull and political log-rolling, and that to some of the biggest frauds and fools alike."


title: Pulitzer Prize

text: A 2012 academic study by journalism professors Yong Volz of the University of Missouri and Francis Lee of the Chinese University of Hong Kong found "that only 27% of Pulitzer winners since 1991 were females, while newsrooms are about 33% female." The researchers concluded female winners were more likely to have traditional academic experience, such as attendance at Ivy League schools, metropolitan upbringing, or employment with an elite publication such as "The New York Times". The findings suggest a higher level of training and connectedness are required for a female applicant to be awarded the prize, compared to male counterparts.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe (; , meaning "the lake") is a freshwater lake in the Sierra Nevada of the United States. Lying at , it straddles the state line between California and Nevada, west of Carson City. Lake Tahoe is the largest alpine lake in North America, and at it trails only the five Great Lakes as the largest by volume in the United States. Its depth is , making it the second deepest in the United States after Crater Lake in Oregon ().


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The lake was formed about two million years ago as part of the Lake Tahoe Basin, and its modern extent was shaped during the ice ages. It is known for the clarity of its water and the panorama of surrounding mountains on all sides. The area surrounding the lake is also referred to as Lake Tahoe, or simply Tahoe. More than 75% of the lake's watershed is national forest land, covered by the Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit of the United States Forest Service.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is a major tourist attraction in both Nevada and California. It is home to winter sports, summer outdoor recreation, and scenery enjoyed throughout the year. Snow and ski resorts are a significant part of the area's economy and reputation. The Nevada side also offers several lakeside casino resorts, with highways providing year-round access to the entire area.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is the second deepest lake in the U.S., with a maximum depth of , trailing Oregon's Crater Lake at . Tahoe is the 16th deepest lake in the world, and the fifth deepest in average depth. It is about long and wide and has of shoreline and a surface area of . The lake is so large that its surface is noticeably convex due to the curvature of the earth. At lake level the opposing shorelines are below the horizon at its widest parts; by nearly at its maximum width, and by some along its length. Visibility may vary somewhat with atmospheric refraction; when the air temperature is much greater than the lake temperature, looming may occur where the lake surface or opposing shoreline is lifted above the horizon. Fata Morgana may be responsible for Tahoe Tessie sightings.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Approximately two-thirds of the shoreline is in California. The south shore is dominated by the lake's largest city, South Lake Tahoe, California, which adjoins the town of Stateline, Nevada, while Tahoe City, California, is located on the lake's northwest shore. Kings Beach, California, and Incline Village, Nevada anchor the lake's north shore. Although highways run within sight of the lake shore for much of Tahoe's perimeter, many important parts of the shoreline lie within state parks or are protected by the United States Forest Service. The Lake Tahoe Watershed (USGS Huc 18100200) of includes the land area that drains to the lake and the Lake Tahoe drainage divide traverses the same general area as the Tahoe Rim Trail.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is fed by 63 tributaries. These drain an area about the same size as the lake and produce half its water, the other half by direct precipitation.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The Truckee River is the lake's only outlet, flowing northeast through Reno, Nevada, into Pyramid Lake which has no outlet. It accounts for one third of the water that leaves the lake, the rest evaporating from the lake's vast surface. The flow of the Truckee River and the height of the lake are controlled by the Lake Tahoe Dam at the outlet. The natural rim is at above sea level. The maximum legal limit to which the lake can be allowed to rise in order to store water is at ; a spillway at the dam controls overflow. Around New Year 1996/1997 a Pineapple Express atmospheric river melted snow and caused the lake and river to overflow, inundating Reno and surrounding areas.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The Lake Tahoe Basin was formed by vertical motion (normal) faulting. Uplifted blocks created the Carson Range on the east and the main Sierra Nevada crest on the west. Down-dropping and block tilting (half-grabens) created the Lake Tahoe Basin in between. This kind of faulting is characteristic of the geology of the adjoining Great Basin to the east.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is the youngest of several extensional basins of the Walker Lane deformation zone that accommodates nearly per year of dextral shear between the Sierra Nevada-Great Valley Block and North America.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Three principal faults form the Lake Tahoe basin: the West Tahoe Fault, aligned between Meyers and Tahoe City, and which is the local segment of the Sierra Nevada Fault, extending on shore north and south of these localities; the Stateline/North Tahoe Fault, starting in the middle of the lake and creating the relief that forms Stateline, NV; and the Incline Village Fault, which runs parallel to the Stateline/North Tahoe Fault offshore and into Incline Village. The West Tahoe Fault appears to be the most active and potentially hazardous fault in the basin. A study in Fallen Leaf Lake, just south of Lake Tahoe, used seafloor mapping techniques to image evidence for paleoearthquakes on the West Tahoe and revealed the last earthquake occurred between 4,100 and 4,500 years ago. Subsequent studies revealed submarine landslides in Fallen Leaf Lake and Lake Tahoe that are thought to have been triggered by earthquakes on the West Tahoe fault and the timing of these events suggests a recurrence interval of 3,000–4,000 years.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Some of the highest peaks of the Lake Tahoe Basin that formed during the process of Lake Tahoe creation are Freel Peak at , Monument Peak at , Pyramid Peak at (in the Desolation Wilderness), and Mount Tallac at . The north shore boasts three peaks at over : Mount Rose at , Mount Houghton and Relay Peak . Mt. Rose is a very popular hiking and backcountry skiing destination.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Eruptions from the extinct volcano Mount Pluto formed a volcanic dam on the north side. Melting snow filled the southern and lowest part of the basin to form the ancestral Lake Tahoe. Rain and runoff added additional water.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The Sierra Nevada adjacent to Lake Tahoe were carved by scouring glaciers during the Ice Ages, which began a million or more years ago, and retreated ~15,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene. The glaciers carved canyons that are today iconic landmarks such as Emerald Bay, Cascade Lake, and Fallen Leaf Lake, among others. Lake Tahoe itself never held glaciers, but instead water is retained by damming Miocene volcanic deposits.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Soils of the basin come primarily from andesitic volcanic rocks and granodiorite, with minor areas of metamorphic rock. Some of the valley bottoms and lower hill slopes are mantled with glacial moraines, or glacial outwash material derived from the parent rock. Sandy soils, rock outcrops and rubble and stony colluvium account for over 70% of the land area in the basin. The basin soils (in the < 2 mm fraction) are generally 65–85% sand (0.05–2.0 mm).


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Given the great depth of Lake Tahoe, and the locations of the normal faults in the deepest portions of the lake, modeling suggests that earthquakes on these faults can trigger tsunamis. Wave heights of these tsunamis are predicted to be on the order of in height, capable of traversing the lake in just a few minutes. A massive collapse of the western edge of the basin that formed McKinney Bay around 50,000 years ago is thought to have generated a tsunami/seiche wave with a height approaching .


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe has a dry-summer continental climate ("Dsb" in the Köppen climate classification), featuring warm, dry summers and chilly winters with regular snowfall. Mean annual precipitation ranges from over 55 inches (1440 mm) for watersheds on the west side of the basin to about 26 inches (660 mm) near the lake on the east side of the basin. Most of the precipitation falls as snow between November and April, although rainstorms combined with rapid snowmelt account for the largest floods. There is a pronounced annual runoff of snowmelt in late spring and early summer, the timing of which varies from year to year. In some years, summertime monsoon storms from the Great Basin bring intense rainfall, especially to high elevations on the northeast side of the basin.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: August is normally the warmest month at the Lake Tahoe Airport (elevation ) with an average maximum of 78.7 °F (25.9 °C) and an average minimum of 39.8 °F (4.3 °C). January is the coolest month with an average maximum of 41.0 °F (5.0 °C) and an average minimum of 15.1 °F (−9.4 °C). The all-time maximum of 99 °F (37.2 °C) was recorded on July 22, 1988. The all-time minimum of −16 °F (−26.7 °C) was recorded on December 9, 1972. Temperatures exceed 90 °F (32.2 °C) on an average of 2.0 days annually. Minimum temperatures of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower occur on an average of 231.8 days annually, and minimum temperatures of 0 °F (−17.8 °C) or lower occur on an average of 7.6 days annually. Freezing temperatures have occurred in every month of the year.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Vegetation in the basin is dominated by a mixed conifer forest of jeffrey pine ("Pinus jeffreyi"), lodgepole pine ("P. contorta"), white fir ("Abies concolor"), red fir ("A. magnifica"), sugar pine ("P. lambertiana"), California incense-cedar ("Calocedrus decurrens"), ponderosa pine ("P. ponderosa"), and western white pine ("P. monticola"). The basin also contains significant areas of wet meadows and riparian areas, dry meadows, brush fields (with "Arctostaphylos" and "Ceanothus") and rock outcrop areas, especially at higher elevations. "Ceanothus" is capable of fixing nitrogen, but mountain alder ("Alnus tenuifolia"), which grows along many of the basin's streams, springs and seeps, fixes far greater quantities, and contributes measurably to nitrate-N concentrations in some small streams. The beaches of Lake Tahoe are the only known habitat for the rare Lake Tahoe yellowcress ("Rorippa subumbellata"), a plant which grows in the wet sand between low- and high-water marks. Vegetation in the lake itself formerly consisted of native "Chara" and "Gomphoneis" algae and coontail ("Ceratophyllum demersum"), but the later introduction of curlyleaf pondweed ("Potamogeton crispus"), Eurasian watermilfoil ("Myriophyllum spicatum"), and "Zygnema" and "Cladophora" algae has transformed the nearshore environment.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Native fish of the lake include Lahontan cutthroat trout ("Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi"), mountain whitefish ("Prosopiurm williamsoni"), Lahontan speckled dace ("Rhinichthys osculus robustus"), Lahontan redside ("Rhinichthys egregious"), Lahontan Lake tui chub ("Siphateles bicolor pectinifer"), Tahoe sucker ("Catostomus tahoensis"), Lahontan mountain sucker ("Catostomus platyrhynchus lahontan"), and Paiute sculpin ("Cottus beldingi"). Most of these fish populations have been significantly reduced due to the introduction of nonnative fish, Asian clam ("Corbicula fluminea"), and mysid shrimp. Competition from introduced fish led cutthroat trout to be completely extirpated from the lake in the early 20th century until reintroduction efforts started in 2019.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Introduced fish species include lake trout ("Salvelinus namaycush"), rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss gairdneri"), sockeye salmon ("Oncorhyncus nerka"), brown trout ("Salmo trutta"), brook trout ("Salvelinus fontinalis"), common carp ("Cyprinus carpio"), golden shiner ("Notemigonus crysoleucas"), western mosquitofish ("Gambusia affinis"), bluegill ("Lepomis macrochirus"), black ("Pomoxis nigromaculatus") and white ("P. annularis") crappie, largemouth ("Micropterus salmoides") and smallmouth ("Micropterus dolomieu") bass, and brown bullhead ("Ameiurus nebulosus"). Each autumn, from late September through mid-October, mature sockeye salmon transform from silver-blue color to a fiery vermilion, and run up Taylor Creek, near South Lake Tahoe. As spawning season approaches the fish acquire a humpback and protuberant jaw. After spawning they die and their carcasses provide a feast for gatherings of mink ("Neogale vison"), bears ("Ursus americanus"), and bald eagles ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus"). The non-native salmon were transplanted from the North Pacific to Lake Tahoe in 1944.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: North American beaver ("Castor canadensis") were re-introduced to the Tahoe Basin by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife and the U.S. Forest Service between 1934 and 1949. Descended from no more than nine individuals, 1987 beaver populations on the upper and lower Truckee River had reached a density of 0.72 colonies (3.5 beavers) per kilometer. At the present time beaver have been seen in Tahoe Keys, Taylor Creek, Meeks Creek at Meeks Bay on the western shore, and Kings Beach on the north shore, so the descendants of the original nine beavers have apparently migrated around most of Lake Tahoe. Recently novel physical evidence has demonstrated that beaver were native to the Sierra until at least the mid-nineteenth century, via radiocarbon dating of buried beaver dam wood uncovered by deep channel incision in the Feather River watershed. That report was supported by a summary of indirect evidence of beaver including reliable observer accounts of beaver in multiple watersheds from the northern to the southern Sierra Nevada, including its eastern slope. A specific documented record of beaver living historically in Lake Tahoe's North Canyon Creek watershed above Glenbrook includes a description of Spooner Meadow rancher Charles Fulstone hiring a caretaker to control the beaver population in the early 20th century. A recent study of Taylor Creek showed that beaver dam removal decreased wetland habitat, increased stream flow, and increased total phosphorus pollutants entering Lake Tahoe – all factors which negatively impact the clarity of the lake's water. In addition, beaver dams located in Ward Creek, located on the west shore of Lake Tahoe, were also shown to decrease nutrients and sediments traveling downstream.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The lake's low temperatures and extreme depth can slow the decomposition rate of organic matter. For example, the almost perfectly preserved body of a diver was found at a depth of 17 years after he went missing.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The area around Lake Tahoe was previously inhabited by the Washoe Native Americans. Lake Tahoe was the center and heart of Washoe Indian territory, including the upper valleys of the Walker, Carson and Truckee Rivers.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Cave Rock is a large rock formation located on the southeastern shore of the lake and considered a sacred site for the Washoe Indians. The Washoe people called Cave Rock "deʔek wadapush" (Washo for Standing Gray Rock). Part of why the Washoe felt the Cave was sacred was due to "The Lady of the Lake" a rock formation on the side of the Cave which looks like the profile of a woman's face gazing out towards the lake. Washoe ancestors performed religious ceremonies inside the cave. There were significant but ultimately unsuccessful protests from the tribe when a tunnel was blasted through the rock in 1931 for Highway 50.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lt. John C. Frémont was the first European-American to see Lake Tahoe, during his second exploratory expedition on February 14, 1844. Fremont named it "Lake Bonpland" after Aimé Bonpland (a French botanist who had accompanied Prussian explorer Alexander von Humboldt in his exploration of Mexico, Colombia and the Amazon River). Lake Bonpland's usage never became popular, and the name changed from "Mountain Lake" to "Fremont's Lake“ several years after. John Calhoun Johnson, Sierra explorer and founder of "Johnson's Cutoff" (now U.S. Route 50), named it Fallen Leaf Lake after his Indian guide. Johnson's first job in the west was in the government service carrying the mail on snowshoes from Placerville to Nevada City, during which time he named it "Lake Bigler" after California's third governor John Bigler. In 1853 William Eddy, the surveyor general of California, identified the lake as Lake Bigler.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The usage never became universal. By the start of the American Civil War in 1861, former Governor Bigler, once a Free Soil Democrat, had become such an ardent Confederate sympathizer that Union advocates objected to the name. Unionists and Republicans alike derided the former governor's name on the lake on official state maps. Pro-Union papers called for a "change from this Secesh appellation" and "no Copperhead names on our landmarks for us." Several Unionist members in the Legislature suggested changing the name to the fanciful sounding "Tula Tulia." The "Sacramento Union" jokingly suggested the name "Largo Bergler" for Bigler's widely perceived financial incompetency in his final term and contemporary Southern sympathies. Within a year, different maps referred to the lake not only as Bigler, but also as "Mountain Lake" and "Maheon Lake."


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The debate took a new direction when William Henry Knight, mapmaker for the federal U.S. Department of the Interior, and colleague Dr. Henry DeGroot of the "Sacramento Union" joined the political argument in 1862. As Knight completed a new map of the lake, the mapmaker asked DeGroot for a new name of the lake. DeGroot suggested "Tahoe," a local tribal name he believed meant "water in a high place." Knight agreed, and telegraphed to the Land Office in Washington, D.C. to officially change all federal maps to now read "Lake Tahoe." Knight later explained his desire for a name change, writing, "I remarked (to many) that people had expressed dissatisfaction with the name "Bigler", bestowed in honor of a man who had not distinguished himself by any single achievement, and I thought now would be a good time to select an appropriate name and fix it forever on that beautiful sheet of water."


title: Lake Tahoe

text: "Lake Tahoe," also like "Lake Bigler," did not gain universal acceptance. Mark Twain, a critic of the new name, called it an "unmusical cognomen." In an 1864 editorial regarding the name in the Virginia City "Territorial Enterprise", Twain cited Bigler as being "the legitimate name of the Lake, and it will be retained until some name less flat, insipid and spooney than "Tahoe" is invented for it." In Twain's 1869 novel "Innocents Abroad", Twain continued to deride the name in his foreign travels. "People say that Tahoe means 'Silver Lake' – 'Limpid Water' – 'Falling Leaf.' Bosh! It means grasshopper soup, the favorite dish of the digger tribe – and of the Paiutes as well." The Placerville "Mountain Democrat" began a notorious rumor that "Tahoe" was actually an Indian renegade who plundered upon White settlers. To counter the federal government, the California State Legislature reaffirmed in 1870 that the lake was indeed called "Lake Bigler."


title: Lake Tahoe

text: But to most surveys and the general public it was known as Lake Tahoe. By the end of the 19th century, usage of "Lake Bigler" had nearly completely fallen out of popular vocabulary in favor of "Tahoe." The California State Legislature reversed its previous decision in 1945, officially changing the name to Lake Tahoe.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Upon discovery of gold in the South Fork of the American River in 1848, thousands of gold seekers going west passed near the basin on their way to the gold fields. Europeans first impinged upon the Lake Tahoe basin with the 1858 discovery of the Comstock Lode, a silver deposit just 15 miles (24 km) to the east in Virginia City, Nevada. From 1858 until about 1890, logging in the basin supplied large timbers to shore up the underground workings of the Comstock mines. The logging was so extensive that loggers cut down almost all of the native forest.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe became a transportation hub for the surrounding area as mining and logging commenced prior to development of railroads. The first mail delivery was via a sailboat which took a week to visit each of the lakeside communities. The first steamboat on Lake Tahoe was the paddle wheel tugboat "Governor Blasdel" towing log rafts to a sawmill on the south side of Glenbrook Bay from 1863 until her boiler exploded in 1877. The "Truckee" and propeller-driven "Emerald" were also towing log rafts in 1870. J.A. Todman brought steam-powered passenger service to Lake Tahoe in 1872 with the 125-passenger side-wheel steamer "Governor Stanford" which reduced the mail delivery trip around Lake Tahoe to eight hours. Todman expanded service with steamboats "Mamie", "Niagara", and "Tod Goodwin". Lawrence & Comstock provided competition with their steel-hulled steamboat "Tallac" in 1890 and later purchased Todman's steamboats "Mamie" and "Tod Goodwin". The Carson and Tahoe Lumber and Fluming Company purchased the "Niagara" and built the iron-hulled steamboats "Meteor" in 1876 and "Emerald (II)" in 1887. The "Meteor" was the fastest boat on Lake Tahoe with a speed of per hour. Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company dominated the passenger and mail route after launch of their 200-passenger steamboat "Tahoe" on 24 June 1896. The 154-ton "Tahoe" was long with a slender beam so her engines could push her over the lake at 18.5 knots. Lake Tahoe Railway and Transportation Company purchased "Tallac" and rebuilt her as "Nevada" with length increased by to serve as a backup steamboat when "Tahoe" required maintenance.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: "Tod Goodwin" burned at Tallac, and most of the other steamboats were retired as the sawmills ran out of trees and people began traveling by automobile. "Niagara" was scrapped at Tahoe City in 1900. "Governor Stanford" was beached at Glenbrook where its boiler was used until 1942 heating cottages at Glenbrook Inn and Ranch. Steamboats continued to carry a mail clerk around Lake Tahoe until 1934, when the mail contract was given to the motorboat "Marian B" powered by two Chevrolet engines. Mail delivery moved ashore after the "Marian B" was lost on 17 May 1941 when her owner and the mail clerk attempted mail delivery during a storm. The "Emerald (II)" left Lake Tahoe in 1935 to become a fishing boat in San Diego. Historic "Tahoe", "Nevada", and "Meteor" were purchased with hope they might be preserved; but were scuttled in deep water after deterioration made preservation impractical. The latter two lie in Glenbrook Bay, but "Tahoe" sank in deeper water.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Even in the mining era, the potential of the basin as a tourist destination was recognized. Tahoe City was founded in 1864 as a resort community for Virginia City.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Public appreciation of the Tahoe basin grew, and during the 1912, 1913 and 1918 congressional sessions, congressmen tried unsuccessfully to designate the basin as a national park.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: While Lake Tahoe is a natural lake, it is also used for water storage by the Truckee-Carson Irrigation District (TCID). The lake level is controlled by Lake Tahoe Dam built in 1913 at the lake's only outlet, the Truckee River, at Tahoe City. The high dam can increase the lake's capacity by .


title: Lake Tahoe

text: During the first half of the 20th century, development around the lake consisted of a few vacation homes. The post-World War II population and building boom, followed by construction of gambling casinos in the Nevada part of the basin during the mid-1950s, and completion of the interstate highway links for the 1960 Winter Olympics held at Squaw Valley, resulted in a dramatic increase in development within the basin. From 1960 to 1980, the permanent residential population increased from about 10,000 to greater than 50,000, and the summer population grew from about 10,000 to about 90,000. Since the 1980s, development has slowed due to controls on land use.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is divided by the prominent interstate boundary between California and Nevada, where the two states' edges make their iconic directional turn near the middle of the lake. This boundary has been disputed since the mid-nineteenth century.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: As part of the compromise of 1850, California was speedily admitted to the Union. In doing so, Congress approved the California Constitution which defined the state's boundary in reference to geographical coordinates. This includes the section of the 120th meridian that is between the 42nd parallel at the Oregon border to the 39th parallel amid Lake Tahoe, and an oblique line continuing from that point southward to where the Colorado River crosses the 35th parallel. Fourteen years later, Congress approved the Nevada Constitution when it was admitted as a state in 1864, which defined its western border at the forty third degree of Longitude West from Washington, D.C. and its southwestern border along the oblique section of the boundary line of California. While 43 degrees of longitude west from the Washington Meridian does not really coincide with the 120 degrees longitude west of Greenwich, the 1864 Congress was of the belief that the two lines were identical; the former was abandoned nationally in 1884. The centuries long dispute that erupted began with boundary discrepancies across many surveys within which were valuable mineral deposits; Nevada also had a wish that California would assent to cede its land east of the pacific crest as had been preauthorized by Congress in 1850. The first consequential attempt to mark the California-Nevada boundary was the 1863 J.F. Houghton and Butler Ives line. An 1867-1868 survey of the California-Oregon border by Daniel G. Major for the General Land Office found the 120th meridian more than two miles west of the prior line, so it was followed by the 1872 survey by Alexey W. Von Schmidt. Against initial instructions, Von Schmidt began his survey with the 1872 California-Nevada State Boundary Marker which was six-tenths of a mile east of the Houghton-Ives line. When he discovered the Colorado River had shifted at the 35th parallel, he simply changed the endpoint resulting in a survey that was neither straight nor accurate. Substantial doubts led Congress in 1892 to fund the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey to remark the oblique line. This new survey found the Von Schmidt line to be 1,600 to 1,800 feet too far west, but both surveys were then used by both states. Unsurprisingly, the combination of the 1893 C.G.S. survey's oblique line and Schmidt's well marked north–south line do not intersect precisely at the 39th parallel as mandated by the California Constitution. Congress does not have the to unilaterally move state boundaries.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The wealth in natural resources between the Sierra Crest and the easternmost sections of survey lines created a powerful source for conflict. Major mining sites in the Tahoe area were in disputed territory. In a striking display of opportunism which ostensibly occurred because the boundary was still "officially" unsurveyed, settlers arrogated parts of California up to the irregular Sierra Crest tens of miles east of the boundary—defined over six years prior—in an attempt to create Nataqua Territory. An armed skirmish known as the Sagebrush War included gunshots exchanged between militia. Even after six surveys, conflict remained over which of them, if any, were legally binding in marking the boundary; this was partially heard by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1980, where the doctrine of acquiescence was invoked.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: A boundary defined in terms of geographical coordinates is theoretically precise, but poses pragmatic challenges to implement. Where a particular coordinate actually lies on the surface of the earth is dependent on the figure of the Earth. In the mid-1800s the Bessel ellipsoid of 1841 or the Clarke ellipsoid of 1866 were widely used; the Hayford ellipsoid of 1910 may later have been used by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The standard ellipsoid for western states in 1849—which is generally congruent with that year's version of the Astronomical Almanac—is implicit in California's constitutional boundary definition; incessant invention of new datums by new and potentially interested parties do not re-render the old boundary definition. Holding assumptions of the earth back-in-time, modern satellite assisted survey techniques can determine location and transform them onto old ellipsoids to within a centimeter. Celestial navigation techniques by contrast, are accurate up to two-fifths of a mile; uncertainty in the latter was known, but precision then was unobtainable.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The legacy of this dispute continues. There is an official federal obelisk-shaped monument marking the oblique California border, which is now surrounded by Edgewood Tahoe golf resort that is claimed and taxed by Nevada. A federal survey monument was removed to the Lake Tahoe Historical Society circa 2018. The Von Schmidt line crosses US 50 on the west edge of present-day Applebee's, and the east edge of the Marcus Ashley Gallery in Tahoe Crescent V Shopping Center. The Nevada community of Stateline has been moved east.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The boundary splits Lake Tahoe unevenly, with two-thirds in California and one-third in Nevada. In California, Lake Tahoe is divided between Placer County and El Dorado County. In Nevada, Lake Tahoe is divided among Washoe County, Douglas County and Carson City (an independent city).


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is a U.S. Navigable Waterway, under federal jurisdiction, and the public is allowed to occupy any watercraft as close to any shore as the craft is navigable. Public capacity to navigate across any land formerly inundated by the waterway is not extinguished by the lowering of the lake level; this federal easement is maintained under United States law. Because small fluctuations in the height of the shoreline can result in substantive temporal immersions by the lake surface, the irreversible public easement slowly grows larger in size.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: While the submerged lands generally belong to the state, the water held in the lake is federally controlled by the US Bureau of Reclamation, and immersion of the shoreline itself would be a common law trespass against east lakefront property owners if it were not for the land—below the theoretical maximum elevation of the lake—being in a perpetual federal easement. Neither state has the authority to rescind navigability along the shoreline below the highmark of the waterbody, because it has been granted under federal law through the Enumerated powers of the United States. The entire waterbody is navigable; it is common for the majority of users to be operating negligible draft one-person craft such as kayaks and standup paddleboards. The Tahoe Regional Planning Agency does not have the authority to override existing federal law even if it was also created by Congress.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Like the interstate boundary itself, the high watermark has been disputed as well. The theoretical maximum elevation of the lake is , using the Lake Tahoe datum. The yearly maximum is commonly lower. Strong winds across the lake's substantial fetch can create a surge which further lifts the high-water line on leeward shores, known as a seiche.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: On the California side, the shorezone is expressly maintained in a constitutionally protected public trust, analogous to an easement, which is managed by the California State Lands Commission. As public land, the shorezone on this side may be used for nearly any purpose, rather than just travel. Building new piers can infringe on the public trust, which among many things, is purposed to preserve the land in its natural state. Accretions created in the shorezone by artificial means remain as public land because they are part of the public trust. The private Lakeside Park Association has made such an artificial accretion of land that is freely open for public use. Access to and from the shorezone across private land on publicly enjoyed paths is by right-of-way or prescriptive easement. Recent attempts by Lakefront Homeowners to use piers as "easement fences" to obstruct beach travel are encroaching centuries of established easement and admiralty law.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The accessibility of the Nevada beach-land below the high watermark has been the source of practical rather than legal controversy. The land is a public trust or easement under the Rivers and Harbors Act, the Submerged Lands Act, and the several Coast Guard Authorization Acts, but affluent beachfront landowners and their elected civic leaders maintain the land is effectively private under state law because state law enforcement is not charged with enforcing federal law. They dispute the high water mark itself by arguing that the state of Nevada has not agreed to either a highwater level or datum with California and the US. Some Civic leaders for the Nevada shore have been pushing a frivolous states rights theory of property law—which intermittently nullifies federal easements whenever the lake level recedes—which has never been tested in federal court. Instilling public fear of criminal trespassing is the core goal under the theory, which if actually prosecuted would be a risky power play. The sheriffs in Nevada are elected officials; false arrest can lead to an official's imprisonment and cost their electorate hundreds of thousands of dollars. To be convicted of trespassing, one must be beyond reasonable doubt above the highwater mark, which under their states rights theory is an arbitrary fact to be found.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: As the population grew and development expanded in the 1960s, the question of protecting the lake became more imperative. In 1969, the U.S. Congress and the California and Nevada State Legislatures created a unique compact to share resources and responsibilities. The Compact established the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (TRPA), a bi-state agency charged with environmental protection of the Basin through land-use regulation and planning. In 1980, the U.S. Congress amended the Compact with public law 96-551. The law designated a new agency, the Tahoe Transportation District (TTD), to facilitate and implement Basin and regional transportation improvements/additions for the protection, restoration and use of the lake. Schisms between both agencies and local residents have led to the formation of grass-roots organizations that hold to even stricter environmentalism.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is also the location of several 19th and 20th century palatial homes of historical significance. The Thunderbird Lodge built by George Whittel Jr once included nearly of the Nevada shoreline. Vikingsholm was the original settlement on Emerald Bay and included an island teahouse and a 38-room home. The Ehrman Mansion is a summer home built by a former Wells Fargo president in Sugar Pine Point and is now a state park. The Pony Express had a route that went from Genoa Station over Daggett Pass to Friday's Station and Yanks Station; it succeeded the route through Woodford's Station and Fountain Place Station both on the way to Strawberry Station.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Despite land-use planning and export of treated sewage effluent from the basin, the lake is becoming increasingly eutrophic (having an excessive richness of nutrients), with primary productivity increasing by more than 5% annually, and clarity decreasing at an average rate of per year. Until the early 1980s, nutrient-limitation studies showed that primary productivity in the lake was nitrogen-limited. Now, after a half-century of accelerated nitrogen input (much of it from direct atmospheric deposition), the lake is phosphorus-limited. Theodore Swift et al., concluded that "suspended inorganic sediments and phytoplanktonic algae both contribute significantly to the reduction in clarity, and that suspended particulate matter, rather than dissolved organic matter, are the dominant causes of clarity loss." The largest source of fine sediment particles to Lake Tahoe is urban stormwater runoff, constituting 72 percent of the total fine sediment particle load. Recent research has shown that the urban uplands also provide the largest opportunity to reduce fine sediment particle and phosphorus contributions to the lake. Historic clarity of approximately can be achieved with total reduction of approximately 75 percent from urban sources.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Historically, the clarity of Lake Tahoe continued to decrease through 2010, when the average Secchi depth, , was the second lowest ever recorded (the lowest was in 1997). This represented a decrease of from the previous year. However, the lake's clarity increased from 2011 to 2014, improving by nearly 20 percent.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: A water quality study by the Lahontan Water Quality Control Board and the Nevada Division of Environmental Protection determined the largest source of fine sediment particles: 71 percent is developed area (urban) erosion and run-off, much of it associated with transportation infrastructure and services.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe is a tributary watershed drainage element within the Truckee River Basin, and its sole outlet is the Truckee River, which continues on to discharge to Pyramid Lake. Because of the sensitivity of Truckee River water quality (involving two protected species, the cui-ui sucker fish and the Lahontan cutthroat trout), this drainage basin has been studied extensively. The primary investigations were stimulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which funded the development of the DSSAM model to analyze water quality below Lake Tahoe.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Lake Tahoe never freezes. Since 1970, it has mixed to a depth of at least a total of six or seven times. Dissolved oxygen is relatively high from top to bottom. Analysis of the temperature records in Lake Tahoe has shown that the lake warmed (between 1969 and 2002) at an average rate of per year. The warming is caused primarily by increasing air temperatures, and secondarily by increasing downward long-wave radiation. The warming trend is reducing the frequency of deep mixing in the lake, and may have important effects on water clarity and nutrient cycling.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Since the 1960s, the Lake's food web and zooplankton populations have undergone major changes. In 1963–65, opossum shrimp ("Mysis diluviana") were introduced to enhance the food supply for the introduced Kokanee salmon ("Oncorhynchus nerka"). The shrimp began feeding on the lake's cladocerans ("Daphnia" and "Bosmina"), and their populations virtually disappeared by 1971. The shrimp provide a food resource for salmon and trout, but also compete with juvenile fish for zooplankton. Since the 1970s, the cladoceran populations have somewhat recovered, but not to former levels.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Since 2006, goldfish have been observed in the lake, where they have grown to "giant size", behaving like an invasive species. They may have descended from former pets which owners dumped or escaped, when used as fishing bait.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: In June 2007, the Angora Fire burned approximately throughout the South Lake Tahoe area. While the impact of ash on the lake's ecosystem is predicted to be minimal, the impact of potential future erosion is not yet known.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Until recently, construction on the banks of the Lake had been largely under the control of real estate developers. Construction activities have resulted in a clouding of the lake's blue waters. Currently, the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency is regulating construction along the shoreline (and has won two Federal Supreme Court battles over recent decisions). These regulations are unpopular with many residents, especially those in the Tahoe Lakefront Homeowners Association.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The League to Save Lake Tahoe (Keep Tahoe Blue) has been an environmental watchdog in the Lake Tahoe Basin for 50 years. Founded when a proposal to build a four-lane highway around the lake—with a bridge over the entrance to Emerald Bay—was proposed in 1957, the League has opposed many development projects in the area, which it alleges were environmentally harmful. The League embraces responsible and diversified use of the Lake's resources while protecting and restoring its natural attributes.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Since 1980, the Lake Tahoe Interagency Monitoring Program (LTIMP) has been measuring stream discharge and concentrations of nutrients and sediment in up to 10 tributary streams in the Lake Tahoe Basin, California-Nevada. The objectives of the LTIMP are to acquire and disseminate the water quality information necessary to support science-based environmental planning and decision making in the basin. The LTIMP is a cooperative program with support from 12 federal and state agencies with interests in the Tahoe Basin. This data set, together with more recently acquired data on urban runoff water quality, is being used by the Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board to develop a program (mandated by the Clean Water Act) to limit the flux of nutrients and fine sediment to the Lake.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Microplastics were found for the first time in 2019 by the Desert Research Institute. This pollution in the water could be local or from locations around the world as particles from discarded plastic products can be transported long distances through the atmosphere by wind, rain and falling snow.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The UC Davis Tahoe Environmental Research Center is dedicated to research, education and public outreach, and to providing objective scientific information for restoration and sustainable use of the Lake Tahoe Basin. Each year, it produces a "State of the Lake" report, assessing changes such as lake clarity, nutrients and particles, or meteorology around the lake.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Much of the area surrounding Lake Tahoe is devoted to the tourism industry and there are many restaurants, ski slopes, golf courses and casinos catering to visitors.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: During ski season, thousands of people from all over Nevada and California, including Reno, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, and Sacramento, flock to the slopes for downhill skiing. Lake Tahoe, in addition to its panoramic beauty, is well known for its blizzards.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The majority of the ski resorts in the Lake Tahoe region are on the northern end of the lake, near Truckee, California and Reno, Nevada. Kirkwood, Sierra-at-Tahoe and Heavenly are located on the southern side of the lake, from Reno.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Scattered throughout Tahoe are public and private sled parks. Some, such as Granlibakken are equipped with rope tows to help sledders get up the hill.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Many ski areas around Tahoe also have snow tubing, such as Squaw Valley. Throughout Tahoe, cross-country skiing, snowmobile riding and snowshoeing are also popular.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: During late Spring to early Fall, the lake is popular for water sports and beach activities. The two cities most identified with the Lake Tahoe tourist area are South Lake Tahoe, California and the smaller Stateline; smaller centers on the northern shoreline include Tahoe City and Kings Beach.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Other popular activities include parasailing, jet ski rentals, eco-friendly paddle sport rentals and fishing. There are rental locations around Lake Tahoe. Kayaking and stand up paddle boards have also become very popular.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Boating is a primary activity in Tahoe in the summer. The lake is home to one of the most prestigious wooden boat shows in the country, the Lake Tahoe Concours d'Elegance, held every August. There are lake front restaurants all over the lake, most equipped with docks and buoys (See the restaurants section). There are all sorts of boating events, such as sailboat racing, firework shows over the lake, guided cruises, and more. As an interstate waterway, Lake Tahoe is subject to the United States Coast Guard. Lake Tahoe is home to Coast Guard Station Lake Tahoe.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: SCUBA diving is popular at Lake Tahoe, with some dive sites offering dramatic drop-offs or wall dives. Diving at Lake Tahoe is considered advanced due to the increased risk of decompression sickness (DCS) while diving at such a high altitude.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Fred Rogers became the first person to swim the length of Lake Tahoe in 1955, and Erline Christopherson became the first woman to do so in 1962.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: The lake and its scenic environs provide many opportunities for motorcyclists to ride both on and off-road. The most popular circuit that goes around the lake runs clockwise and starts in South Lake Tahoe on the California side. Riding north via route 89 allows riders to pull over to the right to admire the views without crossing traffic. Continuing onto highway 28 East, and finally, onto US-50 West will complete the full tour. Doing it in reverse allows experiencing the views from a different perspective. Kingsbury Grade (highway 207) is another popular route with local motorcyclists. It is only 11 miles long from South Lake Tahoe to Mottsville and can also be ridden in both directions. Some of the most scenic motorcycling stops and views around the lake :


title: Lake Tahoe

text: There are numerous hiking and mountain biking trails around the lake. They range widely in length, difficulty and popularity. One of the most famous of Tahoe's trails is the Tahoe Rim Trail, a 165-mile (270-km) trail that circumnavigates the lake. Directly to the west of the lake is the Granite Chief Wilderness, which provides great hiking and wilderness camping. Also, to the southwest is the very popular Desolation Wilderness. One of the most popular trailheads used to access these popular destinations is Eagle Lake trailhead, located near Emerald Bay on Tahoe's west shore. The Flume Trail of the east shore is one of Mountain Biking Magazine's Top 10 Trails in the U.S. There are also many paved off-road bicycle paths that meander through communities on all sides of the lake.


title: Lake Tahoe

text: Gambling is legal on the Nevada side of Lake Tahoe. Casinos, each with a variety of slot machines and table games are available. Four are located on the South Shore in Stateline, and four on the North Shore; three in Crystal Bay and one in Incline Village.