title: Intel Core

text: Ice Lake is codename for Intel's 10th generation Intel Core processors, representing an enhancement of the 'Architecture' of the preceding generation Kaby Lake/Cannon Lake processors (as specified in Intel's process–architecture–optimization execution plan). As the successor to Cannon Lake, Ice Lake uses Intel's newer 10 nm+ fabrication process, and is powered by the Sunny Cove microarchitecture.


title: Intel Core

text: Ice Lake are the first Intel CPUs to feature in-silicon mitigations for the hardware vulnerabilities discovered in 2017, Meltdown and Spectre. These side-channel attacks exploit branch prediction's use of speculative execution. These exploits may cause the CPU to reveal cached private information which the exploiting process is not intended to be able to access as a form of timing attack.


title: Intel Core

text: Comet Lake is Intel's codename for the fourth 14 nm Skylake process-refinement, following Whiskey Lake. Intel announced low power mobile Comet Lake CPUs availability on August 21, 2019.


title: Intel Core

text: Rocket Lake is a codename for Intel's desktop x86 chip family based on the new Cypress Cove microarchitecture, a variant of Sunny Cove (used by Intel's Ice Lake mobile processors) backported to the older 14 nm process. The chips are marketed as "Intel 11th generation Core" and launched on March 30, 2021.


title: Intel Core

text: Alder Lake is Intel's codename for the 12th generation of Intel Core processors based on a hybrid architecture utilizing Golden Cove high-performance cores and Gracemont power-efficient cores.


title: Intel Core

text: Intel officially announced 12th Gen Intel Core CPUs on October 27, 2021, and was launched to the market on November 4, 2021.


title: Intel Core

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki>By default, Core i9-12900KS achieves 5.5 GHz only when using Thermal Velocity Boost


title: Intel Core

text: Raptor Lake is Intel's codename for the 13th generation of Intel Core processors and the second generation based on a hybrid architecture. It is fabricated using Intel's Intel 7 process.


title: Semitic languages

text: The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of West Asia, the Horn of Africa, and latterly North Africa, Malta, West Africa, and in large immigrant and expatriate communities in North America, Europe, and Australasia. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history, who derived the name from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the Book of Genesis.


title: Semitic languages

text: Semitic languages occur in written form from a very early historical date in West Asia, with East Semitic Akkadian and Eblaite texts (written in a script adapted from Sumerian cuneiform) appearing from the 30th century BCE and the 25th century BCE in Mesopotamia and the north eastern Levant respectively. The only earlier attested languages are Sumerian and Elamite (2800 BCE to 550 BCE), both language isolates, and Egyptian (a sister branch of the Afroasiatic family, related to the Semitic languages but not part of them). Amorite appeared in Mesopotamia and the northern Levant circa 2000 BC, followed by the mutually intelligible Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite and Ammonite, and perhaps Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean), the still spoken Aramaic, and Ugaritic during the 2nd millennium BC.


title: Semitic languages

text: Most scripts used to write Semitic languages are abjadsa type of alphabetic script that omits some or all of the vowels, which is feasible for these languages because the consonants are the primary carriers of meaning in the Semitic languages. These include the Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and ancient South Arabian alphabets. The Geʽez script, used for writing the Semitic languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea, is technically an abugida a modified abjad in which vowels are notated using diacritic marks added to the consonants at all times, in contrast with other Semitic languages which indicate vowels based on need or for introductory purposes. Maltese is the only Semitic language written in the Latin script and the only Semitic language to be an official language of the European Union.


title: Semitic languages

text: The Semitic languages are notable for their nonconcatenative morphology. That is, word roots are not themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants (usually three, making a so-called "triliteral root"). Words are composed out of roots not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes, but rather by filling in the vowels "between" the root consonants (although prefixes and suffixes are often added as well). For example, in Arabic, the root meaning "write" has the form "k-t-b". From this root, words are formed by filling in the vowels and sometimes adding consonants, e.g. كتاب kitāb "book", كتب kutub "books", كاتب kātib "writer", كتّاب kuttāb "writers", كتب "kataba" "he wrote", يكتب "yaktubu" "he writes", etc.


title: Semitic languages

text: The similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages has been accepted by all scholars since medieval times. The languages were familiar to Western European scholars due to historical contact with neighbouring Near Eastern countries and through Biblical studies, and a comparative analysis of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic was published in Latin in 1538 by Guillaume Postel. Almost two centuries later, Hiob Ludolf described the similarities between these three languages and the Ethiopian Semitic languages. However, neither scholar named this grouping as "Semitic".


title: Semitic languages

text: The term "Semitic" was created by members of the Göttingen School of History, initially by August Ludwig von Schlözer (1781), to designate the languages closely related to Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew. The choice of name was derived from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the genealogical accounts of the biblical Book of Genesis, or more precisely from the Koine Greek rendering of the name, . Johann Gottfried Eichhorn is credited with popularising the term, particularly via a 1795 article "Semitische Sprachen" ("Semitic languages") in which he justified the terminology against criticism that Hebrew and Canaanite were the same language despite Canaan being "Hamitic" in the Table of Nations:


title: Semitic languages

text: Previously these languages had been commonly known as the "" in European literature. In the 19th century, "Semitic" became the conventional name; however, an alternative name, "", was later introduced by James Cowles Prichard and used by some writers.


title: Semitic languages

text: Semitic languages were spoken and written across much of the Middle East and Asia Minor during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, the earliest attested being the East Semitic Akkadian of Mesopotamia (Akkad, Assyria, Isin, Larsa and Babylonia) from the third millennium BC.


title: Semitic languages

text: The origin of Semitic-speaking peoples is still under discussion. Several locations were proposed as possible sites of a prehistoric origin of Semitic-speaking peoples: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Ethiopia the Eastern Mediterranean region, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa. Some claim that the Semitic languages originated in the Levant around 3800 BC, and were introduced to the Horn of Africa at about 800 BC from the southern Arabian peninsula, and to North Africa via Phoenician colonists at approximately the same time. Others assign the arrival of Semitic speakers in the Horn of Africa to a much earlier date and many scholars now think that Semitic originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa perhaps in the southeastern Sahara and it might have been the process desertization that forced its inhabitants to migrate in the fourth millennium BC some southeast into what is now Ethiopia, others northwest out of Africa into Canaan, Syria and the Mesopotamian valley


title: Semitic languages

text: The various extremely closely related and mutually intelligible Canaanite languages, a branch of the Northwest Semitic languages included Amorite, first attested in the 21st century BC, Edomite, Hebrew, Ammonite, Moabite, Phoenician (Punic/Carthaginian), Samaritan Hebrew, Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean. They were spoken in what is today Israel, Syria, Lebanon, the Palestinian territories, Jordan, the northern Sinai peninsula, some northern and eastern parts of the Arabian peninsula, southwest fringes of Turkey, and in the case of Phoenician, coastal regions of Tunisia (Carthage), Libya, Algeria and parts of Morocco, Spain and possibly in Malta and other Mediterranean islands. Ugaritic, a Northwest Semitic language closely related to but distinct from the Canaanite group was spoken in the kingdom of Ugarit in north western Syria.


title: Semitic languages

text: A hybrid Canaano-Akkadian language also emerged in Canaan (Israel, Jordan, Lebanon) during the 14th century BC, incorporating elements of the Mesopotamian East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia with the West Semitic Canaanite languages.


title: Semitic languages

text: Aramaic, a still living ancient Northwest Semitic language, first attested in the 12th century BC in the northern Levant, gradually replaced the East Semitic and Canaanite languages across much of the Near East, particularly after being adopted as the lingua franca of the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) by Tiglath-Pileser III during the 8th century BC, and being retained by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Empires.


title: Semitic languages

text: The "Chaldean language" (not to be confused with Aramaic or its Biblical variant, sometimes referred to as "Chaldean") was a Northwest Semitic language, possibly closely related to Aramaic, but no examples of the language remain, as after settling in south eastern Mesopotamia from the Levant during the 9th century BC, the Chaldeans appear to have rapidly adopted the Akkadian and Aramaic languages of the indigenous Mesopotamians.


title: Semitic languages

text: Old South Arabian languages (classified as South Semitic and therefore distinct from the Central-Semitic Arabic) were spoken in the kingdoms of Dilmun, Meluhha, Sheba, Ubar, Socotra and Magan, which in modern terms encompassed part of the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and Yemen. South Semitic languages are thought to have spread to the Horn of Africa circa 8th century BC where the Ge'ez language emerged (though the direction of influence remains uncertain).


title: Semitic languages

text: The Akkadian-influenced Syriac, a 5th-century BC Mesopotamian (Assyrian) descendant of Aramaic used in Mesopotamia, northeastern Syria, and south east Anatolia, rose to importance as a literary language of early Christianity in the third to fifth centuries and continued into the early Islamic era.


title: Semitic languages

text: The Arabic language, although originating in the Arabian Peninsula, first emerged in written form in the 1st to 4th centuries CE in the southern regions of The Levant. With the advent of the early Arab conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, Classical Arabic eventually replaced many (but not all) of the indigenous Semitic languages and cultures of the Near East. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim Iranian and Turkic peoples. The previously dominant Aramaic dialects maintained by the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant dialects of Eastern Aramaic (including the Akkadian influenced Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Mandaic) survive to this day among the Assyrians and Mandaeans of northern and southern Iraq, northwestern Iran, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, with up to a million fluent speakers. Eastern Aramic is a recognized language in Iraq, furthermore, Mesopotamian Arabic is the most Aramaic-Syriac influenced dialect of Arabic, due to Aramaic-Syriac having originated in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile Western Aramaic is now only spoken by a few thousand Aramean Syriac Christians in western Syria. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and northern Sudan and Mauritania), where it gradually replaced Egyptian Coptic and many Berber languages (although Berber is still largely extant in many areas), and for a time to the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar) and Malta.


title: Semitic languages

text: With the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its liturgical status, Arabic rapidly became one of the world's main literary languages. Its spread among the masses took much longer, however, as many (although not all) of the native populations outside the Arabian Peninsula only gradually abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As Bedouin tribes settled in conquered areas, it became the main language of not only central Arabia, but also Yemen, the Fertile Crescent, and Egypt. Most of the Maghreb followed, specifically in the wake of the Banu Hilal's incursion in the 11th century, and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of al-Andalus. After the collapse of the Nubian kingdom of Dongola in the 14th century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern Sudan; soon after, the Beni Ḥassān brought Arabization to Mauritania. A number of Modern South Arabian languages distinct from Arabic still survive, such as Soqotri, Mehri and Shehri which are mainly spoken in Socotra, Yemen and Oman.


title: Semitic languages

text: Meanwhile, the Semitic languages that had arrived from southern Arabia in the 8th century BC were diversifying in Ethiopia and Eritrea, where, under heavy Cushitic influence, they split into a number of languages, including Amharic and Tigrinya. With the expansion of Ethiopia under the Solomonic dynasty, Amharic, previously a minor local language, spread throughout much of the country, replacing both Semitic (such as Gafat) and non-Semitic (such as Weyto) languages, and replacing Ge'ez as the principal literary language (though Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for Christians in the region); this spread continues to this day, with Qimant set to disappear in another generation.


title: Semitic languages

text: Arabic is currently the native language of majorities from Mauritania to Oman, and from Iraq to the Sudan. Classical Arabic is the language of the Quran. It is also studied widely in the non-Arabic-speaking Muslim world. The Maltese language is genetically a descendant of the extinct Siculo-Arabic, a variety of Maghrebi Arabic formerly spoken in Sicily. The modern Maltese alphabet is based on the Latin script with the addition of some letters with diacritic marks and digraphs. Maltese is the only Semitic official language within the European Union.


title: Semitic languages

text: Successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic languages today are the base of the sacred literature of some of the world's major religions, including Islam (Arabic), Judaism (Hebrew and Aramaic), churches of Syriac Christianity (Syriac) and Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity (Ge'ez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an archaic version of their modern tongues): many Muslims learn to read and recite the Qur'an and Jews speak and study Biblical Hebrew, the language of the Torah, Midrash, and other Jewish scriptures. Ethnic Assyrian followers of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Ancient Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church, Assyrian Evangelical Church and Assyrian members of the Syriac Orthodox Church both speak Mesopotamian eastern Aramaic and use it also as a liturgical tongue. The language is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic-speaking followers of the Maronite, Syriac Catholic Church and some Melkite Christians. Greek and Arabic are the main liturgical languages of Oriental Orthodox Christians in the Middle East, who compose the patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Mandaic is both spoken and used as a liturgical language by the Mandaeans.


title: Semitic languages

text: Despite the ascendancy of Arabic in the Middle East, other Semitic languages still exist. Biblical Hebrew, long extinct as a colloquial language and in use only in Jewish literary, intellectual, and liturgical activity, was revived in spoken form at the end of the 19th century. Modern Hebrew is the main language of Israel, with Biblical Hebrew remaining as the language of liturgy and religious scholarship of Jews worldwide.


title: Semitic languages

text: Ethnic groups, in particular the Assyrians, Kurdish Jews, and Gnostic Mandeans, continue to speak and write Mesopotamian Aramaic languages, particularly Neo-Aramaic languages descended from Syriac, in those areas roughly corresponding to Kurdistan (northern Iraq, northeast Syria, south eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran). Syriac language itself, a descendant of Eastern Aramaic languages (Mesopotamian Old Aramaic), is used also liturgically by the Syriac Christians throughout the area. Although the majority of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today are descended from Eastern varieties, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in 3 villages in Syria.


title: Semitic languages

text: In Arab-dominated Yemen and Oman, on the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula, a few tribes continue to speak Modern South Arabian languages such as Mahri and Soqotri. These languages differ greatly from both the surrounding Arabic dialects and from the (unrelated but previously thought to be related) languages of the Old South Arabian inscriptions.


title: Semitic languages

text: Historically linked to the peninsular homeland of Old South Arabian, of which only one language, Razihi, remains, Ethiopia and Eritrea contain a substantial number of Semitic languages; the most widely spoken are Amharic in Ethiopia, Tigre in Eritrea, and Tigrinya in both. Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia. Tigrinya is a working language in Eritrea. Tigre is spoken by over one million people in the northern and central Eritrean lowlands and parts of eastern Sudan. A number of Gurage languages are spoken by populations in the semi-mountainous region of central Ethiopia, while Harari is restricted to the city of Harar. Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for certain groups of Christians in Ethiopia and in Eritrea.


title: Semitic languages

text: The phonologies of the attested Semitic languages are presented here from a comparative point of view. See Proto-Semitic language#Phonology for details on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article. The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based primarily on Arabic, whose phonology and morphology (particularly in Classical Arabic) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28 out of the evident 29 consonantal phonemes. with and merging into Arabic and becoming Arabic .


title: Semitic languages

text: Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, /t͡θʼ/), as discussed in .


title: Semitic languages

text: This comparative approach is natural for the consonants, as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular.


title: Semitic languages

text: Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that Latin letter values ("italicized") for extinct languages are a question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded.


title: Semitic languages

text: Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has added a fifteenth from *p > f).


title: Semitic languages

text: In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often later phonemicized as a result of the loss of gemination.


title: Semitic languages

text: In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a uvular stop .


title: Semitic languages

text: Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, /t͡θʼ/).


title: Semitic languages

text: The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic through cognate words:


title: Semitic languages

text: Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to the nonconcatenative morphology of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in the languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given:


title: Semitic languages

text: The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages themselves — has naturally occurred over time.


title: Semitic languages

text: The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic is verb–subject–object (VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was still the case in Classical Arabic and Biblical Hebrew, e.g. Classical Arabic رأى محمد فريدا "ra'ā muħammadun farīdan." (literally "saw Muhammad Farid", "Muhammad saw Farid"). In the modern Arabic vernaculars, however, as well as sometimes in Modern Standard Arabic (the modern literary language based on Classical Arabic) and Modern Hebrew, the classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Ge'ez, was VSO, possessed–possessor, and noun–adjective. Akkadian was also predominantly SOV.


title: Semitic languages

text: The proto-Semitic three-case system (nominative, accusative and genitive) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic (see ʾIʿrab), Akkadian and Ugaritic, has disappeared everywhere in the many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic maintains such case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending -n is preserved in Ethiopian Semitic. In the northwest, the scarcely attested Samalian reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative "-ū" and oblique "-ī" (compare the same distinction in Classical Arabic). Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had a category of state, the indefinite state being expressed by nunation.


title: Semitic languages

text: Semitic languages originally had three grammatical numbers: singular, dual, and plural. Classical Arabic still has a mandatory dual (i.e. it must be used in all circumstances when referring to two entities), marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. Many contemporary dialects of Arabic still have a dual, as in the name for the nation of Bahrain ("baħr" "sea" + "-ayn" "two"), although it is marked only on nouns. It also occurs in Hebrew in a few nouns ("šana" means "one year", "šnatayim" means "two years", and "šanim" means "years"), but for those it is obligatory. The curious phenomenon of broken plurals – e.g. in Arabic, "sadd" "one dam" vs. "sudūd" "dams" found most profusely in the languages of Arabia and Ethiopia, may be partly of proto-Semitic origin, and partly elaborated from simpler origins.


title: Semitic languages

text: All Semitic languages show two quite distinct styles of morphology used for conjugating verbs. "Suffix conjugations" take suffixes indicating the person, number and gender of the subject, which bear some resemblance to the pronominal suffixes used to indicate direct objects on verbs ("I saw him") and possession on nouns ("his dog"). So-called "prefix conjugations" actually takes both prefixes and suffixes, with the prefixes primarily indicating person (and sometimes number or gender), while the suffixes (which are completely different from those used in the suffix conjugation) indicate number and gender whenever the prefix does not mark this. The prefix conjugation is noted for a particular pattern of "" prefixes where (1) a "t-" prefix is used in the singular to mark the second person and third-person feminine, while a "y-" prefix marks the third-person masculine; and (2) identical words are used for second-person masculine and third-person feminine singular. The prefix conjugation is extremely old, with clear analogues in nearly all the families of Afroasiatic languages (i.e. at least 10,000 years old). The table on the right shows examples of the prefix and suffix conjugations in Classical Arabic, which has forms that are close to Proto-Semitic.


title: Semitic languages

text: In Proto-Semitic, as still largely reflected in East Semitic, prefix conjugations are used both for the past and the non-past, with different vocalizations. Cf. Akkadian "niprus" "we decided" (preterite), "niptaras" "we have decided" (perfect), "niparras" "we decide" (non-past or imperfect), vs. suffix-conjugated "parsānu" "we are/were/will be deciding" (stative). Some of these features, e.g. gemination indicating the non-past/imperfect, are generally attributed to Afroasiatic. Proto-Semitic had an additional form, the jussive, which was distinguished from the preterite only by the position of stress: the jussive had final stress while the preterite had non-final (retracted) stress.


title: Semitic languages

text: The West Semitic languages significantly reshaped the system. The most substantial changes occurred in the Central Semitic languages (the ancestors of modern Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic). Essentially, the old prefix-conjugated jussive or preterite became a new non-past (or imperfect), while the stative became a new past (or perfect), and the old prefix-conjugated non-past (or imperfect) with gemination was discarded. New suffixes were used to mark different moods in the non-past, e.g. Classical Arabic "-u" (indicative), "-a" (subjunctive), vs no suffix (jussive). (It is not generally agreed whether the systems of the various Semitic languages are better interpreted in terms of tense, i.e. past vs. non-past, or aspect, i.e. perfect vs. imperfect.) A special feature in classical Hebrew is the waw-consecutive, prefixing a verb form with the letter waw in order to change its tense or aspect. The South Semitic languages show a system somewhere between the East and Central Semitic languages.


title: Semitic languages

text: Later languages show further developments. In the modern varieties of Arabic, for example, the old mood suffixes were dropped, and new mood prefixes developed (e.g. "bi-" for indicative vs. no prefix for subjunctive in many varieties). In the extreme case of Neo-Aramaic, the verb conjugations have been entirely reworked under Iranian influence.


title: Semitic languages

text: All Semitic languages exhibit a unique pattern of stems called Semitic roots consisting typically of triliteral, or three-consonant consonantal roots (two- and four-consonant roots also exist), from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways (e.g., by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels or by adding prefixes, suffixes, or infixes).


title: Semitic languages

text: In Tigrinya and Amharic, this root used to be used widely but is now seen as an Archaic form. Ethiopic-derived languages use different roots for things that have to do with writing (and in some cases counting) primitive root: ṣ-f and trilateral root stems: m-ṣ-f, ṣ-h-f, and ṣ-f-r are used. This roots also exists in other Semitic languages like (Hebrew: "sep̄er" "book", "sōp̄er" "scribe", "mispār" "number" and "sippūr" "story"). (this root also exists in Arabic and is used to form words with a close meaning to "writing", such as "ṣaḥāfa" "journalism", and "ṣaḥīfa" "newspaper" or "parchment").


title: Semitic languages

text: Verbs in other non-Semitic Afroasiatic languages show similar radical patterns, but more usually with biconsonantal roots; e.g. Kabyle "afeg" means "fly!", while "affug" means "flight", and "yufeg" means "he flew" (compare with Hebrew, where "hap̄lēḡ" means "set sail!", "hap̄lāḡā" means "a sailing trip", and "hip̄līḡ" means "he sailed", while the unrelated "ʕūp̄", "təʕūp̄ā" and "ʕāp̄" pertain to flight).


title: Semitic languages

text: These are the basic numeral stems without feminine suffixes. Note that in most older Semitic languages, the forms of the numerals from 3 to 10 exhibit polarity of gender (also called "chiastic concord" or "reverse agreement"), i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa.


title: Semitic languages

text: Due to the Semitic languages' common origin, they share some words and roots. Others differ. For example:


title: Semitic languages

text: Terms given in brackets are not derived from the respective Proto-Semitic roots, though they may also derive from Proto-Semitic (as does e.g. Arabic "dār", cf. Biblical Hebrew "dōr" "dwelling").


title: Semitic languages

text: Sometimes, certain roots differ in meaning from one Semitic language to another. For example, the root "b-y-ḍ" in Arabic has the meaning of "white" as well as "egg", whereas in Hebrew it only means "egg". The root "l-b-n" means "milk" in Arabic, but the color "white" in Hebrew. The root "l-ḥ-m" means "meat" in Arabic, but "bread" in Hebrew and "cow" in Ethiopian Semitic; the original meaning was most probably "food". The word "medina" (root: d-y-n/d-w-n) has the meaning of "metropolis" in Amharic, "city" in Arabic and Ancient Hebrew, and "State" in Modern Hebrew.


title: Semitic languages

text: Of course, there is sometimes no relation between the roots. For example, "knowledge" is represented in Hebrew by the root "y-d-ʿ", but in Arabic by the roots "ʿ-r-f" and "ʿ-l-m" and in Ethiosemitic by the roots "ʿ-w-q" and "f-l-ṭ".


title: Semitic languages

text: There are six fairly uncontroversial nodes within the Semitic languages: East Semitic, Northwest Semitic, North Arabian, Old South Arabian (also known as Sayhadic), Modern South Arabian, and Ethiopian Semitic. These are generally grouped further, but there is ongoing debate as to which belong together. The classification based on shared innovations given below, established by Robert Hetzron in 1976 and with later emendations by John Huehnergard and Rodgers as summarized in Hetzron 1997, is the most widely accepted today. In particular, several Semiticists still argue for the traditional (partially nonlinguistic) view of Arabic as part of South Semitic, and a few (e.g. Alexander Militarev or the German-Egyptian professor Arafa Hussein Mustafa,) see the South Arabian languages, as a third branch of Semitic alongside East and West Semitic, rather than as a subgroup of South Semitic. However, a new classification groups Old South Arabian as Central Semitic instead.


title: Semitic languages

text: Roger Blench notes, that the Gurage languages are highly divergent and wonders whether they might not be a primary branch, reflecting an origin of Afroasiatic in or near Ethiopia. At a lower level, there is still no general agreement on where to draw the line between "languages" and "dialects" an issue particularly relevant in Arabic, Aramaic and Gurage and the strong mutual influences between Arabic dialects render a genetic subclassification of them particularly difficult.


title: Semitic languages

text: A computational phylogenetic analysis by Kitchen et al. (2009), considers the Semitic languages to have originated in the Levant about 5,750 years ago during the Early Bronze Age, with early Ethiosemitic originating from southern Arabia approximately 2,800 years ago. Evidence for gene movements consistent with this were found in Almarri et al. (2021).


title: Semitic languages

text: The Himyaritic and Sutean languages appear to have been Semitic, but are unclassified due to insufficient data.


title: Will Forte

text: Orville Willis Forte IV ( ; born June 17, 1970) is an American actor, comedian, writer, and producer. Forte is known for being a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" (2002–2010), a recurring character on the show leading to a feature film adaptation, "MacGruber" (2010), and a streaming television series, "MacGruber" (2021–present), and for creating and starring in the sitcom "The Last Man on Earth" (2015–2018). For the series, he received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations: two for acting and one for writing.


title: Will Forte

text: After obtaining a history degree from the University of California, Los Angeles and becoming a financial broker like his father, Forte changed his career path to comedy and took classes with the improv group The Groundlings. He worked as a writer and producer on "That '70s Show" before joining "Saturday Night Live". Forte played various roles in comedy films before starring in the drama film "Nebraska" (2013). He has provided voice-work for "Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs" films (2009–2013), "My Life as a Courgette", "Get Squirrely" (2016), "Luis & the Aliens" (2018), "The Willoughbys", and "Scoob!" (2020), also voicing Eddy in Disney XD's "Lab Rats", and Abraham Lincoln in Clone High (2002-2003) and "The Lego Movie" films (2014–2019), "Michelangelo and Lincoln: History Cops" (2014), and "" (2021).


title: Will Forte

text: Orville Willis Forte IV was born in Alameda, California, on June 17, 1970, the son of artist and former schoolteacher Patricia C. ("née" Stivers) and financial broker Orville Willis "Reb" Forte III. He was raised in Moraga before moving to Lafayette at age 13. He went by "Billy" in his early years until he was teased at school for it also being a girl's name, at which point he decided he would from then on be known as "Will". Forte describes himself as having been a "really happy little boy" whose parents were "wonderful" and created a "very loving environment". He was interested in comedy from a young age, growing up idolizing comedians Peter Sellers, David Letterman, and Steve Martin, as well as the sketch-comedy television series "Saturday Night Live". He often pulled pranks on his parents, and would record himself performing imaginary radio shows. He did not aim to be a comedian, however, and initially wanted to become a football player.


title: Will Forte

text: Forte was "a laid-back teen with a lot of friends" and a member of the varsity football and swim teams at Acalanes High School, from which he graduated in 1988. He was voted "Best Personality" by his graduating class and served as freshman class president. He had no ambitions for a television or film career, though his mother noticed a "creative streak" in him. Following high school, he attended the University of California, Los Angeles, where he was a member of the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity and completed a degree in history. Planning to follow his father, he became a financial broker at Smith Barney Shearson in Beverly Hills, but felt "miserable" there. He co-wrote a feature-length script while there, and later said that he discovered he loved writing "more than anything [he] had ever done in [his] life". He had been encouraged to attempt comedy during his years at university, and he decided to change his career path to do so.


title: Will Forte

text: Forte began taking classes at the Groundlings in Los Angeles, an improvisational and sketch comedy troupe and school, while tutoring children to make ends meet. Forte's first successful foray into comedy was "101 Things to Definitely Not Do If You Want to Get a Chick", a comic book he produced about incompetent men. The comics landed him his first professional job writing for "The Jenny McCarthy Show", a short-lived variety show starring Jenny McCarthy. Shortly thereafter, he was asked to submit a packet to the "Late Show with David Letterman" and was told Letterman responded favorably to animation. After only nine months at "Letterman", he was "let go" from the job. He recalled his stint on the program as unpleasant, noting that he did not have enough experience in writing. "What an honor to work at that show but I don't think I was fully mentally prepared. [...] I always wonder what it would be like if I’d had a couple more years of experience before going there."


title: Will Forte

text: Forte returned to Los Angeles and began performing with the Groundlings' Main Company, with Cheryl Hines, Jim Rash and Maya Rudolph. He tried stand-up comedy three times, mostly at open mic nights, but quit after being voted into the Main Company. He joined the writing teams of two failed sitcoms, including "The Army Show" and "Action". Forte got jobs writing for "3rd Rock from the Sun" and "That '70s Show". He loved writing and had mostly given up on acting, aside from acting with the Groundlings. While performing with the troupe in 2001, he was spotted by Lorne Michaels, the creator of "Saturday Night Live" ("SNL"). Forte felt his confidence was higher than usual, as "That '70s Show" had been picked up for two more years. He was invited to audition for "SNL", which he regarded as unexpected.


title: Will Forte

text: At his audition for "SNL", he performed multiple original characters, including Tim Calhoun, a speed reader, a prison guard, in addition to impressions of singer Michael McDonald and actor Martin Sheen. His final character was an older piece from his days with the Groundlings, in which he portrays a gold-painted street performer who performs fellatio to pay for his face paint, which devolves into a song needlessly uttering the words "cock" and "face paint" dozens of times. He felt his time to shine as a performer was already over, as he was in his thirties when he auditioned. To his surprise, he was offered a chance to be on the show, but declined, opting instead for the financial stability of his work at "That '70s Show". He felt working for "SNL" could not live up to the idealized version he had dreamed of, but he later realized he would be making a mistake.


title: Will Forte

text: After Will Ferrell left "Saturday Night Live" the following spring, Forte joined the cast, premiering at the beginning of the show's twenty-eighth season in the fall. He was promoted to repertory player after his first year. His early years on the program were characterized by stage fright and an inability to properly interpret sketches that he did not write himself. He had to "re-learn" how to perform after years as a writer, and later felt his natural tendency to "overthink" things improved his performance. He was particularly uncomfortable portraying President George W. Bush, as he felt he was not the best impressionist and it paled in comparison to Ferrell's impersonation of Bush. His only role was often Bush, leaving him no chance for more "absurd" pieces he favored. He was nearly fired from the program following his third season (2004–05), but after two three-week extensions to decide his fate, he was brought back. Forte estimated it took five seasons for him to feel fully comfortable performing on the show. He made his film debut in "Around the World in 80 Days".


title: Will Forte

text: Forte's humor at "SNL" has been described as bizarre, and he became known for many "10-to-1" sketchespieces that were considered odd, placed at the very end of the show. Among these were a sketch titled "Potato Chip", in which Forte plays a NASA recruiter who warns a candidate (Jason Sudeikis) not to touch a bowl of potato chips on his desk, or his turn as Jeff Montgomery, a sex offender who dresses up as a sex offender for Halloween. He was also well known for his characters Tim Calhoun, Greg Stink, and the Falconer. Forte's favorite sketch on the show was one in which he played a motivational coach alongside football star Peyton Manning. He also co-starred with Andy Samberg in the first "SNL" Digital Short, "Lettuce". He often spent long hours crafting his sketches for the program, missing deadlines, but his pieces were often greeted warmly at table reads. During his time at the show, he co-starred in and wrote the 2007 film "The Brothers Solomon". The film was originally a pilot for Carsey-Werner, and its creation was an extension of his agreement to terminate his contract to appear on "SNL".


title: Will Forte

text: Forte's best-known character on "SNL" was MacGruber, a special operations agent who is tasked in each episode with deactivating a ticking bomb but becomes distracted by personal issues. The sketches were based on the television series "MacGyver". It was created by writer Jorma Taccone, who pitched the idea relentlessly to Forte. He was initially reluctant to commit to the sketch, deeming it too dumb, but accepted after persuasion from Taccone. The first sketch aired in January 2007, and led to multiple more segments in the following years. In 2009, the sketches were spun off into a series of commercials sponsored by Pepsi premiering during Super Bowl XLIII that featured the actor behind MacGyver, Richard Dean Anderson, as MacGruber's father. The advertisements led the character and sketches to receive a wider level of popularity. Following the success of the advertisements, creator Lorne Michaels approached Forte, Taccone, and writer John Solomon with the idea to produce a "MacGruber" film.


title: Will Forte

text: Regarding his experiences on "SNL", Forte remarked, "Looking back, the experience is something I'll never forget. I still miss it, and I'll always miss it. That's my family." His celebrity impressions included George W. Bush, Tom DeLay, John Edwards, Timothy Geithner, Newt Gingrich, Chad Lowe, Zell Miller, David Petraeus, Harry Reid, Brian Williams and Hu Jintao.


title: Will Forte

text: In the summer of 2009, "MacGruber" was shot on a tight schedule for four weeks in Albuquerque, New Mexico. It was written while simultaneously producing the weekly episode of "SNL", and the show's production process left the trio deprived of sleep. Forte was positive regarding the film, saying, The film was released in May 2010 and received mixed reviews. It fared worse at the box office, where it failed to recoup its budget and was pulled from theaters after its third week. Forte found the failure tolerable, commenting, "When you make something that you’re really proud of and it doesn’t do well, you can live with it." The film has since seen more positive reception and has been dubbed a cult classic.


title: Will Forte

text: Forte left "Saturday Night Live" shortly before the beginning of the show's thirty-sixth season in 2010. He felt it the "right time to go," considering his eight-year tenure there, his expansion into film with "MacGruber", and his age. In addition, his sister had just had children and he wanted to move to the West Coast to be closer to them. He soon regretted the decision, calling the following year an "emotionally trying period," as he felt "devastated" that he would no longer be on the program. He assumed his shot at a film career was ruined, and he imagined that if acting did not work out, he would return to writing primarily. Following this, he entered what he has called a "lost period" and had small supporting roles, such as "Rock of Ages", "That's My Boy" and "The Watch", all of which were not successful. The only commercial successful film he worked on was "Grown Ups 2", where he made a cameo as a male cheerleader. He also took a role as Paul L'astnamé, the cross-dressing boyfriend of Jenna Maroney on the critically acclaimed sitcom "30 Rock".


title: Will Forte

text: Forte took his first dramatic role for the 2013 film "Run & Jump". Director Steph Green offered him the part, and Forte imagined it a "fun thing to try," though he noted that she had more confidence in him than he had himself. Later, he sent an audition tape to Alexander Payne for a role in his next film, "Nebraska". He equated his casting in the film to his fear of joining "SNL" a decade prior, noting that he was "terrified" to begin working on it. He felt scared initially, but followed Bruce Dern's acting advice to "look for the truth" in each scene—in other words, "In every scene, you're just trying to play it as honestly and as real as you can."


title: Will Forte

text: Forte began work on "The Last Man on Earth", a sitcom, with longtime collaborators Phil Lord and Christopher Miller in 2013. Though it was the duo's idea, Forte attached himself to the concept, crafting a treatment over a weekend. The series was pitched around Hollywood to positive responses and was picked up in 2014 by Fox. Forte serves as the series' creator, a writer, the lead role, and showrunner for the first season. He felt odd being in charge of its writing team (composed of longtime friends), and awkward at delegating tasks, so much so that he would end up doing the work himself. Being a showrunner "truly was an amount of work I never knew existed," he said, which involved him working a "minimum of 12 hours" daily. The series premiered in 2015 to positive responses, and was renewed for the next three seasons.


title: Will Forte

text: In 2016, Forte played Hulka, a low-level weed dealer, in the comedy "Keanu", starring Jordan Peele and Keegan-Michael Key. In 2018, he starred as "National Lampoon" magazine co-founder and writer Doug Kenney in the Netflix biographical film "A Futile and Stupid Gesture". The film was directed by David Wain and also features Domhnall Gleeson as co-founder Henry Beard. Forte voiced Shaggy Rogers in the "Scooby-Doo" film "Scoob!".


title: Will Forte

text: In 2021, Forte began starring in "Sweet Tooth" and reprised his role as MacGruber in a TV series on Peacock. In 2022, It was announced that Forte will voiced the lead role as Coach Dan in Disney and Pixar’s first full length upcoming series "Win or lose" which will be on Disney+ in late 2023.


title: Will Forte

text: Forte is a supporter of the camp Wampler's Kids and recorded a promotional piece at "SNL" with Will Ferrell. Forte was a childhood friend of founder Steven Wampler and previously the national spokesman for SciEyes, a non-profit organization created to support research, training and public education in stem cell biology and to further the field by recognizing and supporting its potential for creating new therapies for the treatment of blinding and debilitating eye diseases. He was a primary donor towards the establishment of a research fellowship for third-year medical students at Duke Medical Center. He serves on the board of directors of the National Policy and Advocacy Council on Homelessness.


title: Will Forte

text: Forte resides in Santa Monica, California. He purchased his home there just two weeks before joining the cast of "Saturday Night Live", which required him to move to New York City, and later admitted that "it was not the greatest timing". He dated his "Last Man on Earth" co-star January Jones in 2015. In 2019, he became engaged to Olivia Modling, whom he met in 2018. They have a daughter, born in February 2021. He and Modling married on July 31, 2021.


title: Will Forte

text: Forte's mother has visited every film set on which he has worked and made an appearance on a Mother's Day episode of "SNL", in which he sang a song to her on "Weekend Update". He also officiated his sister Michelle's wedding and filmed the birth of his niece and nephew.


title: Will Forte

text: Forte has discussed and joked about his OCD tendencies. He recounted listening to only one song in his office at "SNL" for an entire year because he wanted to challenge himself. During an interview with Larry King, he discussed his OCD as a challenge he had to overcome but not one he wished he did not have, as it is a part of his personality. In a February 2015 feature on him and his show "The Last Man on Earth", the writer of the article said that Forte mentioned OCD often but it was not clear if he had ever been formally diagnosed, though Forte related how he and a former girlfriend had gone through an OCD questionnaire and it concluded that Forte "should immediately talk to someone about this".


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Saved by the Bell is an American television sitcom created by Sam Bobrick for NBC. The series premiered, in primetime, on August 20, 1989, a Sunday night. Targeted at kids and teens, "Saved by the Bell" was broadcast in the United States on Saturday mornings, later as the flagship series in NBC's TNBC lineup. A retooling of the Disney Channel series "Good Morning, Miss Bliss", the show follows a group of high school friends and their principal at the fictional Bayside High School in Los Angeles. Primarily focusing on lighthearted comedic situations, it occasionally touches on serious social issues, such as drug use, driving under the influence, homelessness, remarriage, death, women's rights, and environmental issues. The series starred Mark-Paul Gosselaar, Dustin Diamond, Lark Voorhies, Dennis Haskins, Tiffani-Amber Thiessen, Elizabeth Berkley, and Mario Lopez. The series ran for four seasons, airing its final episode, again in primetime, on May 22, 1993, a Saturday night.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The show spawned two spin-off series: "" (1993–1994), a primetime series that follows several of the characters to college, and "" (1993–2000), a Saturday morning series that follows a new group of students at Bayside High School. The series also spawned two TV movies, "" in 1992 and "" in 1994.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In later years, "Saved by the Bell" has been classified as educational and informational. The show was named one of the "20 Best School Shows of all Time" by AOL TV.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In casting "Good Morning, Miss Bliss", Peter Engel knew the success of the show would not hinge on Miss Bliss herself, but on her students. Engel particularly envisioned one character, Zack Morris, who "would be that incorrigible kid who could lie to your face, letting you know very well that he's lying, and make you love him for it all the same." Engel insisted that the show could not go on without Zack Morris, but he turned out to be one of the most difficult characters to cast. Engel's casting director, Shana Landsburg, finally happened across fourteen-year old Mark-Paul Gosselaar and was immediately struck by the teen's charisma, charm, and good looks. After a quick read-through, Gosselaar was immediately given the role.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: After casting Zack Morris, the next character sought after was Morris's nerdy friend, Samuel "Screech" Powers. Gosselaar was asked to read through the script with a number of kids, and a second audition was scheduled for finalists. It was Gosselaar himself who insisted that Dustin Diamond was right for the part as he believed Diamond was Screech in real life. After reading through the script, Diamond was given the part, although Engel later found out that he had misread his head shot and Diamond was considerably younger than the rest of the cast—a fact that, had he been aware, might have prevented Engel from casting him.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Lisa Turtle was originally conceived as a rich Jewish princess from Long Island, spoiled, materialistic, and obsessed with shopping. While still casting for the role, actress Lark Voorhies was brought into Engel's office, and he immediately knew she was perfect for the role despite the fact that it meant rewriting the character.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The school principal, Mr. Gerald Belding, as originally conceived on "Good Morning, Miss Bliss", was an older, humorless man, and was played in the 1987 pilot by character actor Oliver Clark. After the show was retooled for Disney Channel, the character's first name was changed to Richard and he was recast, with Dennis Haskins ultimately winning the role. Mr. Belding was rewritten to be significantly younger and to have a much different sense of humor.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: When "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" was retooled as "Saved by the Bell", four actors and their respective characters from the original series were brought over to the new series: Gosselaar, Diamond, Voorhies, and Haskins. The rest of the cast was fired, and Engel sought to replace them with new characters who would complement the old ones.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The first of the new characters, A.C. Slater, was conceived as a young John Travolta type who would be an army brat and wear a leather jacket. He was originally conceived of as Italian-American. However, when all efforts to cast the character were unsuccessful, Engel asked that the part be opened up to other ethnicities. Two days later, Mario Lopez, a dancer and drummer of Latino descent from "Kids Incorporated" auditioned for the role. Lopez was judged the best actor who auditioned, and was cast.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: For Kelly Kapowski, the love interest of both Zack and Slater, producers were able to narrow the field down to three actresses: Tiffani-Amber Thiessen, Elizabeth Berkley, and Jennie Garth. Engel had originally met Thiessen in 1988 while casting for "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" and was impressed with how much her acting had improved. He wanted her for the role, believing she had the perfect all-American girl appeal for the role, while others felt that Berkley, as the more experienced actress, would be a more reliable choice. Ultimately, Engel convinced the others after a read-through with Lopez, and Thiessen received the role.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Engel and the other producers did not want to lose Berkley, however, as she was the strongest actress they had seen during casting. Berkley originally auditioned for the role of Karen, a love-interest of Zack's on "Good Morning, Miss Bliss", but lost the role because she was so much taller than Gosselaar at the time. Engel believed that, now that her height was more even with the rest of the cast, she could be perfect. They were not having much luck in casting the third new character, Jessie Spano, who was conceived as a strong, feminist activist and a straight-A student, so Engel suggested offering the role to Berkley, who gladly accepted it.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Rounding out the new cast was real-life magician Ed Alonzo as Max, the owner of the gang's frequent cafe hangout, The Max, who frequently performed magic tricks. Alonzo's role, however, would ultimately only last through the end of the first season, and he left after a single guest appearance during season two.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In 1992, "Saved by the Bell" unexpectedly received an order for an additional eleven episodes to be shot after the graduation episode. However, Thiessen and Berkley had already decided to leave the show. Though producers knew they could not replace Kelly and Jessie, they also knew they could not leave Lisa as the only girl on the show. A new character, Tori Scott, was created as a cool but pretty biker girl who would also serve as a love interest for Zack and also act as a nemesis for him initially. Leanna Creel was cast for the part. Rather than develop a second new character, the producers decided to rely more on minor recurring characters such as Ginger, Ox, and Big Pete.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In 1986, Brandon Tartikoff, then-president of NBC, asked Peter Engel to develop the pilot for a new prime time series, "Good Morning, Miss Bliss". Tartikoff had been inspired by his sixth grade teacher, Miss Bliss, and had long wanted to make a show about someone like her. The series would focus on Miss Carrie Bliss, a recently married sixth grade teacher at the fictional John F. Kennedy Junior High School in Indianapolis. Though Sandy Duncan was originally considered for the titular role, the series ultimately became a vehicle for former British child star Hayley Mills. Veteran writer Sam Bobrick was brought on to write the episode and the cast included future stars Jonathan Brandis, Brian Austin Green, and Jaleel White.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The pilot aired on June 11, 1987, but NBC had decided not to pick up the series even before it was shown. Tartikoff did not want to give up on the show, though, and made a deal with the Disney Channel to air thirteen episodes of the series in prime time. If the initial order did well, Disney was prepared to order an additional seventy-seven. The show was completely retooled, with Mills the sole remaining cast member from the pilot. Miss Bliss's class was changed from the sixth grade to the eighth grade, and the kids would be more central to the story.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" aired from 1988 to 1989. However, the show failed to pick up a following and did poorly in the ratings. By the time the last episode aired, Disney had already decided against ordering more.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Tartikoff felt there had been strong elements to "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" and wanted to try the show again with a different time slot and a different approach. The elements featuring the kids had been well-received, so Tartikoff wanted to drop Miss Bliss from the show altogether and focus entirely on the teens. NBC had been losing the high end of their animated audience, kids from ten to twelve, so the idea was to create a live action comedy to air on Saturday mornings, a new idea at the time.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Engel was skeptical of the new format at first, and did not want to make children's programming. However, his wife convinced him that making the show would be a worthwhile endeavor, and he soon told Tartikoff he would do the show. Engel felt, however, that Indianapolis was not exciting as a location, and moved the show to a semi-fictional part of Los Angeles, "the Palisades." The main locations of the show would be the teenager's school, Bayside High, and The Max, a fictional eatery they frequent. In addition, they would film before a live studio audience.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The majority of the cast was replaced, and Tartikoff gave a seven episode commitment for the show. In a meeting with Engel and Tartikoff, senior producer Tom Tenowich suggested the name "Saved by the Bell". Though Engel hated the name, Tartikoff loved it. The name stuck, and filming commenced, with the first episode, "Dancing to the Max," airing in prime time on August 20, 1989.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The theme song for "Saved by the Bell" was written by composer Scott Gayle against the implicit instructions of Engel. Though Engel had not been able to keep the show from being named "Saved by the Bell", he was determined to prevent the phrase from showing up in the theme. He gave explicit orders to his team of composers that he would not accept any theme that referenced the title, and the group agreed to leave out the phrase.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: A week later, Engel listened to the first four composers and, though they followed his instructions, the songs were flat and nothing special. Gayle played his song next and, though he explicitly violated Engel's instructions, Engel couldn't help but admit it was the best and perfect for the show. Engel would later comment that he was glad Gayle had not followed his instructions.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In 1992, NBC approved the production of a feature-length made-for-television "Saved by the Bell" film to air in prime time. Titled "Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style", the film followed the six teenagers from the show as they vacationed in Hawaii with Kelly's grandfather, Harry Bannister (Dean Jones). They soon discover Mr. Belding also happens to be there, and the seven are caught up in a plan to save Harry's resort from a greedy developer.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The film was written by Bennet Tramer and directed by Don Barnhart. Due to budget constraints, much of the film was shot in Santa Monica, with only location shots that could not easily be faked shot in Hawaii. The shooting schedule in Hawaii turned out to be massive, even after Engel and Barnhart scouted the location. Real-life lifeguards were hired as extras during beach scenes to ensure the safety of the cast.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: "Variety" said, "The Clearasil demo will eat it up, older viewers may choke on the realization that Dean Jones is old enough to be a grandfather". "Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style" was successful in the ratings, and paved the way for "" airing in prime time.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Following the cancellation of "Saved by the Bell: The College Years" on a cliffhanger in 1994, NBC President Warren Littlefield commissioned a second "Saved by the Bell" film to both conclude the story started in the final episode of "Saved by the Bell: The College Years" in which Zack and Kelly become engaged, and acts as a series finale for the original "Saved by the Bell". The story features Zack, Kelly, Slater, Screech, and Lisa traveling to Las Vegas so Zack and Kelly can elope after their parents disapprove of their impending marriage.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Lionsgate Home Entertainment released all four seasons of "Saved By The Bell", which contains 86 episodes, broken into five seasons (season 4 split in two) on DVD in Region 1. However, the episodes on these and all subsequent releases are the edited versions as used in syndication, with scenes cut for time. Lionsgate released the two feature-length TV movies on DVD, in Region 1, on August 7, 2007. On March 13, 2012, Lionsgate (distributed by Alliance Films) released "Saved By The Bell: The Complete Collection" on DVD in Canada. The 13-disc set features all 86 episodes of the series as well as the two television films.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: On November 5, 2013, Lionsgate released a complete-series set in the United States. It does not contain the reunion movies but does include some bonus commentaries.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: On October 16, 2018, Shout! Factory re-released the complete series on DVD in Region 1. Unlike the previous releases, the set includes season four in its entirety, rather than having it being broken up into two parts. Bonus features include selected episodes commentaries by pop culture historian Russell Dyball, executive producer Peter Engel, and cast members Dustin Diamond, Dennis Haskins, and Lark Voorhies.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Following the conclusion of "Saved by the Bell", an idea came out of a focus group for "", in addition to creating a new cast of characters, to continue the story of the original "Saved by the Bell" cast. The new show aired in prime time and feature only Zack, Slater, and Screech from the original cast attending the fictional California University and living in a suite with a new cast of girls. Kelly later joined the cast after the pilot.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Although the premiere garnered decent viewership, ratings quickly declined against the competition of "Full House" and "Rescue 911", two well-established, popular shows in prime time. "Saved by the Bell: The College Years" was ultimately cancelled after only one season of nineteen episodes. The events of the final episode would lead directly into the second "Saved by the Bell" film: "".


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In 1993, NBC decided it wanted to extend the "Saved by the Bell" franchise with a new show, "". Also set at Bayside, the show would follow a new cast of characters as they navigate their high school years. Reprising his role from the original series was Dennis Haskins, once again as their principal, Mr. Belding. Following the cancellation of "Saved by the Bell: The College Years" in 1994, Peter Engel asked Dustin Diamond to reprise his role as Samuel "Screech" Powers, who was returning to Bayside on a work-study program as Mr. Belding's administrative assistant.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: "Saved by the Bell: The New Class" ran for seven seasons and 143 episodes, from 1993 to 2000. The cast was constantly revolving, with Haskins as the only constant throughout all seven seasons. The show was not generally well-received, and some believe that it failed to recapture the charm of the original series.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: On April 9, 2006, Cartoon Network's Adult Swim announced that "Saved by the Bell" would air at midnight as a two-week special starting April 17. On April 19, 2006, Adult Swim also posted on their website that "Saved by the Bell" was back in production. A week later, the announcement was exposed as a joke.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: On March 27, 2009, NBC's "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" launched a campaign to get the cast on board for a "Saved by the Bell" reunion. Fans signed an online petition and pledged their support for the cast to reunite on the show. Dennis Haskins, Lark Voorhies, Mario Lopez, Elizabeth Berkley, and Mark-Paul Gosselaar agreed to a reunion. Gosselaar reprised his role as Zack Morris in a skit on "Late Night" on June 8, 2009, while promoting his then current TNT drama, "Raising the Bar". The spoof interview closed with a performance of "Friends Forever," originally by Zack Attack, where Zack played guitar and sang with backing from Fallon's house band, The Roots. Tiffani Thiessen posted a parody video to the website Funny or Die, where she claimed she was too busy to join the reunion.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The cast reunited in August 2009 for a photo shoot in "People". Diamond was not invited to participate in the photo shoot because of poor relationships with the rest of the cast. Diamond's image was also edited out of the 1989 cast photo that was used on the cover inset of an issue of "People" to show how the cast looked 20 years later.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The cast convened again when Haskins, Diamond, Gosselaar, Voorhies, and Lopez did their own voices in a "Saved by the Bell" "Saw" parody, called "Sawed by the Bell", on "Boo Cocky", a season three episode of "Robot Chicken". Gosselaar also provided audio commentary for the episode on the DVD.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: On February 4, 2015, the cast appeared on a skit on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" while episodes of the program were taped in Los Angeles. Haskins, Gosselaar, Lopez, Berkley and Thiessen all participated, though Voorhies and Diamond did not, with Thiessen's real-life pregnancy, Lopez's involvement with "Dancing with the Stars" and Berkley's film "Showgirls" the targets of some of the humor.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: On September 17, 2019, it was announced that a single-camera revival of the series was in development for NBC's planned streaming service, Peacock, with Tracey Wigfield serving as showrunner. The series will center around a new group of Bayside High students from "overprivileged" and working-class families, among the latter of which were transferred to the school as part of a plan by now-California Governor Zack Morris—whose administration experiences controversy for closing too many low-income high schools—to send lower-income students to the highest-performing schools in the state.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Berkley and Lopez were initially announced as the only cast members of the original series to be reprising their roles, though by January 2020, it was confirmed that Mark-Paul Gosselaar (who was confirmed to appear in three episodes of the revival series' first season as well as receive an executive producer credit) and Tiffani Thiessen—both of whom were confirmed by Gosselaar in separate September 2019 interviews with "Variety" and TMZ to have not been initially approached to reprise their characters—would also be returning in some capacity; however, it is currently unclear as to which of the other cast members would return. Lark Voorhies reprised her role as Lisa Turtle for one episode and Ed Alonzo also returned as Max. Other actors confirmed to appear as new characters in the series are John Michael Higgins (as Principal Toddman, who took over Mr. Belding's role as the head of Bayside High) and Josie Totah (as Lexi, described as a "beautiful, sharp-tongued cheerleader and the most popular girl at Bayside High who is both admired and feared by her fellow students").


title: Saved by the Bell

text: A CD and cassette tape soundtrack was released on April 11, 1995. It contained songs used throughout the series. The track listing is as follows:


title: Saved by the Bell

text: There have been 21 novelizations based on the show, released by the publisher Boxtree Ltd, all written by Beth Cruise. The books all feature the main cast, and have the same storylines that relate to the main-plots in the TV shows.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In 1992, Harvey Comics published a short-lived "Saved by the Bell" Comic series. Seven issues were released, including a Christmas and a Summer special. The comic was generally not well-received, with comic book critic Matt D. Wilson saying "its character likenesses for the show's starts were rough at best."


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In 2014, Lion Forge Comics announced that its new all-ages imprint, ROAR Comics, would publish a new "Saved by the Bell" comic. Set initially during the gang's freshman year of high school, the comic serves as a modern update to the classic series. It premiered in March 2014 alongside ROAR's adaptation of "Punky Brewster".


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In 2009, Dustin Diamond published an inside story of the show's cast and crew from his point of view, entitled "Behind the Bell". The book paints an unflattering portrait of many of Diamond's colleagues and their alleged backstage behavior. Some of Diamond's claims have been refuted by colleagues and questioned by critics. Diamond also alleges in the book that he had sex with 2,000 women, one of them being NBC's Vice President of children's programming, Linda Mancuso, who was 18 years his senior. Diamond later disclaimed responsibility for much of the book's content, blaming his ghostwriter for fabricating salacious stories.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: In September 2013, "Bayside! The Musical!" an unauthorized parody of "Saved by the Bell", opened at NYC's Theatre 80. "Bayside! The Musical!" was named a "New York Times" Critics' Pick. "Bayside! The Musical!" was written and directed by Bob and Tobly McSmith, the same creative team behind "Showgirls! The Musical!" In contrast to the wholesome nature of "Saved by the Bell", "Bayside! The Musical!" contains strong language and adult situations throughout. The show's run has been extended 6 times.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: Bayside! originally debuted in 2005 under the title "Bayside! The UnMusical!" The following year a sequel was produced called "Bayside 2! Electric Screechio" The show then took several years off, reopening in 2012 at NYC's Kraine Theatre with a revamped script and new cast Following the success of "Showgirls! The Musical!" the show's creators Bob and Tobly McSmith revisited their script and reworked it from the ground up.


title: Saved by the Bell

text: The show has had appearances from original "Saved by the Bell" cast members such as Dustin Diamond and Dennis Haskins.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Vikram Batra (9 September 1974 – 7 July 1999) was an officer of the Indian Army. He was posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra, the highest Indian military decoration, for his actions during the Kargil War; on 7 July 1999, Batra was killed while fighting Pakistani troops around Area Ledge, Point 4875, in the Kargil district of erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Batra was born on 9 September 1974, in a small town in Palampur, Himachal Pradesh. He was the third child of Girdhari Lal Batra, a government school principal, and Kamal Kanta Batra, a school teacher. He was the eldest of twin sons, and was born fourteen minutes before his brother, named Vishal. The twins were nicknamed: 'Luv' (Vikram) and 'Kush' (Vishal), after the twin sons of the Hindu deity Rama, by their mother who was a professed devotee of Rama. He had two sisters: Seema and Nutan. As a young child, Batra received his primary education under the tutelage of his mother. He then attended the D.A.V. Public School in Palampur, where he studied up to middle standard. He received his senior secondary education at Central School, Palampur.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Besides his academic excellence, Batra played sports and represented his school at the national level during the Youth Parliamentary competitions at Delhi. He represented his school and college in table tennis, Karate and other such games. In 1990, he and his twin brother represented their school in table tennis at All India KVS Nationals. He also was a green belt holder in Karate and went on to attend a national level camp in Manali.


title: Vikram Batra

text: After completing his Class XII board examinations in 1992 from Central School, he attended DAV College, Chandigarh in B.Sc Medical Sciences. At college, he joined the Air Wing of the National Cadet Corps (NCC) while he was in his first year. During the Inter-State NCC Camp, he was adjudged the best NCC Air Wing cadet of Punjab Directorate in North Zone. He was selected and underwent a 40-day paratrooping training with his NCC Air Wing unit at Pinjore Airfield and Flying Club, about 35 kilometres away from Chandigarh. During the next two years in DAV, he remained a cadet of the Army Wing of NCC. In addition, he was the president of the Youth Service Club of his college.


title: Vikram Batra

text: He afterward qualified for the 'C' certificate in the NCC and attained the rank of Senior Under Officer in his NCC unit. Subsequently, in 1994, he was selected and took part in the Republic Day parade as an NCC cadet, and when he came back home, he told his parents that he wanted to join the Army. His maternal grandfather was also a soldier in the Indian Army. In 1995, while still in college, he was selected for the merchant navy at a shipping company headquartered in Hong Kong, but ultimately he changed his mind, aspiring to do "something great, something extraordinary, which may bring fame to my country." That same year he completed his bachelor's degree, graduating from the DAV College in Chandigarh.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Following completion of his bachelor's degree in 1995, he enrolled at Panjab University in Chandigarh, where he took admission in MA English course, so that he could prepare for the Combined Defence Services (CDS) Examination. He attended evening classes at the University and worked part-time in the morning as a branch manager of a travelling agency in Chandigarh.


title: Vikram Batra

text: In 1996, he passed the CDS examination and subsequently received a call for an interview at the Services Selection Board (SSB) at Allahabad and was selected. He was among the top 35 candidates in the Order of Merit. After completing a year (session 1995—96) towards the degree of MA in English, he left the University to join the Indian Military Academy.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Batra joined the Indian Military Academy (IMA) at Dehradun, in June 1996 in the Manekshaw Battalion. After completing his 19-month training course, he graduated from the IMA on 6 December 1997 and was commissioned as a lieutenant into the Indian Army. He was commissioned into the 13th battalion of the Jammu and Kashmir Rifles (13 JAK Rif). After commissioning, he was sent to Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh for regimental training. The training lasted one month, from December 1997 to the end of January 1998.


title: Vikram Batra

text: On completion of this training he got his first posting at Sopore in Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir, an area with significant militant activity. In mid-March 1998, he was sent to the Infantry School at Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, where young Army officers are trained, for the Young Officer's Course. This training lasted five months until September 1998. Following completion of the course and being awarded alpha grading, he joined his battalion in Sopore in October 1998.


title: Vikram Batra

text: During his posting in Sopore, Batra had several encounters with militants. In one of those encounters when Batra was leading an ambush with his platoon into an area of dense forest, he escaped when bullet fired by a militant grazed his shoulder and struck one of Batra's men behind him, who was killed. Batra ordered his men to fire on the militants, and by morning all of the militants were killed. He believed that the bullet was meant for him and not his colleague.


title: Vikram Batra

text: In January 1999, Batra was sent on a Commando Course at Belgaum, Karnataka. The course lasted for two months and at the end of it, he was awarded the highest grading — the Instructor's Grade.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Every time when he came home to Palampur on leave, he would visit the Neugal Cafe. Batra last came home on leave from the army in 1999, during the Holi festival for a few days.


title: Vikram Batra

text: After his leave, he returned to join his battalion in Sopore. The 13 JAK Rif, after completing its counter-insurgency operations tenure in Kashmir under 192 Mountain Brigade of 8 Mountain Division, received orders to proceed to Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh. The battalion's advance party under Major Yogesh Kumar Joshi had reached its destination, when on 5 June, because of the outbreak of the war, its deployment orders were changed and the battalion received orders to move to Dras.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Batra informed his parents about his movement and assured them they need not worry about him. He would call his parents at least once in ten days. The last phone call he made was on 29 June 1999. This was the last time that Batra spoke to his mother.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Batra's battalion, the 13 Jammu and Kashmir Rifles (13 JAK Rif), reached Dras on 6 June, was placed under the command of 56 Mountain Brigade, and was given orders to act as reserves to the 2nd battalion of the Rajputana Rifles (2 Raj Rif) during their attack on Tololing mountain. The 18th battalion of The Grenadiers (18 Grenadiers) first attacked Tololing on 22 May, but were unable to capture the peak. 18 Grenadiers made four attempts to capture Tololing, but could only succeed in securing the lower slopes, while suffering heavy casualties. Eventually, 2 Raj Rif was assigned the mission of capturing Tololing and they did so on 13 June 1999.


title: Vikram Batra

text: After the capture of Tololing, 13 JAK Rif marched from Dras to Tololing, reaching their destination in 12 hours. Upon reaching, Alpha company of 13 JAK Rif took over Tololing and a portion of the Hump Complex from 18 Grenadiers.


title: Vikram Batra

text: The task of capturing Point 5140, a strategically important mountain peak in the Dras sector, was assigned to 13 JAK Rif under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Yogesh Kumar Joshi on 17 June 1999. After the capture of Rocky Knob, located at the base of Point 5140 and about 800 metres away, Humps IX and X (part of Hump Complex, consisting of about ten high grounds numbered I to X on the same ridgeline about 500–700 metres north of Point 4590) on 17 June, the battalion's commanding officer, Joshi, fell back to Tololing, and started planning for their next objective — Point 5140. Point 5140, about 1500 metres north of Tololing on the same ridgeline, is at an altitude of 16,962 feet above sea level and overlooks the Tololing nullah. It is the highest point on the Tololing ridgeline and the most formidable feature in the Dras sub-sector.


title: Vikram Batra

text: On 18 June, the battalion carried out a detailed reconnaissance of Point 5140 which revealed the enemy had put in place seven sangars on the feature; two on the top, four towards the east and one towards the north. It also revealed the eastern approach to the feature was comparatively easier than that from the front, which had a near vertical climb, dominated by the top, though it was also more heavily defended. It was decided the assaulting troops must capture the Top before dawn, or else the enemy would inflict maximum casualties on them.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Joshi decided to attack Point 5140 with Bravo Company, under the command of Lieutenant Sanjeev Singh Jamwal, and Delta Company, under the command of Lieutenant Vikram Batra, from two sides; East and South. At the Hump Complex, the two officers, Jamwal and Batra, received their briefing about the mission from Joshi. During the briefing, Jamwal chose the words "Oh! Yeah, yeah, yeah!" to be the success signal for his company whilst Batra chose the words "Yeh Dil Mange More!" (This heart wants more! — from a popular advertising slogan of Pepsi) as his success signal for his company. D-Day was set for 19 June, and H-Hour at 20:30.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Under the cover of artillery fire, the two assault companies began climbing Point 5140 after midnight on 20 June. The artillery at Hump Complex had already begun its preparatory bombardment of Point 5140. As planned, the artillery guns would stop firing when the troops were 200 metres short of the objective.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Once the artillery guns, including the MBRLs and 105 mm guns, had ceased firing, the Pakistani soldiers immediately came out of their bunkers and put down heavy fire with their machine guns on the advancing Indian soldiers. At that moment, both Jamwal and Batra, contacted commanders at the base via radio, asking to continue artillery bombardment of the enemy positions till the companies were 100 metres from their target.


title: Vikram Batra

text: By 0315 hours, both B and D Companies had reached the vicinity of Point 5140 despite the treacherous terrain. B company reached the top of the feature first and assaulted from the left flank. By 0330 hours, B company had captured its objective, and at 0335 hours Jamwal radioed his command post, saying the words "Oh! Yeah, yeah, yeah!"


title: Vikram Batra

text: Batra decided to approach the hill from the rear, aiming to surprise the enemy, and to cut off their withdrawal route. Batra fired three rockets towards the bunkers on the east side of the feature, before attacking them. He and his men ascended the sheer rock-cliff, but as the group neared the top, the enemy pinned them on the face of the bare cliff with machine gun fire. Batra, along with five of his men, climbed up and after reaching the top, hurled two grenades at the machine gun post. Batra then killed three enemy soldiers single-handedly in close combat. He was seriously injured in the process, but insisted on regrouping his men to continue with the mission. He continued to lead his troops, and then charged at the next enemy position, capturing Point 5140. In all its actions, his company killed at least eight Pakistani intruders and recovered a heavy anti-aircraft machine gun. The remaining enemy soldiers fled.


title: Vikram Batra

text: At 0435 hours, Batra radioed his command post, saying the words "Yeh dil mange more!". Considerable quantities of arms and ammunition were recovered from the feature. The captured munitions indicated the enemy's strength was about a platoon. Neither B or D companies suffered any casualties in the battle. The capture of Point 5140 set in motion a string of successes, such as the captures of Point 5100, Point 4700, Junction Peak and the Three Pimple Complex.


title: Vikram Batra

text: After the capture of Point 5140, Batra was promoted to the rank of captain. General Ved Prakash Malik, the then Chief of Army Staff, called to congratulate him. All across the nation, his triumph was being played out on television screens.


title: Vikram Batra

text: On 26 June, shortly after the capture of Point 5140, 13 JAK Rif was ordered to move from Dras to Ghumri to rest, refit, and recoup. The battalion then moved to Mushkoh Valley on 30 June.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Upon reaching Mushkoh Valley, the 13 JAK Rifles was placed under the command of 79 Mountain Brigade. The next assignment for Batra's battalion was to capture the Point 4875, a strategically important peak located in the Mushkoh Valley. Since the feature dominated the National Highway 1 completely from Dras to Matayan, it became imperative for the Indian Army to capture Point 4875. A stretch of 30–40 kilometres of the national highway was under direct observation of the enemy. From Point 4875, Pakistani artillery observers could easily see Indian gun positions, army camps and troop movement, and bring down effective artillery fire at will.


title: Vikram Batra

text: On 1 July 1999, Major S Vijay Bhaskar, 'A' Company commander and Lt. Col. Joshi, commanding officer of the 13 JAK Rifles, conducted their preliminary reconnaissance, after climbing to a vantage point, and formulated an attack plan. Subsequently, on 2 July, General Officer Commanding 8 Mountain Division, Major General Mohinder Puri and Brigadier Rajesh Kumar Kakkar Commander 79 Mountain Brigades and Lt Col Y.K. Joshi, Commanding Officer 13 JAK Rifles gathered at 79 Mountain Brigades headquarters, to discuss the plan.


title: Vikram Batra

text: The battalion was deployed to firebase, located in a defiladed area, approximately 1500 metres from the Point 4875. Over the two days, on 2 and 3 July, weapons carriers from the 13 JAK Rifles and 28 Rashtriya Rifles dumped ammunition and heavy weapons. During the day of 4 July, the company commanders of 'A' and 'C' Companies, Major S.V. Bhaskar and Major Gurpreet Singh, conducted their final reconnaissance and showed the objectives to their 'O' groups.


title: Vikram Batra

text: At 1800 hours that same day, artillery bombardment of the enemy positions on Point 4875 commenced, and continued throughout the whole night. 155 mm Bofors Howitzers, 105 mm Field Guns, and multi barrel rocket launchers were used in the bombardment of Point 4875. At 2030 hours, under cover of artillery fire, 'A' and 'C' Companies began climbing the Point 4875. Captain Vikram Batra was lying in a sleeping bag near the Mushkoh nullah, and was down with fever and fatigue. His commanding officer had ordered him to rest even though his battalion, 13 JAK Rifles, had launched its attack on Point 4875.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Both the assault companies were leading the offensive from the right flank. The soldiers had to take out enemy pockets of resistance which they encountered en route. However at one point, a strategically located machine gun halted the advance, and by first light the troops were still 50 meters short of the target. Now it was getting dangerous because in daylight, Indian soldiers could easily be seen by the Pakistanis. The attack was also halted by very effective sniper fire from Pakistani soldiers hiding behind rocks.


title: Vikram Batra

text: At 0430 hours, the two companies deployed their automatic weapons and began to fire at the well-fortified enemy positions at the top of the feature. The enemy was bringing down small arms fire and sniper fire, which effectively blocked the advance of the Indian troops. At around 1015 hours on 5 July, the commanding officer of 'C' company spoke to the battalion commanding officer and explained his company's predicament and the area from where the enemy was bringing in fire on them. Brigadier Kakkar was personally supervising operations. At this juncture, the battalion commanding officer, Lt Col Joshi personally fired two Fagot missiles in quick succession from the fire base and neutralized the enemy position. Brigadier Kakkar watched the firing of the missiles through his binoculars. The bunker received a direct hit and the enemy soldiers were seen fleeing from it. The Indian troops then promptly began advancing again. Soon, Company C with two sections, led by Major Gurpreet Singh assaulted the enemy position. By 1300 hours, these troops had captured Point 4875. Subsequently, both 'A' and 'C' Companies linked up. They then consolidated their hold on Point 4875, however the Indian troops continued to receive enemy artillery and machine-gun fire from Pimple 2 and area North of Point 4875.


title: Vikram Batra

text: At 2200 hours on 5 July, from a Pakistani position north of Point 4875, the enemy brought heavy and accurate fire on the two companies. In the early hours of the following morning at 0445 hours, 'C' Company reported they were in a heavy firefight and were running out of ammunition. Company B, the reserve company, promptly brought up the ammunition after which the firefight continued.


title: Vikram Batra

text: The Indian victory would not have been complete without the capture of 'Area Flat Top', an adjacent peak and part of enemy defences on Point 4875. The 13 JAK Rifles had captured Flat top feature of Point 4875 on the afternoon of 5 July after a fierce battle with Pakistani forces. But the enemy launched an immediate counterattack to take back the Area Flat Top they had lost. "Young Captain NA Nagappa was holding Flat Top. He had a small force but he fought ferociously to beat back the offensive. The first counter-attack was beaten back. The Pakistanis too were facing the same problem of climbing, with the Indian Army on top shooting at them. It is not that they did not have the will to do it but the carpet-firing by our troops did not let them come to the top," a 79 Infantry Brigade officer said. There was a seesaw battle taking place at the Area Flat Top. A shell hit Area Flat Top, seriously injuring Captain Naveen Nagappa who was shooting at the advancing Pakistani soldiers. Splinters pierced through both his legs and he fell unconscious. Taking advantage of this situation, the Pakistanis started climbing faster.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Batra, who was observing the situation from base, went to his commanding officer and volunteered. Seeing him unwell, the commanding officer did not want him to go but Batra insisted on it. That same day, the enemy launched a second counterattack on Flat Top and although the Indian troops succeeded in beating back this, too, they urgently needed reinforcements. Several of his battalion's soldiers volunteered to accompany Batra even before any Company could be ordered.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Just before leaving, Batra along with the 25 men of his Delta Company, who were to accompany him, prayed at the Durga Mata temple. It was pitch black night when they began the climb. Having heard a wireless message from the base that Sher Shah (Batra's code name) was coming, a cheer went up among the Indian soldiers on top. The commander ordered them to hold their ground until Sher Shah arrived and then he would take over.


title: Vikram Batra

text: On the night of 6–7 July, the opposing forces were so close that besides exchanges of small arms fire, verbal exchanges continued throughout the night. It was at this stage where it became imperative for Indian troops to destroy this Pakistani post, located north of Point 4875, from where enemy fire was coming as otherwise the situation could become worse. At this juncture, the Indian troops detected the enemy presence on a long and narrow ledge, running north from Point 4875. On the ledge, the enemy were holding strong sangars echeloned one behind the other. Batra, who was still recovering from his own wounds he received in the battle of Point 5140, wanted to reach the top to rescue his fellow soldiers and carry out reconnaissance of the ledge where the enemy soldiers were. It was pitch dark when they had left at night, but even near the top where the soldiers had to climb vertically, visibility was almost zero because of fog and snow. En route to the top, Batra spotted a Pakistani machine gun position firing at the trapped Indian soldiers. Crouching, he moved toward the machine gun position, hiding behind rocks whenever possible. As he reached close to the enemy's machine gun position he lobbed a grenade, destroying the machine gun position. Before first light on the 7th, the troops succeeded in knocking out two more enemy machine guns, however, firing from the ledge continued. Batra's platoon soon reached the ledge, though by this time it was broad daylight.


title: Vikram Batra

text: At 0530 hours Lt. Col. Joshi spoke to Batra and asked him to reconnoitre the area. Batra, accompanied by Subedar Raghunath Singh and Major Bhat, his artillery observation officer, took out a patrol to recce a route to re-inforce Naveen from a flank. Batra located the position of the enemy sangar on the ledge from which enemy machine guns were holding up the advance of his company. At this juncture, Batra, realizing there was no way from the left or right, decided to make a direct assault in daylight itself. Under heavy fire from enemy machine guns and grenade firing launchers, Batra moved forward, screaming the battle cry of JAK RIF – "Durga mata ki jai", and charged the sangar firing incessantly from his AK-47. He sustained grievous injuries in the process, yet he continued his charge, with supporting fire from the rest of the patrol, and upon reaching the very narrow entrance of the sangar and taking the enemy by complete surprise, he killed 5 Pakistani soldiers in a close-quarter battle. The attack resulted in seven Pakistani soldiers killed after which the Indians gained a foothold on the ledge. Taken by surprise by the attack, Pakistanis started retreating. Batra and his men had gained the upper hand by now. Batra pulled out a bleeding Naveen from the bunker. However, there was still an enemy machine gun nest in action on that ledge that had to be silenced. Four Pakistani soldiers including a junior commissioned officer (JCO), who was guiding the fire on the Indian soldiers fighting outside, were manning the machine gun nest. Batra charged forward alone, killing all four members of the crew.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Batra realized one of his men had been shot. He resolved to evacuate him with Subedar Raghunath Singh. Batra exposed himself to enemy fire to drag the injured soldier to safety, and in the process was shot in the chest by an enemy sniper from very close range, and a split-second later, by a splinter from an RPG which hit him in the head. Batra collapsed next to the injured soldier, succumbing to the fatal wounds.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Vikram Batra was awarded the Param Vir Chakra, India's highest military honour on 15 August 1999, the 52nd anniversary of India's independence. His father G.L. Batra received the honour for his deceased son from the President of India, the late K. R. Narayanan.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Vikram Batra is also well known in India for using the slogan; "Yeh Dil Maange More!" as his signal to communicate mission success. He is also known for an interview in which he stated that Pakistani soldiers were aware of him.


title: Vikram Batra

text: He was also honoured with several landmarks being named after him: the historic capture of Point 4875 led to the mountain being named Batra Top in his honour. A hall at the Service Selection Centre Allahabad is named 'Vikram Batra Block', a residential area in the Jabalpur Cantonment is called 'Captain Vikram Batra Enclave' and the combined cadet's mess at the IMA is named 'Vikram Batra Mess'.


title: Vikram Batra

text: A memorial for war veterans including Batra stands at his alma mater DAV College, Chandigarh honouring the services of the soldiers.


title: Vikram Batra

text: Government College Palampur was later renamed in the memory of Batra. The college is renamed as Shaheed Captain Vikram Batra Government College, Palampur.


title: Vikram Batra

text: New Delhi's Mukarba Chowk and its flyover were renamed in honour of Batra in December 2019 as "Shaheed Captain Vikram Batra Chowk".


title: Vikram Batra

text: Panjab University, Chandigarh dedicated state of the art Indoor Shooting Range in honour of Captain Vikram Batra.


title: Vikram Batra

text: The Indian Army paid tribute to Batra on the 21st anniversary of his death in a video posted on its social media account. The video featured Batra's famous words- Yeh dil maange more, and included people of all ages and from all walks of life saying "I am Vikram Batra".


title: Vikram Batra

text: To commemorate the 22 years of the sacrifice made by Batra, Army Commander Northern Command Lieutenant general Yogesh Kumar Joshi overflew the famous "Batra Top" in a Sukhoi-30 MKI and paid homage to the nation's hero from the sky. Joshi was also the then Commanding Officer of Batra.


title: Vikram Batra

text: A bust of Param Vir Chakra (PVC) Captain Vikram Batra was unveiled at Palampur military station on the eve of R.D '22


title: Vikram Batra

text: URF World Records (Universal Records Forum) certified the largest underwater portrait of Batra on the eve of Kargil Vijay Diwas 26 July 2022 at swimming pool Pangode Military Station, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.


title: French Indochina

text: French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China), officially known as the Indochinese Union and after 1947 as the Indochinese Federation, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia until its demise in 1954. It comprised Cambodia, Laos (from 1899), the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan (from 1898 until 1945), and the Vietnamese regions of Tonkin in the north, Annam in the centre, and Cochinchina in the south. The capital for most of its history (1902–45) was Hanoi; Saigon was the capital from 1887 to 1902 and again from 1945 to 1954.


title: French Indochina

text: The Second French Empire annexed Cochinchina and established a protectorate in Cambodia in 1862 and 1863 respectively. After the French Third Republic took over northern Vietnam through the Tonkin campaign, the various protectorates were consolidated into one union in 1887. Two more entities were incorporated into the union: the Laotian protectorate and the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan. The French exploited the resources in the region during their rule, but also contributed to improvements of the health and education system in the region. Nevertheless, deep divides remained between the native population and the colonists, leading to sporadic rebellions by the former. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. After the Japanese surrender, the Viet Minh, a communist organization led by Hồ Chí Minh, declared Vietnamese independence, but France subsequently took back control of French Indochina with the help of the British. An all-out independence war, known as the First Indochina War, broke out in late 1946 between French and Viet Minh forces.