title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: The film was launched on 8 October 2019 with the working title of "#Chiru152" on Vijayadashami festival, being the first collaboration of Koratala Siva and Chiranjeevi. Chiranjeevi accidentally revealed the title as "Acharya" during audio launch of the film "O Pitta Katha" in March 2020.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: Mani Sharma is the music composer. Cinematography and editing is performed respectively by Tirru and Naveen Nooli. Suresh Selvarajan is the art director.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: In January 2022, "Asianet News" reported that the film's storyline is based on the Naxalite movement in Srikakulam district, led by poet and cultural activist Subbarao Panigrahi.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: Trisha was cast as the lead but exited later, citing creative differences, and eventually was replaced by Kajal Aggarwal. Reportedly, Mahesh Babu was offered the cameo role in the film. However, Chiranjeevi later confirmed his son Ram Charan for the role; Koratala adjusted the role to make it full-fledged. In an interview with "Variety", Charan who plays Sidhha, said “It’s a 40-minute role, it’s pretty much the whole of the second half."


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: Pooja Hegde was cast as Neelambari opposite Charan, has an extended cameo. Regina Cassandra was signed for a special song in March 2020. Mahesh Babu has given narration for this film.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: Principal photography began in January 2020. Important portions were shot with Chiranjeevi and others at Ramoji Film City. The filming was going at a brisk pace until suspension in March 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic. Filming was resumed in November 2020, and Aggarwal joined the sets in December 2020 in Hyderabad. A temple town set spanning 20 acres was built for the film.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: Charan joined the production in January 2021. The film team reached Rajahmundry the same month. In March 2021, Pooja Hegde shot her portions with a montage song at a specially-constructed set in Maredumilli. A schedule took place at Singareni coal mines, Yellandu later that month. Owing to the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic, the filming was paused again and later resumed in July 2021 at a village set in Hyderabad. Both Ram Charan and Chiranjeevi resumed shooting their portions that month. Except for two songs, the rest of shoot was finished in August 2021.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: Following her pregnancy in September 2021, Aggarwal requested the makers to complete her portions at the earliest. It is reported she subsequently opted out of the project owing to the delays in shoot and has not re-joined the production since. However, in April 2022, Koratala stated that Aggarwal's scenes were cut from the final draft of the film as he felt that the role she played could not match her stature.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: In August 2020, writer Rajesh Manduri alleged that "Acharya" was plagiarized from his script. He supposedly narrated the story to production house Mythri Movie Makers a few years ago which did not materialize. Mythri Movie Makers refuted the allegation, calling it a "gimmick." Matinee Entertainment stated that any such claims were baseless, iterating that the story of Acharya belongs to Koratala. Koratala responded that his story had no resemblance to Manduri's.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: "Acharya" was released theatrically on 29 April 2022. Earlier, it was scheduled to release on 13 May 2021, but was pushed back due to production delays and the COVID-19 pandemic in India. In October 2021, it was announced that the film would release 4 February 2022. In January 2022, it was then pushed to 1 April 2022 due to the increasing number of COVID-19 cases, fuelled by the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. Later that month, it was pushed back to 29 April 2022 in order to avoid a clash with Charan's other film "RRR."


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: The satellite rights were acquired by Gemini TV while the digital distribution rights were acquired by Amazon Prime Video. The film premiered on Amazon Prime Video on 20 May 2022 in Telugu along with dubbed versions in Tamil, Malayalam and Kannada languages.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: On its opening day, "Acharya" grossed crore worldwide with a distributor's share of crore. In three days, the film grossed crore, taking its distributor's share to crore. By the end of its theatrical run, the film collected crore gross worldwide with a distributor's share of crore. "News18 Telugu" estimated that the losses of the film amount to crore from its theatrical business, making it a commercial failure.


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: "Acharya" met with generally negative reviews from critics, who criticized the weak narrative and outdated screenplay. Neeshita Nyayapati of "The Times of India" gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "Acharya lacks the soul it needed to pull off a tale that banks too much on people connecting to the concept of dharma". Janani K of "India Today" gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "Acharya is an outdated story that talks about dharma, illegal mining and the importance of our roots. The father-son duo tried their best to keep things interesting". A Reviewer from "The Hans India" gave the film a rating of 2.25/5 and wrote "‘Acharya’ movie is an outdated story and is further ruined by an unimpressive narration from Koratala Siva".


title: Acharya (2022 film)

text: Medabayani Balakrishna of "News 18" gave the film a rating of 1.5/5 and wrote "The sloppy play with the routine scenes, the boring treatment and the weak sequences are the minus points for this movie. Manoj Kumar R of "The Indian Express" gave the film a rating of 1/5 and wrote "The writing is so poor that even the two actors' massive stardom feels inadequate to lift this movie. It's a snooze fest". Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of "The Hindu" stated "The playoffs between Chiranjeevi and Ram Charan are endearing, but the film is utterly boring". Sowmya Rajendran of "The News Minute" gave the film a rating of 1/5 and wrote "It is puzzling how director Koratala Siva managed to achieve this casting coup with such a tedious storyline".


title: Social Credit System

text: The Social Credit System () is a national credit rating and blacklist being developed by the government of the People's Republic of China. The social credit initiative calls for the establishment of a record system so that businesses, individuals and government institutions can be tracked and evaluated for trustworthiness. There are multiple, different forms of the social credit system being experimented with, while the national regulatory method is based on blacklisting and whitelisting. The program is mainly focused on businesses and is very fragmented, contrary to the popular misconceptions that it is focused on individuals and is a centralized system.


title: Social Credit System

text: The program initiated regional trials in 2009, before launching a national pilot with eight credit scoring firms in 2014. It was first introduced formally by then Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao on 20 October 2011, during one of the State Council Meetings. Managed by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), the People's Bank of China (PBOC) and Supreme People's Court (SPC), the system was intended to standardize the credit rating function and perform financial and social assessment for businesses, government institutions, individuals and non-government organizations.


title: Social Credit System

text: The Social Credit System is an extension to the existing financial credit rating system in China. The origin of the system can be traced back to the 1980s when the Chinese government attempted to develop a personal banking and financial credit rating system, especially for rural individuals and small businesses that lack documented records. The Chinese government aims to enhance trust in the society with the system and regulate businesses regarding issues such as food safety, intellectual property theft and financial fraud.


title: Social Credit System

text: Supporters claim that the system helps to regulate social behavior, improve the perceived "trustworthiness" of citizens (which includes paying taxes and bills on time) and promote traditional Chinese moral values. Critics of the system, some of them stemming from misconceptions according to Mercator Institute for China Studies, claim that it oversteps the rule of law and infringes the legal rights of residents and organizations, especially the right to reputation, the right to privacy as well as personal dignity and that the system may be a tool for comprehensive government surveillance and for suppression of dissent from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Aside from controversies and concerns, the Social Credit System also generated a large amount of misreporting and misconceptions in the media due to translation errors, sensationalism, conflicting information and lack of comprehensive analysis. Examples of these misconceptions include widespread misassumption that Chinese citizens are rewarded and punished based on a numerical score assigned by the system, that its decisions are taken by AI and that it constantly monitors Chinese citizens.


title: Social Credit System

text: The origin of the Social Credit System can be traced back to the early 1990s as part of attempts to develop personal banking and financial credit rating systems in China. The credit system aims to facilitate financial assessment in rural areas, where individuals and small business entities often lacked financial documents. The initial blueprints of the Social Credit System was drafted in 2007 by government bodies. The social credit system also attempts to solve the moral vacuum problem, insufficient market supervision and income inequality generated by the rapid economic and social changes since Chinese economic reform in 1978. As a result of these problems, trust issues emerged in Chinese society such as food safety scandals, labor law violation, intellectual property theft and corruption. The policy of the social credit system traces its origin from both policing and work management practices, but the concept itself can trace as far back as the Warring States period to Shang Yang's Legalist practiced by the imperial bureaucracy to improve the functioning of Chinese state.


title: Social Credit System

text: The government of modern China has maintained systems of paper records on individuals and households such as the "dàng'àn" () and "hùkǒu" () which officials might refer to, but these systems do not provide the same degree and rapidity of feedback and consequences for Chinese citizens as the integrated electronic system because of the much greater difficulty of aggregating paper records for rapid, robust analysis.


title: Social Credit System

text: The Social Credit System also originated from grid-style social management, a policing strategy first implemented in select locations from 2001 and 2002 (during the rule of CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin) in specific locations across mainland China. In its first phase, grid-style policing was a system for more effective communication between public security bureaus. Within a few years, the grid system was adapted for use in distributing social services. Grid management provided the authorities not only with greater situational awareness on the group level, but also enhanced the tracking and monitoring of individuals. In 2018, sociologist Zhang Lifan explained that Chinese society today is still deficient in trust. People often expect to be cheated or to get in trouble even if they are innocent. He believes that it is due to the Cultural Revolution, where friends and family members were deliberately pitted against each other and millions of Chinese were killed. The stated purpose of the social credit system is to help Chinese people trust each other again.


title: Social Credit System

text: In 2013, the Supreme People's Court (SPC) of China started a blacklist of debtors with roughly 32,000 names. The list has since been described as a first step towards a national Social Credit System by state-owned media. The SPC also began working with private companies. For example, Sesame Credit began deducting credit points from people who defaulted on court fines.


title: Social Credit System

text: In 2015, the People's Bank of China licensed eight companies to begin a trial of social credit systems. Among these eight firms is Sesame Credit (owned by Alibaba Group and operated by Ant Financial), Tencent, as well as China's biggest ride-sharing and online-dating services, Didi Chuxing and Baihe.com, respectively. In general, multiple firms collaborated with the government to develop the system of software and algorithms used to calculate credit. Commercial pilot programs developed by private Chinese conglomerates that have the authorization from the state to test out social credit experiments. The pilots are more widespread than their local government counterparts, but function on a voluntary basis: citizens can decide to opt-out of these systems at any time on request. Users with good scores are offered advantages such as easier access to credit loans, discounts for car and bike sharing services, fast-tracked visa application or free health check-ups and preferential treatment at hospitals. The algorithms used to assign scores in commercial pilot programs remain unknown, although sources say some pilots use a big-data analysis and artificial intelligence approach.


title: Social Credit System

text: The Chinese central government originally considered having the Social Credit System be run by a private firm, but by 2017, it acknowledged the need for third-party administration. However, no licenses to private companies were granted. By mid-2017, the Chinese government had decided that none of the pilot programs would receive authorization to be official credit reporting systems. The reasons include conflict of interest, the remaining control of the government, as well as the lack of cooperation in data sharing among the firms that participate in the development. However, the Social Credit System's operation by a seemingly external association, such as a formal collaboration between private firms, has not been ruled out yet. In November 2017, Sesame Credit denied that Sesame Credit data was shared with the Chinese government. In 2017, People's Bank of China issued a jointly owned license to Baihang Credit valid for three years. Baihang Credit is co-owned by the National Internet Finance Association (36%) and the eight other companies (8% each), allowing the state to maintain control and oversee the creation of a new commercial pilot programs. As of mid 2018, only pilot schemes had been tested without any official implementation.


title: Social Credit System

text: Private companies have also signed contracts with provincial governments to set up the basic infrastructure for the Social Credit System at the provincial level. As of March 2017, 137 commercial credit reporting companies were active on the Chinese market. As part of the development of the Social Credit System, the Chinese government has been monitoring the progress of third-party Chinese credit rating systems. Ultimately, Chinese government dropped the support for privately developed credit rating system and these pilot projects remained as corporate loyalty programs.


title: Social Credit System

text: In December 2017 the National Development and Reform Commission and People's Bank of China selected "model cities" that demonstrated the steps needed to make a functional and efficient implementation of the Social Credit System. Among them are Hangzhou, Nanjing, Xiamen, Chengdu, Suzhou, Suqian, Huizhou, Wenzhou, Weihai, Weifang, Yiwu and Rongcheng. These pilots were deemed successful in their handling of "blacklists and 'redlists'", their creation of "credit sharing platforms" and their "data sharing efforts with the other cities".


title: Social Credit System

text: The local government Social Credit System experiments are focused more on the construction of transparent rule-based systems, in contrast with the more advanced rating systems used in the commercial pilots. Citizens often begin with an initial score, to which points are added or deducted depending on their actions. The specific number of points for each action are often listed in publicly available catalogs. Cities also experimented with a multi-level system, in which districts decide on scorekeepers who are responsible for reporting scores to higher-ups. Some experiments also allowed citizens to appeal the scores they were attributed.


title: Social Credit System

text: As of 2018, over forty different Social Credit System experiments were implemented by local governments in different Chinese provinces. The pilot programs began following the release of the 2014 "Planning Outline for the Construction of a Social Credit System" by Chinese authorities. The government oversees the creation and development of these governmental pilots by requesting they each publish a regular "interdepartmental agreement on joint enforcement of rewards and punishments for 'trustworthy' and 'untrustworthy' conduct." In April 2018, journalist Simina Mistreanu described a community where people's social credit scores were posted near the village center. As of mid-2018, it was unclear whether the national system will be an 'ecosystem' of various scores and blacklists run by both government agencies and private companies or if it will be one unified system. It was also unclear whether there will be a single system-wide social credit score for each citizen and business.


title: Social Credit System

text: As of 2021, credit systems for local government remained undeveloped and resembled incentivized loyalty programs like those run by airlines. Participation is voluntary and there are no enticement beyond losing access to minor rewards. For fear of overreach and pushback, Chinese central government banned punishments for low scores and minor offences. During the city trials, the system only saw limited participation. In Xiamen, 210,059 users activated their social credit account, roughly 5 percent of Xiamen population; 60,000 or 1.5 percent of population in Wuhu participated the system; Hangzhou has 1,872,316 (15 percent) participants and fewer regularly use the system. Scores are not shared between cities as the scoring criteria and mechanisms are different.


title: Social Credit System

text: In March 2018, Reuters reported that restrictions on citizens and businesses with low social credit ratings and thus low trustworthiness, would come into effect on 1 May 2018. By May 2018, several million flight and high-speed train trips had been denied to people who had been blacklisted; as of March 2019, 13 million people were on the list.


title: Social Credit System

text: By 2018, some restrictions had been placed on citizens which state-owned media described as the first step toward creating a nationwide social credit system.


title: Social Credit System

text: In April 2019, the People's Bank of China announced that a new version of the Personal Credit Report would be put out which allows the ability to collect more personal information. State-run media has described it as "more detailed, more comprehensive and more precise."


title: Social Credit System

text: The Social Credit System will be limited to Mainland China and thus does not apply to Hong Kong and Macau. However, at present, plans do not distinguish between Chinese companies and foreign companies operating on the Chinese market, raising the possibility that foreign businesses operating in China will be subjected to the system as well. The Hong Kong Government stated in July 2019 that claims that the social credit system will be rolled out in Hong Kong are "totally unfounded" and stated that the system will not be implemented there.


title: Social Credit System

text: The Social Credit System is an example of China's "top-level design" () approach. It is coordinated by the Central Leading Group for Comprehensively Deepening Reforms. It is unclear whether the system will work as envisioned by 2020, but the Chinese government has fast-tracked the implementation of the system, resulting in the publication of numerous policy documents and plans since the main plan was issued in 2013. If the Social Credit System is implemented as envisioned, it will constitute a new way of controlling both the behavior of individuals and of businesses.


title: Social Credit System

text: There are multiple social credit systems in China. Scholars have conceptualized four different types of systems. These four systems are not interconnected seamlessly, but relevantly independent from each other with their own jurisdictions, rules and logic.


title: Social Credit System

text: There is no unified, numerical credit score for businesses or individuals, rather national and local platforms use different evaluation or rating systems. Due to the differences in various pilot programs and a fragment system structure, information regarding the scoring mechanism is often conflicting. Inspired by FICO, a numerical social credit score calculated by individual behavior and activities was given to citizens in certain pilot programs developed by financial firms or localized initiatives. However, these practices were not widespread applications and eventually, the numerical score mechanism was limited to private credit rating and loyalty programs. Private involvements were ultimately abandoned by the government. The national regulatory method has been based on blacklisting and whitelisting, which is triggered by specific offenses instead of a low score number. National financial credit reporting for businesses and individuals is provided by the People's Bank of China, which does not assign any numerical scoring.


title: Social Credit System

text: The Central Government operates a number of national and regional blacklists based on various types of violations. The court system is available for businesses, organizations and individuals to appeal their violations. After being put on the blacklist, it typically takes 2–5 years to be removed from the blacklist, but early removal is also possible if the blacklisted person "fulfills legal obligations or remedies". Blacklist violations for businesses include not paying tax on time, being unable to maintain necessary licenses, producing low-quality goods and disobeying environmental protection policies.


title: Social Credit System

text: According to the Chinese government's 2015 "Plan for Implementation", the Social Credit System was due to be fully implemented by 2020. Once implemented, the system will manage the rewards and punishments for businesses, institutions and individuals on the basis of their economic and personal behavior. Punishments for poor social credit include increased audits and government inspections for businesses, reduced employment prospects, travel bans, exclusion from private schools, slow internet connection, exclusion from high-prestige work, exclusion from hotels and public shaming. Rewards for positive social credit include less frequent inspections and audits for businesses, fast-tracked approvals for government services, discounts on energy bills, being able to rent bikes and hotels without payment of a deposit, better interest rates at banks and tax breaks.


title: Social Credit System

text: As of June 2019, according to the National Development and Reform Commission of China, 27 million air tickets as well as 6 million high-speed rail tickets had been denied to people who were deemed "untrustworthy ()" (on a blacklist) and 4.4 million "untrustworthy" people had chosen to fulfill their duties required by the law. Certain personal information of the blacklisted people is deliberately made accessible to the society and is displayed online as well as at various public venues such as movie theaters and buses, while some cities have also banned children of "untrustworthy" residents from attending private schools and even universities. On the other hand, people with high credit ratings may receive rewards such as less waiting time at hospitals and governmental agencies, discounts at hotels, greater likelihood of receiving employment offers and so on.


title: Social Credit System

text: Most initiatives under the social credit system do not involve actual numerical scores, instead documentations of specific offense are recorded in one's credit profiles, the exception being the trial programs launched by some cities and communities. The actual policy varies greatly from city to city and the participation is voluntary. Local credit profiles are not shared between cities. National credit system is regulated by the Supreme Court. The national system is not score-based and is capable of movement restriction.


title: Social Credit System

text: According to the Chinese government's 2015 "Plan for Implementation", the Social Credit System is due to be fully implemented by 2020. Once implemented the system will manage the rewards or punishments, of citizens on the basis of their economic and personal behavior. Some types of punishments for poor social credit include: flight ban, exclusion from private schools, slow internet connection, exclusion from high prestige work, exclusion from hotels and registration on a public blacklist. In contrast, some rewards for good social credit include discounts on energy bills, being able to rent bikes and hotels without payment of a deposit, better interest rates at banks, tax breaks, free use of gyms and preference at Hospitals.


title: Social Credit System

text: By 14 November 2022 a draft law "Establishment of the Social Credit System" for fine- tuning the Social Credit System was posted for one month.


title: Social Credit System

text: The Social Credit System is meant to provide an answer to the problem of lack of trust on the Chinese market. As of 2020, the corporate regulation function of the system appears to be more advanced than other parts of the system and the "Corporate Social Credit System" has been the primary focus of government attention. As of 2020, over 73.3% of the enforcement action since 2014 is targeted toward business, the largest part of all enforcements. The social credit system is an extension of the risk assessment credit rating systems that were introduced in China in the 1980s. Proponents argue that it will help eliminate problems such as food safety issues, intellectual property theft, violation of labor law, financial infidelity and counterfeit goods. China claims its aim is to enhance trust and social stability by creating a "culture of sincerity".


title: Social Credit System

text: For businesses, the Social Credit System is meant to serve as a market regulation mechanism. The goal is to establish a self-enforcing regulatory regime fueled by big data in which businesses exercise "self-restraint" (企业自我约束). The basic idea is that with a functional credit system in place, companies will comply with government policies and regulations to avoid having their scores lowered by disgruntled employees, customers or clients. For example, the central government can use social credit data to offer risk-assessed grants and loans to small and medium enterprises (SMEs), encouraging banks to offer greater loan access for SMEs.


title: Social Credit System

text: As currently envisioned, companies with good credit scores will enjoy benefits such as good credit conditions, lower tax rates, less custom checks, and more investment opportunities. Companies with bad credit scores will potentially face unfavorable conditions for new loans, higher tax rates, investment restrictions and lower chances to participate in publicly funded projects. Government plans also envision real-time monitoring of a business's activities. In that case, infractions on the part of a business could result in a lower score almost instantly. However, whether this will actually happen depends on the future implementation of the system as well as on the availability of technology needed for this kind of monitoring.


title: Social Credit System

text: To improve credit score, companies need to conform to the government rules, such as following the COVID-19 containment guidelines.


title: Social Credit System

text: Government institutions receive the second highest number of enforcement actions, accounting for 13.3% of the penalties as of 2020. The social credit system targets government agencies, assesses local governments' performance and focuses on financial problems such as local governments' debts and contract defaults. Beijing hopes the system can improve "government self-discipline". Local governments are also encouraged and rewarded by the social credit system if they successfully implement and follow the orders from the central government.


title: Social Credit System

text: As of 2020, individuals receive 10.3% of all enforcement actions. The social credit system primarily focuses on the financial trustworthiness of individual citizens. A Hebei court released an app showing a "map of deadbeat debtors" within 500 meters and encouraged users to report individuals who they believed could repay their debts. A spokesman of the court stated that "It's a part of our measures to enforce our rulings and create a socially credible environment." Future rewards of having a high score might include easier access to loans and jobs and priority during bureaucratic paperwork. Likewise, the immediate negative consequences for a low score or potentially being associated to someone with a low score, might range from lower internet speeds to being denied access to certain jobs and loans.


title: Social Credit System

text: In addition to dishonest and fraudulent financial behavior, there are other behaviors that some cities have officially listed as negative factors of credit ratings includes playing loud music or eating in rapid transits, violating traffic rules such as jaywalking and red-light violations, making reservations at restaurants or hotels, but not showing up, failing to correctly sort personal waste, fraudulently using other people's public transportation ID cards, etc.; on the other hand, behavior listed as positive factors of credit ratings includes donating blood, donating to charity, volunteering for community services, praising government efforts on social media and so on.


title: Social Credit System

text: There are various punishments for low trustworthiness. As of June 2019, according to the National Development and Reform Commission of China, 26.82 million air tickets as well as 5.96 million high-speed rail tickets had been denied to people who were deemed "untrustworthy()" (on a blacklist) and 4.37 million "dishonest" people had chosen to fulfill their duties required by the law. Delinquent debtors are placed on blacklists maintained by Chinese courts and shared with the Ministry of Public Security which controls the country's entry-exit checkpoints. Individuals with outstanding debts can be subject to exit bans and prevented from leaving the country as a way of encouraging or forcing the collection of debt. According to the "Financial Times", as of 2017, some 6.7 million people had already been placed on blacklists and prevented from exiting the country as a result of the new policy. In July 2019, additional 2.56 million flight tickets as well as 90 thousand high-speed train tickets were denied to those on the blacklist. If the parents of a child were to have low enough social credit, their children would be excluded from the private schools in the region or even national universities. A person with a poor social credit may be denied employment in places as banks, State-owned enterprises or as a business executive. The Chinese government encourages checking whether candidates names' appear on the blacklist when hiring.


title: Social Credit System

text: Certain websites allow users to display their social credit score as a prestige symbol. For example, China's biggest matchmaking service, Baihe, allows its users to publish their own score. In certain test programs, public humiliation is used as a mechanism to deter poor social credit scores. Mugshots of blacklisted individuals are sometimes displayed on large LED screens on buildings or shown before the movie in movie theaters.


title: Social Credit System

text: According to Sarah Cook of Freedom House, city-level pilot projects for the social credit system have included rewarding individuals for aiding authorities in enforcing restrictions of religious practices, including coercing practitioners of Falun Gong to renounce their beliefs and reporting on Uighurs who publicly pray, fast during Ramadan or perform other Islamic practices.


title: Social Credit System

text: As of 2020, non-government organizations receive 3.3% of all enforcement actions. Although the enforcement remain a small group in numerical terms, but their inclusion has an important implication as it affects foreign NGOs operated within China.


title: Social Credit System

text: China's Social Credit System has been implicated in a number of controversies, especially given that CCP general secretary Xi Jinping and his government have publicly opposed constitutionalism, separation of powers and judicial independence. Of particular note is how it is applied to individuals as well as companies, whether it is lawful and whether it leads to totalitarianism. People have already faced various punishments for violating social protocols. As of June 2019, the system has already been used to block the purchase of over 26 million domestic flight tickets from people who were deemed "dishonest". While still in the preliminary stages, the system has been used to ban people and their children from certain private schools, prevent low scorers from renting hotels, using credit cards and blacklist individuals from being able to procure employment.


title: Social Credit System

text: Online news Wired UK published concerns from journalist Liu Hu who "was named on a List of Dishonest Persons Subject to Enforcement by the Supreme People's Court as "not qualified" to buy a plane ticket and banned from travelling some train lines, buying property or taking out a loan". He said this was "really scary... You can report to no one. You are stuck in the middle of nowhere."


title: Social Credit System

text: Since 1976, a database of loan debtors (the Directory of Commercial Information, DICOM) has been implemented to evaluate the financial and commercial risk of an individual or enterprise. People listed in DICOM find it harder to find housing, start businesses, get new loans and, though not the intended usage of the system, find jobs, since employers tend to check scores as a part of the selection process. There have been legal measures taken recently to reduce the negative impact of the system on people, such as banning the usage of DICOM status in determining access to medical attention and lawmakers derogating the DICOM status for educational loans. Once the debt has been paid, renegotiated or prescript, the debtor gets out of the list. There are also law firms that offer legal mechanisms to change the nature of the debt and invalidate the DICOM status.


title: Social Credit System

text: In February 2018, Handelsblatt Global reported that Germany may be "sleep walking" towards a system comparable to China's. Data from the universal credit rating system Schufa, geolocation and health records are being used to determine access to credit and health insurance.


title: Social Credit System

text: Around 80% of Russians will reportedly get a digital profile that will document personal successes and failures in less than a decade under the government's comprehensive plans to digitize the economy. Observers have compared this to China's social credit system, although Deputy Prime Minister Maxim Akimov has denied that, saying a Chinese-style social credit system is a "threat".


title: Social Credit System

text: In 2018, the New Economics Foundation compared the Chinese citizen score to other rating systems in the United Kingdom. These included using data from a citizen's credit score, phone usage, rent payment and so on, to filter job applications, determine access to social services, determine advertisements served, etc. The difference between the two systems is that the credit rating system in the UK is just for loaning of monies from organisation to individuals based on their previous financial activities. The Social Credit System is more qualitative and relies on people's perception of others’ "behaviour".


title: Social Credit System

text: Some media outlets have compared the social credit system to credit scoring systems in the United States. According to "Fast Company", "increasing number of societal "privileges" related to transportation, accommodations, communications and the rates US citizens pay for services (like insurance) are either controlled by technology companies or affected by how we use technology services." In addition, Silicon Valley's rules for being allowed to use their services are getting stricter."


title: Social Credit System

text: In 2017, Venezuela started developing a smart-card ID known as the "carnet de la patria" or "fatherland card", with the help of the Chinese telecom company ZTE. The system included a database which stores details like birthdays, family information, employment and income, property owned, medical history, state benefits received, presence on social media, membership of a political party and whether a person voted. Many in Venezuela have expressed concern that the card is an attempt to tighten social control through monitoring all aspects of daily life.


title: Mustelidae

text: The Mustelidae (; from Latin "mustela", weasel) are a family of carnivorous mammals, including weasels, badgers, otters, ferrets, martens, minks and wolverines, among others. Mustelids () are a diverse group and form the largest family in the suborder Caniformia of the order Carnivora. They comprise about 66 to 70 species in nine subfamilies.


title: Mustelidae

text: Mustelids vary greatly in size and behaviour. The smaller variants of the least weasel can be under in length, while the giant otter of Amazonian South America can measure up to and sea otters can exceed in weight. Wolverines can crush bones as thick as the femur of a moose to get at the marrow, and have been seen attempting to drive bears away from their kills. The sea otter uses rocks to break open shellfish to eat. Martens are largely arboreal, while European badgers dig extensive tunnel networks, called setts. Only one mustelid has been domesticated; the ferret. Tayra are also kept as pets (although they require a Dangerous Wild Animals licence in the UK), or as working animals for hunting or vermin control. Others have been important in the fur trade—the mink is often raised for its fur.


title: Mustelidae

text: Being one of the most species-rich families in the order Carnivora, the family Mustelidae also is one of the oldest. Mustelid-like forms first appeared about 40 million years ago (Mya), roughly coinciding with the appearance of rodents. The common ancestor of modern mustelids appeared about 18 Mya.


title: Mustelidae

text: Within a large range of variation, the mustelids exhibit some common characteristics. They are typically small animals with elongated bodies, short legs, short skulls, short, round ears, and thick fur. Most mustelids are solitary, nocturnal animals, and are active year-round.


title: Mustelidae

text: With the exception of the sea otter, they have anal scent glands that produce a strong-smelling secretion the animals use for sexual signaling and marking territory.


title: Mustelidae

text: Most mustelid reproduction involves embryonic diapause. The embryo does not immediately implant in the uterus, but remains dormant for some time. No development takes place as long as the embryo remains unattached to the uterine lining. As a result, the normal gestation period is extended, sometimes up to a year. This allows the young to be born under favorable environmental conditions. Reproduction has a large energy cost, so it is to a female's benefit to have available food and mild weather. The young are more likely to survive if birth occurs after previous offspring have been weaned.


title: Mustelidae

text: Mustelids are predominantly carnivorous, although some eat vegetable matter at times. While not all mustelids share an identical dentition, they all possess teeth adapted for eating flesh, including the presence of shearing carnassials. One characteristic trait is a meat-shearing upper-back molar that is rotated 90°, towards the inside of the mouth. With variation between species, the most common dental formula is .


title: Mustelidae

text: The fisher, tayra, and martens are partially arboreal, while badgers are fossorial. A number of mustelids have aquatic lifestyles, ranging from semiaquatic minks and river otters to the fully aquatic sea otter, which is one of the few nonprimate mammals known to use tools while foraging. It uses "anvil" stones to crack open the shellfish that form a significant part of its diet. It is a "keystone species", keeping its prey populations in balance so some do not outcompete the others and destroy the kelp in which they live.


title: Mustelidae

text: The black-footed ferret is entirely dependent on another keystone species, the prairie dog. A family of four ferrets eats 250 prairie dogs in a year; this requires a stable population of prairie dogs from an area of some .


title: Mustelidae

text: Skunks were formerly included as a subfamily of the mustelids, but are now regarded as a separate family (Mephitidae). Mongooses bear a striking resemblance to many mustelids, but belong to a distinctly different suborder—the Feliformia (all those carnivores sharing more recent origins with the cats) and not the Caniformia (those sharing more recent origins with the dogs). Because mongooses and mustelids occupy similar ecological niches, convergent evolution has led to similarity in form and behavior.


title: Mustelidae

text: Several mustelids, including the mink, the sable (a type of marten), and the stoat (ermine), possess furs that are considered beautiful and valuable, so have been hunted since prehistoric times. From the early Middle Ages, the trade in furs was of great economic importance for northern and eastern European nations with large native populations of fur-bearing mustelids, and was a major economic impetus behind Russian expansion into Siberia and French and English expansion in North America. In recent centuries fur farming, notably of mink, has also become widespread and provides the majority of the fur brought to market.


title: Mustelidae

text: One species, the sea mink ("Neogale macrodon") of New England and Canada, was driven to extinction by fur trappers. Its appearance and habits are almost unknown today because no complete specimens can be found and no systematic contemporary studies were conducted.


title: Mustelidae

text: The sea otter, which has the densest fur of any animal, narrowly escaped the fate of the sea mink. The discovery of large populations in the North Pacific was the major economic driving force behind Russian expansion into Kamchatka, the Aleutian Islands, and Alaska, as well as a cause for conflict with Japan and foreign hunters in the Kuril Islands. Together with widespread hunting in California and British Columbia, the species was brought to the brink of extinction until an international moratorium came into effect in 1911.


title: Mustelidae

text: Today, some mustelids are threatened for other reasons. Sea otters are vulnerable to oil spills and the indirect effects of overfishing; the black-footed ferret, a relative of the European polecat, suffers from the loss of American prairie; and wolverine populations are slowly declining because of habitat destruction and persecution. The rare European mink ("Mustela lutreola") is one of the most endangered mustelid species.


title: Mustelidae

text: The oldest known mustelid from North America is "Corumictis wolsani" from the early and late Oligocene (early and late Arikareean, Ar1–Ar3) of Oregon. Middle Oligocene "Mustelictis" from Europe might be a mustelid, as well. Other early fossils of the mustelids were dated at the end of the Oligocene to the beginning of the Miocene. Which of these forms are Mustelidae ancestors and which should be considered the first mustelids is unclear.


title: Mustelidae

text: The fossil record indicates that mustelids appeared in the late Oligocene period (33 Mya) in Eurasia and migrated to every continent except Antarctica and Australia (all the continents that were connected during or since the early Miocene). They reached the Americas via the Bering land bridge.


title: Mustelidae

text: Multigene phylogenies constructed by Koepfli et al. (2008) and Law et al. (2018) found that Mustelidae comprises eight living subfamilies. The early mustelids appear to have undergone two rapid bursts of diversification in Eurasia, with the resulting species spreading to other continents only later.


title: Mustelidae

text: Mustelid species diversity is often attributed to an adaptive radiation coinciding with the mid-Miocene climate transition. Contrary to expectations, Law et al. (2018) found no evidence for rapid bursts of lineage diversification at the origin of the Mustelidae, and further analyses of lineage diversification rates using molecular and fossil-based methods did not find associations between rates of lineage diversification and mid-Miocene climate transition as previously hypothesized.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis and one of at least 113 total cannabinoids identified on the plant. Although the chemical formula for THC (CHO) describes multiple isomers, the term "THC" usually refers to the Delta-9-THC isomer with chemical name (−)-"trans"-Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol. THC is a lipid found in cannabis and, like most pharmacologically active secondary metabolites of plants, it is assumed to be involved in the plant's evolutionary adaptation, putatively against insect predation, ultraviolet light, and environmental stress. THC was first discovered and isolated by Israeli chemist Raphael Mechoulam in Israel in 1964. It was found that, when smoked, THC is absorbed into the bloodstream and travels to the brain, attaching itself to endocannabinoid receptors located in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia. These are the parts of the brain responsible for thinking, memory, pleasure, coordination and movement.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC, along with its double bond isomers and their stereoisomers, is one of only three cannabinoids scheduled by the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances (the other two are dimethylheptylpyran and parahexyl). It was listed under Schedule I in 1971, but reclassified to Schedule II in 1991 following a recommendation from the WHO. Based on subsequent studies, the WHO has recommended the reclassification to the less-stringent Schedule III. Cannabis as a plant is scheduled by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (Schedule I and IV). It is specifically still listed under Schedule I by US federal law under the Controlled Substances Act for having "no accepted medical use" and "lack of accepted safety". However, dronabinol, a pharmaceutical form of THC, has been approved by the FDA as an appetite stimulant for people with AIDS and an antiemetic for people receiving chemotherapy under the trade names Marinol and Syndros. The pharmaceutical formulation dronabinol is an oily and viscous resin provided in capsules available by prescription in the United States, Canada, Germany, and New Zealand.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC is an active ingredient in Nabiximols, a specific extract of "Cannabis" that was approved as a botanical drug in the United Kingdom in 2010 as a mouth spray for people with multiple sclerosis to alleviate neuropathic pain, spasticity, overactive bladder, and other symptoms. Nabiximols (as Sativex) is available as a prescription drug in Canada. In 2021, Nabiximols was approved for medical use in Ukraine.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: As of 2022, 37 states, three territories, and the District of Columbia in the United States allow medical use of cannabis (in which THC is the primary psychoactive component), with the exception of Idaho, Iowa, Wyoming, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. As of 2022, the U.S. federal government maintains cannabis as a schedule I controlled substance under law, while dronabinol is classified as Schedule III in capsule form (Marinol) and Schedule II in liquid oral form (Syndros).


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: The actions of Delta-9-THC result from its partial agonist activity at the cannabinoid receptor CB (K = 40.7 nM), located mainly in the central nervous system, and the CB receptor (K = 36 nM), mainly expressed in cells of the immune system. The psychoactive effects of THC are primarily mediated by the activation of cannabinoid receptors, which result in a decrease in the concentration of the second messenger molecule cAMP through inhibition of adenylate cyclase. The presence of these specialized cannabinoid receptors in the brain led researchers to the discovery of endocannabinoids, such as anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glyceride (2-AG).


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC is a lipophilic molecule and may bind non-specifically to a variety of entities in the brain and body, such as adipose tissue (fat). THC, as well as other cannabinoids that contain a phenol group, possess mild antioxidant activity sufficient to protect neurons against oxidative stress, such as that produced by glutamate-induced excitotoxicity.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC targets receptors in a manner far less selective than endocannabinoid molecules released during retrograde signaling, as the drug has a relatively low cannabinoid receptor affinity. THC is also limited in its efficacy compared to other cannabinoids due to its partial agonistic activity, as THC appears to result in greater downregulation of cannabinoid receptors than endocannabinoids. Furthermore, in populations of low cannabinoid receptor density, THC may even act to antagonize endogenous agonists that possess greater receptor efficacy. However while THC's pharmacodynamic tolerance may limit the maximal effects of certain drugs, evidence suggests that this tolerance mitigates undesirable effects, thus enhancing the drug's therapeutic window.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC is metabolized mainly to 11-OH-THC by the body. This metabolite is still psychoactive and is further oxidized to 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH). In animals, more than 100 metabolites could be identified, but 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH are the dominating metabolites. Metabolism occurs mainly in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4. More than 55% of THC is excreted in the feces and ≈20% in the urine. The main metabolite in urine is the ester of glucuronic acid and 11-OH-THC and free THC-COOH. In the feces, mainly 11-OH-THC was detected.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Cannabidiol was isolated and identified from "Cannabis sativa" in 1940, and THC was isolated and its structure elucidated by synthesis in 1964.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: As with many aromatic terpenoids, THC has a very low solubility in water, but good solubility in lipids and most organic solvents, specifically hydrocarbons and alcohols.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: The median lethal dose of THC in humans is not fully known as there is conflicting evidence. A 1972 study gave up to 9000 mg/kg of THC to dogs and monkeys without any lethal effects. Some rats died within 72 hours after a dose of up to 3600 mg/kg.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: A 2014 study gave the median lethal dose in humans at 30 mg/kg (2.1 grams THC for a person who weighs 70kg), observing cardiovascular death in otherwise healthy subjects. A different 1972 study gave the median lethal dose for intravenous THC in mice and rats at 30–40 mg/kg.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: A total synthesis of the compound was reported in 1965; that procedure called for the intramolecular alkyl lithium attack on a starting carbonyl to form the fused rings, and a tosyl chloride mediated formation of the ether.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: In the "Cannabis" plant, THC occurs mainly as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA, 2-COOH-THC). Geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid react, catalysed by an enzyme to produce cannabigerolic acid, which is cyclized by the enzyme THC acid synthase to give THCA. Over time, or when heated, THCA is decarboxylated, producing THC. The pathway for THCA biosynthesis is similar to that which produces the bitter acid humulone in hops. It can also be produced in genetically modified yeast.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC and its 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH metabolites can be detected and quantified in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using a combination of immunoassay and chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or in a forensic investigation.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Recreational use of cannabis is legal in many parts of North America, increasing the demand for THC monitoring methods in both personal and law enforcement uses. Breath sampling as a noninvasive method is in development to detect THC, which is difficult to quantify in breath samples. Scientists and industry are commercializing various types of breath analyzers to monitor THC in breath.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC was first isolated and elucidated in 1969 by Raphael Mechoulam and Yechiel Gaoni at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.<ref name="doi10.1021/ja01062a046"></ref>


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: In 2003, the World Health Organization Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended transferring THC to Schedule IV of the Convention, citing its medical uses and low abuse and addiction potential. The Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 allows any hemp-derived product not exceeding 0.3% Δ-9 THC to be sold legally in the US. Since the law counted only Δ-9 THC, Δ-8 THC was considered legal to sell under the farm bill and is widely available online.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Female cannabis plants contain at least 113 cannabinoids, including cannabidiol (CBD), thought to be the major anticonvulsant that helps people with multiple sclerosis, and cannabichromene (CBC), an anti-inflammatory which may contribute to the pain-killing effect of cannabis.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: As of October 2018 when recreational use of cannabis was legalized in Canada, some 220 dietary supplements and 19 veterinary health products containing not more than 10 parts per million of THC extract were approved with general health claims for treating minor conditions.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: The status of THC as an illegal drug in most countries imposes restrictions on research material supply and funding, such as in the United States where the National Institute on Drug Abuse and Drug Enforcement Administration continue to control the sole federally-legal source of cannabis for researchers. Despite an August 2016 announcement that licenses would be provided to growers for supplies of medical marijuana, no such licenses were ever issued, despite dozens of applications. Although cannabis is legalized for medical uses in more than half of the states of the United States, no products have been approved for federal commerce by the Food and Drug Administration, a status that limits cultivation, manufacture, distribution, clinical research, and therapeutic applications.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: In April 2014, the American Academy of Neurology found evidence supporting the effectiveness of the cannabis extracts in treating certain symptoms of multiple sclerosis and pain, but there was insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness for treating several other neurological diseases. A 2015 review confirmed that medical marijuana was effective for treating spasticity and chronic pain, but caused numerous short-lasting adverse events, such as dizziness.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Preliminary research indicates that prolonged exposure to high doses of THC may interfere with chromosomal stability, which may be hereditary as a factor affecting cell instability and cancer risk. The carcinogenicity of THC in the studied populations of so-called "heavy users" remains dubious due to various confounding variables, most significantly concurrent tobacco use.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Ryan John Seacrest (born December 24, 1974) is an American media personality and producer. He is the co-host of "Live with Kelly and Ryan", as well as the host of multiple media shows including "American Idol", "American Top 40", and "On Air with Ryan Seacrest".


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2006, Seacrest became co-host and executive producer of "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve". He stayed on as host and executive producer of the annual show broadcast from Times Square in New York City following Dick Clark's death in 2012. Seacrest began co-hosting "Live with Kelly and Ryan" on a permanent basis on May 1, 2017.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest received Emmy Award nominations for "American Idol" from 2004 to 2013, and again in 2016. He won an Emmy for producing "Jamie Oliver's Food Revolution" in 2010 and was nominated again in 2012. In 2018, Seacrest received nominations for "Live with Kelly and Ryan" in the categories of Outstanding Talk Show Entertainment as well as Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Ryan Seacrest was born on December 24, 1974, in Atlanta and is the son of Constance Marie (née Zullinger), a homemaker, and Gary Lee Seacrest, a real estate lawyer. His father served as a lieutenant in the U.S. Army and his grandfather, Henry Gene Skeen was a major general in the U.S. Army. His mother told the "Atlanta Journal-Constitution", "Instead of playing with G.I. Joes or Cowboys and Indians, Ryan would always have a little microphone and do shows in the house."


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: At age 14, he attended Dunwoody High School. At age 16 while still attending high school, Seacrest won an internship at 94.1 WSTR in Atlanta where Tom Sullivan trained him in many aspects of radio. When a regular DJ called in sick, Sullivan put him on the air for the first show of his broadcasting career. Seacrest was given the weekend overnight shift at WSTR.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest continued to work on air at WSTR until graduating from Dunwoody High in 1992. He studied journalism at the University of Georgia in the fall of 1992. He continued his radio show at a local Athens station. He left the university at age 19 and moved to Hollywood to pursue his broadcasting career.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In May 2016, Seacrest was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from the University of Georgia and he was the commencement speaker at the graduation ceremony.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 1993, Seacrest hosted the first season of ESPN's "Radical Outdoor Challenge". He also hosted three kids' game shows, "Gladiators 2000" from 1994 to 1996 (a spinoff of the television show, "American Gladiators"), "Wild Animal Games" in 1995, and "Click" in 1997. He appeared as the host of the fictional game show "Lover's Lane" on "Beverly Hills, 90210" in "The Final Proof". In the fall and winter of 2000, he was the host of The "NBC Saturday Night Movie". During commercial breaks he offered trivia on the film and a chance to win prizes by answering online on NBCi. In 2001, he hosted a reality television program, "Ultimate Revenge", where elaborate practical jokes were played on family and friends instigated by their own relatives and friends. It was shown on TNN from 2001 to 2003.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2002, Seacrest accepted the position as co-host of a new Fox reality television series "American Idol" with comedian Brian Dunkleman. The following year he became the sole host. The show increased in popularity and was seen by some 26 million viewers weekly; Seacrest became recognizable around the world. In 2003, he hosted the spin-off show, "American Juniors." In July 2009, he signed a deal with CKX for $45 million to continue to host "American Idol" which made him the highest paid reality television host at the time. In April 2012, he signed a two-year $30 million deal to stay on as host of "American Idol". In May 2014, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that he had signed a one-year deal with the option of signing for another year. He remained host of the series until the end of its run in April 2016. The following May, it was announced that ABC had won a multi-network bidding war for the rights to the show. On July 20, 2017, he announced on "Live with Kelly & Ryan" that he would be the host of an "Idol" reboot. His initial multi-year deal was reported to be worth over $10 million.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In August 2005, it was announced that Seacrest would become executive producer and co-host of ABC's "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve". On December 31, 2005, Seacrest performed much of the show's hosting duties. Dick Clark's role was limited by speech and mobility issues due to his recovery from a stroke. Seacrest also occasionally served as a substitute host on the CNN television program "Larry King Live," and co-emceed Larry King's final show with Bill Maher on December 16, 2010.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2009, ABC renamed the program "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve With Ryan Seacrest", paying attention to Seacrest's role. He co-hosted the show delivering ABC's biggest New Year's numbers in twelve years, with 22.8 million viewers.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: When Dick Clark died Seacrest publicly remembered his mentor's impact on his life in a special tribute in "The Hollywood Reporter". After Clark's death, Seacrest hosted the 2013 edition of "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve" with co-hosts Jenny McCarthy and Fergie paying tribute to Dick Clark in the pre-show. In October 2013, Seacrest signed a multi-year contract extension with Dick Clark Productions to continue as host and executive producer of "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve". In 2017, Seacrest hosted "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve" for the 13th consecutive year alongside McCarthy, who had co-hosted for eight years. The show had 25.6 million viewers, the highest in six years. The 2019-20 edition of "Rockin' Eve" marked his 15th consecutive year as the host and Lucy Hale also hosted. Recently he received a multi-year deal extension to continue hosting the show.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In January 2006, US cable channel E! announced a three-year, $21 million deal for Seacrest to host various programs, including "E! News" and its red carpet awards show coverages. In April 2012, Seacrest signed a deal with NBCUniversal expanding his on-air role beyond E! to NBC. He contributed to the "Today Show," Olympics coverage, entertainment programming, as well as news and other special events. Seacrest will remain managing editor of "E! News" and host and produce its red carpet awards show coverage.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest was an NBC correspondent for the 2012 London Olympic Games and co-hosted the closing ceremony with Bob Costas and Al Michaels. In 2016, Seacrest hosted NBC's live late-night coverage for the Rio Olympic Games.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: After a year-long search, on May 1, 2017, it was announced that Seacrest would join Kelly Ripa as host of "Live with Kelly and Ryan" as her new permanent co-host and executive producer. Seacrest succeeded Michael Strahan starting work on the day of the announcement. By December 2017 the show was averaging over 3 million viewers.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2013, Seacrest hosted "The Million Second Quiz" which was an interactive game show on NBC. Seacrest hosted "Knock Knock Live" in 2015, which premiered on Fox. The show featured celebrities arriving at the door of ordinary people who've done something special and giving them a prize. However, the show was cancelled after two episodes.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In January 2004, Seacrest became the new host of the radio program "American Top 40," a syndicated weekly countdown show, created and formerly hosted by Casey Kasem. The show was syndicated by Premiere Radio Networks. In February 2004, Seacrest became host of Los Angeles radio station KIIS-FM's morning show, replacing long-time host Rick Dees. The show, "On Air With Ryan Seacrest," since 2017 Seacrest has been broadcasting from a studio at the facilities of WABC-TV in New York City, where "Live with Kelly and Ryan" is produced. Seacrest renewed his contract with Premiere and KIIS parent company iHeartMedia in September 2021, a contract that will last through the end of 2025.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2018, Seacrest was inducted into the Library of American Broadcasting Foundation's 16th Annual Giants of Broadcasting & Electronic Arts.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest's three-year hosting deal with E! included executive producing credits on various programs, including "E! News" and its red carpet awards show coverages. In the same year, Seacrest launched Ryan Seacrest Productions (RSP); in August 2008, Seacrest named his longtime William Morris agent, Adam Sher as CEO. Through 2012 Comcast had first-look rights for all RSP shows. Clear Channel acquired a minority stake in RSP in early 2012, but RSP no longer has a first look deal with any network.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest remains managing editor of "E! News" and executive produces its red carpet awards show coverage but no longer hosts (since January 2012) "E! News" on a daily basis.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: An Associated Press profile portrayed Seacrest as using both the deal with E! and "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve" as springboards to a long-lasting career in television production and ownership.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest produces the hit series "Keeping Up with the Kardashians", the highest-rated show on the E! network, and the spin-offs "Khloe and Lamar," "Kourtney and Kim Take New York" and "Kourtney and Khloe Take Miami." RSP also produced the Emmy Award-winning ABC reality series "Jamie Oliver's Food Revolution." RSP also produced two new reality series in 2012 including "Melissa and Tye," which aired on CMT and "Shahs of Sunset" for Bravo. Bravo announced a second season of "Shahs of Sunset" on April 18, 2012. RSP's new show "Married to Jonas" premiered on August 19, 2012, on E! and was renewed for a second season.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: On January 31, 2012, Thomas H. Lee Partners and Bain Capital announced they would invest up to $300M in Ryan Seacrest Media. A consortium headed by Seacrest (with partners AEG and CAA) agreed to rebrand Mark Cuban's HDNet television network as AXS TV.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2017, Seacrest signed a multi-year overall deal between Ryan Seacrest Productions and ABC Studios in which the company's scripted division would develop scripted projects for ABC Studios exclusively.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest was a principal investor in the Typo keyboard, which aimed at cloning the BlackBerry physical keyboard for use with iPhone devices that launched in 2014. The Typo keyboard was discontinued in a 2015 patent settlement with Blackberry Ltd. He is also an investor and partner at Pathwater, a brand of purified water offered in a refillable aluminum bottle.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest worked with Burberry's Christopher Bailey who designed Seacrest's suits for red carpet events as well as New Year's Eve since 2009 and "American Idol" starting in 2010. Seacrest wore close-fitting suits and decided to make something similar for a wider audience at an "accessible" price point.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2013, in conjunction with Randa Apparel & Accessories, Seacrest developed his own clothing and accessories collection, "Ryan Seacrest Distinction." The Randa/Seacrest partnership signed an exclusive retail deal with Macy's to sell the brand and it successfully launched in 2014. It consists of suit separates, sports coats, and evening wear manufactured by Peerless Clothing International; accessories including ties, pocket squares, belts, wallets, cufflinks, and jewelry produced by Randa Accessories; and dress shirts from PVH (produced later by Itochu Prominent which added sportswear in September 2017).


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest partnered with dermatologist Harold Lancer to produce the men's skincare line Polished. The line has five items and they are designed for easy use. Seacrest announced the line in August 2017 on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon".


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In 2010, Seacrest launched the nonprofit Ryan Seacrest Foundation. The foundation has ten centers at Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Children's Hospital of Orange County, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Children's National Medical Center, Levine Children's Hospital, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Children's Medical Center Dallas, Boston Children's Hospital, and Children's Hospital Colorado. In April 2012, Seacrest named Selena Gomez Ambassador of the Foundation. In February 2017, the foundation partnered with the Atlanta Braves to promote the non-profit at SunTrust Park. Seacrest did voice overs for the Braves' "Welcome Home" broadcast media campaign.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest serves on the board of trustees of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and honorary co-chair of the GRAMMY Foundation board, which later merged with the GRAMMY Museum and became the GRAMMY Museum Foundation.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest had a two-year on-and-off relationship with model Sara Jean Underwood, which was revealed on "The Howard Stern Show" in 2009.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: In April 2010, Seacrest began dating Julianne Hough, a professional dancer, actress, and singer known for participating in "Dancing with the Stars." On March 15, 2013, it was announced that their relationship had ended. The pair dated for over two years before they split.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: On May 14, 2016, he returned to the University of Georgia to give advice to alumni and received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: Seacrest began a relationship with model Shayna Taylor in 2017. In the summer of 2020 they announced they were no longer together.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: On November 17, 2017, it was reported a former E! wardrobe stylist had accused Seacrest of sexual harassment and that he was under investigation. Seacrest denied the allegations saying "This person who has accused me of horrible things offered, on multiple occasions, to withdraw her claims if I paid her millions of dollars. I refused." On February 1, 2018, the Associated Press reported that E! channel's investigation into the claims was closed and that there was insufficient evidence to support the claims.


title: Ryan Seacrest

text: On October 12, 2022, Seacrest announced that he been diagnosed with COVID-19 for the first time and had mild symptoms.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (, ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the German-Roman Emperor since the early modern period (, ), was the ruler and head of state of the Holy Roman Empire. The title was held in conjunction with the title of king of Italy ("Rex Italiae") from the 8th to the 16th century, and, almost without interruption, with the title of king of Germany ("Rex Teutonicorum", lit. "King of the Teutons") throughout the 12th to 18th centuries.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The Holy Roman Emperor title provided the highest prestige among medieval Roman Catholic monarchs, because the empire was considered by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only successor of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Thus, in theory and diplomacy, the emperors were considered "primus inter pares", regarded as first among equals among other Roman Catholic monarchs across Europe.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: From an autocracy in Carolingian times (AD 800–924) the title by the 13th century evolved into an elective monarchy, with the emperor chosen by the prince-electors.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, became "de facto" hereditary holders of the title, notably the Ottonians (962–1024) and the Salians (1027–1125). Following the late medieval crisis of government, the Habsburgs kept possession of the title without interruption from 1440 to 1740. The final emperors were from the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, from 1765 to 1806. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by Francis II, after a devastating defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The emperor was widely perceived to rule by divine right, though he often contradicted or rivaled the pope, most notably during the Investiture controversy. The Holy Roman Empire never had an empress regnant, though women such as Theophanu and Maria Theresa exerted strong influence. Throughout its history, the position was viewed as a defender of the Roman Catholic faith. Until Maximilian I in 1508, the Emperor-elect ("Imperator electus") was required to be crowned by the pope before assuming the imperial title. Charles V was the last to be crowned by the pope in 1530. Even after the Reformation, the elected emperor was always a Roman Catholic. There were short periods in history when the electoral college was dominated by Protestants, and the electors usually voted in their own political interest.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: From the time of Constantine I (r. 306–337), the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the Christian emperor in the Church. Emperors considered themselves responsible to the gods for the spiritual health of their subjects, and after Constantine they had a duty to help the Church define and maintain orthodoxy. The emperor's role was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity. Both the title and connection between Emperor and Church continued in the Eastern Roman Empire throughout the medieval period (in exile during 1204–1261). The ecumenical councils of the 5th to 8th centuries were convoked by the Eastern Roman Emperors.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: In Western Europe, the title of "Emperor in the West" lapsed after the death of Julius Nepos in 480, although the rulers of the barbarian kingdoms continued to recognize the authority of the Eastern Emperor at least nominally well into the 6th century. While the reconquest of Justinian I had reestablished Byzantine presence in Italy, religious frictions existed with the Papacy who sought dominance over the Constantinople Church. Toward the end of the 8th century the Papacy still recognised the ruler at Constantinople as the Roman Emperor, though Byzantine military support in Italy had increasingly waned, leading to the Papacy to look to the Franks for protection. In 800 Pope Leo III owed a great debt to Charlemagne, the King of the Franks and King of Italy, for securing his life and position. By this time, the Eastern Emperor Constantine VI has been deposed in 797 and replaced as monarch by his mother, Irene.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Under the pretext that a woman cannot rule the empire, Pope Leo III declared the throne vacant and crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Romans ("Imperator Romanorum"), the successor of Constantine VI as Roman emperor under the concept of "translatio imperii". On his coins, the name and title used by Charlemagne is Karolus Imperator Augustus and in his documents, he used Imperator Augustus Romanum gubernans Imperium ("August Emperor, governing the Roman Empire") and serenissimus Augustus a Deo coronatus, magnus pacificus Imperator Romanorum gubernans Imperium ("most serene Augustus crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the empire of the Romans"). The Eastern Empire eventually relented to recognizing Charlemagne and his successors as emperors, but as "Frankish" and "German emperors", at no point referring to them as Roman, a label they reserved for themselves.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The title of emperor in the West implied recognition by the pope. As the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was that known as the investiture controversy, fought during the 11th century between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: After the coronation of Charlemagne, his successors maintained the title until the death of Berengar I of Italy in 924. The comparatively brief interregnum between 924 and the coronation


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: of Otto the Great in 962 is taken as marking the transition from the Frankish Empire to the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Under the Ottonians, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Since 911, the various German princes had elected the "King of the Germans" from among their peers. The King of the Germans would then be crowned as emperor following the precedent set by Charlemagne, during the period of 962–1530. Charles V was the last emperor to be crowned by the pope, and his successor, Ferdinand I, merely adopted the title of "Emperor elect" in 1558. The final Holy Roman emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire's final dissolution.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The term "sacrum" (i.e., "holy") in connection with the German Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The Holy Roman Emperor's standard designation was "August Emperor of the Romans" ("Romanorum Imperator Augustus"). When Charlemagne was crowned in 800, he was styled as "most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire," thus constituting the elements of "Holy" and "Roman" in the imperial title.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The word "Roman" was a reflection of the principle of "translatio imperii" (or in this case "restauratio imperii") that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of emperor of the Western Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of the Eastern Roman Empire.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: In German-language historiography, the term "Römisch-deutscher Kaiser" ("Roman-German emperor") is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman emperor on one hand, and that of German emperor ("Deutscher Kaiser") on the other. The English term "Holy Roman Emperor" is a modern shorthand for "emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" not corresponding to the historical style or title, i.e., the adjective "holy" is not intended as modifying "emperor"; the English term "Holy Roman Emperor" gained currency in the interbellum period (the 1920s to 1930s); formerly the title had also been rendered as "German-Roman emperor" in English.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The elective monarchy of the kingdom of Germany goes back to the early 10th century, the election of Conrad I of Germany in 911 following the death without issue of Louis the Child, the last Carolingian ruler of Germany. Elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of England, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. The process of an election meant that the prime candidate had to make concessions, by which the voters were kept on his side, which was known as "Wahlkapitulationen" (electoral capitulation).


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Conrad was elected by the German dukes, and it is not known precisely when the system of seven prince-electors was established. The papal decree "Venerabilem" by Innocent III (1202), addressed to Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen, establishes the election procedure by (unnamed) princes of the realm, reserving for the pope the right to approve of the candidates. A letter of Pope Urban IV (1263), in the context of the disputed vote of 1256 and the subsequent interregnum, suggests that by "immemorial custom", seven princes had the right to elect the king and future emperor. The seven prince-electors are named in the Golden Bull of 1356: the archbishop of Mainz, the archbishop of Trier, the archbishop of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: After 1438, the kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the brief exception of Charles VII, who was a Wittelsbach. Maximilian I (emperor 1508–1519) and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as emperor by the pope. Maximilian, therefore, named himself elected Roman emperor ("Erwählter Römischer Kaiser") in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors. Of his successors, only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The elector palatine's seat was conferred on the duke of Bavaria in 1621, but in 1648, in the wake of the Thirty Years' War, the elector palatine was restored, as the eighth elector. Electorate of Hanover was added as a ninth elector in 1692. The whole college was reshuffled in the German mediatization of 1803 with a total of ten electors, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: This list includes all 47 German monarchs crowned from Charlemagne until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (800–1806).


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Several rulers were crowned king of the Romans (king of Germany) but not emperor, although they styled themselves thus, among whom were: Conrad I and Henry the Fowler in the 10th century, and Conrad IV, Rudolf I, Adolf and Albert I during the "interregnum" of the late 13th century.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Traditional historiography assumes a continuity between the Carolingian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, while a modern convention takes the coronation of Otto I in 962 as the starting point of the Holy Roman Empire (although the term "Sacrum Imperium Romanum" was not in use before the 13th century).


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, was crowned Emperor of the Romans ("Imperator Romanorum") by Pope Leo III, in opposition to Empress Irene, who was then ruling the Roman Empire from Constantinople. Charlemagne's descendents from the Carolingian Dynasty continued to be crowned Emperor until 899, excepting a brief period when the Imperial crown was awarded to the Widonid Dukes of Spoleto. There is some contention as to whether the Holy Roman Empire dates as far back as Charlemagne, some histories consider the Carolingian Empire to be a distinct polity from the later Holy Roman Empire as established under Otto I in 962.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: While earlier Germanic and Italian monarchs had been crowned as Roman emperors, the actual Holy Roman Empire is often considered to have begun with the crowning Otto I, at the time Duke of Saxony and King of Germany. Because the King of Germany was an elected position, being elected King of Germany was functionally a pre-requisite to being crowned Holy Roman Emperor. By the 13th century, the Prince-electors became formalized as a specific body of seven electors, consisting of three bishops and four secular princes. Through the middle 15th century, the electors chose freely from among a number of dynasties. A period of dispute during the second half of the 13th century over the kingship of Germany led to there being no emperor crowned for several decades, though this ended in 1312 with the coronation of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor. The period of free election ended with the ascension of the Austrian House of Habsburg, as an unbroken line of Habsburgs held the imperial throne until the 18th century. Later a cadet branch known as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine passed it from father to son until the abolition of the Empire in 1806. Notably, from the 16th century, the Habsburgs dispensed with the requirement that emperors be crowned by the pope before exercising their office. Starting with Ferdinand I, all successive emperors forwent the traditional coronation.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The interregnum of the Holy Roman Empire is taken to have lasted from the deposition of Frederick II by Pope Innocent IV in 1245 (or alternatively from Frederick's death in 1250 or from the death of Conrad IV in 1254) to the election of Rudolf I of Germany (1273). Rudolf was not crowned emperor, nor were his successors Adolf and Albert. The next emperor was Henry VII, crowned on 29 June 1312 by Pope Clement V.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian's predecessor Frederick III was the last to be crowned Emperor by the Pope in Rome.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

text: The Emperor was crowned in a special ceremony, traditionally performed by the Pope in Rome. Without that coronation, no king, despite exercising all powers, could call himself Emperor. In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as "Electus Romanorum Imperator" ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian's first successor Charles V was the last to be crowned Emperor.


title: Aramaic

text: Aramaic (; ; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria, where it has been spoken, in different varieties, for approximately three thousand years. Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study. Several modern varieties, namely the Neo-Aramaic languages, are still spoken in the present-day.


title: Aramaic

text: Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the Semitic language family, which also includes the Canaanite languages such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic. Aramaic languages are written in the Aramaic alphabet, a descendant of the Phoenician alphabet, and the most prominent alphabet variant is the Syriac alphabet. The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet.


title: Aramaic

text: The Aramaic languages are now considered endangered, since several varieties are used mainly by the older generations. Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before they become extinct.


title: Aramaic

text: Early Aramaic inscriptions date from 10th century BC, placing it among the earliest languages to be written down. Aramaicist Holger Gzella notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown."


title: Aramaic

text: Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, a Semitic-speaking people of the region between the northern Levant and the northern Tigris valley. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire, and its use spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor. At its height, Aramaic, having gradually replaced earlier Semitic languages, was spoken in several variants all over historical territories of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Eastern Arabia, Bahrain, Sinai, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, and parts of northwest Iran.


title: Aramaic

text: According to the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 38b), the language spoken by the Bible's first was Aramaic.


title: Aramaic

text: Aramaic was the language of Jesus, who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the Hebrew Bible, including parts of the books of Daniel and Ezra, and also the language of the Targum, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is also the language of the Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud and Zohar.


title: Aramaic

text: The scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy had also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (605–539 BC), and later by the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized "written" Aramaic (named by scholars as Imperial Aramaic) progressively also become the "lingua franca" of public life, trade and commerce throughout the Achaemenid territories. Wide use of "written" Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and (as logograms) some Aramaic vocabulary in the Pahlavi scripts, which were used by several Middle Iranian languages (including Parthian, Middle Persian, Sogdian, and Khwarazmian).


title: Aramaic

text: Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as sacred languages by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity. It is used by several communities, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the Saint Thomas Christians (Native Christians) and Syrian Christians (K[Q]naya) of Kerala, India. One of Aramaic liturgical dialects was Mandaic, which besides becoming a vernacular (Neo-Mandaic) also remained the liturgical language of Mandaeism. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism.


title: Aramaic

text: Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken in the 21st century as a first language by many communities of Syriac Christians, Jews (in particular, the Jews of Kurdistan), and Mandaeans of the Near East, most numerously by Christian Syriacs (Syriac-speakers: ethnic Arameans, Assyrians and Chaldeans), and with numbers of fluent speakers ranging approximately from 1 million to 2 million, with the main languages among Assyrians being Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (590,000 speakers), Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (100,000 speakers); in addition to Western Neo-Aramaic (21,700) which persists in only three villages in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains region in western Syria. They have retained use of the once dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East.


title: Aramaic

text: The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian . In 1819–21 Ulrich Friedrich Kopp published his "Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit" ("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts. Kopp criticised Jean-Jacques Barthélemy and other scholars who had characterized all the then-known inscriptions and coins as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all". Kopp noted that some of the words on the Carpentras Stele corresponded to the Aramaic in the Book of Daniel, and in the Book of Ruth.


title: Aramaic

text: Josephus and Strabo (the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans". The Septuagint, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms "Syria" and "Syrian" where the Masoretic Text, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms "Aramean" and "Aramaic"; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the King James Version. This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was made in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère.


title: Aramaic

text: In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient Arameans. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient Hebrew. In the Torah (Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age c. 3500 BC. The language is often mistakenly considered to have originated within Assyria (Iraq). In fact, Arameans carried their language and writing into Mesopotamia by voluntary migration, by forced exile of conquering armies, and by nomadic Chaldean invasions of Babylonia during the period from 1200 to 1000 BC.


title: Aramaic

text: Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In ancient Greek, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language", in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria, the biblical Ashur, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of semantic phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars.


title: Aramaic

text: The Koine Greek word ("Hebraïstí") has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian New Testament, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the Jews. However, is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and ("Syristi") is used to mean Aramaic. In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by Jerome.


title: Aramaic

text: During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers, at first in Babylonia, and later in Assyria (Upper Mesopotamia, modern-day northern Iraq, northeast Syria, northwest Iran, and southeastern Turkey (what was Armenia at the time). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the "lingua franca" of its empire. This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and Medes, and all three empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt.


title: Aramaic

text: Beginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate in the late 7th century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Near East. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Mandaic Aramaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria.


title: Aramaic

text: Being in contact with other regional languages, some Aramaic dialects were often engaged in mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic, Iranian, and Kurdish.


title: Aramaic

text: The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide) has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are a number of sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Assyrian Aramaic-speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In Modern Israel, the only native Aramaic speaking population are the Jews of Kurdistan, although the language is dying out. However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.