title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Roy Levesta Jones Jr. (born January 16, 1969) is an American former professional boxer who holds dual American and Russian citizenship. He competed in boxing from 1989 to 2018, and held multiple world championships in four weight classes, including titles at middleweight, super middleweight, light heavyweight, and heavyweight, and is the only boxer in history to start his professional career at light middleweight and go on to win a heavyweight title. As an amateur, he represented the United States at the 1988 Summer Olympics, winning a silver medal in the light middleweight division after one of the most controversial decisions in boxing history.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones is considered by many to be one of the greatest boxers of all time, pound for pound, and left his mark in the sport's history when he won the WBA heavyweight title in 2003, becoming the first former middleweight champion to win a heavyweight title in 106 years. In 1999 he became the undisputed light heavyweight champion by unifying the WBA, WBC, and IBF titles. During his prime, Jones was known for possessing exceptional hand speed, athleticism, footwork, explosiveness, punching power, movement and reflexes.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: As of February 2018, Jones holds the record for the most wins in unified light heavyweight title bouts in boxing history, at twelve. He is ranked by BoxRec as the 29th greatest pound-for-pound fighter of all time. "The Ring" magazine named Jones the Fighter of the Year in 1994, and the World Boxing Hall of Fame named him the Fighter of the Year for 2003. He is also a three-time winner of the Best Boxer ESPY Award (1996, 2000, and 2003). The Boxing Writers Association of America named him as the Fighter of the Decade for the 1990s.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Roy Jones Jr. was born to a family with a boxing tradition. His father, Roy Jones Sr., a Vietnam war veteran who was awarded a Bronze Star for valor after he rescued another soldier, was also a middleweight boxer. (which happened to be Hagler's 36th pro fight,) on the undercard of the Sugar Ray Leonard vs. Vinnie DeBarros fight. Hagler knocked Jones Sr. out in the third round and received $1,500 to Leonard's $50,000.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones won the 1984 United States National Junior Olympics in the weight division, the 1986 United States National Golden Gloves in the division, and the 1987 United States National Golden Gloves in the division. As an amateur, he ended his career with a 121–13 record.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: U.S. National Championships (156 lbs), Olympic Sports Center, Colorado Springs, Colorado, March 29, 1988:


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones represented the United States at the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games in the 156-pound weight class, being the youngest member of the U.S. Olympic Boxing Team, where he won the silver medal.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones did not lose a single round en route to the final. His quarterfinal match-up with Soviet boxer Yevgeni Zaytsev was the first U.S.–Soviet Olympic bout in 12 years (because each country had boycotted one Summer Olympics during that period). The final was met with controversy when Jones lost a 2–3 decision to South Korean fighter Park Si-Hun despite pummeling Park for three rounds, landing 86 punches to Park's 32. Reportedly, Park himself apologized to Jones afterward and the Italian referee Aldo Leoni, while raising Park's hand, told Jones that he was dumbstruck by the judges' decision, murmuring: "I can't believe they're doing this to you." One judge shortly thereafter admitted the decision was a mistake and all three judges voting against Jones were eventually suspended. Marv Albert, calling the bout on American television for NBC, reported that two judges from Communist countries, Hungary and the Soviet Union, scored the bout in favor of Jones, while those from Morocco and Uruguay favored Park. The fifth judge, from Uganda, scored the bout as a draw, leaving the outcome to be decided on other criteria.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: An official IOC investigation ending in 1997 found that, although the offending judges had been wined and dined by South Korean organisers, there was no evidence of corruption in the boxing events in Seoul. Jones was awarded the Val Barker trophy as the best stylistic boxer of the 1988 games, which was only the third and to this day the last time in the competition's history when the award did not go to one of the gold medal winners. The Val Barker trophy is awarded by the AIBA, an organization not directly connected with the Olympic authorities. The incident led Olympic organizers to establish a new scoring system for Olympic boxing.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: The U.S. Olympic Committee called for an investigation in 1996 after documents belonging to East Germany’s Stasi secret police revealed reports of judges being paid to vote for South Korean boxers. East Germany ended the Seoul Olympics in second place on the medal table, ahead of the United States by one gold medal.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On turning professional, he had already sparred with many professional boxers, including NABF Champion Ronnie Essett, IBF Champion Lindell Holmes and Sugar Ray Leonard. Jones began as a professional on May 6, 1989, knocking out Ricky Randall in two rounds in Pensacola at the Bayfront Auditorium. For his next fight, he faced the more experienced Stephan Johnson in Atlantic City, beating him by a knockout in round eight.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones built a record of 15–0 with 15 knockouts before stepping up in class to meet former World Welterweight Champion Jorge Vaca in a Pay Per View fight on January 10, 1992. He knocked Vaca out in round one to reach 16 knockout wins in a row. After one more KO, Jones went the distance for the first time against future world champion Jorge Castro, winning a 10-round decision in front of a USA Network national audience.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones made his first attempt at a world title on May 22, 1993. He beat future Undisputed middleweight champion Bernard Hopkins by unanimous decision in Washington, D.C. to capture the IBF middleweight championship. Jones was ahead on all three judges' scorecards (116-112 three times). Jones landed 206 of 594 punches (35%) and Hopkins connected on 153 of 670 (23%). Jones claimed he had entered the bout with a broken right hand, but still managed to outpoint Hopkins and secure a unanimous decision win. Jones reminded the world of this claim on his hit single "Ya'll Must've Forgot" later in his career.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: For his next fight, he fought another future world champion, Thulane "Sugar Boy" Malinga, in a non-title affair. Jones beat Malinga by knockout in six rounds. Jones finished the year with another win, beating Fermin Chirino by decision. In 1994, Jones beat Danny "Popeye" Garcia by knockout in six, then retained his IBF title against Thomas Tate in two rounds at Las Vegas on May 27.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On November 18, 1994, Jones was set to face undefeated IBF super middleweight Champion James Toney, who was ranked highly in the "pound for pound" rankings. Toney was undefeated after 46 bouts and was rated the best in the world at 168 lbs. Billed as "The Uncivil War", Toney vs. Jones was heavily hyped and on PPV. Jones, for the first time in his career, was the underdog.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Over the course of the 12-round unanimous decision, Jones demonstrated his greatness. He danced circles around Toney, utilizing his speed and athleticism to dictate the action, and landing quick combinations whenever Toney pressured him. Jones scored a flash knockdown in the third round with a leaping left hook after goading Toney by imitating a fighting cock. Ring magazine called Jones' performance the most dominant of any big fight in 20 years. Jones landed 285 of 614 punches (46%) and Toney connected on 157 of 451 (35%). Jones was ahead on all three judges scorecards (117-110, 119-108 & 118-109). The fight generated 300,000 pay-per-view buys.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In 1995, Jones defended his super middleweight title successfully multiple times. He began the year by knocking out IBF #1 Antoine Byrd in round one. This was the first time a championship fight took place at Pensacola. In a fight billed as "'The Devil & Mr Jones"', he faced former IBF lightweight Champion Vinny Pazienza and defeated him in round six, after knocking down Pazienza three times. In the fourth round, Jones became the first fighter in CompuBox history to go an entire round without being hit by his opponent. Pazienza was credited with throwing five punches and landing zero. Pazienza was guaranteed $1.35 million, while Jones, who worked off percentages of the gate and the pay-per-view revenue, was guaranteed at least $2 million. Jones then beat Tony Thornton in round three by KO three months later.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In 1996, Jones maintained his winning ways, defeating Merqui Sosa by knockout in two and future world champion Eric Lucas in round 11. When he boxed Lucas, he became the first athlete to participate in two paid sports events on the same day. He had played a basketball game in the morning and defended his boxing title in Jacksonville, Florida that evening. He also held a press conference in the ring just before his 3rd bout of the year, taking questions from a chair in the middle of the ring and defending his choice of Bryant Brannon as his opponent instead of Frankie Liles, his nemesis from the amateurs. He then defeated Bryant Brannon in a round two TKO.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In November 1996 at Ice Palace, Tampa, Florida, Jones defeated 40-year-old former three-weight world champion Mike McCallum via a shutout decision (120-107, 3 times) before a crowd of 12,000, to win the vacant Interim WBC Light Heavyweight title. Jones scored a knockdown just before the bell at the end of round 10. Jones landed 254 of 535 punches (47%) throughout the 12 rounds and McCallum connected on 209 of 651 (32%) Jones was soon upgraded to full champion by the WBC when former titlist Fabrice Tiozzo moved up to cruiserweight. Jones made $2.8 million from the fight and McCallum got $750,000.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In 1997 Jones had his first professional loss, a disqualification against Montell Griffin (26-0, 18 KOs) at the Taj Majal Hotel & Casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Griffin was trained by the legendary Eddie Futch, who had taught him how to take advantage of Jones technical mistakes and lack of basic boxing fundamentals. Griffin jumped out to an early lead on Jones but by round 9 Jones was ahead on the scorecards by a point and had Griffin on the canvas early in round nine. But as Griffin took a knee on the canvas to avoid further punishment, Jones hit him twice. Subsequently, Jones was disqualified and lost his title. At the time of disqualification, Jones was ahead on two of the judges scorecards (75-76, 77-75, 76-75).


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones sought an immediate rematch five months later at Foxwoods Resort, Connecticut, USA and regained the World Light Heavyweight title easily, knocking Griffin down within the first 20 seconds of the fight, then ending the fight by knocking Griffin out 2 minutes and 31 seconds in with a leaping left hand shot. The fight took place in a bingo hall before a sellout crowd of 4,500. Both Jones and Griffin earned a $1.5 million purse.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In 1998, Jones began by knocking out former light heavyweight and future cruiserweight champion Virgil Hill in four rounds with a huge right hand to the body that broke one of Hill's ribs. Jones followed that with a win against WBA light heavyweight champion Lou Del Valle, by a decision in 12 on July 18, to unify the WBC and WBA belts. Jones had to climb off the canvas for the first time in his career, as he was dropped in round eight, but continued to outbox Del Valle throughout the rest of the fight and gained a unanimous decision. Jones then followed with a defense against Otis Grant. He retained the crown by knocking Grant out in ten rounds.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones began 1999 by knocking out the WBC number one ranked contender at the time, Rick Frazier. On June 5 of that year, Jones beat IBF champion Reggie Johnson by a lopsided 12-round decision to become the undisputed light heavyweight champion, as well as the first to unify the WBA, WBC, and IBF titles at that weight since Michael Spinks in 1983. Jones dropped Johnson in the first round and hard in the third round, but backed off and allowed Reggie to finish the fight.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: The year 2000 began with Jones easily beating the hard-punching David Telesco via a 12-round decision on January 15, at Radio City Music Hall to retain his titles. Jones reportedly fractured his wrist a few weeks before this fight and fought almost exclusively one-handed. He entered the ring surrounded by the famous group of dancers, The Rockettes. His next fight was also a first time boxing event for a venue, as he traveled to Indianapolis and retained his title with an 11-round technical knockout over Richard Hall at the Conseco Fieldhouse. Jones ended 2000 with a 10-round stoppage of undefeated Eric Harding in New Orleans.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In 2001, Jones released "", a rap CD. That year he retained the title against Derrick Harmon by a knockout in ten and against future world champion Julio César González of Mexico by a 12-round unanimous decision before a crowd of 20,409. The three judges scored it (119-106, 118-107, 119-106) all for Jones. Jones knocked Gonzalez down in rounds one, five and twelve and earned a $1.5 million purse. Jones landed 192 of 375 punches (51%) whilst Gonzalez connected on a very low 91 of 609 (15%).


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In 2002, Jones retained his title by knocking out Australian boxer Glen Kelly in seven rounds via knockout. Jones put both hands behind his back. As Kelly moved in behind a jab, Jones went over the jab with a right to the head. Kelly went down and was counted out. Jones landed 124 of 249 punches (50%) and Kelly connected on 42 of 171 (25%). Before this bout, Jones was awarded "The Ring" Championship belt.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones then defeated future world champion, WBC #1 Clinton Woods by technical knockout before a crowd of 16,229. He performed a song from his CD during his ring entrance. The bout was stopped in round 6 after Woods' corner threw in the towel. Jones landed 140 of 300 punches (47%) and Woods connected on 39 of 166 (23%).


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On March 1, 2003, at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas, Jones defeated John Ruiz, the man who defeated an aging Evander Holyfield, for the WBA Heavyweight title in front of 15,300 fans. Jones officially weighed in at and Ruiz at . Jones became the first former middleweight title holder to win a Heavyweight title in 106 years. Jones also became the first fighter to start his career as a light middleweight and win a heavyweight title, and the second reigning light heavyweight champion after Michael Spinks in 1985 to move up in weight and claim a major heavyweight championship in his first fight in the division. Jones was guaranteed $10 million against 60% of the profits. Ruiz had no guarantee. He received 40% of the profits, which he had to share with promoter Don King. Jones won on all three scorecards (116-112, 118-110 & 117-111). According to Mark Taffet, HBO's Senior Vice-President of Sports Operations and Pay-Per-View, the fight generated 602,000 pay-per-view buys.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones chose to return to the light heavyweight division and on November 8, 2003 he defeated Antonio Tarver to retain the IBO and "The Ring" Light Heavyweight Championships, win Tarver's WBC title, and win the vacant WBA (Unified) title. Jones appeared a lot weaker after coming back down to the light heavyweight division, losing the muscle he gained for the heavyweight fight seemed to have taken a toll on his aging body and his cat-like reflexes appeared diminished. Jones won by majority decision, the judges giving him 117–111, 116–112 and 114–114.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On May 15, 2004, Jones faced Tarver in a rematch. Jones was heavily favored to win, but Tarver knocked him down at 1:31 of the second round. Jones had won the first round (Tarver only landed two punches in the first round), but in the second, as Jones tried a combination, he was caught by a big counter left hook from Tarver. Jones got on his feet by the count, but for the first time in his career was ruled unable to continue by referee Jay Nady.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On September 25, 2004, Jones attempted to win the IBF light heavyweight title from Glen Johnson in a match in Memphis, Tennessee. Johnson knocked out Jones 49 seconds into the ninth round. Jones lay on the canvas for three minutes after being counted out. Johnson was ahead on all three judges' scorecards at the time of the knockout (77–75, 77–75, 78–74) and had landed 118 punches to Jones's 75. Jones used the ring's canvas that night as a billboard for his upcoming rap CD, which came out November 1.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: After almost a year away from the ring, focusing on training and working as an analyst for HBO Boxing, Jones scheduled a third fight with Antonio Tarver, on October 1, 2005, a sellout crowd of 20,895 at the St. Pete Times Forum in Tampa, Florida, which aired on HBO PPV. For only the second time in his career, Jones was considered an underdog going into the fight.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Tarver won by unanimous decision (117–111, 116–112, 116–112) and had Jones out on his feet in the 11th round. Tarver landed 158 of 620 punches (25%) and Jones connected on 85 of 320 (27%). Despite being clearly behind from early in the contest, there was little urgency in either Jones' corner or his performance as he seemed content to make it to the end of the fight following his back-to-back knockout losses.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In the post-fight interview with ESPN's Brian Kenny, Jones said that he would like to fight again. He would welcome a fourth bout with Tarver or another duel with Johnson. The fighters earned in excess of $4 million apiece plus a share of pay-per-view revenues, with the fight generating 440,000 pay-per-view buys.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: After the loss in the third Tarver bout, Jones resumed his duties as a commentator for "HBO World Championship Boxing", calling the Floyd Mayweather Jr.–Sharmba Mitchell fight on November 19, 2005, and the Jermain Taylor–Bernard Hopkins rematch on December 3, 2005. His return to the network was short-lived, as Jones was let go from his ringside analyst role in January 2006. HBO cited his reported lack of commitment to attending the network's production meetings. Jones returned as a guest analyst for several bouts in 2010, and HBO brought him back the next year as their analyst for Boxing After Dark.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones took on Prince Badi Ajamu (25-2-1, 14 KOs) on July 29, 2006, at the Qwest Arena in Boise, Idaho. Jones defeated Ajamu by a unanimous decision (119-106, 3 times), winning the WBO NABO light heavyweight title. Ajamu won the first round on all three official scorecards, however it was the only round he won. Ajamu also lost two points for repeated low blows in round seven and one more in round eight.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Next up for Jones was the undefeated 29 year old Anthony Hanshaw (24-0-1, 14 KOs), on July 14, 2007, at the Mississippi Coast Coliseum in Biloxi, Mississippi. Hanshaw was ranked 11th by the IBF at super middleweight. Hanshaw was knocked down in the 11th round. Jones won the bout by unanimous decision (114-113, 117-110, 118-109) to claim the vacant International Boxing Council light heavyweight title.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On January 19, 2008, Jones faced former three-weight world champion Félix Trinidad at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Trinidad had also won the WBA Middleweight Title by defeating then Champion William Joppy. The bout was fought at a catchweight of 170 lbs. Jones had a noticeable size and speed advantage, and in round seven, a short right hand to the temple dropped Trinidad to his knees. Jones fired a combination in the tenth round to send Trinidad down once more. Jones won the fight by scores of 117–109 and 116–110 (twice). This was the first time a former heavyweight champion returned to fight successfully at 170 lbs. The fight generated 500,000 pay-per-view buys and $25 million in domestic television revenue. This was also the last fight of Trinidad's career.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: After Joe Calzaghe's split from promoter Frank Warren, it was officially announced that Roy Jones Jr. and Joe Calzaghe had reached an agreement to fight for "The Ring" Light Heavyweight Championship in New York City at Madison Square Garden on September 20, 2008 on HBO PPV. However, Calzaghe claimed injury to his right hand in training, so the fight had to be postponed a couple of weeks, with November 8 being set as the new date.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In the first round, Jones caught Calzaghe with an uppercut and knocked him down, as well as cutting the Welshman on the bridge of the nose. However, Jones failed to capitalize on the knock down. In the 2nd round Calzaghe began to control the action and dominated Jones throughout the remainder of the fight. As the fight progressed Jones absorbed more and more punishment and suffered a cut over his left eye. Jones' corner, who had never seen Roy cut before, didn't know how to properly handle the situation and blood covered the left side of his face. Ultimately, Jones lost by unanimous decision, winning only one round (10-8 in the first) on the 3 official judges cards. There was a crowd of 14,152. The fight generated 225,000 pay-per-view buys. It was reported that Calzaghe was paid $10 million from the fight. The fight aired in the UK on Setanta Sports after 4.30am local time, peaking at 500,000 viewers.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: It was announced that Jones would next fight Omar Sheika (27-8, 18 KOs) on March 21, 2009, at the Civic Center, Pensacola, Florida. Jones defeated Sheika via fifth-round technical knockout to claim the vacant WBO NABO light heavyweight title. The fight was the main event of a pay-per-view titled ""March Badness"", which included both boxing and mixed martial arts matches. Sheika had previously defeated Glen Johnson, who had knocked out Jones in 2004 and came into this fight having lost six of his last ten bouts. It was only his second fight since September 2005. Jones came in ranked as the #6 light heavyweight in the world by "The Ring""."


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On August 15, 2009, Jones beat former super middleweight champion Jeff Lacy (25-2, 17 KOs) in 10 rounds after Lacy's corner stopped the fight. The fight, billed as ""Hook City"", going off the boxers nicknames of '"Captain Hook"' and "'Left Hook"', took place at the Coast Coliseum in Biloxi, Mississippi. Lacy had never been knocked out or stopped before. Lacy had tried to pin Jones on the ropes throughout the fight, but Jones was unaffected by the tactic and seemed more worried about playing to the crowd than about Lacy's punches. There was a discussion in Lacy's corner after the ninth round about stopping it, but Lacy, convinced his team to give him another round. Jones landed 249 of 500 punches (50%) while Lacy connected on 104 of 429 (24%). Jones was ahead on all three judges scorecards at the time of stoppage (99-91, 100-89, 98-92).


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In December 2009, Roy Jones was set to face Australian boxer Danny Green in Sydney, Australia. In the weeks leading up to this fight, there were reports in the newspapers indicating difficulties getting Roy's sparring partners into Australia. Then on December 2, 2009, following an extensive pre-fight delay due to hand wrap protests, Danny Green defeated Jones via first-round TKO. Jones was initially gracious in his humbling defeat, stating that "We don't make excuses, it was a great performance by Danny." However, less than a month later, Jones would launch a formal complaint, accusing Green of using illegal hand wraps and demanding his loss be overturned, though the decision was upheld. Though Jones' rematch with Hopkins looked to be in trouble following Jones' loss, the two sides would officially come to an agreement in February 2010 for an April 3 bout.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Roy Jones Jr. and Bernard Hopkins (50-5-1, 32 KOs) met in a rematch bout, on April 3, 2010 at the Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino in Las Vegas, 17 years after their first fight. Jones entered with a record of 5-5 in his previous ten bouts dating back to May 2004 whilst Hopkins came in 4-1 since June 2006. After going the distance, Hopkins was awarded with a unanimous decision (118-109, 117-110 twice). Hopkins landed 184 of 526 punches (35%), while Jones connected on 82 of 274 (30%). Hopkins collapsed to his knees in his dressing room, drained from a brutal fight and exhausted by the end of his 17-year wait for revenge against Jones. The fight generated 150,000 pay-per-view buys.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In February 2011, Vladimir Hryunov confirmed that negotiations were taking place for Denis Lebedev (21-1, 16 KOs) to fight Jones in Moscow. Lebedev had just come off a controversial split decision loss to Marco Huck. At the time, Lebedev was ranked #4 at cruiserweight by "The Ring". On 24 March, a deal had been agreed which would see Jones earn a $500,000 purse. The fight, a 10-round bout, which was billed as the "Battle of Two Empires" was announced to take place on May 22 at Dynamo Palace of Sports in Krylatskoye. 2,000 tickets were reportedly sold on the day of release. The promoters expected a sell out.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Lebedev knocked Jones out with 2 seconds left in their 10-round bout. After round 9, the scorecards read (87–84, 85–86, 90–81). The controversy arose when Lebedev punched Jones, when it was, to some, clear that Jones was not responsive and was out on his feet. The final punch put Jones out cold on the canvas and he did not regain his senses for more than 5 minutes amid active medical help. After the bout, Lebedev said that he had nothing to be sorry about. Referee Steve Smoger was also accused of incompetence because he did not stop the fight even though Jones could no longer defend himself which led to Jones taking unnecessary damage. In a statement following the fight, Smoger said, "I didn't stop the fight because there were only a matter of seconds remaining in the fight and it seemed that Roy was pretending, trying to trick his opponent. He did this repeatedly in the fight. So I thought Jones was doing the same thing here, trying to deceive Lebedev in the final seconds of the fight in order to lure Denis in to land a big punch [which Jones managed to do in the previous round]." Jones, when asked about his feelings on the punch responded "I forgive him".


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones won a 10-round unanimous decision against Max Alexander on December 10, 2011, in Atlanta, snapping a three-match losing streak, and winning the Universal Boxing Organisation (UBO) Intercontinental cruiserweight championship. The three judges scored the bout all in Jones' favour (100-90, 100-90 & 99-91). Jones rarely pressed over the first seven rounds, but put together several combinations in the eighth and 10th rounds to beat Alexander. After the fight, Jones said, "I'm feeling wonderful. I want a cruiserweight title, the world title", said Jones, who weighed in at 189 pounds. "This is just a start. I'm not through yet." The fight was aired live on Internet PPV channel Ustream for $9.99.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones was due to fight Polish boxer Dawid Kostecki (39-1, 25 KOs) in a ten-round bout at Atlas Arena, Poland on June 30. Days before the fight, Kostecki was arrested on June 19 in order to begin serving a 2 and a half year prison sentence for a prior conviction of running a prostitution ring. Jones negotiated his deal with 12 Knockout Promotions, the fight's promoter, he was assured that Kostecki would not start serving his sentence until after the fight. 12 Knockout Promotions tried to secure a temporary release for Kostecki but were unsuccessful. Paweł Głażewski (17-0, 4 KOs), who was on standby all week, stepped in as a replacement. Jones defeated Głażewski by split decision (96-93, 94-95 & 96-94). There was some controversy from the decision. Many believed due to Jones being lined up to challenge then-WBC cruiserweight champion Krzysztof Włodarczyk, he was given the decision.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On December 21, 2013, Jones defeated Zine Eddine Benmakhlouf (17-3-1, 8 KOs) by unanimous decision for the vacant WBU cruiserweight title at the Dynamo Palace of Sports in Krylatskoye in Moscow, Russia. The fight was billed as a ""Winner Takes All"" match, with the winner receiving the entire purse. Benmakhlouf took a knee after Jones wobbled him with a left hook early in the third round. The judges scored the bout 120-108, 119-109 and 118-111.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones, fighting at the Ķīpsala International Exhibition Centre in Latvia, defeated Courtney Fry (18-5-0) via RTD in the 5th round on July 26, 2014. Jones was ahead on all three judges scorecards by the end of the fourth round, (50-44, 50-44 & 50-45). On September 26, 2014, Jones defeated Hany Atiyo via 1st-round KO after 75 seconds. This fight took place in front of a sold-out crowd at The Basket Hall in Krasnodar, Russia. This was a second straight stoppage and fifth consecutive victory for Jones. Jones' next bout, for the first time 4 years, took place in USA at the Cabarrus Arena in Concord, North Carolina and ultimately saw him defeat Willy Williams via 2nd-round TKO. Near the end of the same month on March 28, Jones was again back in the ring, this time against Paul Vasquez (10-6-1, 3 KOs), defeating him via 1st-round TKO for the WBU (German Version) cruiserweight title at the Pensacola Bay Center in Florida. On August 16, 2015, Jones scored his 62nd professional victory and 45th knockout win by defeating Eric Watkins via 6th-round KO.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On October 28, 2015, it was announced that Jones would be fighting former WBO cruiserweight champion Enzo Maccarinelli, 35, who had a career record of 40 wins and 7 losses, for the WBA 'super' world cruiserweight title. However, this was a 'false rumour'. It was however announced that they would fight on December 12, 2015, in a non-title cruiserweight battle. This was Jones' first fight since being granted Russian citizenship and he was going into it with 8 straight victories, with the last 4 inside the distance. The fight took place at the VTB Ice Palace in Moscow.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: After an evenly matched 3 rounds, the 4th round started more in Maccarinelli's favour. Halfway through the round, Maccarinelli dropped Jones with an uppercut. Jones beat the count and carried on for 10–12 seconds more with his gloves to his face, eating several more uppercuts. Against the ropes, he then absorbed a huge right hook which caused him to stiffen and fall face down on the canvas. Referee Ingo Barrabas waved off the fight in what was Jones' 9th career defeat, the 5th by KO.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On March 20, 2016, Jones fought in Phoenix, Arizona at the Celebrity Theatre against 33-year-old MMA fighter Vyron Phillips, who had won the right to fight him after having been selected through a vote on Facebook. Phillips, who fought in his first boxing match, was 5-3 in MMA bouts and 6-1 as an amateur boxer. Phillips would have received $100,000 if he had knocked Jones out, but was knocked down in the second round by Jones. The referee then stopped the fight.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Square Ring Promotions announced on July 29, Jones would return to his hometown, Pensacola Bay Center in Pensacola, Florida on August 13 against journeyman "Rockin'" Rodney Moore (17-11-2, 7 KOs) in a cruiserweight bout. The fight headlined the "Island Fights 38" card, an ongoing series that combines boxing matches and MMA bouts on the same show. Jones last fought in Pensacola in March 2015, when he knocked out Paul Vasquez in the first round. Moore did not fight between 2005 and 2012 and has lost nine consecutive fights, although only one of them came by knockout. That was a second-round stoppage to top cruiserweight contender Murat Gassiev 13 months ago. On fight night, in front of more than 5,000 fans in attendance, in a slow-paced affair, Jones won a one-sided 10 round unanimous decision with shutout scores of 100-90 on all three cards.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: It was noted that Jones incurred a tear in his right biceps in round five and fought the rest of the bout one handed and admitted after the bout the healing time required for his torn right biceps probably meant the end of his long career. In October, Jones stated his intentions to continue fighting on and not retiring from the sport.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On December 2, 2016, David Feldman Promotions confirmed a fight between Jones and undefeated bare-knuckle fighter and former world title challenger Bobby Gunn would be announced for February 17, 2017, for the vacant World Boxing Foundation Cruiserweight championship at a press conference on December 6 at the Chase Center in Delaware. At the time of announcement, Gunn was a former IBA cruiserweight champion and bare-knuckle heavyweight champion, with a record of 72-0 with 72 knockouts. The fight was made official at the press conference on December 7. Jones spoke of his long-awaited desire to fight Gunn, "I always do things that people don't expect me to do. I promised Bobby a long time ago that I would give him the opportunity, and I am a man of my word. Come February 17th, I am going to shock the world again." At the official weigh-in Jones came in 199 pounds and Gunn weighed in lighter at 197.4 pounds. In a slow-paced fight, Jones stopped Gunn in the beginning of the 8th round, before Gunn had even left his corner, to win the vacant World Boxing Foundation cruiserweight title. Gunn injured his nose and was out boxed by Jones throughout seven rounds. In the post fight, Jones and Gunn both embraced.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones spoke about his desire to continue his boxing career further, "Anything is possible, I'm not going to make an immediate decision. Why would I stop when I looked that good though?... I want a shot at a cruiserweight title ... I do intend on fighting and we'll see what happens in the future. I looked good." Jones later told On The Ropes Boxing Radio, "Yeah I think it's my last year in boxing, and I tell people all the time." Hinting he may retire at the end of 2017. On December 3, 2017, after Miguel Cotto's farewell fight re-iterated his desire to continue boxing.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On December 30, 2017, Jones announced that he would return to the Bay Center in Pensacola, Florida to headline the Island Fights 46 on February 8, 2018. Jones had previously headlined Island Fights, which is a show that included both boxing and MMA bouts. Speaking of the event, Jones said, "My last day at the Bay. It's my last one for the bayfront ... Civic Center, Pensacola, Bayfront Arena, whatever you want to call it. So if you want to come to see my last day in Pensacola, be there February 8. That's my last one there." He stated it would be his final fight. Jones announced Scott Sigmon (30-11-1, 16 KOs) as his opponent for the 10 round bout. Jones ended his boxing career defeating Sigmon via a one-sided 10 round unanimous decision, also winning the vacant World Boxing Union cruiserweight title in the process. All three judges scored the fight 98-92 in favour of Jones. Jones started off the better boxer landed upper cuts and hooks and remained in control throughout the fight. Jones landed an uppercut in round 5 which knocked Sigmon's mouthpiece out. In round 6, Sigmon began throwing more punches, although they were weak combinations easily blocked by Jones. Jones was also able to counter most of the shots Sigmon threw.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: After the fight, Jones stated he had fought with a bicep injury. He also called for a boxing match against 42-year-old former UFC middleweight champion Anderson Silva. In the post-fight interview, he said, "I knew Scott was tough, I knew Scott was game and I knew Scott would keep coming. However, I don't make excuses, but last week I tore my biceps in my left arm again and I refused to pull out. Other than that [fight], chapter closed." Jones retired after 75 professional fights over 29 years; 66 wins, 47 coming inside the distance and 9 losses.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: It was announced in July 2020 that Jones had signed a contract to face former undisputed heavyweight champion, Mike Tyson, in an eight-round exhibition fight. The bout—officially sanctioned by the California State Athletic Commission (CSAC)—was initially scheduled to take place on September 12 at the Dignity Health Sports Park in Carson, California, however, the date was pushed back to November 28 in order to maximize revenue for the event. The fight lasted the full 8 rounds, and was declared a draw.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones was born in Pensacola, Florida. His mother, Carol, was warm and easy-going, whereas his father, Roy Sr., was much like a Marine Drill Instructor with respect to his son. A decorated Vietnam veteran, ex-club fighter and retired aircraft engineer who had taken up hog farming, Roy Sr. was harsh on his son from early on, taunting the child, "sparring" with him, enraging on him, yelling at him and abusing him, often for 20 minutes at a time. Roy Jr. lived in constant fear of his father's verbal and physical violence against him.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones described his childhood in "Sports Illustrated": "After a while I didn't care about gettin' hurt or dyin' anymore. I was in pain all day, every day, I was so scared of my father. He'd pull up in his truck and start lookin' for something I'd done wrong. There was no escape, no excuse, no way out of nothin'. ... Getting' hurt or dyin' might've been better than the life I was livin'. ... Used to think about killin' myself anyway."


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Roy Sr. ran his own boxing gym, to which he devoted all his available time and financial resources. He offered direction to numerous youths and steered many of them away from trouble. Roy Sr. did everything possible to expand the program and help more kids. But towards his own son he was merciless, driving Roy Jr. to the brink of exhaustion, screaming at him in front of all the other fighters and assaulting him."


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Using his birds as an image for his own predicament, Jones said in the same "Sports Illustrated" piece: "I spent all my life in my dad's cage. I could never be 100 percent of who I am until I left it. But because of him, nothing bothers me. I'll never face anything stronger and harder than what I already have."


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: On August 19, 2015, Roy Jones Jr. met with Vladimir Putin in Sevastopol, Crimea, to ask for Russian citizenship. Jones stated that he often visited Russia for business activity, and a passport would avoid inconvenient rides. Jones was granted Russian citizenship on September 12. For this, he was banned from entering Ukraine.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones and his wife have three children. Their eldest son Roy III played basketball at Findlay Prep in Henderson, Nev.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones was known for his unique and unorthodox fighting style that defied many of boxing's oldest traditions. His style relied heavily on his great hand speed, quickness, reflexes, ring IQ and knockout power which were often the deciding factors in most of his fights during his prime. He had such hand speed that he could often throw hooks in rapid succession. He was nicknamed "Captain Hook", because he would deliver four or five hooks in a row from different angles. But he would also mix it up with a variety of punches to keep his opponents guessing.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones' style often saw him with his hands down and relying on head movement to evade his opponent's punches. He used his cat-like reflexes to bob and weave, slip and counter his opponent. Jones was a master at this sort of style, and used this to his advantage by sticking his chin out to bait his opponents into hitting him, only to pull back and counter the off-balance opponent with his own punches.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: He also rarely led with the jab and instead was known for leading with leaping left hooks or the right cross. Immediately after his second fight with Montell Griffin, former heavyweight champion George Foreman remarked that Jones did not need a jab to setup his punches due to his extraordinary quickness and that he is probably the only boxer in history he could say that about. He also been quoted as saying that Jones, "hits like a heavyweight and moves like a lightweight."


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones is also said to have integrated cockfighting into his boxing style, often using exaggerated feints to catch his opponents off-balance. He also had the ability to land punches from odd angles that his opponents failed to see and his unusual style was very difficult to adjust to for most opponents who often struggled to find sparring partners that could mimic his unique style. Boxer Montell Griffin, who faced Jones twice at 175 lbs and sparred with Floyd Mayweather Jr. at 140 lbs said, "Floyd was no comparison as far as speed. Roy was much faster."


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In 1996, High Frequency Boxing's John DiMaio wrote "The early evidence points toward the real possibility that Jones is the greatest talent this sport has ever seen. His skill so dwarfs that of his nearest ranked opposition ... that providing competitive opponents is a more challenging dilemma than the fights themselves." The expert opinion of Boxing magazine's editor, Bert Sugar, is provided on Jones' website: "He possesses the fastest hands in boxing with lightning fast moves and explosive power in both hands." After Mike MacCallum lost the World Boxing Council light heavyweight crown to Roy Jones in a 1996 unanimous decision, he called Jones "the greatest fighter of all time."


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: Jones started his rap music career in 2001 with his album, titled "" and the debut single, "Y'All Must've Forgot". In 2004, Jones formed a group, Body Head Bangerz and released an album. The album, "", featured B.G., Juvenile, Bun B of UGK, Petey Pablo, Lil' Flip and Mike Jones among others.


title: Roy Jones Jr.

text: In addition, Jones has made multiple songs regarding Florida State University Athletics. Growing up in the panhandle of Florida, Jones has been a long time fan of Florida State University.


title: Caviar

text: Caviar (also known as caviare; from ) is a food consisting of salt-cured roe of the family Acipenseridae. Caviar is considered a delicacy and is eaten as a garnish or a spread. Traditionally, the term caviar refers only to roe from wild sturgeon in the Caspian Sea and Black Sea (Beluga, Ossetra and Sevruga caviars). The term caviar can also describe the roe of other species of sturgeon or other fish such as salmon, steelhead, trout, lumpfish, whitefish, or carp.


title: Caviar

text: The roe can be "fresh" (non-pasteurized) or pasteurized, with pasteurization reducing its culinary and economic value.


title: Caviar

text: According to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization, roe from any fish not belonging to the Acipenseriformes order (including Acipenseridae, or sturgeon "sensu stricto", and Polyodontidae or paddlefish) are not caviar, but "substitutes of caviar." This position is also adopted by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the World Wide Fund for Nature, the United States Customs Service, and France.


title: Caviar

text: The term "caviar" is sometimes used to describe dishes that are perceived to resemble caviar, such as "eggplant caviar" (made from eggplant) and "Texas caviar" (made from black-eyed peas).


title: Caviar

text: Caviar and sturgeon from the Sea of Azov began reaching the tables of aristocratic and noble Greeks in the 10th century, after the commencement of large-scale trading between the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus'.


title: Caviar

text: The main types of caviar from sturgeon species native to the Caspian Sea are Beluga, Sterlet, Kaluga hybrid, Ossetra, Siberian sturgeon and Sevruga. American White Sturgeon caviar is abundant and native to California and the U.S. Pacific Northwest. The rarest and costliest is from beluga sturgeon that swim in the Caspian Sea, which is bordered by Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan. Wild caviar production was suspended in Russia between 2008 and 2011 to allow wild stocks to replenish. Azerbaijan and Iran also allow the fishing of sturgeon off their coasts. Beluga caviar is prized for its soft, extremely large (pea-size) eggs. It can range in color from pale silver-gray to black. It is followed by the small golden sterlet caviar which is rare and was once reserved for Russian, Iranian and Austrian royalty. Next in quality is the medium-sized, light brown to rich brown Ossetra, also known as Russian caviar. Others in the quality ranking are the gray sevruga caviar, the Chinese Kaluga caviar, and the American white sturgeon caviar. The Siberian variety with black beads is similar to sevruga and is popular because of its reduced (5 years) harvest period, but it has a higher brine content than other kinds. The Chinese Kaluga hybrid varies in color from dark gray to light golden green and is a close cousin of beluga caviar.


title: Caviar

text: An expensive caviar example at sold for £20,000 (then US$34,500) is the Iranian 'Almas' product (from , "diamond") produced from the eggs of a rare albino sturgeon between 60 and 100 years old from the southern Caspian Sea. Wild beluga sturgeon caviar from the Caspian Sea was priced in 2012 at $16,000 per . Cheaper alternatives have been developed from the roe of whitefish and the North Atlantic salmon.


title: Caviar

text: Conventional sturgeon caviar was priced in 2014 at about $105 per and from albino sturgeon up to $800 per ounce. Other quality factors are texture – with firmness having higher quality value – flavor qualities, such as creaminess, butter taste, and brine or mild fish finish, and whether the caviar was taken from the fish by massage (higher value) rather than by killing it.


title: Caviar

text: China has emerged as the leading producer, accounting for 60% of the world production in caviar. The largest caviar company in the world is the Chinese brand Kaluga Queen, which cultivates sturgeon at Qiandao Lake in Zhejiang.


title: Caviar

text: Kibbutz Dan in Israel produces 4 tons of caviar a year. The farm is fed by the Dan River, a tributary of the Jordan River.


title: Caviar

text: Cristoforo da Messisbugo in his book "Libro novo nel qual si insegna a far d'ogni sorte di vivanda", Venice, 1564, at page 110, gave the first recorded recipe in Italy about extraction of the eggs from the roe and caviar preparation "to be consumed fresh or to preserve".


title: Caviar

text: The writer and voyager Jérôme Lalande in his book ""Voyage en Italie"", Paris, 1771, vol. 8, page 269, noted that many sturgeon were caught in the Po delta area in the territory of Ferrara.


title: Caviar

text: In 1753 a diplomatic war broke out between the Papal States, governing the Ferrara territory, and the Venetian Republic about sturgeon fishing rights in the Po river, the border between the two states. From about 1920 and until 1942 there was a shop in Ferrara, named "Nuta" from the nickname of the owner Benvenuta Ascoli, that processed all the sturgeons caught in the Po river for caviar extraction, using an elaboration of the original Messisbugo recipe, and shipped it to Italy and Europe. A new owner sporadically continued production until 1972, when sturgeon stopped swimming up the Po river. Since 2015, some sturgeon have reappeared in the Po.


title: Caviar

text: Currently, Italian caviar is obtained almost entirely from bred sturgeons. The caviar production is concentrated predominantly in Brescia, which is considered the capital of Italian caviar: in this area, in Calvisano, is located the world's largest sturgeons farm that produces annually 25 tonnes of caviar. Italian caviar is generally the most sold and appreciated in the world: Italy is the world's leading producer.


title: Caviar

text: In Malaysia, caviar production is relatively new and smaller in scale. Caviar is harvested from farmed sturgeon fish in Tanjung Malim, Perak. The caviar produced here is marketed as "tropical caviar". The first Malaysian brand of tropical caviar was launched in March 2019.


title: Caviar

text: In the early 20th century, Canada and the United States were the major caviar suppliers to Europe; they harvested roe from the lake sturgeon in the North American Midwest, and from the shortnose sturgeon and the Atlantic sturgeon spawning in the rivers of the East Coast of the United States. The American caviar industry started when Henry Schacht, a German immigrant, opened a business catching sturgeon on the Delaware River. He treated his caviar with German salt and exported a great deal of it to Europe. Around the same time, sturgeon was fished from the Columbia River on the West Coast of the United States, also supplying caviar. At the time, American caviar was so plentiful that it was given away at bars to induce or prolong patrons' thirst.


title: Caviar

text: Today, the shortnose sturgeon is rated "Vulnerable" in the IUCN Red List of endangered species and rated "Endangered" per the Endangered Species Act. With the depletion of Caspian and Black Sea caviar, production of farmed or "sustainable" caviar has greatly increased. In particular, northern California is reported to account for 70% to 80% of U.S. production.


title: Caviar

text: In 2021 a significant illegal sturgeon egg harvesting and selling ring run in part by the former top sturgeon biologist for the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was discovered and broken up by investigators.


title: Caviar

text: In the wake of over-fishing, the harvest and sale of black caviar were banned in Russia in 2007. The ban on sturgeon fishing in the Caspian Sea has led to the development of aquaculture as an economically viable means of commercial caviar production.


title: Caviar

text: Until 1992, sturgeons and caviar were collected at the lower parts of rivers Guadalquivir, Ebro, Duero and Tajo.


title: Caviar

text: Overfishing, pollution and the Alcalá del Río dam eliminated the wild population of "Acipenser naccarii".


title: Caviar

text: The British royal family had held a long affinity with the sturgeon since 1324, when Edward II decreed it a royal fish, whereby all sturgeons found within the foreshore of the Kingdom are decreed property of the monarch.


title: Caviar

text: Over-fishing, smuggling and pollution caused by sewage entry into the Caspian Sea have considerably reduced the sea's sturgeon population.


title: Caviar

text: In September 2005, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service banned the import of Caspian Sea Beluga caviar to protect the endangered Beluga sturgeon; a month later, the ban was extended to include Beluga caviar from the entire Black Sea basin. In January 2006, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) supported an international embargo on caviar export. In January 2007, this ban was partly lifted, allowing the sale of 96 tons of caviar, 15% below the official 2005 level. In July 2010, Russia and some other CIS countries restarted the export of caviar. The 2010 quotas allow for the export of three tons of beluga, 17 tons of sevruga and 27 tons of osetra. In September 2010, Kazakhstan launched a state monopoly brand, Zhaik Balyk, from the Kazakh word for the Ural River. Under the CITES agreement, Kazakhstan was granted the right to produce 13 out of the 80 tons allowed up until 28 February 2011.


title: Caviar

text: Commercial caviar production historically involved stunning the fish and extracting the ovaries. Another method of extracting caviar is by performing a caesarean section, which allows the female to continue producing roe. Other farmers use a process called "stripping", which extracts the caviar from the fish via a small incision made along the urogenital muscle when the fish is deemed to be ready to be processed. An ultrasound is used to determine the correct timing. Removing the caviar by massage may yield higher quality and a more sustainable source.


title: Caviar

text: Preparation follows a sequence that has not significantly changed over the last century. First, the ovaries are removed from a sedated female sturgeon and passed through a sieve to remove the membrane. Freed roes are rinsed to wash away impurities. Roes are now ready to become caviar by adding a precise amount of salt for taste and preservation. The fresh product is tasted and graded according to quality. Finally, the eggs are packed into lacquer-lined tins that will be further processed or sold directly to customers.


title: Caviar

text: A sturgeon caviar imitation is a black or red coloured lumpsucker caviar sold throughout Europe in small glass jars.


title: Caviar

text: In Sweden and Finland the roes of many fish species including vendace, burbot, salmon and common whitefish are also commonly eaten in a similar manner as caviar. However, they are not caviar 'substitutes' but enjoyed in their own right.


title: Caviar

text: There are also kosher and vegan caviar substitutes made of seaweeds such as "Laminaria hyperborea". They closely resemble beluga caviar in appearance and are either used as a food prop for television and film, or enjoyed by vegetarians and other people throughout the world.


title: Caviar

text: Another common technique is to use spherification of liquids to recreate caviar's texture, albeit not the flavour.


title: Caviar

text: In Scandinavia, a type of sandwich spread is available, made from smoked cod roe and other ingredients, which is referred to as "smörgåskaviar" (meaning "sandwich caviar"). Outside Scandinavia, the product is referred to as "creamed smoked roe" or in French as "Caviar de Lysekil".


title: Caviar

text: In a common serving amount of 16 grams (one tablespoon), caviar supplies 44 kilocalories of food energy, 53% of the Daily Value, (DV) of vitamin B12, and moderate amounts (10-15% DV) of sodium, iron, magnesium, and selenium, with no other micronutrients in significant content.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where civilization was created by mankind independent of other civilizations in other locations. The formation of urban settlements (cities) is the primary characteristic of a society that can be characterized as "civilized". Other characteristics of civilization include a sedentary non-nomadic population, monumental architecture, the existence of social classes and inequality, and the creation of a writing system for communication. The transition from simpler societies to the complex society of a civilization is gradual.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Scholars generally acknowledge six cradles of civilization. Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, and Ancient China are believed to be the earliest in the Old World. Cradles of civilization in the New World are the Caral-Supe civilization of coastal Peru and the Olmec civilization of Mexico. All of the cradles of civilization depended upon agriculture for subsistence (except possibly Caral-Supe which may have depended initially on marine resources). All depended upon farmers producing an agricultural surplus to support the centralized government, political leaders, priests, and public works of the urban centers of the civilization.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Less formally, the term "cradle of civilization" is often used to refer to other historic civilizations, such as notably Greece, which has been called the "cradle of Western civilization".


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the Levant to as early as 12,000 BC, when the Natufian culture became sedentary; it evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BC. The importance of water to safeguard an abundant and stable food supply, due to favourable conditions for hunting, fishing and gathering resources including cereals, provided an initial "wide spectrum economy" that triggered the creation of permanent villages.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The earliest proto-urban settlements with several thousand inhabitants emerged in the Neolithic which began in Western Asia in 10,000 BC. The first cities to house several tens of thousands were Uruk, Ur, Kish and Eridu in Mesopotamia, followed by Susa in Elam and Memphis in Egypt, all by the 31st century BC (see Historical urban community sizes).


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Historic times are marked apart from prehistoric times when "records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations"—in written or oral form. If the rise of civilization is taken to coincide with the development of writing out of proto-writing, then the Near Eastern Chalcolithic (the transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age during the 4th millennium BC) and the development of proto-writing in Harappa in the Indus Valley of South Asia around 3,300 BC are the earliest instances, followed by Chinese proto-writing evolving into the oracle bone script, and again by the emergence of Mesoamerican writing systems from about 900 BC.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: In the absence of written documents, most aspects of the rise of early civilizations are contained in archaeological assessments that document the development of formal institutions and the material culture. A "civilized" way of life is ultimately linked to conditions coming almost exclusively from intensive agriculture. Gordon Childe defined the development of civilization as the result of two successive revolutions: the Neolithic Revolution of Western Asia, triggering the development of settled communities, and the Urban revolution which also first emerged in Western Asia, which enhanced tendencies towards dense settlements, specialized occupational groups, social classes, exploitation of surpluses, monumental public buildings and writing. Few of those conditions, however, are unchallenged by the records: dense cities were not attested in Egypt's Old Kingdom (unlike Mesopotamia) and cities had a dispersed population in the Maya area; the Incas lacked writing although they could keep records with Quipus which might also have had literary uses; and often monumental architecture preceded any indication of village settlement. For instance, in present-day Louisiana, researchers have determined that cultures that were primarily nomadic organized over generations to build earthwork mounds at seasonal settlements as early as 3400 BC. Rather than a succession of events and preconditions, the rise of civilization could equally be hypothesized as an accelerated process that started with incipient agriculture and culminated in the Oriental Bronze Age.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Scholars thought that civilization began in the Fertile Crescent and spread out from there by influence. Scholars now believe that civilizations arose independently at several locations in both hemispheres. They have observed that sociocultural developments occurred along different timeframes. "Sedentary" and "nomadic" communities continued to interact considerably; they were not strictly divided among widely different cultural groups. The concept of a cradle of civilization has a focus where the inhabitants came to build cities, to create writing systems, to experiment in techniques for making pottery and using metals, to domesticate animals, and to develop complex social structures involving class systems.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: A question that intrigues scholars is why pristine civilizations rose when and where they did. The economies of all of the pristine civilizations depended upon agriculture, with the possible exception of the Andean coast civilization which may have initially relied as much or more on marine resources. Jared Diamond postulates that the reason the Fertile Crescent was the earliest civilization was that large-seeded, easily-domesticable plants (wheat and barley, among others) and large domesticable animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, horses) were native to the region. By contrast, it took thousands of years of selective breeding in Mesoamerica for maize to become productive enough to be a staple crop. Mesoamerica also lacked large domesticable animals. Llamas were the only large, domesticable animal in the Andes of South America. Llamas are large enough to be pack animals but not large enough to be ridden or used as draft animals. Australia lacked both easily domesticable plants and large animals.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Fertile Crescent of 7500 BC was an arc of hilly land in Northwest Asia that stretches from parts of modern Palestine and Israel through Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq to the Zagros Mountains in Iran. It was one of the oldest areas in the world in which agriculture was practiced and probably the oldest area of the world in which sedentary farming villages existed. Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7600 to 6000 BC) appeared in the Fertile Crescent and from there spread eastward towards South Asia and westward towards Europe and North Africa. One of the most notable PPNA settlements is Jericho, Palestine, thought to be the world's first town (settled around 9600 BC and fortified around 6800 BC).


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Current theories and findings identify the Fertile Crescent as the first and oldest cradle of civilization. Examples of sites in this area are the early Neolithic site of Göbekli Tepe (9500 BC - 8000 BC) and Çatalhöyük (7500 – 5700 BC).


title: Cradle of civilization

text: In Mesopotamia (a region encompassing modern Iraq and bordering regions of Southeast Turkey, Northeast Syria and Northwest Iran), the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation. Neolithic cultures emerged in the region from 8000 BC onwards. The civilizations that emerged around these rivers are the earliest known non-nomadic agrarian societies. It is because of this that the Fertile Crescent region, and Mesopotamia in particular, are often referred to as the cradle of civilization. The period known as the Ubaid period (c. 6500 to 3800 BC) is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain, although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium. It was during the Ubaid period that the movement toward urbanization began. Agriculture and animal husbandry were widely practiced in sedentary communities, particularly in Northern Mesopotamia (later Assyria), and intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture began to be practiced in the south.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Around 6000 BC, Neolithic settlements began to appear all over Egypt. Studies based on morphological, genetic, and archaeological data have attributed these settlements to migrants from the Fertile Crescent in the Near East arriving in Egypt and North Africa during the Egyptian and North African Neolithic Revolution and bringing agriculture to the region. Tell el-'Oueili is the oldest Sumerian site settled during this period, around 5400 BC, and the city of Ur also first dates to the end of this period. In the south, the Ubaid period lasted from around 6500 to 3800 BC.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Sumerian civilization coalesced in the subsequent Uruk period (4000 to 3100 BC). Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and, during its later phase, the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script. Proto-writing in the region dates to around 3800 BC, with the earliest texts dating to 3300 BC; early cuneiform writing emerged in 3000 BC. It was also during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular, along with cylinder seals. Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king ("ensi"), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Jemdet Nasr period, which is generally dated from 3100 to 2900 BC and succeeds the Uruk period, is known as one of the formative stages in the development of the cuneiform script. The oldest clay tablets come from Uruk and date to the late fourth millennium BC, slightly earlier than the Jemdet Nasr Period. By the time of the Jemdet Nasr Period, the script had already undergone a number of significant changes. It originally consisted of pictographs, but by the time of the Jemdet Nasr Period it was already adopting simpler and more abstract designs. It is also during this period that the script acquired its iconic wedge-shaped appearance.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Uruk trade networks started to expand to other parts of Mesopotamia and as far as North Caucasus, and strong signs of governmental organization and social stratification began to emerge, leading to the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900 BC). After the Early Dynastic period began, there was a shift in control of the city-states from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly "En" (a male figure when it was a temple for a goddess, or a female figure when headed by a male god) towards a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great). The Lugals included such legendary patriarchal figures as Enmerkar, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh, who supposedly reigned shortly before the historic record opens around 2700 BC, when syllabic writing started to develop from the early pictograms. The center of Sumerian culture remained in southern Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas. Neighboring Semitic groups, including the Akkadian speaking Semites (Assyrians, Babylonians) who lived alongside the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own. The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period, although architectural precursors in the form of raised platforms date back to the Ubaid period. The Sumerian King List dates to the early second millennium BC. It consists of a succession of royal dynasties from different Sumerian cities, ranging back into the Early Dynastic Period. Each dynasty rises to prominence and dominates the region, only to be replaced by the next. The document was used by later Mesopotamian kings to legitimize their rule. While some of the information in the list can be checked against other texts such as economic documents, much of it is probably purely fictional, and its use as a historical document is limited.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Eannatum, the Sumerian king of Lagash, established the first verifiable empire in history in 2500 BC. The neighboring Elam, in modern Iran, was also part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East. The emergence of Elamite written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC. The Semitic-speaking Akkadian empire emerged around 2350 BC under Sargon the Great. The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC. Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium. After the fall of the Akkadian Empire and the overthrow of the Gutians, there was a brief reassertion of Sumerian dominance in Mesopotamia under the Third Dynasty of Ur. After the final collapse of Sumerian hegemony in Mesopotamia around 2004 BC, the Semitic Akkadian people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north (whose earliest kings date to the 25th century BC), and, a few centuries later, Babylonia in the south, both of which (Assyria in particular) would go on to form powerful empires between the 20th and 6th centuries BC. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Semitic Assyrian-Babylonian population.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,200 BC) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7600 to 6000 BC) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Contemporaneously, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering people using stone tools along the Nile. Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies also suggest that natural climate changes around 8000 BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa, eventually forming the Sahara. Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. The oldest fully developed neolithic culture in Egypt is Fayum A culture that began around 5500 B.C.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of inter-related cultures as far south as Sudan, demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper Southern Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and use of copper. The oldest known domesticated bovine in Africa are from Fayum dating to around 4400 BC. The Badari cultures was followed by the Naqada culture, which brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the first Naqada Period, Amratia, Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. By 3300 BC, just before the first Egyptian dynasty, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper Egypt to the south, and Lower Egypt to the north.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Egyptian civilization begins during the second phase of the Naqada culture, known as the Gerzeh period, around 3500 BC and coalesces with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3150 BC. Farming produced the vast majority of food; with increased food supplies, the populace adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle, and the larger settlements grew to cities of about 5,000 residents. It was in this time that the city dwellers started using mud brick to build their cities, and the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect became popular. Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools and weaponry. Symbols on Gerzean pottery also resemble nascent Egyptian hieroglyphs. Early evidence also exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast, during this time. Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt, also underwent a unification process. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt under his single rule.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the Naqada III archaeological period until about the beginning of the Old Kingdom, c. 2686 BC. With the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by a god-king. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the subsequent Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order. Along with the rising importance of a central administration there arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC, is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: One of the earliest Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent is Bhirrana along the ancient Ghaggar-Hakra riverine system in the present day state of Haryana in India, dating to around 7600 BC. Other early sites include Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers, both dating to around 7000 BC.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The aceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh in present day Pakistan lasts from 7000 to 5500 BC, with the ceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasting up to 3300 BC; blending into the Early Bronze Age. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in the Indian subcontinent. It is likely that the culture centered around Mehrgarh migrated into the Indus Valley in present day Pakistan and became the Indus Valley civilization. The earliest fortified town in the region is found at Rehman Dheri, dated 4000 BC in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa close to River Zhob Valley in present day Pakistan . Other fortified towns found to date are at Amri (3600–3300 BC), Kot Diji in Sindh, and at Kalibangan (3000 BC) at the Hakra River.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Indus Valley Civilization starts around 3300 BC with what is referred to as the Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BC). The earliest examples of the Indus script date to this period, as well as the emergence of citadels representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: 2600 BC marks the Mature Harappan Phase during which Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centers including Harappa, Dholavira, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, Rupar, and Rakhigarhi, and more than 1,000 towns and villages, often of relatively small size. Mature Harappans evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin and displayed advanced levels of engineering. As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first known urban sanitation systems: see hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley civilization. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights. These chert weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya's "Arthashastra" (4th century BC) are the same as those used in Lothal.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Around 1800 BC, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BC most of the cities had been abandoned. Suggested contributory causes for the localisation of the IVC include changes in the course of the river, and climate change that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. many scholars believe that drought led to a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia contributing to the collapse of the Indus Civilization. The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed, and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BC, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilization's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. As the monsoons kept shifting south, the floods grew too erratic for sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated away into smaller communities. However trade with the old cities did not flourish. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. The Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into the Indus River Valley during this period and began the Vedic age of India. The Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilization continued in later Indian subcontinent and Vedic cultures.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Drawing on archaeology, geology and anthropology, modern scholars do not see the origins of the Chinese civilization or history as a linear story but rather the history of the interactions of different and distinct cultures and ethnic groups that influenced each other's development. The specific cultural regions that developed Chinese civilization were the Yellow River civilization, the Yangtze civilization, and Liao civilization. Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BC, with the earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River, dated to 6500 BC. Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China. By the beginning of the Neolithic Revolution, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of the Peiligang culture, which flourished from 7000 to 5000 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. Its most prominent site is Jiahu. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (6600 BC) are the earliest form of proto-writing in China. However, it is likely that they should not be understood as writing itself, but as features of a lengthy period of sign-use, which led eventually to a fully-fledged system of writing. Archaeologists believe that the Peiligang culture was egalitarian, with little political organization.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: It eventually evolved into the Yangshao culture (5000 to 3000 BC), and their stone tools were polished and highly specialized. They may also have practiced an early form of silkworm cultivation. The main food of the Yangshao people was millet, with some sites using foxtail millet and others broom-corn millet, though some evidence of rice has been found. The exact nature of Yangshao agriculture, small-scale slash-and-burn cultivation versus intensive agriculture in permanent fields, is currently a matter of debate. Once the soil was exhausted, residents picked up their belongings, moved to new lands, and constructed new villages. However, Middle Yangshao settlements such as Jiangzhi contain raised-floor buildings that may have been used for the storage of surplus grains. Grinding stones for making flour were also found.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 to 1900 BC, its most prominent site being Taosi. The population expanded dramatically during the 3rd millennium BC, with many settlements having rammed earth walls. It decreased in most areas around 2000 BC until the central area evolved into the Bronze Age Erlitou culture. The earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site (3100 to 2700 BC).


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Chinese civilization begins during the second phase of the Erlitou period (1900 to 1500 BC), with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East Asia. There is considerable debate whether Erlitou sites correlate to the semi-legendary Xia dynasty. The Xia dynasty (2070 to 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient Chinese historical records such as the "Bamboo Annals", first published more than a millennium later during the Western Zhou period. Although Xia is an important element in Chinese historiography, there is to date no contemporary written evidence to corroborate the dynasty. Erlitou saw an increase in bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a rapidly growing regional center with palatial complexes that provide evidence for social stratification. The Erlitou civilization is divided into four phases, each of roughly 50 years. During Phase I, covering , Erlitou was a rapidly growing regional center with estimated population of several thousand but not yet an urban civilization or capital. Urbanization began in Phase II, expanding to with a population around 11,000. A palace area of was demarcated by four roads. It contained the 150x50 m Palace 3, composed of three courtyards along a 150-meter axis, and Palace 5. A bronze foundry was established to the south of the palatial complex that was controlled by the elite who lived in palaces. The city reached its peak in Phase III, and may have had a population of around 24,000. The palatial complex was surrounded by a two-meter-thick rammed-earth wall, and Palaces 1, 7, 8, 9 were built. The earthwork volume of rammed earth for the base of largest Palace 1 is 20,000 m³ at least. Palaces 3 and 5 were abandoned and replaced by Palace 2 and Palace 4. In Phase IV, the population decreased to around 20,000, but building continued. Palace 6 was built as an extension of Palace 2, and Palaces 10 and 11 were built. Phase IV overlaps with the Lower phase of the Erligang culture (1600–1450  BC). Around 1600 to 1560 BC, about 6 km northeast of Erlitou, a culturally Erligang walled city was built at Yanshi, which coincides with an increase in production of arrowheads at Erlitou. This situation might indicate that the Yanshi city was competing for power and dominance with Erlitou. Production of bronzes and other elite goods ceased at the end of Phase IV, at the same time as the Erligang city of Zhengzhou was established to the east. There is no evidence of destruction by fire or war, but, during the Upper Erligang phase (1450–1300  BC), all the palaces were abandoned, and Erlitou was reduced to a village of .


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The earliest traditional Chinese dynasty for which there is both archeological and written evidence is the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BC). Shang sites have yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, the oracle bone script, mostly divinations inscribed on bones. These inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization. Some historians argue that Erlitou should be considered an early phase of the Shang dynasty. The U.S. National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the period between about 2000 and 771 BC; a period that begins with the Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou rule. The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese Bronze Age society, contemporaneous to the Shang dynasty, however they developed a different method of bronze-making from the Shang.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Andean region dates to around 9000 BC in Ecuador at sites of the Las Vegas culture. The bottle gourd may have been the first plant cultivated. The oldest evidence of canal irrigation in South America dates to 4700 to 2500 BC in the Zaña Valley of northern Peru. The earliest urban settlements of the Andes, as well as North and South America, are dated to 3500 BC at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area, and Sechin Bajo near the Sechin River. Both sites are in Peru.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Caral-Supe or Norte Chico civilization is understood to have emerged around 3200 BC, as it is at that point that large-scale human settlement and communal construction across multiple sites becomes clearly apparent. In the early 21st century, Peruvian archaeologist Ruth Shady established Caral-Supe as the oldest known civilization in the Americas. The civilization flourished near the Pacific coast in the valleys of three small rivers, the Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. These river valleys each have large clusters of sites. Further south, there are several associated sites along the Huaura River. Notable settlements include the cities of Caral, the largest and most complex Preceramic site, and Aspero. Norte Chico is distinguished by its density of large sites with immense architecture. Haas argues that the density of sites in such a small area is globally unique for a nascent civilization. During the third millennium BC, Norte Chico may have been the most densely populated area of the world (excepting, possibly, northern China). The Supe, Pativilca, Fortaleza, and Huaura River valleys each have several related sites.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Norte Chico is unusual in that it completely lacked ceramics and apparently had almost no visual art. Nevertheless, the civilization exhibited impressive architectural feats, including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas, and an advanced textile industry. The platform mounds, as well as large stone warehouses, provide evidence for a stratified society and a centralized authority necessary to distribute resources such as cotton. However, there is no evidence of warfare or defensive structures during this period. Originally, it was theorized that, unlike other early civilizations, Norte Chico developed by relying on maritime food sources in place of a staple cereal. This hypothesis, the Maritime Foundation of Andean Civilization, is still hotly debated; however, most researches now agree that agriculture played a central role in the civilization's development while still acknowledging a strong supplemental reliance on maritime proteins.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Norte Chico chiefdoms were "...almost certainly theocratic, though not brutally so," according to Mann. Construction areas show possible evidence of feasting, which would have included music and likely alcohol, suggesting an elite able to both mobilize and reward the population. The degree of centralized authority is difficult to ascertain, but architectural construction patterns are indicative of an elite that, at least in certain places at certain times, wielded considerable power: while some of the monumental architecture was constructed incrementally, other buildings, such as the two main platform mounds at Caral, appear to have been constructed in one or two intense construction phases. As further evidence of centralized control, Haas points to remains of large stone warehouses found at Upaca, on the Pativilca, as emblematic of authorities able to control vital resources such as cotton. Economic authority would have rested on the control of cotton and edible plants and associated trade relationships, with power centered on the inland sites. Haas tentatively suggests that the scope of this economic power base may have extended widely: there are only two confirmed shore sites in the Norte Chico (Aspero and Bandurria) and possibly two more, but cotton fishing nets and domesticated plants have been found up and down the Peruvian coast. It is possible that the major inland centers of Norte Chico were at the center of a broad regional trade network centered on these resources.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: "Discover" magazine, citing Shady, suggests a rich and varied trade life: "[Caral] exported its own products and those of Aspero to distant communities in exchange for exotic imports: "Spondylus" shells from the coast of Ecuador, rich dyes from the Andean highlands, hallucinogenic snuff from the Amazon." (Given the still limited extent of Norte Chico research, such claims should be treated circumspectly.) Other reports on Shady's work indicate Caral traded with communities in the Andes and in the jungles of the Amazon basin on the opposite side of the Andes.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Leaders' ideological power was based on apparent access to deities and the supernatural. Evidence regarding Norte Chico religion is limited: an image of the Staff God, a leering figure with a hood and fangs, has been found on a gourd dated to 2250 BC. The Staff God is a major deity of later Andean cultures, and Winifred Creamer suggests the find points to worship of common symbols of gods. As with much other research at Norte Chico, the nature and significance of the find has been disputed by other researchers. The act of architectural construction and maintenance may also have been a spiritual or religious experience: a process of communal exaltation and ceremony. Shady has called Caral "the sacred city" ("la ciudad sagrada"): socio-economic and political focus was on the temples, which were periodically remodeled, with major burnt offerings associated with the remodeling.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Bundles of strings uncovered at Norte Chico sites have been identified as quipu, a type of pre-writing recording device. Quipu are thought to encode numeric information, but some have conjectured that quipu have been used to encode other forms of data, possibly including literary or musical applications. However, the exact use of quipu by the Norte Chico and later Andean cultures has been widely debated. The presence of quipu and the commonality of religious symbols suggests a cultural link between Norte Chico and later Andean cultures.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Circa 1800 BC, the Norte Chico civilization began to decline, with more powerful centers appearing to the south and north along the coast and to the east inside the belt of the Andes. Pottery eventually developed in the Amazon Basin and spread to the Andean culture region around 2000 BC. The next major civilization to arise in the Andes would be the Chavín culture at Chavín de Huantar, located in the Andean highlands of the present-day Ancash Region. It is believed to have been built around 900 BC and was the religious and political center of the Chavín people.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: Maize is believed to have been first domesticated in southern Mexico about 7000 BC. The Coxcatlan caves in the Valley of Tehuacán provide evidence for agriculture in components dated between 5000 and 3400 BC. Similarly, sites such as Sipacate in Guatemala provide maize pollen samples dating to 3500 BC. Around 1900 BC, the Mokaya domesticated one of the dozen species of cacao. A Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of cacao beverages dating to this time. The Mokaya are also thought to have been among the first cultures in Mesoamerica to develop a hierarchical society. What would become the Olmec civilization had its roots in early farming cultures of Tabasco, which began around 5100 to 4600 BC.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The emergence of the Olmec civilization has traditionally been dated to around 1600 to 1500 BC. Olmec features first emerged in the city of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, fully coalescing around 1400 BC. The rise of civilization was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered alluvial soil, as well as by the transportation network provided by the Coatzacoalcos River basin. This environment encouraged a densely concentrated population, which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class and an associated demand for the production of the symbolic and sophisticated luxury artifacts that define Olmec culture. Many of these luxury artifacts were made from materials such as jade, obsidian, and magnetite, which came from distant locations and suggest that early Olmec elites had access to an extensive trading network in Mesoamerica. The aspect of Olmec culture perhaps most familiar today is their artwork, particularly the Olmec colossal heads. San Lorenzo was situated in the midst of a large agricultural area. San Lorenzo seems to have been largely a ceremonial site, a town without city walls, centered in the midst of a widespread medium-to-large agricultural population. The ceremonial center and attendant buildings could have housed 5,500 while the entire area, including hinterlands, could have reached 13,000. It is thought that while San Lorenzo controlled much or all of the Coatzacoalcos basin, areas to the east (such as the area where La Venta would rise to prominence) and north-northwest (such as the Tuxtla Mountains) were home to independent polities. San Lorenzo was all but abandoned around 900 BC at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence. A wholesale destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments also occurred 950 BC, which may indicate an internal uprising or, less likely, an invasion. The latest thinking, however, is that environmental changes may have been responsible for this shift in Olmec centers, with certain important rivers changing course.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: La Venta became the cultural capital of the Olmec concentration in the region until its abandonment around 400 BC; constructing monumental architectural achievements such as the Great Pyramid of La Venta. It contained a "concentration of power", as reflected by the sheer enormity of the architecture and the extreme value of the artifacts uncovered. La Venta is perhaps the largest Olmec city and it was controlled and expanded by an extremely complex hierarchical system with a king, as the ruler and the elites below him. Priests had power and influence over life and death and likely great political sway as well. Unfortunately, not much is known about the political or social structure of the Olmec, though new dating techniques might, at some point, reveal more information about this elusive culture. It is possible that the signs of status exist in the artifacts recovered at the site such as depictions of feathered headdresses or of individuals wearing a mirror on their chest or forehead. "High-status objects were a significant source of power in the La Venta polity political power, economic power, and ideological power. They were tools used by the elite to enhance and maintain rights to rulership". It has been estimated that La Venta would need to be supported by a population of at least 18,000 people during its principal occupation. To add to the mystique of La Venta, the alluvial soil did not preserve skeletal remains, so it is difficult to observe differences in burials. However, colossal heads provide proof that the elite had some control over the lower classes, as their construction would have been extremely labor-intensive. "Other features similarly indicate that many laborers were involved". In addition, excavations over the years have discovered that different parts of the site were likely reserved for elites and other parts for non-elites. This segregation of the city indicates that there must have been social classes and therefore social inequality.