title: Discord

text: While the software itself comes at no cost, the developers investigated ways to monetize it, with potential options including paid customization options such as emoji or stickers. The developers have stated that while they will look for ways to monetize the software, it will never lose its core features.


title: Discord

text: In January 2017, the first paid subscription and features were released with "Discord Nitro Classic" (originally released as "Discord Nitro"). For a monthly subscription fee of $4.99, users can get an animated avatar, use custom and/or animated emojis across all servers (non-Nitro users can only use custom emoji on the server they were added to), an increased maximum file size on file uploads (from 8 MB to 50 MB), the ability to screen share in higher resolutions, the ability to choose their own discriminator (from #0001 to #9999) and a unique profile badge.


title: Discord

text: In October 2018, "Discord Nitro" was renamed "Discord Nitro Classic" with the introduction of the new "Discord Nitro", which cost $9.99 and included access to free games through the Discord game store. Monthly subscribers of Discord Nitro Classic at the time of the introduction of the Discord games store were gifted with Discord Nitro, lasting until January 1, 2020, and yearly subscribers of Discord Nitro Classic were gifted with Discord Nitro until January 1, 2021.


title: Discord

text: In June 2019, Discord introduced Server Boosts, a way to benefit specific servers by purchasing a "boost" for it, with enough boosts granting various benefits for the users in that particular server. Each boost is a subscription costing $4.99 a month. For example, if a server maintains 2 boosts, it unlocks perks such as a higher maximum audio quality in voice channels and the ability to use an animated server icon. Users with Discord Nitro or Discord Nitro Classic have a 30% discount on server boost costs, with Nitro subscribers specifically also getting 2 free server boosts.


title: Discord

text: Discord began testing digital stickers on its platform in October 2020 for users in Canada. Most stickers cost between $1.50 and $2.25 and are part of Discord's monetization strategy. Discord Nitro subscribers received a free "What's Up Wumpus" sticker pack focused on Discord's mascot, Wumpus.


title: Discord

text: In October 2022, the "Discord Nitro Classic" subscription tier was replaced by a $2.99 "Discord Nitro Basic", which features a subset of features from the $9.99 "Nitro" tier.


title: Discord

text: Another way Discord makes money is through a 10% commission as the distribution fee from all games sold through game developers' verified servers.


title: Discord

text: By January 2016, Hammer & Chisel reported that Discord had been used by 3 million people, with growth of 1 million per month, reaching 11 million users in July that year. By December 2016, the company reported it had 25 million users worldwide. By the end of 2017, the service had drawn nearly 90 million users, with roughly 1.5 million new users each week. With the service's third anniversary, Discord stated that it had 130 million unique registered users. The company observed that while the bulk of its servers are used for gaming-related purposes, a small number have been created by users for non-gaming activities, like stock trading, fantasy football, and other shared interest groups.


title: Discord

text: In May 2016, one year after the software's release, Tom Marks, writing for "PC Gamer", described Discord as the best VoIP service available. Lifehacker has praised Discord's interface, ease of use, and platform compatibility.


title: Discord

text: In 2021, Discord had at least 350 million registered users across its web and mobile platforms. It was used by 56 million people every month, sending a total of 25 billion messages per month. By June 2020, the company reported it had 100 million active users each month. As of 2021, the service has over 140 million monthly active users.


title: Discord

text: Discord has had problems with hostile behavior and abuse within chats, with some communities of chat servers being "raided" (the taking over of a server by a large number of users) by other communities. This includes flooding with controversial topics related to race, religion, politics, and pornography. Discord has stated that it has plans to implement changes that would "rid the platform of the issue".


title: Discord

text: To better protect its users and its services since these events, Discord has implemented a trust and safety team to monitor the servers and respond to reports. This includes dealing with user harassment, servers that violate Discord's terms of service, and protecting servers from "raiding" and spamming by malicious users or bots. While they do not directly monitor messages, the trust and safety team can determine malicious activity from service use patterns and/or user-generated reports and take appropriate steps, including more detailed investigation, to deal with the matter. The service plans to expand this team as they continue to gain new users.


title: Discord

text: In January 2018, "The Daily Beast" reported that it found several Discord servers that were specifically engaged in distributing revenge porn and facilitating real-world harassment of the victims of these images and videos. Such actions are against Discord's terms of service and Discord shut down servers and banned users identified from these servers.


title: Discord

text: Discord gained popularity with the alt-right due to the pseudonymity and privacy offered by Discord's service. Analyst Keegan Hankes from the Southern Poverty Law Center stated, "It's pretty unavoidable to be a leader in this [alt-right] movement without participating in Discord." In early 2017, chief executive officer Jason Citron stated Discord was aware of these groups and their servers. Citron stated that servers found to be engaged in illegal activities or violations of the terms of service would be shut down, but would not disclose any examples.


title: Discord

text: Following the violent events that occurred during the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, on August 12, 2017, it was found that Discord had been used to plan and organize the white nationalist rally. This included participation by Richard Spencer and Andrew Anglin, high-level figures in the movement. Discord responded by closing servers that supported the alt-right and far-right, and banning users who had participated. Discord's executives condemned "white supremacy" and "neo-Nazism", and said that these groups "are not welcome on Discord". Discord has worked with the Southern Poverty Law Center to identify hateful groups using Discord and ban those groups from the service. Since then, several neo-Nazi and alt-right servers have been shut down by Discord, including those operated by neo-Nazi terrorist group Atomwaffen Division, Nordic Resistance Movement, Iron March, and European Domas.


title: Discord

text: In March 2019, the media collective Unicorn Riot published the contents of a Discord server used by several members of the white nationalist group Identity Evropa who were also members of the United States Armed Forces. Unicorn Riot has since published member lists and contents of several dozen servers connected to alt-right, white supremacist, and other such movements.


title: Discord

text: In January 2021, two days after the U.S. Capitol attack, Discord deleted the pro-Donald Trump server "The Donald", "due to its overt connection to an online forum used to incite violence, plan an armed insurrection in the United States, and spread harmful misinformation related to 2020 U.S. election fraud", while denying that the server had any direct connection to the attack on the Capitol building. The server had been used by former members of the r/The_Donald subreddit, which Reddit had deleted several months previously.


title: Discord

text: In January 2022, the British anti-disinformation organization Logically reported that Holocaust denial, neo-Nazism and other forms of hate speech were flourishing on the Discord and Telegram groups for the German website Disclose.tv.


title: Discord

text: In May 2022, Payton S. Gendron was named as the suspect in a race-driven mass shooting in Buffalo, New York, that killed ten people. It was reported that Gendron used a private Discord server as a diary for weeks as he prepared for the attack. Approximately 30 minutes before the shooting, several users were invited by Gendron to view the server and read the messages. The messages were later published on 4chan. Discord told the press that the server was deleted by moderators shortly after the shooting. The New York state attorney general's office announced an investigation of Discord among other online services in the wake of the shooting to determine if they had taken enough steps to prevent such content from being broadcast on their services, with which Discord said they would comply.


title: Discord

text: Discord has been claimed to have had problems with sexual exploitation of children and young teenagers on its platform.


title: Discord

text: In July 2018, Discord updated its terms of service to ban drawn pornography with underage subjects. Some Discord users subsequently criticized the moderation staff for selectively allowing "cub" content, or underage pornographic furry artwork, under the same guidelines. The staff held that "cub porn" was separate from lolicon and shotacon, being "allowable as long as it is tagged properly". After numerous complaints from the community, Discord amended its community guidelines in February 2019 to include "non-humanoid animals and mythological creatures as long as they appear to be underage" in its list of disallowed categories, in addition to announcing periodic transparency reports to better communicate with users.


title: Discord

text: On January 27, 2021, Discord banned the r/WallStreetBets server during the GameStop short squeeze, because of "hateful and discriminatory content", which users found contentious. One day later, Discord allowed another server to be created and began assisting with moderation on it.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin "Medicinae Doctor") is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. This generally arose because many in 18th-century medical professions trained in Scotland, which used the M.D. degree nomenclature. In England, however, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery was used and eventually in the 19th century became the standard in Scotland too. Thus, in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other countries, the M.D. is a research doctorate, honorary doctorate or applied clinical degree restricted to those who already hold a professional degree (Bachelor's/Master's/Doctoral) in medicine. In those countries, the equivalent professional degree to the North American, and some others use of M.D., is still typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The first medical degrees were awarded by the Schola Medica Salernitana around the year 1000, including to women such as Trota of Salerno. The degrees received legal sanction in 1137 by Roger II of Sicily and in 1231 by Emperor Federico II, in the Constitution of Melfi. In the titles XLIV-LXXXIX of the third book of the Constitutions of 1231, it was established that the activity of a physician ("medicus") could only be carried out by physicians holding a medical degree, the "Licentia Medendi" (license to practice medicine), by the Schola Medica Salernitana (the only school in the kingdom authorized to award degrees in medicine). This degree was awarded after a curriculum composed of three years of study of logic, five years of medical studies, an examination of a commission composed of the professors of the university, a one-year apprenticeship with an expert doctor, and a final examination before the commissioners of the Royal Curia and the Provincial Curias.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In 1703, the University of Glasgow's first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: University medical education in England culminated with the MB qualification, and in Scotland the M.D., until in the mid-19th century the public bodies who regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS/MBChB/MB BChir/BM BCh etc.). North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland and began granting the M.D. title rather than the MB beginning in the late 18th century. The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York (which at the time was referred to as King's College of Medicine) was the first American university to grant the M.D. degree instead of the MB.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland, and McGill. These first few North American medical schools that were established were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In most countries having a Doctor of Medicine degree does not mean that the individual will be allowed to practice medicine. Typically a physician must go through a year of general medical education in a hospital as an intern and then a residency for at least three years in a specific field of medicine and then take some form of licensing examination in their jurisdiction.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: A feminine form, "Doctress of Medicine" or "Medicinae Doctrix", was also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Afghanistan, medical education begins after high school. No pre-medicine courses or bachelor's degree is required. Eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam held every year throughout the country. Entry to medical school is competitive, and only students with the highest ranks are accepted into medical programs. The primary medical degree is completed in 7 years. According to the new medical curriculum (from 2016), during the 12th semester, medical students must complete research on a medical topic and provide a thesis as part of their training. Students have also a one-year compulsory internship which has to be completed in a teaching hospital. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, regarded as "MD" and validated by the "Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan". All physicians are to obtain licensing and a medical council registration number from the "Ministry of Public Health" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications. After graduation, students may complete residency.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Before the civil wars in Afghanistan, medical education used to be taught by foreign professors or Afghan professors who studied medical education abroad. The Kabul medical institute certified the students as "Master of Medicine". After the civil wars, medical education changed extensively, and the MD certification has been reduced to "Medicine Bachelor".


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Argentina, the First Degree of Physician or Physician Diplomate () is equivalent to the North American MD Degree with six years of intensive studies followed by usually three or four years of residency as a major specialty in a particular empiric field, consisting of internships, social services and sporadic research. Only by holding a Medical Title can the postgraduate student apply for the Doctor degree through a doctorate in medicine program approved by the .


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their higher or honorary doctorates. Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorized as Level 7 Bachelor's degrees together with other undergraduate programs.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The latest version of the AQF includes the new category of Level 9 Master's (Extended) degrees which permits the use of the term 'Doctor' in the styling of the degree title of relevant professional programs. As a result, various Australian medical schools have replaced their MBBS degrees with the MD to resolve the previous anomalous nomenclature. With the introduction of the Master's level MD, universities have also renamed their previous medical research doctorates. The University of Melbourne was the first to introduce the MD in 2011 as a basic medical degree, and has renamed its research degree to Doctor of Medical Science (DMedSc).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Austria, medical studies (medicine or dentistry) take 6 years full-time. In medicine, the first two years comprise basic fields of medicine such as anatomy, biology, chemistry, physics, physiology, etc., the next three years consist of all medical fields in the narrower sense with frequent bedside training and medical traineeships while the sixth and last year is dedicated solely to working in a clinic. After this, a specific 6-year training (e.g. in internal medicine, paediatrics, ENT, pathology) or 4 year (GP) can be started; without this training, working with patients is forbidden. There is no central placement test for said specialist training, only a board-registered spot as a resident/registrar is needed. As with all other studies in Austria, there is no tuition but compulsory students' insurance (approx €38 per year). A specific entrance exam (MedAT, Medizin-Aufnahmetest, medicine acceptance test) has to be taken but is open only once a year in summer; a fee of €110 has to be paid. In 2019, 16443 persons registered for the MedAT and 12960 took the test. 1.680 university places for both medicine and dentistry are offered each year with 95% of all places for EU citizens and 75% for applicants with an Austrian higher education entrance qualification/GCE A-levels. Many Germans who are denied studying in their home country try to study medicine in Austria; hence this quota was introduced and approved by the EU as most of them leave upon graduation.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The title of "Doktor" is granted to physicians (Dr. med. univ., Doctor medicinae universae, Dr. der gesamten Heilkunde = Dr. "of the entire art of healing") and dentists (Dr. med. dent., Doctor medicinae dentinae), who do not possess doctorate degrees, but Master's level 6 year-training, similar to the American MD or DDS. although they have to write a diploma thesis of approx. 50–100 pages. In former days the same title was connected to an official doctorate degree in connection with an older study regulation. The law has been changed in 2002. Some of which are published in peer-reviewed journals while others are not. A post-graduate research doctorate (Dr. scient. med., Dr. scientiae medicinae, or PhD) can be obtained after a three years post-graduate study at a medical university.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: All doctors may be addressed as "Doktor ______", and the title is usually contracted to "Dr. ______". In many everyday-day settings in Austria, also outside the clinic, it is common to address medical doctors solely as "Herr/Frau Doktor" (Mr./Ms./Mrs. doctor) without any specific family name (especially in rural areas and small villages, and by older people), and they are often viewed as the "real doctors". Among themselves, MDs don't use "doctor" as an appellation but just "Herr Kollege/Frau Kollegin" (Mr./Ms/Mrs. = "dear" colleague). Consistent use of "Doktor" when addressing another medical doctor is seen as confrontative and mockery.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In the French-speaking part of Belgium, the medical degree awarded after six years of study is "Docteur en Médecine". Physicians would then have to register with the Ordre des Médecins to practice medicine in the country.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Flanders, the medical degree awarded after six years of study is "Master in de geneeskunde". Physicians would then either have to do a three-year internship to become a general practitioner or specialize.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a Faculty of Medicine ("medicinski fakultet") immediately after high school.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: At the end of the six-year medical programs from Bulgarian medical schools, medical students are awarded the academic degree Master/Magister in Medicine and the professional title Physician – Doctor of Medicine (MD / MA ).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After 6 years of general medical education (a foundation year plus 5 years), all students will graduate with a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSc, ), equivalent to Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS). This degree does not allow graduates to work independently as a physician, but it is possible for those who wish to continue to master's degrees in other fields relating to medical sciences such as public health, epidemiology, biomedical science, and nutrition.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Medical graduates, who wish to be fully qualified as physicians or specialists must follow the process as below:


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: All medical graduates must complete a 'Thesis Defense' and pass the National Exit Exam () to become either GPs or medical or surgical specialists. Last but importantly, those GPs or MDs have to register their name in the Cambodian Medical Committee (CMC) to receive the license to see patients, and pay for the registration every year.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Canada, the M.D. is the degree required to practise medicine. Similar to the United States, students in Canada from English-speaking provinces must complete 2 years of a bachelor's degree, then write the MCAT at which point they move into the typical 4 year medical school curriculum. As a practical matter, nearly all successful applicants have completed one or more degrees before admission to a Canadian medical school, although despite this it is, along with other first professional degrees, the Canadian M.D. is considered to be a bachelor's degree-level qualification.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The notable exception is the French-speaking province of Quebec, where their special CEGEP post-secondary institutions don't grant a bachelor's degree, but instead College Education Diplomas (DECs). Students typically enroll in a 2 year Science Program such as Health Science, Pure & Applied, or Environmental (latter exclusive to CEGEP Dawson College) which lead into the one-year med-p at Quebec universities, after which students complete the 4-year curriculum similar to other provinces. This in total means the path to graduation from medical school is one year shorter for Quebec students (7 as opposed to 8).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Another exception is the availability of a 3 year medical school curriculum, offered at two medical schools in Canada, the McMaster University Medical School and the University of Calgary.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the only medical school in Canada that continues to award the M.D., C.M. degrees (abbreviated M.D.C.M.). M.D.C.M. is from the Latin "Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum" meaning "Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery".


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Prior to obtaining an independent practicing license from a provincial regulatory body, students must complete the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Examination to obtain the Licentiate of the Medical Council of Canada (LMCC) qualification. and complete the specialty certifying exam from their respective college, the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada for specialists and the College of Family Physicians of Canada for family physicians.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Chile, medical education begins after graduating high-school, in public or private universities, which select candidates based on a national entrance exams (former University Selection Test, now in transition to a new selection test). Public universities and private universities cost around US$8,000–12,000 a year. In almost every university the career lasts for 7 years, the first two being basic sciences, then three years of preclinical studies, and ending with two years of supervised clinical practice (internship, or ""internado"") both at hospitals and ambulatory centers. Upon graduation, students obtain the professional title "Médico Cirujano", equivalent to Doctor of Medicine (MD). After graduation every new physician must take the (National Exam of Medical Knowledge), which gives the ability to practise medicine in public establishments of primary or hospital care. The title enables the graduate to practice as a General Practitioner, and many of them may follow specialization studies in clinical or non-clinical fields. There is a national program of accreditation, mandatory to every Medicine School. In Chile, physicians receive the courtesy denomination of Doctor followed by their family name, even though in an academic environment the medical title isn't accepted as an equivalent to PhDs; regardless, at community and family level, and in day-to-day activities, they are often viewed as "real doctors".


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In China, many prestigious research universities such as Peking Union Medical College, Peking University Health Science Center, and Shanghai Jiao Tong University offer the 8-year Doctor of Medicine program. In the meantime, the majority of primary medical training comes in the form of a 5-year Bachelor of Medicine degree, which includes 2.5 years of basic science and biomedical science training and 2.5 years of clerkship training. Graduates from such programs are eligible to sit for Medical Doctor License Examination in China providing they are working as resident physicians in a hospital. Many of the young doctors do seek further training by entering a 3-year Master of Medicine (clinical track) program or 5-year Doctor of Medicine (clinical track). Some take a job/promotion after the 3-year program and work for a number of years and then take on another 3 years of training to get the ultimate Doctor of Medicine degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Croatia, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded to candidates who successfully completed six years of study in medicine and defended their graduate thesis (student's original research in clinical / preclinical medicine or life sciences). The title is legally awarded only upon the successful thesis exam (thesis defence) in the presence of a board of senior researchers and candidate's research mentor. It is not equivalent to "doktor znanosti" degree ("doctor scientiae", abbreviated "dr.sc."), which is equivalent to PhD.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Cuba, the title of "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor of Medicine) is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a University of Medical Sciences after high school. Medicine was one of the four foundational careers of the first Cuban university named Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Jeronimo de La Habana (current University of Havana) founded in 1728.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In the Czech Republic, students are awarded the title MUDr. upon successfully passing set of State Examinations after six years of medical school composed of theoretical and clinical training.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In the Dominican Republic, it is known as "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor in Medicine). In 1511 the Spanish Catholic church founded the first university of the Americas in Santo Domingo present capital of modern-day Dominican Republic and name it Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino (today Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo). In 1630 this university graduated the first medical doctors of the Americas and amongst the graduates some Native Americans included.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Ecuador, medical school begins after graduating high-school. There are two options; applying to public or private universities. Both private and public university select their candidates based on entrance exams. Public universities are free while private universities cost around US$6,000–12,000 a year. In most universities, the career lasts for 6 years. After graduating, students obtain a degree of "médico" or "médico cirujano", depending which one is offered by each university. Both degrees are equivalent to doctor of medicine (MD).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Estonia, there is only one university, The University of Tartu, with programs in medicine and dentistry. The program in medicine lasts for 6 years, including a one-year clinical internship, and students are awarded "Doctor of Medicine (MD)" upon graduation. The degree is academically equivalent to a master's degree. After that, one can work either as a general practitioner or enter a residency program to become a specialized doctor. Residency usually lasts, depending on the field, three to five years, with surgical residencies usually being the longest (5 years).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After graduating from high school with a Baccalaureat, any student can register at a university of medicine (there are about 30 of them throughout the country). Until 2018, at the end of the first year, an internal ranking examination took place at each of these universities in order to implement the "numerus clausus". This ranking examination and the "numerus clausus" has since been abolished. First year consists primarily of theoretical classes such as biophysics and biochemistry, anatomy, ethics or histology. Passing first year is generally considered very challenging, requiring hard and continuous work. Each student can only try twice. For example, the Université René Descartes welcomes about 2,000 students in the first year and only 300 after "numerus clausus".


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The second and third year are usually quite theoretical although the teachings are often accompanied by placements in the field (e.g., internships as nurses or in the emergency room, depending on the university).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: During their fourth, fifth and sixth years, medical students get a special status called ""externe"" (In some universities, such as Pierre et Marie Curie, the "externe" status is given beginning in the third year). They work as interns every morning at the hospital plus a few night shifts a month and study in the afternoon. Each internship lasts between three and four months and takes place in a different department. Med students get five weeks off a year.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: At the end of the sixth year, they need to pass a national ranking exam, which will determine their specialty. The first student gets to choose first, then the second, etcetera. Usually, students work hard during the fifth and sixth years in order to train properly for the national ranking exam. During these years, actual practice at the hospital and in conjunction with some theoretical courses are meant to balance the training. Such externs' average wage stands between 100 and 300 euros a month.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After taking those ranking exams, students can start as residents in the specialty they have been able to pick. That is the point from which they also start getting paid.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Towards the end of the medical program, French medical students are provided with more responsibilities and are required to defend a thesis; however, unlike a PhD thesis, no original research is actually necessary to write an MD thesis. At the conclusion of the thesis defense, French medical students receive a State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine (MD, ). Every new doctor must then proceed to a Diploma of Specialised Studies (DES, ) to mark their specialty. Some students may also receive a Diploma of Complementary Specialized Studies (DESC, ).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Georgia, medical universities in Georgia offer a 6-year curriculum leading to award "Doctor of Medicine (MD)" "Physician" "Medical Doctor (MD), a European medical degree which is valid throughout the world. Some of the reputed medical universities include Batumi State University, Tbilisi State Medical University, Akaki Tsereteli State University and Petre Shotadze Tbilisi Medical Academy


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After at least six years of medical school, the students graduate with a final federal medical exam '. Graduates receive their license to practice medicine and the professional title of physician ('). About 60% of them additionally obtain the academic degree Doctor of Medicine (Dr. med.). The European Research Council ruled in 2010 that a medical doctorate alone is not considered equivalent to a PhD research degree for the purpose of selection for ERC Starting Grants, requiring additional evidence (e.g., proof of an appointment that requires doctoral equivalency, such as a post-doctoral fellowship) for the overall training to be considered equivalent to a PhD.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Guyana, Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree is awarded after the completion of 4 years or 5 years of study. Texila American University, Green Heart University, American International School of Medicine, Alexander American University, Lincoln American University provides medicine programs.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Hungary, after six years of medical school, which includes a sixth-year internship, students are awarded the degree of 'okleveles orvosdoktor' (Doctor of Medicine) degrees.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In India after 5.5 years i.e.. 4.5 years of medical school plus 1 year of compulsory rotatory internship, students are awarded the MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery) degree. Admission to MBBS course is based on having a minimum qualifying score and the rank in the common entrance test NEET(UG) and reservation of seats for admission is based on caste, economically weaker section and other quotas. Admission to various specialities or Post-graduate courses require an M.B.B.S from an MCI-recognized institute and is based on common entrance tests i.e. INI-CET(PG) and NEET(PG). They are awarded corresponding degrees of MD or MS (Master of Surgery). In India MD or MS is equivalent to residency in USA and DM or MCh to fellowship.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Indonesia, the title of ""dokter"" (dr.) is awarded after 3–3.5 years of study (at least) and 1.5–2 years of clinical study in a university hospital. After a medical student finishes those five years of study, they need to take the "Students' Proficiency Test in the Professional Medical Program" ("Uji Kompetensi Mahasiswa Program Profesi Dokter" or UKMPPD). If they pass the test, they can take the Hippocratic Oath and at then entitled to use "Dokter" (dr.) before their name. Note that "dr." is used for medical graduates, while Dr. (or incorrectly DR. i.e. "Doktor") is used for PhD holders. Then they need to take a year-long internship course in primary health care clinics (also known as Puskesmas) or primary hospitals to practice as a general practitioner under supervision of senior doctors.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Those who wished to further their study in a specialization can take a graduate course and will be entitled to use "Specialist of ..." after their name (e.g.: Sp.A for "Spesialis Anak" = Pediatrician). A graduate course of medicine is equal to a residency program. It requires candidates to study for four years followed by an internship in a hospital.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Iran, Medical education begins after high school. No pre-med course or BSc degree is required. The eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam being held every year throughout the country. The entry to medical school is competitive and only students with the highest rank are accepted into medical program. The primary medical degree is completed in 7–7.5 years. On the final years (last 1–2 years) medical students need to do a research on a medical topic and provide thesis as part of their trainings. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, called "Professional Doctorate in Medicine" validated by the "Ministry of Health and Medical Education of Iran". All physicians will obtain license and medical council registration number from the "Medical Council of Iran" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: There are six university medical schools in Israel, including the Technion in Haifa, Ben Gurion University in Be'er Sheva, Tel Aviv University, the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, the medical school of the Bar-Ilan University in Safed, and Ariel University. They all follow the European 6-year model except Bar-Ilan University and Ariel University, which has a four-year program similar to the US system. However, as of 2009, Tel Aviv University has introduced a four-year program similar to the US system for students with a bachelor's degree in certain biological sciences. The entrance requirements of the various schools of medicine are very strict. Israeli students require a high school Baccalaureate average above 100 and psychometric examination grade over 740, which corresponds to the 99th percentile. Candidates achieving these demanding cognitive requirements are then selected according to their ranking in the Mor and Mirkam MMI personality tests. Approximately 30% of applicants pass the Mor and Mirkam tests and are accepted into medical school. The demand for medical education is strong and growing, and there is a lack of doctors in Israel. The Technion Medical School, Ben Gurion University, and Tel Aviv University Sackler Faculty of Medicine offer 4-year MD programs for American students who have American college degrees and have taken the MCAT interested in completing rigorous medical education in Israel before returning to the US or Canada.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Following graduation from the 6-year or 4-year program, all graduates are required to do a 1-year internership to be licensed by the Ministry of Health and practice medicine professionally. Residency takes 4 (Internal Medicine, Family Medicine) to 7 (Neurosurgery)) years.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Italy, before the Bologna process, the degree of "Dottore in Medicina e Chirurgia" (literally "Doctor in Medicine and Surgery", from the Latin Medicinae Doctor et Chirurgiae) is awarded after completion of at least six years of study and clinical training in a university and after the submission of a thesis, that consists of original research.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: However, spurred by the Bologna process, a major reform instituted in 1999 to align University programmes with the more universal system of undergraduate (bachelor's degree) and postgraduate studies (master's and doctoral degrees) and as such the degree of 'Dottore in Medicina e Chirurgia' is no longer offered and was replaced with the 'Laurea Magistrale in Medicina e Chirurgia' (Master of Medicine and Surgery). In this context, the new Laurea Magistrale a ciclo unico in Medicina e Chirurgia is a six-year second cycle degree, equivalent to a master's degree (360 ECTS credits) which can be earned in a six-year programme and requires a scientific research thesis. Consequently, the new medical degrees in Italy is considered to be equivalent to a Medical Doctor or Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) Master's degree academically and legally.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Latvia, the duration of basic medical education is six years and leads to the Doctor of Medicine degree (ārsta diploma or M.D.). This degree is done full time and earns you 240 credits or 360 ECTS. The level acquired by this degree at the Latvian Qualifications Framework is similar to (EQF) level which is at is Level 7 and at the


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) level is also Level 7. These levels indicate this qualification to be Masters level which is contrary to what North American M.D. is since it is considered a higher standing Bachelor or 1st Professional degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Lithuania, the duration of basic medical education is six years and leads to the Doctor of Medicine degree (Aukštojo mokslo diplomas,


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: nurodantis suteiktą gydytojo kvalifikaciją or M.D.). This degree is considered a Masters of Health Science degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Malaysia, there are two types of MDs, one being for a basic medical degree while the other being a doctoral degree, depending on the awarding universities. The basic medical degree MDs (Similar to the MBBS awarded by other local universities) are awarded by both private and public universities, mostly are trained as an undergraduate 5-year course, however, with the establishment of Perdana University, it became the first university in Malaysia to provide a 4-year graduate entry course. Examples of universities in Malaysia offering the M.D degree are University Sains Malaysia, National University of Malaysia, University Putra Malaysia, UCSI University, etc. MDs are being awarded as a doctoral degree in public universities such as University of Malaya.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In the Philippines, the MD is a first professional degree in medicine. To be accepted in Philippine medical schools, one must have finished a college degree before one can proceed to have a medical education. It is attained by either completing a 4-year degree or a 5-year degree (with internship included) from an accredited institution private and public Medical School by the Association of Philippine Medical Colleges and the Commission on Higher Education. The MD degree does not permit the practice of medicine but qualifies the degree-holder to apply for registration to the Professional Regulatory Commission. Registration to the commission through completion of internship and examinations will grant the privilege of practicing medicine in the Philippines. Moreover, the licensed Physician has the option to proceed for medical specialization and the taking of diplomate board examinations conducted by the respective board of medical specialists in a particular field.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Poland the title of "lekarz" (physician, medical doctor) or "lek." is granted after completing a 6-year medical program (students apply to it directly after graduating high school) and is equivalent to magister (master). Many medical schools in Poland also offer medicine programs in English, which award the Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree. In contrast, a higher doctoral academic research degree in medicine resembling a PhD is named "dr n. med." or "doktor nauk medycznych" (Doctor of Medical Sciences), or even higher scientific degree after habilitation, "doktor habilitowany nauk medycznych" (dr hab. n. med.). Specialization is valued similarly to a specialization in the English system. It is not a pre-requisite for a "dr n. med." which is an academic, not a professional title in Poland.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Romanian medical programs last for 6 years (including clinical practice), which is the long-cycle first professional degree and concludes with a final licensing examination (licența), based on the dissertation of the student's original research. The degree awarded is 'Doctor-Medic' and graduates are entitled to use the title "Dr."


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Medical universities in Russia offer a six-year curriculum leading to award a professional graduate degree, called of "specialist" (Diploma of Specialist; in medicine, Diploma of Physician (Doctor of Medicine)).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Whereas, the title of Doctor of Medical Sciences (, "doktor medicinskikh nauk" abbreviated д. м. н.) is a higher research doctoral degree, which may be earned after the Candidate of Medical Sciences (the latter is informally regarded in Russia as equivalent to the Ph.D.).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Serbia, MD degree is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a School of Medicine immediately after high school, after which a six-month residency followed a national exam has to be completed in order to complete the degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The American Duke University has a medical school based in Singapore (Duke-NUS Medical School), and follows the North-American model of styling its first professional degree "Doctor of Medicine" ("MD"), consid. By contrast, the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at the National University of Singapore confers "MB BS" as the first professional degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Slovakia's medical education is offered at 4 medical schools in the country. Two of them are faculties of the Comenius UniversityJessenius School of Medicine in Martin,and there is a second medical school in Bratislava Slovak Medical University in Bratislava (SZU) while the fourth one is the Pavol Josef Šafarik University in Košice. Both the Jessenius School of Medicine and the Faculty of Medicine in Košice have several international students. The Jessenius School of Medicine has almost a thousand international students, most from Norway.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Admission to the medical schools is based on entrance examination that can be undergone once a year. The program is a 6-year program in general medicine with a strictly preclinical and clinical division. The preclinical years are the two first, and are purely theoretical. They consist of subjects such as cell biology, genetics, biophysics, medical chemistry, anatomy, biochemistry, histology, embryology and so on. From the third year onwards, the study is integrated with practical learning at the faculty's associated teaching hospital, including major multi-year subjects such internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, etc. In the sixth and final year, the student must pass four final state examinations and defend a self-composed thesis in order to graduate with a professional doctorate granting them the title of MUDr. for practicing in Slovakia or the Czech Republic or MD when practicing outside of Slovakia.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Slovenia, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded upon completion of six years of study at one of the two Slovenian Faculties of Medicine ("medicinska fakulteta") in Ljubljana or Maribor. Studying at these faculties is only possible if the student has finished a gymnasium/grammar school ("gimnazija") with a general diploma called "splošna matura".


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The medical educations in South Korea (Republic of Korea) are 6 or 4 years in duration, 6-year courses starting right after high schools, and 4-year course starting after 4-year's university education (to start the 4-year course, the student needs a bachelor's degree). The first 2 years in the 6-year system is composed of basic sciences and liberal art courses.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Taiwan, the MD is a first awarded professional degree that goes up and beyond the limits of upper education.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Tanzania, MD is the first awarded degree and takes 5 years of medical school, plus a sixth-year internship, students are awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD). The popular medical school in country includes Muhimbili University of health and allied sciences (MUHAS),


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The University of Dodoma- School of Medicine and Dentistry (UDOM) and Catholic University of health and allied sciences (CUHAS)


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After undergraduate studies the students then pursue residency or termed as Master of Medicine for 3 or 4 or 5 depending on the speciality they are interested after that the students is awarded Master of Medicine degree which they can further go on to do Superspecialities for 2 more years and after that do fellowship


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The Thai medical education follows the 6-year European system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training. Upon graduation, all medical students must pass national medical licensing examinations and a university-based comprehensive test. After medical school, newly graduated doctors are under contract to spend a year of internship and 2 years of tenure in rural areas before they are eligible for any other residency positions or specialized training. The students will receive Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree. However, the degree is equivalent to master's degree in Thailand. Specialty training after the MD degree requires at least 4–6 years residency program in the training university hospitals and must pass the board examination. Board-certified specialized degree is equivalent to doctorate degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Tunisia, education is free for all Tunisian citizens and for foreigners who have scholarships. The oldest Medical school is a faculty of the University of Tunis. There are four medicine faculties situated in the major cities of Tunis, Sfax, Sousse and Monastir. Admission is bound to the success and score in the baccalaureate examination. Admission score threshold is very high, based on competition among all applicants throughout the nation. Medical school curriculum consists of six years. The first two years are medical theory (PCEM), containing all basic sciences related to medicine, and the last four years (DCEM) consists of clinical issues related to all medical specialties. During these last four years, the student gets the status of "Externe". The student has to attend at the university hospital every day, rotating around all wards. Every period is followed by a clinical exam regarding the student's knowledge in that particular specialty. After those five years, there are two years on internship, in which the student is a physician but under the supervision of the chief doctor; the student rotates over the major and most essential specialties during period of four months each. After that, student has the choice of either passing the residency national exam or extending his internship for another year, after which he gains the status of family physician. The residency program consists of four to five years in the specialty he qualifies, depending on his score in the national residency examination under the rule of highest score chooses first. Whether the student chooses to be a family doctor or a specialist, he has to write a doctoral thesis, which he will be defending in front of a jury, after which he gains his degree of "Docteur d'état en Medecine (MD)".


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Turkey, the title of "Tıp Doktoru" (literally "Doctor of Medicine") is awarded upon completion of six years continuous study started with five years university education include three years basic sciences, two years clinical courses followed by one year of internship in university hospitals. The internal structure and methodology of training vary among universities; however vertical integration between basic and clinical sciences and horizontal integration between disciplines have become more prevalent approaches as well as student oriented practices. Regardless of the university, the whole program is equivalent to a combined degree of bachelors and masters, thus every students graduates with a master's degree. The graduates, becoming Doctors of Medicine, are eligible to practice general medicine through state assigned slots, start residency training through a state exam called "TUS"(short for "Tıpta Uzmanlık Sınavı"), or apply for a PhD program in a relevant field.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Ukraine, by 2018, graduates of the school with completed secondary education that have coped with the relevant exams (in the disciplines designated by these universities) in the nationwide system for assessing graduates' knowledge – EIT (, External independent testing) based on the rating – may be admitted to the Medical Universities.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Ukrainian medical universities offer a 6-year curriculum, which should end with the passing of the State Complex Examination. The graduate receives the Diploma of the State Standard with the title "Specialist Diploma", which specifies a specialty and qualification (for example, "Physician"), or "Magister's Diploma" also of a state standard. After that, the graduate according to the rating division (at the university) is required to undergo a practical internship course (working as a doctor under the supervision of an experienced doctor) with a duration of 2 to 3 years, in the corresponding specialty. Successful completion of internship implies that an intern passes an examination on a specialty, including testing and receives a certificate of a specialist physician of the Ministry of Health, which is a formal permission for practical activity.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Thus, the American "MD" and the Ukrainian "Physician" have identical titles. On the other hand, the colloquial (not official terminology) Doctor of Medicine means that a Physician with a higher education successfully defended his thesis, after a 2-year postgraduate course and corresponding term of research (Candidate of Medical Sciences before 2015, or Ph.D. after 2015 – until 2020), which is closer to the English system of degrees.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In the United States, the M.D. awarded by medical schools is a professional doctorate (as opposed to the Doctor of Philosophy degree which requires a focus on research) and is accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), an independent body sponsored by the Association of American Medical Colleges, and the American Medical Association (AMA).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In addition to the M.D., the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) is an equivalent professional doctoral degree for physicians and surgeons offered by medical schools in the United States. According to Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, "the training, practice, credentialing, licensure, and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of M.D. physicians, with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and certification."


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Admission to medical school in the United States is highly competitive, and in the United States there were 21,869 matriculants to medical school out of 53,371 applicants (≈41%) in 2019. Before entering medical school, students are not required to complete a four-year undergraduate degree (see admission criteria at Yale University, Emory University, Cornell University, University of Chicago, and others), but they must take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). Before graduating from a medical school and being awarded the Doctor of Medicine degree, students are required to take the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and the clinical knowledge Step 2 exam. As of 2020, the requirement of the Clinical Skills portion of the Step 2 exam was removed. The MD degree is typically earned in four years and is an undergraduate vocational degree. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year (PGY-1) and pass the USMLE Step 3. In order to receive board eligible or board accredited status in a specialty of medicine such as general surgery or internal medicine, physicians undergo additional specialized training in the form of a residency. Those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or infectious diseases then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the physician's chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, two, or more years.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Even though the M.D. is a professional degree and not a research doctorate (i.e., a Ph.D.), many holders of the M.D. degree attempt to conduct research and publish in non-PhD journals during training and after graduation. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting an MD-PhD. The grade Doctor of Medical Research (Dr. mr.) for physicians specialized in "research" work has become quite rare since the 1980s with the highly respected Ph.D. being more attractive nationally and globally. The National Institutes of Health (NIH), through its Medical Scientist Training Program, funds M.D.-Ph.D. training programs at many universities. Some M.D.s choose a quasi-research career and receive funding from the NIH as well as other sources such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the M.D. or other professional doctorates among the degrees that are equivalent to real doctorates.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After graduating from high school in Venezuela students can apply for federal appointment to a six-year medical program within a university. Only Public Universities offer this degree in Venezuela. Any student can apply for federal appointment by Ministry of Higher Education. So that, the student is allowed to register at university and follow a medical program. This a six-year program divided within three cycles. First cycle: Theory and lectures (1–2), second cycle: pre-clinical training (3–4) and third cycle: clinical training (5–6).


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: First year consists mainly of theoretical classes. however there are practical experiences since first day in laboratories and institutes, such as biochemistry, anatomy which includes lectures and teaching sessions with cadavers in dissection tables, molecular biology, histology, embryology and many others general subjects.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The second year is mainly theoretical, although most teaching sessions take place in laboratories. After completing these years the student knows how the human body is and how it works. There is also a Medical Exercise demonstration which includes a guided visit to primary care centers during a complete semester or year-round depending on the university.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: During the third year medical students start studying pharmacology, pathology, and physical examination. Passing successfully first, second, and the third year is commonly considered a filter, almost half of previously admitted students leave voluntarily.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The fourth-year medical students enter the field starting to visit hospitals and healthcare services. This is called Pre-Clinical Cycle were they acquire deep knowledge about clinical examination visiting specialized units such as Internal Medicine, Trauma and orthopedics, surgery, and gynecology and obstetrics. They start to be members of a medical team. Every morning at the hospital, plus one night shift per week, and lectures in the afternoon. Each internship lasts between four and six months and takes place in a different department.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The fifth and sixth years are very similar but this time they applied their previously earned clinical knowledge and skills starting to follow patients independently. At the end of the sixth year, they need to pass a highly supervised medical practice examination in an unserved outpatient center or specialized hospital in order to earn the degree. During these years, there is training at the hospital almost exclusively. Very few theoretical courses are meant to balance the training. Once completed they earn a university degree and a title granted by the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela as "Medical Surgeon" this is considered equivalent to a M.D degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: There is also a five years program the "Médico Integral Comunitario" title and degree granted by newly created universities and headed by Cuban nationals from the Cuba – Venezuela cooperation agreements. This program has been subject of controversy in the country over the legitimacy of the Cuban doctors' licensure for teaching and practice medicine.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After graduation, recently graduated doctors acquire the right to use Dr. before their names but still must follow a one-year exercise in the countryside or a two years training in a specialized hospital. So that, They can be enabled to practice medicine with a full license in Venezuela and the right to work as a medical doctor, generally as a general practitioner (Artículo 8). That is the point from which they also start getting paid.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: They can follow specialized studies which usually last between 3 or 5 years depending on specialization and furthermore a Doctorate degree for relevant research and a thesis, which usually take three or more years.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Bhutan, a medical doctor who completes 4 to 5 years of medical school is awarded with MBBS or Dr.title by their respective universities ( usually from universities in Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and Bangladesh). Upon recognition by Bhutan Health and Medical council, they work as medical doctor in country. M.D title is usually given to those who completes 3 to 4 years of residency for specialised course like surgery, medicine pediatrics, etc.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) degree represents the first (undergraduate) level of training required to be licensed as a physician (other degrees in alternative medicine are present like BAMS, BHMS, BSMS etc.) and the MS or MD degree is a postgraduate degree, representative of speciality training. The equivalent training in the US or Canada would be the completion of a medical (post-graduate) degree. Eligibility for the MS or MD course is restricted to medical graduates holding the MBBS degree.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After five and a half years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a non-surgical nature such as Physiology, Pharmacology, Internal Medicine, Pediatrics, Pathology, Psychiatry, Microbiology, the candidate receives a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree, whereas in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a surgical nature (e.g. Anatomy, General Surgery, Orthopaedics, Obstetrics/Gynaecology, Ophthalmology), the candidate receives the equivalent degree Master of Surgery (MS). The Doctor of Medicine awarded by Medical Universities in India and regulated by Medical Council of India are doctorate level qualification incorporating high level specialist clinical training, research and teaching. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in medical subjects is a research doctorate level qualification and could be done under supervision of a guide who is MD qualified from India (rather than PhD) and usually doesnot involve direct clinical work or teaching of scholars of that specialty. Scope for PhD in medical subjects is very limited in India as all faculty appointments mostly (except for some pre-clinical subjects) require a person to hold MD/MS in their respective specialties rather than a PhD.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: A second alternate qualification termed DNB (Diplomate of National Board), is considered equivalent to the MD and MS degrees. However, the DNB is not awarded by Medical Universities and thus is not a doctorate level qualification. It can be obtained by passing the exam conducted by the National Board of Examinations after completing 3 years of post-MBBS residency training in teaching hospitals recognised by the board but not necessarily by the Medical Council. The College of Physicians & Surgeons of Mumbai (established in 1912) also awards higher postgraduate qualifications in clinical and pre-clinical specialities, called FCPS (Fellowship of CPS); it involves three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, and a research thesis and a viva. The FCPS is representative of speciality clinical training, and equivalent to MD/MS/DNB/PhD Medical in Medical Doctorate in other parts of the world. Until 2007, the Government of India and the Medical Council of India recognised the FCPS qualification – since then, this is being done by State Medical Councils.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: After obtaining the first postgraduate degree, that is MD/MS/FCPS/DNB/PhD Medical, one can go for further specialisation in medical or surgical fields. This involves a highly competitive entrance examination. This course has three years of additional training and requires the submission of a dissertation (thesis). This is also considered a clinical doctorate as the focus is on preparing a super-specialist with adequate clinical as well as research training. After the dissertation is approved and the exit examination (theory and practical) is cleared, the degree awarded is DM (Doctor of Medicine), PhD Medical . Based on the specific field of training, the degree awarded is DM in Cardiac Anaesthesia, Cardiology, Neurology, Nephrology, Gastroenterology, Neuroradiology, Critical Care, Pulmonology, Hematology, Medical Oncology, Clinical Pharmacology, Pediatric Critical Care, Pediatric Neurology, Neonataology, Pediatric Gastroenterology, Neuroanaesthesia, etc. For surgical superspecialities the degree awarded is MCh (Magister Chirurgiae), like MCh in Cardio-thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Endocrine Surgery, Neurosurgery, Surgical Gastroenterology, Urology, Plastic Surgery, Pediatric Surgery etc. DM and MCh are the clinical equivalent of a doctorate degree just like MD degree. The holders of DM who also hold an MD degree thus have two doctorate degrees one in broad specialty and the other in its subspecialty. A third alternate qualification is DNB (superspecialties), offered by National Board of Examinations, like DNB in Cardiology, Neurology, Cardiac Surgery, Neurosurgery.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Following DM or MCh, one can also go for postdoctoral fellowship programs of one-year duration in specific subspecialties like Cardiac Electrophysiology, Invasive cardiology, Pediatric cardiology, Epilepsy, stroke, electroencephalography, movement disorders, neuromuscular disorders, cerebrovascular surgery, skull base surgery, neurocritical care, pediatric cardiac surgery etc. offered by prestigious government institutes and abroad.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The National Board of Examinations also awards the DNB degree for 6 year integrated surgical courses in specialties of Neurosurgery, Cardio-thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Pediatric Surgery and Plastic surgery. The residency period lasts 6 years post MBBS and thus alleviates the need to undergo a 3-year residency in General Surgery.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Pakistan MBBS is the undergraduate degree. The MD is a higher doctorate, awarded by medical universities based on successful completion of a residency program of four to six years' duration in a university hospital. Many universities are offering MD. Parallel to MD, MS is a higher doctorate awarded on successful completion of four to six years' duration of a residency program in surgical field.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Sri Lanka, the MD degree is a higher postgraduate degree that is awarded by the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after completion of a postgraduate course, examinations and speciality training. The MD degree in Sri Lanka is representative of specialty training in clinical, para clinical, and preventive medicine (e.g., general medicine, cardiology, nephrology, oncology, para clinical such as microbiology, haematology and preventive such as community medicine). Entry for the MD course is open only for medical graduates holding the MBBS degree (with a duration of five and a half years), and training is obtained in medical disciplines that are non-surgical in nature (e.g., internal medicine, radiology, pathology, etc.) After three or four years of study and the successful completion of an examination with written as well as cases and via examinations, the MD degree in the respective field of study is awarded. In community medicine and medical administration, part I examination consists of a theoretical exam while the degree is conferred after completion of a thesis as a PhD. This thesis has to be completed within a period of five years. After successfully defending the academic thesis, the MD degree is conferred to the candidate. The MD degree holder is certified as a board certified specialist by the respective board of study of the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after he or she undergoes 2–4 years of local and foreign training depending on the specialty/subspecialty selected.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The entry-level first professional degree in these countries for the practice of medicine is that of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir, or MBChB). This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD degree. Due to the UK code for higher education, first degrees in medicine comprise an integrated programme of study and professional practice spanning several levels. These degrees may retain, for historical reasons, "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" and are abbreviated to MBChB, MBBS or BMBS.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In the UK, Ireland and many Commonwealth countries, as well as Hong Kong which continues to follow Commonwealth practices, the MD is a postgraduate research degree in medicine. At most universities, this takes the form of a first doctorate, analogous to the Ph.D., awarded upon submission of a thesis and a successful "viva voce". The thesis may consist of new research undertaken on a full- or part-time basis, with much less supervision (in the UK) than for a Ph.D., or a portfolio of previously published work.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In order to be eligible to apply for an MD degree from a UK or Commonwealth University one must hold either a "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" (MBBS, MBChB, BMBS for example) degree, or an equivalent U.S.-MD degree and must usually have at least five years of postgraduate experience. Therefore, graduates from the MBBS/MBChB/BMBS degrees do not hold doctorates; however, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as "doctor" as they are fully licensed as medical practitioners. In some commonwealth nations, these interns are designated as "house officers".


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: Traditionally, the MD in the UK and Commonwealth was a higher doctorate (similar to a DSc) awarded upon submission of a portfolio of published work representing a substantial contribution to medical research. Many universities have now changed its status, but this has happened only recently: for example, the University of Cambridge in 2012 introduced a new higher degree of MedScD (more akin to the ScD degree) awarded on the basis of a career's contribution to the science or art of medicine, while redesignating the MD as an initial research doctorate awarded on the basis of a thesis. Oxford, which had changed the regulations for the MD degree to bring it more in line with initial doctorates in 2002, removed its status as a higher doctorate after a review in 2016. Some Commonwealth institutions retain the MD as a higher degree, such as the relatively new James Cook University.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In the case where the MD is awarded (either as a first or higher doctorate) for previously published research, the candidate is usually required to be either a graduate or a full-time member of staff, of several years' standing of the university in question.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: There is also a similar advanced professional degree to the postgraduate MD: the Master of Surgery (usually ChM or MS, but MCh in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and at Oxford and MChir at Cambridge). The equivalence of these degrees, but their differing names, prevents the need for surgeons (addressed as Mr. in the UK) having to revert to the title Dr., which they once held as new MBBS graduates.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In Ireland, where the basic medical qualification includes a degree in obstetrics, there is a similar higher degree of Master of the Art of Obstetrics (MAO). A Master of Midwifery was formerly examined by the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London (hence MMSA) but fell into abeyance in the 1960s; in this case, the term Master referred not to a university degree but rather a professional rank that is common among craft guilds.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In East Africa, the medical schools in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda award the degree of Master of Medicine (MMed) degree in both surgical and medical specialty disciplines following a three to six-year period of instruction. In Ethiopia students first finish high school then take a university entrance exam then based on their result (it is highly competitive) then start medical school. Recently, there is a further requirement to take another 1 year in university studying a common course and then take another exam to join medicine. After that the students begins studying preclinical medicine for 3 years studying anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, histology, embryology, pathology, pharmacology, microbiology and other minor courses of public health then at 4th year students join the clinical rotation ranging from physical examination and history taking to different specialities like internal medicine, surgery, paediatrics, and obstetrics & gynaecology for two years, and other minor specialities like psychiatry, ophthalmology, dermatology, ENT. After finishing these courses students take a qualification exam and become intern doctors for one year, before graduating as a general practitioner and serving two or more years in primary hospitals. They can then take a national residency exam, and pending good results, join their speciality.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: In West Africa, the West African College of Physicians and the West African College of Surgeons award the Fellowship of the West African College of Physicians (FWACP) and the Fellowship of the West African College of Surgeons (FWACS) in medical and surgical disciplines respectively after a minimum of four-year residency training period.


title: Doctor of Medicine

text: The Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or DO degree allows the same practice rights in the United States and Canada to the MD degree and Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine are fully licensed physicians. Holders of the MD degree must pass MD level board exams while DO holders can pass either the DO (COMLEX) exam or MD exam (USMLE). Similarly, MDs must attend MD rated residency and fellowship programs while DOs can attend either MD programs or Osteopathic (DO) programs. As a result of this, the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) are currently transitioning to a single accreditation system for medical residencies in the U.S. The American MD degree is also recognized by most countries in the world, while DO physicians are only licensed to practice the full scope of medicine and surgery in approximately 50 countries, as of 2012, with partial rights in a number of other nations.


title: Arch Manning

text: Archibald Charles Manning (born May 19, 2005) is an American high school football quarterback at the Isidore Newman School in New Orleans. He committed to play college football for the Texas Longhorns. He is a member of the Manning family.


title: Arch Manning

text: In his freshman year, Manning was the varsity starter at quarterback, the first freshman quarterback to start Newman's season opener in at least 40 years. He shined in his debut, leading Newman to a 26-point victory. Manning completed his freshman season with 2,407 yards and 34 touchdowns, earning MaxPreps National Freshman of the Year honors.


title: Arch Manning

text: Manning opened his sophomore season by throwing for six touchdowns. On October 15, 2020, he made his national television debut in a game against Booker T. Washington, throwing for two touchdowns and rushing for two more.


title: Arch Manning

text: To avoid a media frenzy, Manning's family has withheld him from media interviews and also declined premature college scholarship offers. He ran a private account on Instagram, allowing only friends and coaches to follow him, including Ole Miss head coach Lane Kiffin. He made his account public on June 23, 2022, when he committed to Texas. "They've shut down everything," said one member of the local media, "but the attention is going to come." In his college search he visited SMU, Clemson, LSU, Alabama, Texas, Georgia, and Virginia, as well as Ole Miss, his grandfather's, father's, and uncle's former team.


title: Arch Manning

text: A member of the Manning family, he is the oldest son of Cooper, the grandson of Archie, and the nephew of Peyton and Eli.


title: German Confederation

text: The German Confederation (, ) was an association of 39 predominantly German-speaking sovereign states in Central Europe. It was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806.


title: German Confederation

text: The Confederation had only one organ, the Federal Convention (also Federal Assembly or Confederate Diet). The Convention consisted of the representatives of the member states. The most important issues had to be decided on unanimously. The Convention was presided over by the representative of Austria. This was a formality, however, the Confederation did not have a head of state, since it was not a state.


title: German Confederation

text: The Confederation, on the one hand, was a strong alliance between its member states because federal law was superior to state law (the decisions of the Federal Convention were binding for the member states). Additionally, the Confederation had been established for eternity and was impossible to dissolve (legally), with no member states being able to leave it and no new member being able join without universal consent in the Federal Convention. On the other hand, the Confederation was weakened by its very structure and member states, partly because most important decisions in the Federal Convention required unanimity and the purpose of the Confederation was limited to only security matters. On top of that, the functioning of the Confederation depended on the cooperation of the two most populous member states, Austria and Prussia which in reality were often in opposition.


title: German Confederation

text: The German revolutions of 1848–1849, motivated by liberal, democratic, socialist and nationalist sentiments, attempted to transform the Confederation into a unified German federal state with a liberal constitution (usually called the Frankfurt Constitution in English). The Federal Convention was dissolved on 12 July 1848, but was re-established in 1850 after the revolution was crushed by Austria, Prussia and other states.


title: German Confederation

text: The Confederation was finally dissolved after the victory of the Kingdom of Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War over the Austrian Empire in 1866. The dispute over which had the inherent right to rule German lands ended in favour of Prussia, leading to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership in 1867, to which the eastern portions of the Kingdom of Prussia were added. A number of South German states remained independent until they joined the North German Confederation, which was renamed and proclaimed as the "German Empire" in 1871, as the unified Germany (aside from Austria) with the Prussian king as emperor (Kaiser) after the victory over French Emperor Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.


title: German Confederation

text: Most historians have judged the Confederation to have been weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to the creation of a German nation-state. This weakness was part of its design, as the European Great Powers, including Prussia and especially Austria, did not want it to become a nation-state. However, the Confederation was not a 'loose' tie between the German states, as it was impossible to leave the Confederation, and as Confederation law stood above the law of the aligned states. The constitutional weakness of the Confederation lay in the principle of unanimity in the Diet and the limits of the Confederation's scope: it was essentially a military alliance to defend Germany against external attacks and internal riots. Ironically, the War of 1866 proved its ineffectiveness, as it was unable to combine the federal troops in order to fight the Prussian secession.


title: German Confederation

text: The War of the Third Coalition lasted from about 1803 to 1806. Following defeat at the Battle of by the French under Napoleon in December 1805, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II abdicated, and the Empire was dissolved on 6 August 1806. The resulting Treaty of established the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806, joining sixteen of France's allies among the German states (including Bavaria and ). After the Battle of of October 1806 in the War of the Fourth Coalition, various other German states, including Saxony and Westphalia, also joined the Confederation. Only Austria, Prussia, Danish , Swedish Pomerania, and the French-occupied Principality of Erfurt stayed outside the Confederation of the Rhine. The War of the Sixth Coalition from 1812 to winter 1814 saw the defeat of Napoleon and the liberation of Germany. In June 1814, the famous German patriot Heinrich vom Stein created the Central Managing Authority for Germany ("Zentralverwaltungsbehörde") in Frankfurt to replace the defunct Confederation of the Rhine. However, plenipotentiaries gathered at the Congress of Vienna were determined to create a weaker union of German states than envisaged by Stein.


title: German Confederation

text: The German Confederation was created by the of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 after being alluded to in of the 1814 Treaty of Paris, ending the War of the Sixth Coalition.


title: German Confederation

text: The Confederation was formally created by a second treaty, the "Final Act of the Ministerial Conference to Complete and Consolidate the Organization of the German Confederation". This treaty was not concluded and signed by the parties until 15 May 1820. States joined the German Confederation by becoming parties to the second treaty. The states designated for inclusion in the Confederation were:


title: German Confederation

text: In 1839, as compensation for the loss of part of the province of to Belgium, the Duchy of Limburg was created and became a member of the German Confederation (held by the Netherlands jointly with Luxembourg) until the dissolution of 1866. In 1867 the duchy was declared to be an "integral part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands". The cities of Maastricht and Venlo were not included in the Confederation.


title: German Confederation

text: The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the largest and by far the most powerful members of the Confederation. Large parts of both countries were not included in the Confederation, because they had not been part of the former Holy Roman Empire, nor were the greater parts of their armed forces been incorporated in the federal army. Austria and Prussia each had one vote in the Federal Assembly.


title: German Confederation

text: Six other major states had one vote each in the Federal Assembly: the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Kingdom of Saxony, the Kingdom of, the Electorate of Hesse, the Grand Duchy of Baden, and the Grand Duchy of Hesse.


title: German Confederation

text: Three foreign monarchs ruled member states: the King of Denmark as Duke of Holstein and Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg; the King of the Netherlands as Grand Duke of Luxembourg and (from 1839) Duke of Limburg; and the King of the United Kingdom (until 1837) as King of Hanover were members of the German Confederation. Each of them had a vote in the Federal Assembly. At its foundation in 1815, four member states were ruled by foreign monarchs, as the King of Denmark was Duke of both Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg.


title: German Confederation

text: The German Federal Army ("Deutsches Bundesheer") was supposed to collectively defend the German Confederation from external enemies, primarily France. Successive laws passed by the Confederate Diet set the form and function of the army, as well as contribution limits of the member states. The Diet had the power to declare war and was responsible for appointing a supreme commander of the army and commanders of the individual army corps. This made mobilization extremely slow and added a political dimension to the army. In addition, the Diet oversaw the construction and maintenance of several German Federal Fortresses and collected funds annually from the member states for this purpose.


title: German Confederation

text: Projections of army strength were published in 1835, but the work of forming the Army Corps did not commence until 1840 as a consequence of the Rhine Crisis. Money for the fortresses were determined by an act of the Confederate Diet in that year. By 1846, Luxemburg still had not formed its own contingent, and Prussia was rebuffed for offering to supply 1,450 men to garrison the Luxemburg fortress that should have been supplied by Waldeck and the two Lippes. In that same year, it was decided that a common symbol for the Federal Army should be the old Imperial two-headed eagle, but without crown, scepter, or sword, as any of those devices encroached on the individual sovereignty of the states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was among those who derided the "disarmed imperial eagle" as a national symbol.


title: German Confederation

text: The German Federal Army was divided into ten Army Corps (later expanded to include a Reserve Corps). However, the Army Corps were not exclusive to the German Confederation but composed from the national armies of the member states, and did not include all of the armed forces of a state. For example, Prussia's army consisted of nine Army Corps but contributed only three to the German Federal Army.


title: German Confederation

text: The strength of the mobilized German Federal Army was projected to total 303,484 men in 1835 and 391,634 men in 1860, with the individual states providing the following figures:


title: German Confederation

text: Between 1806 and 1815, Napoleon organized the German states, aside from Prussia and Austria, into the Confederation of the Rhine, but this collapsed after his defeats in 1812 to 1815. The German Confederation had roughly the same boundaries as the Empire at the time of the French Revolution (less what is now Belgium). It also kept intact most of Confederation's reconstituted member states and their boundaries. The member states, drastically reduced to 39 from more than 300 (see ) under the Holy Roman Empire, were recognized as fully sovereign. The members pledged themselves to mutual defense, and joint maintenance of the fortresses at Mainz, the city of Luxembourg, , , and .


title: German Confederation

text: The only organ of the Confederation was the Federal Assembly (officially , often called ), which consisted of the delegates of the states' governments. There was no head of state, but the Austrian delegate presided over the Assembly (according to the Bundesakte). Austria did not have extra powers, but consequently the Austrian delegate was called and Austria the (presiding power). The Assembly met in Frankfurt.


title: German Confederation

text: The Confederation was enabled to accept and deploy ambassadors. It allowed ambassadors of the European powers to the Assembly, but rarely deployed ambassadors itself.


title: German Confederation

text: During the revolution of 1848/49 the Federal Assembly was inactive. It transferred its powers to the , the revolutionary German Central Government of the Frankfurt National Assembly. After crushing the revolution and illegally disbanding the National Assembly, the Prussian King failed to create a German nation state by himself. The Federal Assembly was revived in 1850 on Austrian initiative, but only fully reinstalled in the Summer of 1851.


title: German Confederation

text: Rivalry between Prussia and Austria grew more and more, especially after 1859. The Confederation was dissolved in 1866 after the Austro-Prussian War, and was succeeded in 1866 by the Prussian-dominated North German Confederation. Unlike the German Confederation, the North German Confederation was in fact a true state. Its territory comprised the parts of the German Confederation north of the river Main, plus Prussia's eastern territories and the Duchy of , but excluded Austria and the other southern German states.


title: German Confederation

text: Prussia's influence was widened by the Franco-Prussian War resulting in the proclamation of the German Empire at on 18 January 1871, which united the North German Federation with the southern German states. All the constituent states of the former German Confederation became part of the in 1871, except Austria, Luxembourg, the Duchy of Limburg, and Liechtenstein.


title: German Confederation

text: The late 18th century was a period of political, economic, intellectual, and cultural reforms, the Enlightenment (represented by figures such as Locke, , , and Adam Smith), but also involving early Romanticism, and climaxing with the French Revolution, where freedom of the individual and nation was asserted against privilege and custom. Representing a great variety of types and theories, they were largely a response to the disintegration of previous cultural patterns, coupled with new patterns of production, specifically the rise of industrial capitalism.


title: German Confederation

text: However, the defeat of Napoleon enabled conservative and reactionary regimes such as those of the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and Tsarist Russia to survive, laying the groundwork for the Congress of Vienna and the alliance that strove to oppose radical demands for change ushered in by the French Revolution. With Austria's position on the continent now intact and ostensibly secure under its reactionary premier , the Habsburg empire would serve as a barrier to contain the emergence of Italian and German nation-states as well, in addition to containing France. But this reactionary balance of power, aimed at blocking German and Italian nationalism on the continent, was precarious.


title: German Confederation

text: After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, the surviving member states of the defunct Holy Roman Empire joined to form the German Confederation ()—a rather loose organization, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, each feared domination by the other.


title: German Confederation

text: In Prussia the rulers forged a centralized state. By the time of the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia, grounded in the virtues of its established military aristocracy (the "") and stratified by rigid hierarchical lines, had been surpassed militarily and economically by France. After 1807, Prussia's defeats by Napoleonic France highlighted the need for administrative, economic, and social reforms to improve the efficiency of the bureaucracy and encourage practical merit-based education. Inspired by the Napoleonic organization of German and Italian principalities, the Prussian Reform Movement led by and Count was conservative, enacted to preserve aristocratic privilege while modernizing institutions.


title: German Confederation

text: Outside Prussia, industrialization progressed slowly, and was held back because of political disunity, conflicts of interest between the nobility and merchants, and the continued existence of the guild system, which discouraged competition and innovation. While this kept the middle class at bay, affording the old order a measure of stability not seen in France, Prussia's vulnerability to Napoleon's military proved to many among the old order that a fragile, divided, and traditionalist Germany would be easy prey for its cohesive and industrializing neighbor.


title: German Confederation

text: The reforms laid the foundation for Prussia's future military might by professionalizing the military and decreeing universal military conscription. In order to industrialize Prussia, working within the framework provided by the old aristocratic institutions, land reforms were enacted to break the monopoly of the "s" on land ownership, thereby also abolishing, among other things, the feudal practice of serfdom.


title: German Confederation

text: Although the forces unleashed by the French Revolution were seemingly under control after the Vienna Congress, the conflict between conservative forces and liberal nationalists was only deferred at best. The era until the failed 1848 revolution, in which these tensions built up, is commonly referred to as ("pre-March"), in reference to the outbreak of riots in March 1848.


title: German Confederation

text: This conflict pitted the forces of the old order against those inspired by the French Revolution and the Rights of Man. The breakdown of the competition was, roughly, the emerging capitalist bourgeoisie and petit-bourgeoisie (engaged mostly in commerce, trade, and industry), and the growing (and increasingly radicalized) industrial working class; and the other side associated with landowning aristocracy or military aristocracy (the "s") in Prussia, the Habsburg monarchy in Austria, and the conservative notables of the small princely states and city-states in Germany.


title: German Confederation

text: Meanwhile, demands for change from below had been fomenting due to the influence of the French Revolution. Throughout the German Confederation, Austrian influence was paramount, drawing the ire of the nationalist movements. considered nationalism, especially the nationalist youth movement, the most pressing danger: German nationalism might not only repudiate Austrian dominance of the Confederation, but also stimulate nationalist sentiment within the Austrian Empire itself. In a multi-national polyglot state in which Slavs and Magyars outnumbered the Germans, the prospects of Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Polish, Serb, or Croatian sentiment along with middle class liberalism was certainly horrifying to the monarchist landed aristocracy.


title: German Confederation

text: Figures like , , , , , , and rose in the era. Father 's gymnastic associations exposed middle class German youth to nationalist and democratic ideas, which took the form of the nationalistic and liberal democratic college fraternities known as the . The Wartburg Festival in 1817 celebrated Martin Luther as a proto-German nationalist, linking Lutheranism to German nationalism, and helping arouse religious sentiments for the cause of German nationhood. The festival culminated in the burning of several books and other items that symbolized reactionary attitudes. One item was a book by . In 1819, was accused of spying for Russia, and then murdered by a theological student, , who was executed for the crime. Sand belonged to a militant nationalist faction of the . used the murder as a pretext to issue the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which dissolved the , cracked down on the liberal press, and seriously restricted academic freedom.


title: German Confederation

text: German artists and intellectuals, heavily influenced by the French Revolution, turned to Romanticism. At the universities, high-powered professors developed international reputations, especially in the humanities led by history and philology, which brought a new historical perspective to the study of political history, theology, philosophy, language, and literature. With (1770–1831) in philosophy, (1768–1834) in theology and (1795–1886) in history, the University of Berlin, founded in 1810, became the world's leading university. , for example, professionalized history and set the world standard for historiography. By the 1830s, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology had emerged with world class science, led by (1769–1859) in natural science and (1777–1855) in mathematics. Young intellectuals often turned to politics, but their support for the failed Revolution of 1848 forced many into exile.


title: German Confederation

text: The population of the German Confederation (excluding Austria) grew 60% from 1815 to 1865, from 21,000,000 to 34,000,000. The era saw the demographic transition take place in Germany. It was a transition from high birth rates and high death rates to low birth and death rates as the country developed from a pre-industrial to a modernized agriculture and supported a fast-growing industrialized urban economic system. In previous centuries, the shortage of land meant that not everyone could marry, and marriages took place after age 25. The high birthrate was offset by a very high rate of infant mortality, plus periodic epidemics and harvest failures. After 1815, increased agricultural productivity meant a larger food supply, and a decline in famines, epidemics, and malnutrition. This allowed couples to marry earlier, and have more children. Arranged marriages became uncommon as young people were now allowed to choose their own marriage partners, subject to a veto by the parents. The upper and middle classes began to practice birth control, and a little later so too did the peasants. The population in 1800 was heavily rural, with only 8% of the people living in communities of 5,000 to 100,000 and another 2% living in cities of more than 100,000.