title: Sara Bareilles

text: On October 28, 2008, Bareilles released "Between the Lines: Sara Bareilles Live at the Fillmore" on DVD and CD. The package is a recording of her first headlining tour at The Fillmore in San Francisco. This package also included live recordings of her unreleased song "August Moon", as well as a cover of Otis Redding's "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay". She concluded the tour in her home town of Eureka, California, on December 19, 2008, at the Arkley Center for the Performing Arts.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: She toured with Counting Crows and Maroon 5 between July 25 and August 26, 2008. The first stop was Virginia Beach, Virginia, and the last stop Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio. Bareilles was selected as MTV artist of the week for July 7–11 and appeared again on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" on Wednesday, July 9, 2008; and on December 9, 2008 (with Ingrid Michaelson).


title: Sara Bareilles

text: During the spring of 2009, Bareilles was on her second headlining tour, the Gravity Tour, to promote "Gravity", the third and final single from her album "Little Voice". She made her third appearance in Charlottesville, Virginia, during the University of Virginia's annual Springfest on March 28, her first as the opener for Marc Broussard in 2005 and the second being an opening act for Maroon 5. Bareilles also played multiple college shows in April and May. Some were for college students only and others were open to the public.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: She sent out a special holiday message to fans on her mailing list and gave out a free live acoustic EP recorded during her Gravity Tour. The EP contained seven acoustic songs, including a new song "Free Ride", "I'm on Fire" (a Bruce Springsteen cover duet with Tony Lucca), and two speaking segments.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In early 2010, Bareilles recorded video of what she called "An Ode to "Jersey Shore"" and posted it to her official website as a gag for fans.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Exhausted by her rise to stardom and daunted at the prospect of writing another major hit—as documented in her song "Uncharted"—Bareilles experienced a period of writer's block, where she came to fear she would never write another song. She began work on the follow-up to her major label debut in the summer of 2009, collaborating with the likes of Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson, members of Weezer, and Pharrell Williams. As new songs began to take shape, Neal Avron was assigned to produce, record, and mix the entire album. Titled "Kaleidoscope Heart", the album was recorded at The Village Recorder and Sunset Sound in Los Angeles.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: The first single from "Kaleidoscope Heart", "King of Anything", began receiving radio airplay in the United States in May 2010, and was released for sale in June. "King of Anything" had its first play on British radio airwaves on Paul Kay's "Album Download" show on Mid-Wales commercial radio station "Radio Maldwyn – The Magic 756" in August 2010. "King of Anything" was later certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In anticipation of the new album, Bareilles released a series of webisodes, featuring the making of select songs from "Kaleidoscope Heart", including "King of Anything", "Uncharted", "Gonna Get Over You", "Bluebird", and a strings-only version of "King of Anything". The first webisode also contains Bareilles writing the chorus/refrain lyrics for "Hold My Heart". She was selected as VH1's Posted Artist of the Month for July 2010, chronicling her life leading up to the album's release.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: "Kaleidoscope Heart" was released on September 7, 2010, and debuted at number 1 in the United States, selling 90,000 copies. Her previous album, "Little Voice", re-entered the charts at number 200 in the same week, bookending the charts.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles toured in support of "Kaleidoscope Heart" from September to December 2010, with most of the shows being sold out. Bareilles toured Europe and parts of Asia and Australia with Maroon 5 throughout spring 2011. She embarked on a small headline tour in April 2011 with openers Elizabeth & the Catapult and Ximena Sariñana in support of the second single from "Kaleidoscope Heart", "Uncharted", which concluded April 23, 2011 in Memphis, Tennessee. She also opened select shows for the country music duo Sugarland on their Summer 2011 Incredible Machine Tour. The third and final single released from "Kaleidoscope Heart" is "Gonna Get Over You", with a music video directed by Jonah Hill.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles was added in the third season of the NBC television series "The Sing-Off" as a celebrity judge following the departure of Nicole Scherzinger, alongside Ben Folds and Shawn Stockman of Boyz II Men. Bareilles also guest-starred on "Bucket & Skinner's Epic Adventures".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On August 13, 2011, the Hoosier Lottery Grandstand stage at the Indiana State Fair collapsed right after Bareilles finished performing as the opening act for Sugarland. She was uninjured, tweeting, "I'm speechless and feel so helpless; my heart aches for the lives lost." Seven people were killed, and more than 45 injured, in the collapse.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Soon after joining "The Sing-Off", Bareilles announced she was in the process of recording a new EP, with co-star Ben Folds producing it. She also collaborated with fellow singer songwriters Greg Laswell and Jon McLaughlin on their new singles in February. In March, she was slated to release "A Trace of Sun", a documentary of the time she had spent volunteering in Japan after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Her EP, "Once Upon Another Time", was released on 22 May and contained 5 new recordings. The first and only single from the EP, "Stay", was released on April 21, 2012, on 7" vinyl, exclusive to Record Store Day participants with a vinyl-only B-side, "Beautiful Girl".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: During her Stageit show on September 10, 2012, Bareilles stated that she was working on a new record in New York. She also premiered a new song which might be appearing on the new album in question, which was titled "Only Shadows". In January 2013, she revealed the plans for what was to come later in the year. After moving to New York, Bareilles finished her record, and released the lead single from that album "soon" thereafter. In January, Bareilles was a featured artist of the a cappella group Straight No Chaser on the Jackson 5 song, "I Want You Back" which premiered on "Billboard".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In February 2013, Bareilles began teasing her fans to her upcoming album through her Twitter and YouTube accounts. The first tease was a video she released on her website, titled "Sara is Making a Record...".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On March 27, 2013, Bareilles announced that she would conduct an 18-city tour to promote the new album. The first single, "Brave", was released digitally on April 23. On April 17, 2013, Bareilles released a lyric video for her single "Brave" on YouTube. The album she had been teasing, finally titled "The Blessed Unrest", was eventually released on July 16, 2013.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles performed two songs for the feature film "Bounty Killer", which was released in September 2013. The first, titled "The Kill", was written and composed by Will Collyer and Sujata Day. The second, titled "Gonna Getcha", was written and composed by Will Collyer and the film's director, Henry Saine.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Her live album, "", was released on October 22, 2013. The concert was recorded at the Variety Playhouse in Atlanta, Georgia.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In October 2013, two nurses from University of Minnesota Amplatz Children's Hospital Brittany Bloemke and Natalie Snyder, along with former patient Sarah Ewald, produced a YouTube video containing coworkers and young cancer patients dancing and singing to Bareilles's song "Brave". As of August 2019, it had over 1.6 million views. On October 31, 2013, while the trio were being interviewed by host Nischelle Turner on the HLN show "Showbiz Tonight", Bareilles surprised them by Skyping into the interview. Of the video, she said: "I was sent this video by a friend of a friend who lives in Minnesota, and I watched it late at night and immediately my eyes welled up with tears. It's moments like this that remind me of the importance of music, and I can't think of a more perfect incarnation of this song. It's exactly the kind of thing that gives the life to this song that we were hoping for." On October 16, 2019, she visited the hospital before her show at the Xcel Energy Center to sing the song with them live.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On January 26, 2014, Bareilles performed a duet with Carole King at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. The pair performed renditions of King's "Beautiful" and Bareilles's "Brave".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On April 28, 2014, Bareilles performed with Elton John at The Breast Cancer Research Foundation's Annual Hot Pink Party Fundraiser. In May, Bareilles recorded a cover of Jackie Wilson's song "(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher" for the Oprah Winfrey Network.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles toured 24 American cities between July 10, 2014, and August 14, 2014, in her "The Little Black Dress Summer Tour". The tour supported her album "The Blessed Unrest", and it featured opening performances by at least three "special guests": American singer Emily King, indie pop band Lucius, and Canadian singer Hannah Georgas.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles sang "Smile" during the "In Memoriam" segment of the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards show on August 25, 2014.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In June 2013, it was reported that Bareilles was to score "Waitress", a musical adaptation of the 2007 film of the same title. The musical opened on August 20, 2015, produced by the American Repertory Theater. The production was directed by Diane Paulus, and it starred Jessie Mueller in the leading role. Bareilles debuted a song from the musical, "She Used To Be Mine", during some shows on her Little Black Dress Tour. On July 16, 2019, it was announced that "Waitress" would end its run on Broadway on January 5, 2020.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On October 25, 2012, Simon & Schuster announced it would publish a book written by Bareilles, containing essays and photos. The book was tentatively set for release in 2014; however, Bareilles finished the book in March 2015. The title, "Sounds Like Me: My Life (So Far) in Song", was announced in April 2015, and released on October 6, 2015.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles began work on her fifth studio album, "", in April 2015 at New York City's Electric Lady Studios, in collaboration with producer Neal Avron, who had previously worked with Bareilles on "Kaleidoscope Heart". In June 2015, Bareilles confirmed during a Google Hangouts Q & A session that the album would feature songs she had written and composed for "Waitress", which would be reworked "to sound like Sara Bareilles songs." On June 27, 2015, Bareilles and Nadia DiGiallonardo performed "She Used To Be Mine", the album's lead single, with Rich Dworsky and The Berkshire Boys on humorist Garrison Keillor's National Public Radio show "A Prairie Home Companion". The album was released on November 6, 2015, through Epic Records.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In June 2016, Bareilles performed the part of Ariel in a two-night live presentation of Disney's "The Little Mermaid" at the Hollywood Bowl. She performed the Joni Mitchell song "Both Sides, Now" during the "In Memoriam" homage at the 89th Academy Awards in February 2017.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On March 31, 2017, Bareilles took to the Broadway stage in the role of Jenna Hunterson in "Waitress" for a 10-week engagement. She would return to the role in January 2018 for a six-week run, including two weeks co-starring with friend and fellow musician Jason Mraz as Dr. Pomatter. Mraz had previously duetted with Bareilles on two songs featuring the Pomatter part on the "What's Inside" album. She returned to the role again in January 2019, for a four-week run opposite Gavin Creel as Dr. Pomatter.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On April 1, 2018, Bareilles portrayed Mary Magdalene in "Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert", NBC's stripped-down "concert" adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice's first full stage musical. Bareilles was well received in the role by fans and critics and was nominated for the 2018 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie. and the 2019 Grammy Award for Best Musical Theatre Album.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On June 10, 2018, Bareilles hosted the 72nd Tony Awards with Josh Groban. She and Groban performed the opening number to the show, "This One's For You", which was an ode to those who would not win an award that night and referencing that neither had won a major award before, particularly noting the Grammy Awards. They also performed three other numbers, a medley tribute to Chita Rivera and Andrew Lloyd Webber, "8 Times a Week" (a parody of "Chandelier" by Sia), and "This One's for the Dreamers". Bareilles was one of the composers who were nominated for the 2018 Tony Award for Best Original Score for "SpongeBob SquarePants". In August 2018, it was announced that "Waitress" would premiere at the Adelphi Theatre in London's West End in February 2019.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In early 2017, Bareilles announced that she was working on a new album to be released by the end of 2018. The new album's first single, "Armor", was released on October 26, 2018. The same day, pre-orders for the new album were made available through the PledgeMusic direct-to-fan platform with an updated release target of Spring 2019. On February 13, 2019, Bareilles announced the title of her sixth album will be "Amidst the Chaos". On April 6, 2019, the album debuted at number six on the "Billboard" 200 with 35,000 equivalent album sales, of which 29,000 were pure sales. She also released "Shiny", a song about "wanting moms to see how special they really are," on May 10, 2019, to coincide with Mother's Day.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On January 27, 2020, Bareilles made her West End debut, as Jenna Hunterson in "Waitress" at the Adelphi Theatre, opposite Gavin Creel as Dr. Pomatter. Bareilles was set to have a limited eight-week run to end on March 21, but performed her last show on March 14 and returned to the United States due to international travel restrictions related to the coronavirus outbreak. Bareilles also won the Grammy Award for Best American Roots Performance for the song "Saint Honesty" from her album "Amidst the Chaos" on January 27, 2020.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On March 25, 2019, Bareilles appeared on stage at an Apple event to announce that she, along with J. J. Abrams and "Waitress" collaborator Jessie Nelson, had developed a series for Apple TV+ entitled "Little Voice", for which she had also recorded the theme song. Bareilles and Nelson collaborated on music for the series, which premiered on Apple TV+ on July 10, 2020. On September 4, 2020, Bareilles released an album titled "More Love: Songs from Little Voice Season One" with her own recordings of songs from the series.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On August 10, 2020, Bareilles was announced to star in Peacock's new musical comedy "Girls5eva", created by Meredith Scardino and executive produced by Tina Fey and Robert Carlock. On May 6, 2021, all eight episodes of the first season of "Girls5eva" were released on Peacock.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: On May 5, 2021, it was announced that Bareilles would reprise her role as Jenna in a limited revival production of "Waitress" following the reopening of Broadway theatres. The show opened at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on September 2, 2021, with Bareilles playing the role through October 17.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In May 2022, Bareilles starred as the Baker's Wife in the Encores! production of "Into the Woods" at the New York City Center. She reprised the role in a Broadway revival at the St. James Theatre through September 4, 2022.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In her book "Sounds Like Me", Bareilles tells of the conflicting feedback she received on her way to winning a recording contract. Some prospective labels gave her the feedback that her voice was great, but she needed better songs; others told her that the songs were great, but her singing wasn't up to par. This experience was portrayed in the series "Little Voice".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles is known for her strong mezzo-soprano vocal range. She is often compared to artists such as Regina Spektor, Fiona Apple and Billy Joel, due to her vocal ability and incorporation of piano into her music.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: She has described her sound as "piano-based pop soul", with Bareilles finding inspiration from singers such as Etta James and Sam Cooke.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In an interview for "The Huffington Post", Bareilles explained that writing and releasing one of her earliest singles, "Love Song", posed as a defining moment for her music career, since she was "fighting for the essence of some truth inside [of her], which to [her was] a beautiful love song."


title: Sara Bareilles

text: She is often praised for her songwriting abilities, with critics stating she "conveys vulnerability and wisdom in lyrics that speak honestly about relationships from a woman's point of view", and that her "writing voice is uniquely her own".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Other musicians who have toured with her as part of her band include Eric Robinson (guitar and keys), Holly Conlan (backing vocals), Steve Goold (drums, percussion) and Philip Krohnengold (guitar and keyboards).


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In 2013, Bareilles parted amicably with her longtime bandmates to "move in a new direction". She subsequently embarked on a short solo tour named "Brave Enough", before forming a new band in anticipation of her fall co-headlining tour with OneRepublic. The new band consists of these personnel aside from Bareilles herself:


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In December 2008, a single Bareilles had performed in collaboration with Ingrid Michaelson, titled "Winter Song", was released from the compilation "The Hotel Cafe Presents Winter Songs". Bareilles and Michaelson performed it on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", and an animated video was released. In December 2011, "Winter Song" reached number 2 on the Irish Singles Chart. She also recorded the song "Come Home", a duet with OneRepublic, which was released on iTunes on July 14, 2009.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles was one of many singers to appear in the season 3 finale of "30 Rock", including Mary J. Blige, Rachael Yamagata, Sheryl Crow, Norah Jones, and Elvis Costello. The episode was a parody of "We Are The World"-style rockstar fundraisers, with the group recording an impassioned plea for a kidney donation, specifically to help selfish character Jack Donaghy's newly discovered genetic father, played by Alan Alda.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles appeared with Weezer on "Jimmy Kimmel Live" and as an AOL Sessions guest, performing "(If You're Wondering If I Want You To) I Want You To", as well for a special performance on YouTube.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In 2011, as pop rock band Maroon 5 was touring in promotion for their "Hands All Over" album, Bareilles contributed to the female vocals (originally belonging to Lady Antebellum) for the song "Out of Goodbyes".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: She appeared with the band Sugarland for a cover of Dexys (Midnight Runners)'s "Come on Eileen" in a YouTube exclusive.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: In December 2010, Bareilles appeared on the second-season finale of "The Sing-Off" to sing "King of Anything" with The Backbeats. She joined "The Sing-Off" as a judge in its third season alongside musicians Ben Folds and Shawn Stockman (of Boyz II Men). She and Folds sang the Frank Loesser classic "Baby, It's Cold Outside" on a Christmas-themed episode of the show in December 2011. Folds later produced, played on, and provided backing vocals on Bareilles' 2012 EP "Once Upon Another Time", and also provided the forward to her 2015 book, "Sounds Like Me: My Life (So Far) In Song".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: She performed the duet "Love Won't Let You Get Away" with Seth MacFarlane on his debut studio album, "Music Is Better Than Words", and reunited to perform the song with him at Club Nokia on March 26, 2011.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles was featured on the track titled "Mango Tree", from the Zac Brown Band album titled "Jekyll + Hyde", which was released on April 28, 2015. The song title was originally released under the title "Christmas Tree".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles was featured on "Summer is Over", the first single from Jon McLaughlin's third studio album, "Promising Promises", a re-issue of his self-released album "Forever If Ever". McLaughlin released the selection in January 2012.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: MacFarlane's Christmas album "Holiday for Swing", released on September 30, 2014, would also feature Bareilles. She joined him on another rendition of "Baby, It's Cold Outside". The album, which also featured collaborations with Norah Jones and Frank Sinatra's bassist Chuck Berghoffer as well as a 65-piece orchestra, was recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London.


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles collaborated with Folds again in January 2018 at The Kennedy Center for his "DECLASSIFIED: Ben Folds Presents" concert series with the National Symphony Orchestra. Joined by violinist, singer, and Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Caroline Shaw, the orchestra performed classical music, modern compositions by Shaw, and five of Bareilles's songs, including "She Used to Be Mine" from "Waitress". Shaw and Dominic Mekky would arrange the orchestral parts for a performance of "Love Song". Shaw and Folds joined the orchestra, on vocals and percussion respectively, to back Bareilles on "Brave". She, Folds, and Shaw harmonized together on "Once Upon Another Time".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles was in a relationship with former band member and guitarist Javier Dunn until 2013. In August 2015, she met actor Joe Tippett during an out-of-town tryout for "Waitress" at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and they later began a relationship. The couple made their first public appearance at the Tony Awards two years later. Tippett has appeared in productions of "Waitress" as well as on the television series "The Morning Show" and "Mare of Easttown".


title: Sara Bareilles

text: Bareilles considers herself "definitely sort of a feminist", saying, "I don't think that being a feminist has anything to do with hating anything. It's about celebrating women and being productive for females. I'm not one for seeing amazing, intelligent women being reduced to sex symbols." Bareilles has been a longtime ally of the LGBTQ+ community and cites her song "Brave" as being inspired by her friend's struggle with coming out.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: Impeachment: American Crime Story is the third season of the FX true-crime anthology television series "American Crime Story". It consists of 10 episodes and premiered on September 7, 2021. The season portrays the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal and is based on the book "A Vast Conspiracy: The Real Story of the Sex Scandal That Nearly Brought Down a President" by Jeffrey Toobin.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: The cast includes Sarah Paulson, Annaleigh Ashford, and Judith Light (all returning from previous seasons), along with Beanie Feldstein, Clive Owen, Margo Martindale, Billy Eichner, Cobie Smulders, Edie Falco, Taran Killam, Colin Hanks, and Elizabeth Reaser. The series received generally favorable reviews from critics.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: In January 2017, it was announced that a fourth season of "American Crime Story" was in development, set to air after "Katrina", which was eventually dropped. It was to cover the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal and the ensuing events during Clinton's presidency, based on Jeffrey Toobin's book "A Vast Conspiracy: The Real Story of the Sex Scandal That Nearly Brought Down a President". However, in April 2018, creator Ryan Murphy revealed that the season was scrapped and no longer in development.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: On August 6, 2019, it was announced that the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal season was back in development as the third season of the series, which would be written by Sarah Burgess and titled "Impeachment". The season began production in October 2020.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: In February 2017, Murphy revealed that Sarah Paulson was to star in the season, but not as Hillary Clinton. It was later revealed that Paulson, Beanie Feldstein, and Annaleigh Ashford would star as Linda Tripp, Monica Lewinsky, and Paula Jones, respectively, with Lewinsky herself signing on as a co-producer. Later that month, it was announced that the character of Hillary Clinton would not be significant in the series. On November 15, 2019, it was reported that Clive Owen would play Bill Clinton and Anthony Green, Al Gore. Later that month, it was announced that Margo Martindale would portray Lucianne Goldberg. In January 2020, it was announced that Billy Eichner had signed on to play Matt Drudge. In March 2021, it was announced that Edie Falco and Betty Gilpin would portray Hillary Clinton and Ann Coulter, respectively; Gilpin later exited the series due to scheduling conflicts, and was replaced by Cobie Smulders. It was also announced that Judith Light would play Susan Carpenter-McMillan. In August 2021, it was announced that Mira Sorvino, Blair Underwood, Joseph Mazzello, Dan Bakkedahl, Kevin Pollak, and Patrick Fischler had joined the cast in recurring roles.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: Principal photography was set to begin on March 21, 2020 but was halted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On November 13, 2020, Sarah Paulson posted an image of herself as Linda Tripp with the caption, "Linda. "American Crime Story: Impeachment" has begun principal photography." Filming concluded in August 2021.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: The official teaser for the series was released on August 4, 2021. The series was set to have been released on September 27, 2020, but this was delayed due to the pandemic.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: Due to a 2016 agreement between 20th Century Fox Television (now 20th Television) and Netflix, which predates the acquisition of FX and 20th Television by Disney, Netflix holds exclusive global SVOD streaming rights to the "American Crime Story" franchise (except in Canada), with "Impeachment" expected to arrive on that service in 2022. As such, unlike most other FX shows, which are available on the FX on Hulu hub in the U.S., "Impeachment" was not made available on a next-day basis to subscribers to Hulu's base service, but was available on-demand (and on the FXNow TV Everywhere platform) to subscribers to the FX channel, including those subscribed via Hulu + Live TV. However, on March 3, 2022, Hulu has announced that starting March 7 all 3 seasons of "American Crime Story" including "Impeachment", as well as Ryan Murphy's two other FX shows "American Horror Story" (including its spinoff "American Horror Stories") and "Pose" will be available for streaming on Hulu, with future seasons becoming available for next day streaming on the "FX on Hulu" platform.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: The season first broadcast in the United Kingdom in weekly episodes on BBC Two, starting on October 19, 2021.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the season an approval rating of 69% based on 71 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Impeachment" can't seem to decide whether it's unearthing the humanity of a presidential scandal or indulging the mythology of its media circus, but Beanie Feldstein and Sarah Paulson's performances ring true in the midst of all the noise." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 61 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: James Jackson of "The Times" gave the season 4/5 stars, deeming it "a gleefully watchable bonkbuster" and praising the performances of the cast. Lucy Mangan of "The Guardian" also gave it 4/5 stars, saying that it was "a weaker instalment than """, but added: "it holds up well in terms of propulsive, addictive drama. It's a rich, soapy lather shot through with comedy and an irresistible wholeheartedness." Susannah Butter of the "Evening Standard" also gave it 4/5 stars, writing: "As a piece of storytelling it is compelling -- and all credit to Lewinsky for having the courage to come forward and tell her version of events."


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: Benjamin Lee, also writing for "The Guardian", gave it 3/5 stars. He wrote: "There's at times a little bit too much for the show to take on, especially one that tends to repeat itself, and it works best when the focus remains tight on Tripp, whose bizarre travails grip even when the show around her slips." Fiona Sturges of the "Financial Times" also gave it 3/5 stars, writing: "The narrative is expertly paced and has a soapy quality which, though distracting at first, becomes increasingly moreish as the series progresses." Kelly Lawler of "USA Today" gave it 2.5/4 stars, writing: "there are many moments of brilliance, but they are simply not strung together with much finesse. "Impeachment" ends up as a glossy, well-acted series without much to say."


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: James Poniewozik of "The New York Times" was more critical, writing: "Despite several striking performances, its perspective and ideas break out only occasionally from underneath the pancaked strata of details." Melanie McFarland of "Salon.com" wrote: "At times you may question whether the other actors realize they're in the same show as Feldstein or whether that show is a drama or a dark comedy." Alan Sepinwall of "Rolling Stone" gave it 2/5 stars, writing: "With the exception of Beanie Feldstein's wonderful, deeply sympathetic portrayal of Lewinsky, "Impeachment" is unfortunately everything one might have feared about "The People v. O.J." before it debuted."


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: Allison Tripp, the daughter of Linda Tripp, reacted positively to the show's empathetic depiction of her mother and Sarah Paulson's performance. According to Paulson, she never had a chance to consult Tripp on the project prior to her death in 2020, a year before the show's release.


title: Impeachment: American Crime Story

text: Bill and Hillary Clinton, according to executive producer Dana Walden, have not officially commented on the show, though the producers made sure to repeatedly vet the writing so that it could appeal to them without consequence.


title: Austin Theory

text: Austin White (born August 2, 1997) is an American professional wrestler and bodybuilder. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Austin Theory and is the current WWE United States Champion in his second reign.


title: Austin Theory

text: Prior to joining WWE, he wrestled on the independent circuit, including several promotions under the World Wrestling Network umbrella, such as Full Impact Pro (FIP) and Evolve – along the way winning the WWN Championship, FIP World Heavyweight Championship and the Evolve Championship.


title: Austin Theory

text: In WWE, he is a two-time United States Champion and the winner of the 2022 Men's Money in the Bank ladder match.


title: Austin Theory

text: Austin White was born on August 2, 1997, in the Atlanta suburb of McDonough, Georgia. He was a fan of professional wrestling in his youth, citing John Cena as a huge influence, and had dreams of joining WWE since he was 8 years old. In 2015, he placed first in the NPC Georgia Bodybuilding Championship, Teen Men category when he was 17.


title: Austin Theory

text: He made his professional wrestling debut on May 5, 2016, under the ring name Austin Theory, defeating A. R. Fox at a WWA4 event to win the WWA4 Heavyweight Championship. He continued to work in events around the Georgia area. He made his Progress Wrestling debut on April 1, 2017, at a Progress and Evolve joint show, losing to Keith Lee in a four way match involving Jason Kincaid and Blaster McMassive.


title: Austin Theory

text: On August 12, 2016, Theory made his World Wrestling Network debut at Full Impact Pro (FIP)'s Heatstroke. He made his Evolve debut at Evolve 78 on February 24, 2017, defeating Darby Allin. Theory soon acquired Priscilla Kelly as a valet, and on December 18 at Evolve 97, Theory defeated Fred Yehi to win the FIP World Heavyweight Championship. He retained the title against Yehi on January 13, 2018, in an "Anything Goes" match. On February 17 at Evolve 100, Theory failed to win the Evolve Championship against Zack Sabre Jr.. At Evolve 103 on April 6, Theory defeated Keith Lee to win the WWN Championship, ending Lee's 175 day reign. At Evolve 106 on June 23, Theory lost the WWN Championship to Joey Janela. On September 30 at Accelerate, he lost the FIP World Heavyweight Championship to Anthony Henry. At Evolve 117 on December 15, Theory defeated Fabian Aichner and Roderick Strong in a triple threat match to win the Evolve Championship. At Evolve 139 on November 9, 2019, he lost the Evolve Championship to Josh Briggs.


title: Austin Theory

text: On June 16, 2018, Theory made his debut for Mexican promotion The Crash Lucha Libre, losing to Rey Horus. On March 2, 2019, Theory defeated Willie Mack, Bárbaro Cavernario and Sansón to win The Crash Heavyweight Championship. On June 14, Theory made his Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre debut representing The Crash, teaming with Carístico and Volador Jr. to defeat Rush and La Peste Negra (Bárbaro Cavernario and Negro Casas).


title: Austin Theory

text: Prior to his signing with the company, he participated in a WWE tryout in February 2018. On April 8, during day 4 of WrestleMania Axxess, Theory retained his WWN Championship by defeating Marcel Barthel.


title: Austin Theory

text: On August 15, 2019, it was announced that he had signed a contract with WWE and would report to the WWE Performance Center. On the December 25 episode of "NXT", Theory made his in-ring debut, accepting an open challenge against Roderick Strong for the NXT North American Championship, but failed to win the title. On the January 8, 2020 episode of "NXT", Theory achieved his first victory by defeating Joaquin Wilde.


title: Austin Theory

text: Theory appeared on the March 30 episode of "Raw" as an associate of Zelina Vega, establishing himself as a heel. Theory teamed with Angel Garza and Seth Rollins in a losing effort to Kevin Owens and Raw Tag Team Champions The Street Profits (Angelo Dawkins and Montez Ford). On the second night of WrestleMania 36 on April 5, Theory and Garza unsuccessfully challenged The Street Profits for the Raw Tag Team Championship. The following night on "Raw", Theory and Garza lost to The Street Profits in a rematch for the titles. After defeating Akira Tozawa on the April 13 episode of "Raw", Vega's other associates, Garza and Andrade joined him in beating down Tozawa as all three posed together, confirming their status as a faction. However, on the May 18 episode of "Raw", he was attacked by Andrade and Garza after accidentally costing them a tag team match against Apollo Crews and Kevin Owens, kicking him out of the faction. Later that same night, he assisted Seth Rollins and Murphy in attacking Aleister Black, formally joining Rollins' group as a disciple. However, following the June 22 episode of "Raw", he stopped appearing with Rollins and Murphy.


title: Austin Theory

text: On the August 26 episode of "NXT", Theory returned to television by interrupting Bronson Reed, moving back to the brand. He then made his in-ring return on the September 8 episode of "NXT", losing to Reed. At on December 6, Theory helped Johnny Gargano win his third NXT North American Championship. He then appeared on the December 9 episode of "NXT" to reveal he was part of a villainous faction called The Way with Gargano, his real life wife Candice LeRae, and Indi Hartwell. On December 30, Theory won the 2020 NXT Year-End Award for Future Star of NXT.


title: Austin Theory

text: In January 2021, Theory and Gargano competed in the 2021 Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic, losing to Kushida and Leon Ruff in the first round. For the next few months, Theory helped Gargano retain the North American Championship against numerous opponents. Following a loss to Kyle O'Reilly on the July 20 episode of "NXT", Theory took an absence from NXT television, until he returned on the premiere of "NXT 2.0," attending the wedding of Indi Hartwell and Dexter Lumis in his final NXT appearance.


title: Austin Theory

text: As part of the 2021 Draft, Theory was drafted to the Raw brand. On the October 4 episode of "Raw", Theory returned to the brand by attacking Jeff Hardy following his loss to Damian Priest and defeated him on the next two episodes of "Raw". At Survivor Series on November 21, Theory was a part of Team Raw, eliminating Sheamus before he was eliminated by Hardy, but his team won the match against Team SmackDown. The following night on "Raw", it was revealed that Theory took Cleopatra's Egg from Mr. McMahon, leading to McMahon to reward Theory a WWE Championship match against Big E in the main event for "showing intestinal fortitude", which he lost.


title: Austin Theory

text: On the January 17, 2022 episode of "Raw", after defeating Finn Bálor, McMahon rewarded Theory a spot in the Royal Rumble match. At the namesake event on January 29, Theory entered his first Royal Rumble match at #3, lasting 22 minutes before he was eliminated by AJ Styles. On the January 31 episode of "Raw", Theory defeated Kevin Owens in a Elimination Chamber qualifying match. At Elimination Chamber on February 19, Theory failed to win the WWE Championship after he was last pinned by Brock Lesnar in a match also involving Seth "Freakin" Rollins, Styles, Riddle and defending champion Bobby Lashley; towards the end of the match, Lesnar and Theory generated buzz when Lesnar performed the F-5 on Theory from the top of the Elimination Chamber pod down to the floor. On the February 28 episode of "Raw," Theory bribed McMahon into having himself accompany him to his interview with Pat McAfee to no avail. On the March 4 episode of "SmackDown," Theory confronted McAfee and announced he would be his opponent at WrestleMania 38. On the second night of the event on April 3, Theory lost to McAfee, but helped McMahon defeat McAfee in the subsequent fight that ensued right after.


title: Austin Theory

text: The following night on "Raw", Theory and The Usos defeated RK-Bro (Randy Orton and Riddle) and Finn Bálor after Theory pinned Bálor, earning the chance to challenge for his United States Championship. In a backstage segment the following week, Theory announced he and Mr. McMahon decided that the name Austin did not suit him anymore (due to Stone Cold Steve Austin performing a Stunner on both Theory and McMahon at WrestleMania 38), dropping the first name and going by Theory. On the April 18 episode of "Raw", Theory defeated Bálor to win the title for the first time in his career; with this win, he became the second youngest United States Champion in the title's history and the youngest champion under the WWE banner. On the May 9 episode of "Raw," Theory defended the championship against Cody Rhodes, losing the match by disqualification after Seth Rollins attacked Rhodes, but retained the title. Theory retained the title against Mustafa Ali on the May 30 episode of "Raw," and in a rematch at Hell in a Cell on June 5.


title: Austin Theory

text: At Money in the Bank on July 2, Theory lost the United States Championship to Bobby Lashley, ending his reign at 75 days. Later that night, he was added to and won the Men's Money in the Bank ladder match; this win made him the youngest superstar to win the Money in the Bank contract in WWE history, as well as being the first Money in the Bank winner to lose a title and win the contract on the same night. At SummerSlam on July 30, Theory failed to regain the United States Championship in a rematch against Lashley. Later that night, he attempted to cash in his Money in the Bank contract during the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship Last Man Standing match between Brock Lesnar and Roman Reigns, but was hit with an F-5 by Lesnar before he could officially cash in. At Clash at the Castle on September 3 on the pre-show, with his ring name reverted to Austin Theory, he and Alpha Academy (Chad Gable and Otis) lost to The Street Profits (Montez Ford and Angelo Dawkins) and Madcap Moss. Later that night, he again attempted to cash in his Money in the Bank contract during the main event, only to be knocked out by Tyson Fury before officially doing so.


title: Austin Theory

text: On the November 7 episode of "Raw", Theory cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Seth "Freakin" Rollins for the United States Championship but was unsuccessful, partially due to interference from Bobby Lashley.


title: Austin Theory

text: On November 26, at Survivor Series WarGames; Theory defeated Rollins and Lashley in a triple threat match to win the United States Championship for the second time in his career. On the December 5 episode of "Raw," Theory retained the title against Mustafa Ali by disqualification after being attacked by the returning Dolph Ziggler.


title: French colonial empire

text: The French colonial empire () comprised the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "First French Colonial Empire", that existed until 1814, by which time most of it had been lost or sold, and the "Second French Colonial Empire", which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830. At its apex between the two world wars, the second French colonial empire was the second-largest colonial empire in the world behind the British Empire.


title: French colonial empire

text: France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean and India in the 17th century but lost most of its possessions following its defeat in the Seven Years' War. The North American possessions were lost to Britain and Spain but the latter returned Louisiana (New France) to France in 1800. The territory was then sold to the United States in 1803. France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly in Africa as well as Indochina and the South Pacific. As it developed, the new French empire took on roles of trade with the motherland, supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items. Rebuilding an empire rebuilt French prestige, especially regarding international power and spreading the French language and the Catholic religion. It also provided manpower in the World Wars.


title: French colonial empire

text: A major goal was the or "The Civilizing Mission". 'Civilizing' the populations of Africa through spreading language and religion, were used as justifications for many of the practices that came with the French colonial project. In 1884, the leading proponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry, declared; "The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a duty to civilize the inferior races." Full citizenship rights – – were offered, although in reality "assimilation was always receding [and] the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens." France sent small numbers of settlers to its empire, with the notable exception of Algeria, where the French settlers took power while being a minority.


title: French colonial empire

text: In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French took control of the overseas colonies one-by-one and used them as bases from which they prepared to liberate France. Historian Tony Chafer argues: "In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation, France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War." However, after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority. Major revolts in Indochina and Algeria proved very expensive and France lost both colonies. Then followed a relatively peaceful decolonization elsewhere after 1960. The French Constitution of 27 October 1946 (Fourth Republic), established the French Union which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as overseas departments and territories within the French Republic. These now total altogether 119,394 km (46,098 sq. miles), with 2.8 million people in 2021. By the 1960s, says Robert Aldrich, the last "vestiges of empire held little interest for the French." He argues, "Except for the traumatic decolonization of Algeria, however, what is remarkable is how few long-lasting effects on France the giving up of empire entailed." Nevertheless, French colonization dramatically impacted its colonies through policies and systems that entrenched internal strife, lack of economic diversity, aid dependency, and loss of cultural treasures. Links between France and its former colonies persist through La francophonie, the CFA franc and military operations such as Operation Serval.


title: French colonial empire

text: During the 16th century, the French colonization of the Americas began. Excursions of Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier in the early 16th century, as well as the frequent voyages of French boats and fishermen to the Grand Banks off Newfoundland throughout that century, were the precursors to the story of France's colonial expansion. But Spain's defense of its American monopoly, and the further distractions caused in France itself in the later 16th century by the French Wars of Religion, prevented any constant efforts by France to settle colonies. Early French attempts to found colonies in Brazil, in 1555 at Rio de Janeiro ("France Antarctique") and in Florida (including Fort Caroline in 1562), and in 1612 at São Luís ("France Équinoxiale"), were not successful, due to a lack of official interest and to Portuguese and Spanish vigilance.


title: French colonial empire

text: The story of France's colonial empire truly began on 27 July 1605, with the foundation of Port Royal in the colony of Acadia in North America, in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. A few years later, in 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec, which was to become the capital of the enormous, but sparsely settled, fur-trading colony of New France (also called Canada).


title: French colonial empire

text: New France had a rather small population, which resulted from more emphasis being placed on the fur trade rather than agricultural settlements. Due to this emphasis, the French relied heavily on creating friendly contacts with the local First Nations community. Without the appetite of New England for land, and by relying solely on Aboriginals to supply them with fur at the trading posts, the French composed a complex series of military, commercial, and diplomatic connections. These became the most enduring alliances between the French and the First Nation community. The French were, however, under pressure from religious orders to convert them to Catholicism.


title: French colonial empire

text: Through alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were able to exert a loose control over much of the North American continent. Areas of French settlement were generally limited to the St. Lawrence River Valley. Prior to the establishment of the 1663 Sovereign Council, the territories of New France were developed as mercantile colonies. It is only after the arrival of intendant Jean Talon in 1665 that France gave its American colonies the proper means to develop population colonies comparable to that of the British. Acadia itself was lost to the British in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Back in France, there was relatively little interest in colonialism, which concentrated rather on dominance within Europe, and for most of its history, New France was far behind the British North American colonies in both population and economic development.


title: French colonial empire

text: In 1699, French territorial claims in North America expanded still further, with the foundation of Louisiana in the basin of the Mississippi River. The extensive trading network throughout the region connected to Canada through the Great Lakes, was maintained through a vast system of fortifications, many of them centred in the Illinois Country and in present-day Arkansas.


title: French colonial empire

text: As the French empire in North America grew, the French also began to build a smaller but more profitable empire in the West Indies. Settlement along the South American coast in what is today French Guiana began in 1624, and a colony was founded on Saint Kitts in 1625 (the island had to be shared with the English until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, when it was ceded outright). The current isle of the Commonwealth of Dominica in the eastern Caribbean also fell under increasing French settlement from the early 1630s. The "Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique" founded colonies in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1635, and a colony was later founded on Saint Lucia by (1650). The food-producing plantations of these colonies were built and sustained through slavery, with the supply of slaves dependent on the African slave trade. Local resistance by the indigenous peoples resulted in the Carib Expulsion of 1660. France's most important Caribbean colonial possession was established in 1664, when the colony of Saint-Domingue (today's Haiti) was founded on the western half of the Spanish island of Hispaniola. In the 18th century, Saint-Domingue grew to be the richest sugar colony in the Caribbean. The eastern half of Hispaniola (today's Dominican Republic) also came under French rule for a short period, after being given to France by Spain in 1795.


title: French colonial empire

text: With the end of the French Wars of Religion, King Henry IV encouraged various enterprises, set up to develop trade with faraway lands. In December 1600, a company was formed through the association of Saint-Malo, Laval, and Vitré to trade with the Moluccas and Japan. Two ships, the "Croissant" and the "Corbin", were sent around the Cape of Good Hope in May 1601. One was wrecked in the Maldives, leading to the adventure of François Pyrard de Laval, who managed to return to France in 1611. The second ship, carrying François Martin de Vitré, reached Ceylon and traded with Aceh in Sumatra, but was captured by the Dutch on the return leg at Cape Finisterre. François Martin de Vitré was the first Frenchman to write an account of travels to the Far East in 1604, at the request of Henry IV, and from that time numerous accounts on Asia would be published.


title: French colonial empire

text: From 1604 to 1609, following the return of François Martin de Vitré, Henry developed a strong enthusiasm for travel to Asia and attempted to set up a French East India Company on the model of England and the Netherlands. On 1 June 1604, he issued letters patent to Dieppe merchants to form the Dieppe Company, giving them exclusive rights to Asian trade for 15 years. No ships were sent, however, until 1616. In 1609, another adventurer, Pierre-Olivier Malherbe, returned from a circumnavigation of the globe and informed Henry of his adventures. He had visited China and India and had an encounter with Akbar.


title: French colonial empire

text: Colonies were established in India's Chandernagore (1673) and Pondichéry in the south east (1674), and later at Yanam (1723), Mahe (1725), and Karikal (1739) (see French India). Colonies were also founded in the Indian Ocean, on the Île de Bourbon (Réunion, 1664), Isle de France (Mauritius, 1718), and the Seychelles (1756).


title: French colonial empire

text: In the middle of the 18th century, a series of colonial conflicts began between France and Britain, which ultimately resulted in the destruction of most of the first French colonial empire and the near-complete expulsion of France from the Americas. These wars were the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the American Revolution (1775–1783), the French Revolutionary Wars (1793–1802) and the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). It may even be seen further back in time to the first of the French and Indian Wars. This cyclic conflict is sometimes known as the Second Hundred Years' War.


title: French colonial empire

text: Although the War of the Austrian Succession was indecisive – despite French successes in India under the French Governor-General Joseph François Dupleix and Europe under Marshal Saxe – the Seven Years' War, after early French successes in Menorca and North America, saw a French defeat, with the numerically superior British (over one million to about 50 thousand French settlers) conquering not only New France (excluding the small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon), but also most of France's West Indian (Caribbean) colonies, and all of the French Indian outposts.


title: French colonial empire

text: While the peace treaty saw France's Indian outposts, and the Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe restored to France, the competition for influence in India had been won by the British, and North America was entirely lost – most of New France was taken by Britain (also referred to as British North America), except Louisiana, which France ceded to Spain as payment for Spain's late entrance into the war (and as compensation for Britain's annexation of Spanish Florida). Also ceded to the British were Grenada and Saint Lucia in the West Indies. Although the loss of Canada would cause much regret in future generations, it excited little unhappiness at the time; colonialism was widely regarded as both unimportant to France, and immoral.


title: French colonial empire

text: Some recovery of the French colonial empire was made during the French intervention in the American Revolution, with Saint Lucia being returned to France by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, but not nearly as much as had been hoped for at the time of French intervention. True disaster came to what remained of France's colonial empire in 1791 when Saint Domingue (the Western third of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola), France's richest and most important colony, was riven by a massive slave revolt, caused partly by the divisions among the island's elite, which had resulted from the French Revolution of 1789.


title: French colonial empire

text: The slaves, led eventually by Toussaint L'Ouverture and then, following his capture by the French in 1801, by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, held their own against French and British opponents. The French launched a failed expedition in 1802, and were up against a crippling Royal Naval blockade the following year. As a result, the Empire of Haiti ultimately achieved independence in 1804 (becoming the first black republic in the world, followed by Liberia in 1847). The black and mulatto population of the island (including the Spanish east) had declined from 700,000 in 1789 to 351,819 in 1804. About 80,000 Haitians died in the 1802–03 campaign alone. Of the 55,131 French soldiers dispatched to Haiti in 1802–03, 45,000, including 18 generals, had died, along with 10,000 sailors, the great majority from disease. Captain [first name unknown] Sorrell of the British navy observed, "France lost there one of the finest armies she ever sent forth, composed of picked veterans, the conquerors of Italy and of German legions. She is now entirely deprived of her influence and her power in the West Indies."


title: French colonial empire

text: Meanwhile, France's newly resumed war with Britain resulted in the British capture of practically all remaining French colonies. These were restored at the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, but when war resumed in 1803, the British soon recaptured them. France's 1800 recovery of Louisiana from Spain in the secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso came to nothing, as the success of the Haitian Revolution convinced Napoleon that holding Louisiana would not be worth the cost, leading to its sale to the United States in 1803. The French attempt to establish a colony in Egypt in 1798–1801 was not successful. Battle casualties for the campaign were at least 15,000 killed or wounded and 8,500 prisoners for France; 50,000 killed or wounded and 15,000 prisoners for Turkey, Egypt, other Ottoman lands, and Britain.


title: French colonial empire

text: At the close of the Napoleonic Wars, most of France's colonies were restored to it by Britain, notably Guadeloupe and Martinique in the West Indies, French Guiana on the coast of South America, various trading posts in Senegal, the "Île Bourbon" (Réunion) in the Indian Ocean, and France's tiny Indian possessions; however, Britain finally annexed Saint Lucia, Tobago, the Seychelles, and the "Isle de France" (now Mauritius).


title: French colonial empire

text: The beginnings of the second French colonial empire were laid in 1830 with the French invasion of Algeria, which was fully conquered by 1903. Historian Ben Kiernan estimates that 825,000 Algerians died during the conquest by 1875.


title: French colonial empire

text: In 1838, the French naval commander Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars responded to complaints of the mistreatment of French Catholic missionary in the Kingdom of Tahiti ruled by Queen Pōmare IV. Dupetit Thouars forced the native government to pay an indemnity and sign a treaty of friendship with France respecting the rights of French subjects in the islands including any future Catholic missionaries. Four years later, claiming the Tahitians had violated the treaty, a French protectorate was forcibly installed and the queen made to sign a request for French protection.


title: French colonial empire

text: Queen Pōmare left her kingdom and exiled herself to Raiatea in protest against the French and tried to enlist the help of Queen Victoria. The Franco-Tahitian War broke out between the Tahitian people and the French from 1844 to 1847 as France attempted to consolidate their rule and extend their rule into the Leeward Islands where Queen Pōmare sought refuge with her relatives. The British remained officially neutral during the war but diplomatic tensions existed between the French and British. The French succeeded in subduing the guerilla forces on Tahiti but failed to hold the other islands. In February 1847, Queen Pōmare IV returned from her self-imposed exile and acquiesced to rule under the protectorate. Although victorious, the French were not able to annex the islands due to diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, so Tahiti and its dependency Moorea continued to be ruled under the protectorate. A clause to the war settlement, known as the Jarnac Convention or the Anglo-French Convention of 1847, was signed by France and Great Britain, in which the two powers agreed to respect the independence of Queen Pōmare's allies in Leeward Islands. The French continued the guise of protection until the 1880s when they formally annexed Tahiti with the abdication of King Pōmare V on 29 June 1880. The Leeward Islands were annexed through the Leewards War which ended in 1897. These conflicts and the annexation of other Pacific islands formed French Oceania.


title: French colonial empire

text: Napoleon III doubled the area of the French overseas Empire; he established French rule in New Caledonia, and Cochinchina, established a protectorate in Cambodia (1863); and colonized parts of Africa.


title: French colonial empire

text: To carry out his new overseas projects, Napoleon III created a new Ministry of the Navy and the Colonies and appointed an energetic minister, Prosper, Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat, to head it. A key part of the enterprise was the modernization of the French Navy; he began the construction of 15 powerful new battle cruisers powered by steam and driven by propellers; and a fleet of steam-powered troop transports. The French Navy became the second most powerful in the world, after Britain's. He also created a new force of colonial troops, including elite units of naval infantry, Zouaves, the Chasseurs d'Afrique, and Algerian sharpshooters, and he expanded the Foreign Legion, which had been founded in 1831 and won fame in the Crimea, Italy and Mexico. By the end of Napoleon III's reign, the French overseas territories had tripled in the area; in 1870 they covered a , with more than 5 million inhabitants.


title: French colonial empire

text: On 24 September 1853, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854. A few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years, but New Caledonia became a penal colony and, from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia.


title: French colonial empire

text: At the beginning of Napoleon III's reign, the presence of France in Senegal was limited to a trading post on the island of Gorée, a narrow strip on the coast, the town of Saint-Louis, and a handful of trading posts in the interior. The economy had largely been based on the slave trade, carried out by the rulers of the small kingdoms of the interior, until France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848. In 1854, Napoleon III named an enterprising French officer, Louis Faidherbe, to govern and expand the colony, and to give it the beginning of a modern economy. Faidherbe built a series of forts along the Senegal River, formed alliances with leaders in the interior, and sent expeditions against those who resisted French rule. He built a new port at Dakar, established and protected telegraph lines and roads, followed these with a rail line between Dakar and Saint-Louis and another into the interior. He built schools, bridges, and systems to supply fresh water to the towns. He also introduced the large-scale cultivation of Bambara groundnuts and peanuts as a commercial crop. Reaching into the Niger valley, Senegal became the primary French base in West Africa and a model colony. Dakar became one of the most important cities of the French Empire and of Africa.


title: French colonial empire

text: Napoleon III also acted to increase the French presence in Indochina. An important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia. Deeper down was the sense that France owed the world a civilizing mission.


title: French colonial empire

text: French missionaries had been active in Vietnam since the 17th century, when the Jesuit priest Alexandre de Rhodes opened a mission there. In 1858 the Vietnamese emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty felt threatened by the French influence and tried to expel the missionaries. Napoleon III sent a naval force of fourteen gunships, carrying three thousand French and three thousand Filipino troops provided by Spain, under Charles Rigault de Genouilly, to compel the government to accept the missionaries and to stop the persecution of Catholics. In September 1858 the expeditionary force captured and occupied the port of Da Nang, and then in February 1859 moved south and captured Saigon. The Vietnamese ruler was compelled to cede three provinces to France, and to offer protection to the Catholics. The French troops departed for a time to take part in the expedition to China, but in 1862, when the agreements were not fully followed by the Vietnamese emperor, they returned. The Emperor was forced to open treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin, and all of Cochinchina became a French territory in 1864.


title: French colonial empire

text: In 1863, the ruler of Cambodia, King Norodom, who had been placed in power by the government of Thailand, rebelled against his sponsors and sought the protection of France. The Thai king granted authority over Cambodia to France, in exchange for two provinces of Laos, which were ceded by Cambodia to Thailand. In 1867, Cambodia formally became a protectorate of France.


title: French colonial empire

text: In the spring of 1860, a war broke out in Lebanon, then part of the Ottoman Empire, between the quasi-Muslim Druze population and the Maronite Christians. The Ottoman authorities in Lebanon could not stop the violence, and it spread into neighboring Syria, with the massacre of many Christians. In Damascus, the Emir Abd-el-Kadr protected the Christians there against the Muslim rioters. Napoleon III felt obliged to intervene on behalf of the Christians, despite the opposition of London, which feared it would lead to a wider French presence in the Middle East. After long and difficult negotiations to obtain the approval of the British government, Napoleon III sent a French contingent of seven thousand men for a period of six months. The troops arrived in Beirut in August 1860, and took positions in the mountains between the Christian and Muslim communities. Napoleon III organized an international conference in Paris, where the country was placed under the rule of a Christian governor named by the Ottoman Sultan, which restored a fragile peace. The French troops departed in June 1861, after just under one year. The French intervention alarmed the British, but was highly popular with the powerful Catholic political faction in France, which had been alarmed by Louis Napoleon's dispute with the Pope over his territories in Italy.


title: French colonial empire

text: Algeria had been formally under French rule since 1830, but only in 1852 was the country entirely conquered. There were about 100,000 European settlers in the country, at that time, about half of them French. Under the Second Republic the country was ruled by a civilian government, but Louis Napoleon re-established a military government, much to the annoyance of the colonists. By 1857 the army had conquered Kabyle Province, and pacified the country. By 1860 the European population had grown to 200,000, and lands of native Algerians were being rapidly bought and farmed by the new arrivals.


title: French colonial empire

text: Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed within the first three decades of the conquest as a result of war, massacres, disease and famine. French losses from 1830 to 1851 were 3,336 killed in action and 92,329 dead in the hospital.


title: French colonial empire

text: In the first eight years of his rule Napoleon III paid little attention to Algeria. In September 1860, however, he and the Empress Eugénie visited Algeria, and the trip made a deep impression upon them. Eugénie was invited to attend a traditional Arab wedding, and the Emperor met many of the local leaders. The Emperor gradually conceived the idea that Algeria should be governed differently from other colonies. In February 1863, he wrote a public letter to Pelissier, the Military Governor, saying: "Algeria is not a colony in the traditional sense, but an Arab kingdom; the local people have, like the colonists, a legal right to my protection. I am just as much the Emperor of the Arabs of Algeria as I am of the French." He intended to rule Algeria through a government of Arab aristocrats. Toward this end he invited the chiefs of main Algerian tribal groups to his chateau at Compiegne for hunting and festivities.


title: French colonial empire

text: Compared to previous administrations, Napoleon III was far more sympathetic to the native Algerians. He halted European migration inland, restricting them to the coastal zone. He also freed the Algerian rebel leader Abd al Qadir (who had been promised freedom on surrender but was imprisoned by the previous administration) and gave him a stipend of 150,000 francs. He allowed Muslims to serve in the military and civil service on theoretically equal terms and allowed them to migrate to France. In addition, he gave the option of citizenship; however, for Muslims to take this option they had to accept all of the French civil code, including parts governing inheritance and marriage which conflicted with Muslim laws, and they had to reject the competence of religious Sharia courts. This was interpreted by some Muslims as requiring them to give up parts of their religion to obtain citizenship and was resented.


title: French colonial empire

text: More importantly, Napoleon III changed the system of land tenure. While ostensibly well-intentioned, in effect this move destroyed the traditional system of land management and deprived many Algerians of land. While Napoleon did renounce state claims to tribal lands, he also began a process of dismantling tribal land ownership in favour of individual land ownership. This process was corrupted by French officials sympathetic to the French in Algeria who took much of the land they surveyed into public domain. In addition, many tribal leaders, chosen for loyalty to the French rather than influence in their tribe, immediately sold communal land for cash.


title: French colonial empire

text: His attempted reforms were interrupted in 1864 by an Arab insurrection, which required more than a year and an army of 85,000 soldiers to suppress. Nonetheless, he did not give up his idea of making Algeria a model where French colonists and Arabs could live and work together as equals. He traveled to Algiers for a second time on 3 May 1865, and this time he remained for a month, meeting with tribal leaders and local officials. He offered a wide amnesty to participants of the insurrection, and promised to name Arabs to high positions in his government. He also promised a large public works program of new ports, railroads, and roads. However, once again his plans met a major natural obstacle in 1866 and 1867, Algeria was struck by an epidemic of cholera, clouds of locusts, drought and famine, and his reforms were hindered by the French colonists, who voted massively against him in the plebiscites of his late reign.


title: French colonial empire

text: Despite the signing of the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier Treaty, a historic free trade agreement between Britain and France, and the joint operations conducted by France and Britain in the Crimea, China and Mexico, diplomatic relations between Britain and France never became close during the colonial era. Lord Palmerston, the British foreign minister from 1846 to 1851 and prime minister from 1855 to 1865, sought to maintain the balance of power in Europe; this rarely involved an alignment with France. In 1859 there were even briefly fears that France might try to invade Britain. Palmerston was suspicious of France's interventions in Lebanon, Southeast Asia and Mexico. Palmerston was also concerned that France might intervene in the American Civil War (1861–65) on the side of the South. The British also felt threatened by the construction of the Suez Canal (1859–1869) by Ferdinand de Lesseps in Egypt. They tried to oppose its completion by diplomatic pressures and by promoting revolts among workers.


title: French colonial empire

text: The Suez Canal was successfully built by the French, but became a joint British-French project in 1875. Both nations saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France's leading expansionist Jules Ferry was out of office, and Paris allowed London to take effective control of Egypt.


title: French colonial empire

text: After the downfall of Napoleon III, few writers used the word 'empire', which had become associated with despotism, decadence, and weakness, preferring the word 'colonies'. However by the 1880s and 1890s, as Republicans consolidated their control over the political system, increasing numbers of politicians, intellectuals and writers began using the phrase "colonial empire", linking it to republicanism and the French nation.


title: French colonial empire

text: Most Frenchmen ignored foreign affairs and colonial issues. In 1914 the chief pressure group was the "Parti colonial", a coalition of 50 organizations with a combined total of only 5,000 members.


title: French colonial empire

text: It was only after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 and the founding of the Third Republic (1871–1940) that most of France's later colonial possessions were acquired. From their base in Cochinchina, the French took over Tonkin (in modern northern Vietnam) and Annam (in modern central Vietnam) in 1884–1885. These, together with Cambodia and Cochinchina, formed French Indochina in 1887 (to which Laos was added in 1893 and Guangzhouwanin 1900).


title: French colonial empire

text: In 1849, the French Concession in Shanghai was established, and in 1860, the French Concession in Tientsin (now called Tianjin) was set up. Both concessions lasted until 1946. The French also had smaller concessions in Guangzhou and Hankou (now part of Wuhan).


title: French colonial empire

text: The Third Anglo-Burmese War, in which Britain conquered and annexed the hitherto independent Upper Burma, was in part motivated by British apprehension at France advancing and gaining possession of territories near to Burma.


title: French colonial empire

text: France also extended its influence in North Africa after 1870, establishing a protectorate in Tunisia in 1881 with the Bardo Treaty. Gradually, French control crystallised over much of North, West, and Central Africa by around the start of the 20th century (including the modern states of Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Ivory Coast, Benin, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, the east African coastal enclave of Djibouti (French Somaliland), and the island of Madagascar).


title: French colonial empire

text: Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza helped to formalise French control in Gabon and on the northern banks of the Congo River from the early 1880s. The explorer Colonel Parfait-Louis Monteil traveled from Senegal to Lake Chad in 1890–1892, signing treaties of friendship and protection with the rulers of several of the countries he passed through, and gaining much knowledge of the geography and politics of the region.


title: French colonial empire

text: The Voulet–Chanoine Mission, a military expedition, set out from Senegal in 1898 to conquer the Chad Basin and to unify all French territories in West Africa. This expedition operated jointly with two other expeditions, the Foureau-Lamy and Gentil Missions, which advanced from Algeria and Middle Congo respectively. With the death (April 1900) of the Muslim warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, the greatest ruler in the region, and the creation of the Military Territory of Chad (September 1900), the Voulet-Chanoine Mission had accomplished all its goals. The ruthlessness of the mission provoked a scandal in Paris.


title: French colonial empire

text: As a part of the Scramble for Africa, France aimed to establish a continuous west–east axis across the continent, in contrast with the proposed British north–south axis. Tensions between Britain and France heightened in Africa. At several points war seemed possible, but no outbreak occurred. The most serious episode was the Fashoda Incident of 1898. French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to act in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived to confront them. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, implicitly acknowledging Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. An agreement between the two states recognised the "status quo": acknowledging British control over Egypt while France became the dominant power in Morocco, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall.


title: French colonial empire

text: During the Agadir Crisis in 1911 Britain supported France against Germany, and Morocco became a French protectorate.


title: French colonial empire

text: At this time, the French also established colonies in the South Pacific, including New Caledonia, the various island groups which make up French Polynesia (including the Society Islands, the Marquesas, the Gambier Islands, the Austral Islands and the Tuamotus), and established joint control of the New Hebrides with Britain.


title: French colonial empire

text: In contravention of the Jarnac Convention of 1847, the French placed the Leeward Islands under a provisional protectorate by falsely convincing the ruling chiefs that the German Empire planned to take over their island kingdoms. After years of diplomatic negotiation, Britain and France agreed to abrogate the convention in 1887 and the French formally annexed all the Leeward Islands without official treaties of cession from the islands' sovereign governments. From 1888 to 1897, the natives of the kingdom of Raiatea and Tahaa led by a minor chief, Teraupo'o, fought off French rule and the annexation of the Leeward Islands. Anti-French factions in the kingdom of Huahine also attempted to fight off the French under Queen Teuhe while the kingdom of Bora Bora remained neutral but hostile to the French. The conflict ended in 1897 with the capture and exile of rebel leaders to New Caledonia and more than one hundred rebels to the Marquesas. These conflicts and the annexation of other Pacific islands formed French Polynesia.


title: French colonial empire

text: The French made their last major colonial gains after World War I, when they gained mandates over the former territories of the Ottoman Empire that make up what is now Syria and Lebanon, as well as most of the former German colonies of Togo and Cameroon.


title: French colonial empire

text: A hallmark of the French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the civilising mission ("mission civilisatrice"), the principle that it was Europe's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar. During the 19th century, French citizenship along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne and Réunion as well as to the residents of the "Four Communes" in Senegal. In most cases, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some blacks, such as the Senegalese Blaise Diagne, who was elected in 1914.


title: French colonial empire

text: Elsewhere, in the largest and most populous colonies, a strict separation between "sujets français" (all the natives) and "citoyens français" (all males of European extraction) with different rights and duties was maintained until 1946. As was pointed out in a 1927 treatise on French colonial law, the granting of French citizenship to natives "was not a right, but rather a privilege". Two 1912 decrees dealing with French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa enumerated the conditions that a native had to meet in order to be granted French citizenship (they included speaking and writing French, earning a decent living and displaying good moral standards). From 1830 to 1946, only between 3,000 and 6,000 native Algerians were granted French citizenship. In French West Africa, outside of the Four Communes, there were 2,500 "citoyens indigènes" out of a total population of 15 million.


title: French colonial empire

text: French conservatives had been denouncing the assimilationist policies as products of a dangerous liberal fantasy. In the Protectorate of Morocco, the French administration attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended for collaboration, with mixed results. After World War II, the segregationist approach modeled in Morocco had been discredited by its connections to Vichyism, and assimilationism enjoyed a brief renaissance.


title: French colonial empire

text: David P. Forsythe wrote: "From Senegal and Mauritania in the west to Niger in the east (what became French Africa), there was a parallel series of ruinous wars, resulting in tremendous numbers of people being violently enslaved. At the beginning of the twentieth century there may have been between 3 and 3.5 million slaves, representing over 30 percent of the total population, within this sparsely populated region." In 1905, the French abolished slavery in most of French West Africa. From 1906 to 1911, over a million slaves in French West Africa fled from their masters to earlier homes. In Madagascar over 500,000 slaves were freed following French abolition in 1896.


title: French colonial empire

text: French colonial officials, influenced by the revolutionary ideal of equality, standardized schools, curricula, and teaching methods as much as possible. They did not establish colonial school systems with the idea of furthering the ambitions of the local people, but rather simply exported the systems and methods in vogue in the mother nation. Having a moderately trained lower bureaucracy was of great use to colonial officials. The emerging French-educated indigenous elite saw little value in educating rural peoples. After 1946 the policy was to bring the best students to Paris for advanced training. The result was to immerse the next generation of leaders in the growing anti-colonial diaspora centered in Paris. Impressionistic colonials could mingle with studious scholars or radical revolutionaries or so everything in between. Ho Chi Minh and other young radicals in Paris formed the French Communist party in 1920.


title: French colonial empire

text: Tunisia was exceptional. The colony was administered by Paul Cambon, who built an educational system for colonists and indigenous people alike that was closely modeled on mainland France. He emphasized female and vocational education. By independence, the quality of Tunisian education nearly equalled that in France.


title: French colonial empire

text: African nationalists rejected such a public education system, which they perceived as an attempt to retard African development and maintain colonial superiority. One of the first demands of the emerging nationalist movement after World War II was the introduction of full metropolitan-style education in French West Africa with its promise of equality with Europeans.


title: French colonial empire

text: In Algeria, the debate was polarized. The French set up schools based on the scientific method and French culture. The Pied-Noir (Catholic migrants from Europe) welcomed this. Those goals were rejected by the Moslem Arabs, who prized mental agility and their distinctive religious tradition. The Arabs refused to become patriotic and cultured Frenchmen and a unified educational system was impossible until the Pied-Noir and their Arab allies went into exile after 1962.


title: French colonial empire

text: In South Vietnam from 1955 to 1975 there were two competing powers in education, as the French continued their work and the Americans moved in. They sharply disagreed on goals. The French educators sought to preserving French culture among the Vietnamese elites and relied on the Mission Culturelle – the heir of the colonial Direction of Education – and its prestigious high schools. The Americans looked at the great mass of people and sought to make South Vietnam a nation strong enough to stop communism. The Americans had far more money, as USAID coordinated and funded the activities of expert teams, and particularly of academic missions. The French deeply resented the American invasion of their historical zone of cultural imperialism.


title: French colonial empire

text: Critics of French colonialism gained an international audience in the 1920s, and often used documentary reportage and access to agencies such as the League of Nations and the International Labour Organization to make their protests heard. The main criticism was the high level of violence and suffering among the natives. Major critics included Albert Londres, Félicien Challaye, and Paul Monet, whose books and articles were widely read.


title: French colonial empire

text: While the first stages of a takeover often involved the destruction of historic buildings in order to use the site for French headquarters, archaeologists and art historians soon engaged in systematic effort to identify, map and preserve historic sites, especially temples such as Angkor Wat, Champa ruins and the temples of Luang Prabang. Many French museums have collections of colonial materials. Since the 1980s the French government has opened new museums of colonial artifacts including the Musée du Quai Branly and the Cité Nationale de l’Histoire de l’Immigration, in Paris; and the Maison des Civilisations et de l’Unité Réunionnaise in Réunion.


title: French colonial empire

text: The Berber independence leader Abd el-Krim (1882–1963) organized armed resistance against the Spanish and French for control of Morocco. The Spanish had faced unrest off and on from the 1890s, but in 1921 Spanish forces were massacred at the Battle of Annual. El-Krim founded an independent Rif Republic that operated until 1926 but had no international recognition. Paris and Madrid agreed to collaborate to destroy it. They sent in 200,000 soldiers, forcing el-Krim to surrender in 1926; he was exiled in the Pacific until 1947. Morocco became quiet, and in 1936 became the base from which Francisco Franco launched his revolt against Madrid.


title: French colonial empire

text: During World War II, allied Free France, often with British support, and Axis-aligned Vichy France struggled for control of the colonies, sometimes with outright military combat. By 1943, all of the colonies, except for Indochina under Japanese control, had joined the Free French cause.


title: French colonial empire

text: The overseas empire helped liberate France as 300,000 North African Arabs fought in the ranks of the Free French. However Charles de Gaulle had no intention of liberating the colonies. He assembled the conference of colonial governors (excluding the nationalist leaders) in Brazzaville in January 1944 to announce plans for postwar Union that would replace the Empire. The Brazzaville manifesto proclaimed:


title: French colonial empire

text: The manifesto angered nationalists across the Empire, and set the stage for long-term wars in Indochina and Algeria that France would lose in humiliating fashion.


title: French colonial empire

text: The French colonial empire began to fall during the Second World War, when various parts were occupied by foreign powers (Japan in Indochina, Britain in Syria, Lebanon, and Madagascar, the United States and Britain in Morocco and Algeria, and Germany and Italy in Tunisia). However, control was gradually reestablished by Charles de Gaulle. The French Union, included in the Constitution of 1946, nominally replaced the former colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. The colonies were given local assemblies with only limited local power and budgets. There emerged a group of elites, known as evolués, who were natives of the overseas territories but lived in metropolitan France.


title: French colonial empire

text: France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the decolonisation movement. In Algeria demonstrations in May 1945 were repressed with an estimated 6,000 to 45,000 Algerians killed. Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November 1945 was met by a warship bombarding the city. Paul Ramadier's (SFIO) cabinet repressed the Malagasy Uprising in Madagascar in 1947. The French blamed education. French officials estimated the number of Malagasy killed from a low of 11,000 to a French Army estimate of 89,000.


title: French colonial empire

text: Also in Indochina, Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh, which was backed by the Soviet Union and China, declared Vietnam's independence, which started the First Indochina War. The war dragged on until 1954, when the Viet Minh decisively defeated the French at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in northern Vietnam, which was the last major battle between the French and the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War.


title: French colonial empire

text: Following the Vietnamese victory at Điện Biên Phủ and the signing of the 1954 Geneva Accords, France agreed to withdraw its forces from all its colonies in French Indochina, while stipulating that Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel, with control of the north given to the Soviet-backed Viet Minh as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh, and the south becoming the State of Vietnam under former Nguyen-dynasty Emperor Bảo Đại, who abdicated following the 1945 August Revolution under pressure from Ho. However, in 1955, the State of Vietnam's Prime Minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraud-ridden referendum and proclaimed himself president of the new Republic of Vietnam. The refusal of Ngô Đình Diệm, the US-supported president of the first Republic of Vietnam [RVN], to allow elections in 1956 – as had been stipulated by the Geneva Conference – in fear of Ho Chi Minh's victory and subsequently a total communist takeover, eventually led to the Vietnam War.


title: French colonial empire

text: In France's African colonies, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon's insurrection, which started in 1955 and headed by Ruben Um Nyobé, was violently repressed over a two-year period, with perhaps as many as 100 people killed. However, France formally relinquished its protectorate over Morocco and granted it independence in 1956.


title: French colonial empire

text: French involvement in Algeria stretched back a century. The movements of Ferhat Abbas and Messali Hadj had marked the period between the two world wars, but both sides radicalised after the Second World War. In 1945, the Sétif massacre was carried out by the French army. The Algerian War started in 1954. Atrocities characterized both sides, and the number killed became highly controversial estimates that were made for propaganda purposes. Algeria was a three-way conflict due to the large number of "pieds-noirs" (Europeans who had settled there in the 125 years of French rule). The political crisis in France caused the collapse of the Fourth Republic, as Charles de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and finally pulled the French soldiers and settlers out of Algeria by 1962.


title: French colonial empire

text: The French Union was replaced in the Constitution of 1958 by the French Community. Only Guinea refused by referendum to take part in the new organisation. However, the French Community ceased to operate before the end of the Algerian War. Almost all of the other former African colonies achieved independence in 1960. The French government refused to allow the populations of the former colonies the right they had in the new French Constitution of 1958, as French citizens with equal rights, to choose for their territories to become full "départements" of France. The French government had ensured that a constitutional law (60-525) was passed which removed the need for a referendum in a territory to confirm a change in status towards independence or départementalisation, so the voters who had rejected independence in 1958 were not consulted about it in 1960. There are still a few former colonies that chose to remain part of France, under the status of overseas "départements" or territories.


title: French colonial empire

text: Critics of neocolonialism claimed that the "Françafrique" had replaced formal direct rule. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence on one hand, he was maintaining French dominance through the operations of Jacques Foccart, his counsellor for African matters. Foccart supported in particular Biafra in the Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s.


title: French colonial empire

text: Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire practically had come to an end, as the remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. However, there was trouble in French Somaliland (Djibouti), which became independent in 1977. There also were complications and delays in the New Hebrides Vanuatu, which was the last to gain independence in 1980. New Caledonia remains a special case under French suzerainty. The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and not become independent like the other three islands of the Comoro archipelago.


title: French colonial empire

text: French census statistics from 1936 show an imperial population, outside of Metropolitan France itself, of 69.1 million people. Of the total population, 16.1 million lived in North Africa, 25.5 million in sub-Saharan Africa, 3.2 million in the Middle East, 0.3 million in the Indian subcontinent, 23.2 million in East and South-East Asia, 0.15 million in the South Pacific, and 0.6 million in the Caribbean.


title: French colonial empire

text: The largest colonies were the general governorate of French Indochina (grouping five separate colonies and protectorates), with 23.0 million, the general governorate of French West Africa (grouping eight separate colonies), with 14.9 million, the general governorate of Algeria (grouping three departments and four Saharan territories), with 7.2 million, the protectorate of Morocco, with 6.3 million, the general governorate of French Equatorial Africa (grouping four separate colonies), with 3.9 million, and Madagascar and Dependencies (incl. the Comoro Islands), with 3.8 million.


title: French colonial empire

text: 2.7 million Europeans (French and non-French citizens) and assimilated natives (non-European French citizens) lived in the French colonial empire in 1936 besides 66.4 million non-assimilated natives (French subjects but not citizens). The majority of Europeans lived in North Africa. Non-European French citizens lived essentially in the four "old colonies" (Réunion, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana), as well as in the Four Communes of Senegal (Saint-Louis, Dakar, Gorée, and Rufisque) and in the colonies of the South Pacific.


title: French colonial empire

text: Unlike elsewhere in Europe, France experienced relatively low levels of emigration to the Americas, with the exception of the Huguenots in British or Dutch colonies. France generally had close to the slowest natural population growth in Europe, and emigration pressures were therefore quite small. A small but significant emigration, numbering only in the tens of thousands, of mainly Roman Catholic French populations led to the settlement of the provinces of Acadia, Canada and Louisiana, both (at the time) French possessions, as well as colonies in the West Indies, Mascarene islands and Africa. In New France, Huguenots were banned from settling in the territory, and Quebec was one of the most staunchly Catholic areas in the world until the Quiet Revolution. The current French Canadian population, which numbers in the millions, is descended almost entirely from New France's small settler population.


title: French colonial empire

text: On 31 December 1687 a community of French Huguenots settled in South Africa. Most of these originally settled in the Cape Colony, but have since been quickly absorbed into the Afrikaner population. After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608, it became the capital of New France. Encouraging settlement was difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1763 New France only had a population of some 65,000.


title: French colonial empire

text: In 1787, there were 30,000 white colonists on France's colony of Saint-Domingue. In 1804 Dessalines, the first ruler of an independent Haiti (St. Domingue), ordered the massacre of whites remaining on the island. Out of the 40,000 inhabitants on Guadeloupe, at the end of the 17th century, there were more than 26,000 blacks and 9,000 whites. Bill Marshall wrote, "The first French effort to colonize Guiana, in 1763, failed utterly when tropical diseases and climate killed all but 2,000 of the initial 12,000 settlers."


title: French colonial empire

text: French law made it easy for thousands of "colons", ethnic or national French from former colonies of North and West Africa, India and Indochina to live in mainland France. It is estimated that 20,000 "colons" were living in Saigon in 1945. 1.6 million European "pieds noirs" migrated from Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 French Algerians left Algeria in the largest relocation of population in Europe since World War II. In the 1970s, over 30,000 French "colons" left Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime as the Pol Pot government confiscated their farms and land properties. In November 2004, several thousand of the estimated 14,000 French nationals in Ivory Coast left the country after days of anti-white violence.


title: French colonial empire

text: Apart from French-Canadians (Québécois and Acadians), francophone Louisianians (Cajuns and Louisiana Creoles), and Métis, other populations of French ancestry outside metropolitan France include the "Caldoches" of New Caledonia, the so-called "Zoreilles", "Petits-blancs" with the Franco-Mauritian of various Indian Ocean islands and the Beke people of the French West Indies.


title: Mauricio Pochettino

text: Mauricio Roberto Pochettino Trossero (; born 2 March 1972) is an Argentine professional football manager and former player. He was most recently the head coach of Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain.


title: Mauricio Pochettino

text: Pochettino played as a central defender and began his career in 1989 with Primera División club Newell's Old Boys, winning a league title and finishing as runner-up in the 1992 Copa Libertadores. In 1994, he transferred to newly-promoted La Liga club Espanyol, helping establish their top-flight status and won the 2000 Copa del Rey, their first trophy in 60 years. In 2001, he joined Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain, and had a stint with Bordeaux, before returning to Espanyol in 2004, winning another Copa del Rey in 2006. Pochettino was capped 20 times for the Argentina national team and played at the 1999 Copa América and 2002 FIFA World Cup.