title: Antonin Scalia

text: Scalia's promotion of textualism and originalism on the high court led to a shift in the American judiciary's approach to textual interpretation, with greater attention paid to the text itself. The liberal political philosopher Ronald Dworkin said that because of Scalia, "we are all originalists now." For this reason, he is often described as one of the most influential jurists of the twentieth century.


title: Antonin Scalia

text: Derrick Wang's opera "Scalia/Ginsburg" depicts the friendship of Scalia and Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, both known for their shared love of opera. The opera was introduced before Scalia and Ginsburg at the Supreme Court in 2013, premiered at the Castleton Festival in 2015, and was revised after Scalia's death, with the revised version broadcast on national radio on November 7, 2020. Scalia and Ginsburg both wrote forewords to the libretto, and Ginsburg cited the opera in her statement on Scalia's death and in her foreword to the book "Scalia Speaks".


title: Antonin Scalia

text: John Strand's play "The Originalist" was performed in Washington, DC in 2015; it received a positive review from "The New York Times". The play depicted Justice Scalia's interaction with a (fictional) liberal court clerk and their mutual criticism and eventual support of each other. The play had a cross-country tour from Washington, D.C. to the Pasadena Playhouse. The play was scheduled to air on PBS in 2017.


title: Antonin Scalia

text: According to NBC News, tributes to "larger-than-life Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia poured in [from] both sides of the political aisle" following his death. All eight of Scalia's fellow justices released statements honoring him following his death. Justice Clarence Thomas said, "'Justice Scalia was a good man; a wonderful husband who loved his wife and his family; a man of strong faith; a towering intellect; a legal giant; and a dear, dear friend. In every case, he gave it his all to get the broad principles and the small details right. … It is hard to imagine the court without my friend. I will miss him beyond all measure'". Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg said:


title: Antonin Scalia

text: In May 2016, George Mason University renamed its law school the "Antonin Scalia Law School" after an anonymous donor pledged $20 million to the school, with an additional $10 million donated by the Charles Koch Foundation, contingent upon the name change in Scalia's honor. The dedication ceremony occurred on October 6, 2016, and was attended by Supreme Court justices. At the ceremony, Justice Elena Kagan called Scalia "one of the most important Supreme Court justices ever, and also one of the greatest".


title: Antonin Scalia

text: In October 2016, the Italy–USA Foundation posthumously awarded Scalia its America Award. The ceremony was conducted in front of the Italian parliament in Rome.


title: Antonin Scalia

text: Writing for the plurality in "Borden v. United States", Justice Kagan referenced Scalia, writing "Indeed, the Court has made a similar point before,


title: Antonin Scalia

text: Scalia's death—only the second death of a serving justice in a span of sixty years—left eight justices remaining on the Supreme Court, split 4–4 between fairly conservative and fairly liberal, during a presidential election year. Cases that were pending before the Court at Scalia's death were decided by the remaining eight members. A 4–4 deadlock would result in the ruling of the lower court being upheld, but no precedent being set, and the justices would not publish written opinions on the merits of the case.


title: Antonin Scalia

text: In a 2012 interview, Scalia had said he would prefer Judge Frank H. Easterbrook of the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals as his successor. On March 16, 2016, President Barack Obama, a Democrat, nominated Merrick Garland, Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, to fill Scalia's seat, but the Republican-controlled Senate declined to take any action on the nomination; the nomination expired with the end of the 114th Congress on January 3, 2017. On January 31, 2017, Republican President Donald Trump announced the nomination of Judge Neil Gorsuch of the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals to succeed Scalia. Gorsuch was confirmed by the Senate on April 7, 2017.


title: She's All That

text: She's All That is a 1999 American teen romantic comedy film directed by Robert Iscove. It stars Freddie Prinze Jr., Rachael Leigh Cook, Matthew Lillard, and Paul Walker. After being dumped by his girlfriend, Zack Siler boasts he could make any girl at his high school popular. It is a modern adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's play "Pygmalion" and George Cukor's 1964 film "My Fair Lady".


title: She's All That

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the lead actors' performances but were critical of the script. It was one of the most popular teen films of the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release. It went on to earn $103 million worldwide. After featuring in the film, the song "Kiss Me" reached No. 2 on "Billboard"'s Hot 100 and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. A gender-swapped remake, titled "He's All That", was released on August 27, 2021 by Netflix.


title: She's All That

text: Zack Siler is the big man on campus at his Southern California high school. After returning from spring break, he finds out his girlfriend, Taylor, has cheated on him with a reality TV star, Brock. After Zack and Taylor's breakup, Zack consoles himself by claiming that Taylor is replaceable with any girl in the school. Zack's friend Dean disagrees and bets Zack to turn any random girl from school into the prom queen in six weeks. Zack accepts, and Dean chooses Laney Boggs, an awkward and unpopular art student.


title: She's All That

text: Zack attempts to befriend Laney, but she pointedly ignores his advances until he asks for her help with art. She reluctantly invites him to a small theater lounge where she will perform. Intending to deter him, Laney volunteers Zack to perform onstage. Zack manages to improvise a routine with his hacky sack. Laney is impressed but still rejects him when he attempts to charm her again.


title: She's All That

text: When Zack shows up at her house, Laney reluctantly agrees to go to the beach with him and his friends, and they invite her to a party later. Laney says she's busy, but Zack persuades her to go. He enlists his sister, Mack, to give her a makeover. At the party, Taylor, who is embarrassed by Brock and jealous of Laney, publicly humiliates Laney and brings her to tears.


title: She's All That

text: Laney is surprised to be nominated for prom queen, along with Taylor. Zack then goes by Laney's house and asks about her mother, who died when Laney was young, and talks about his father, who is pressuring him to go to Dartmouth for college. Zack leans in to kiss Laney but pulls back when she jokes that it's just to get her vote for prom king.


title: She's All That

text: The next day, Zack defends Laney's brother, Simon, from bullies in the cafeteria. After a falling out with Zack, Dean asks Laney to be his prom date. Taylor is humiliated when Brock dumps her, so she cozies up to Zack. When Zack turns her down, she tells him that Dean has already asked Laney to the prom. When Zack confronts him, Dean reveals the bet, forcing a public confession from Zack. A furious Laney rushes from the room, refusing to speak to Zack.


title: She's All That

text: Unable to reconcile with Laney, Zack takes his sister to the prom. After some persuading from her father, a disheartened Laney agrees to go with Dean. At the dance, Dean boasts of his plan to seduce Laney. Laney's friend Jesse overhears, and he and Mack rush to warn Zack, who has taken the stage with Taylor as Prom King and Queen. Zack rushes after Laney, who's already left with Dean.


title: She's All That

text: Laney returns home to find Zack there. Laney explains how she avoided Dean's advances. Zack confesses his true feelings, and they share a dance and kiss by the pool. When Laney asks Zack about the bet, Zack says he will honor the terms, which entail appearing nude at the graduation ceremony.


title: She's All That

text: The film had an ensemble cast of up-and-coming actors, including Kieran Culkin, Oscar winner Anna Paquin, Jodi Lyn O'Keefe, musician Usher Raymond, Gabrielle Union in her film debut, Dulé Hill, and Lil' Kim. Producer Richard N. Gladstein noted, "There were other films that you could've seen them in, but they weren't usually the leads in those films." According to director Robert Iscove, Miramax co-head Harvey Weinstein was very involved in script development and casting, and was able to get great actors in very small parts as a personal favor.


title: She's All That

text: Iscove said Josh Hartnett was considered for the role of Zack Siler, and many actresses were considered for the role of Laney Boggs, including Mena Suvari, Leelee Sobieski, and Jordana Brewster.


title: She's All That

text: Kevin Pollak said he signed up for the movie in part because he was impressed with Freddie Prinze Jr.’s performance in "The House of Yes" a few years earlier and was interested in working with him.


title: She's All That

text: R. Lee Fleming Jr. is officially credited as the sole screenwriter for the film. In a 2002 interview, M. Night Shyamalan stated that he polished the screenplay while adapting "Stuart Little" and writing a spec script for "The Sixth Sense". This was also confirmed in the film's audio commentary by Iscove.


title: She's All That

text: In 2013, Shyamalan claimed that, rather than simply polishing Fleming's original script, he actually ghost-wrote the film. This was disputed by someone who claimed to be Fleming in a message on Twitter that has since been deleted.


title: She's All That

text: On June 17, 2013, Jack Lechner (who served as Miramax's head of development in the late 1990s) confirmed that technically both Shyamalan and Fleming contributed to the script: Fleming wrote the initial script that Miramax bought, while Shyamalan did an uncredited rewrite (doing more than "a polish") that got the film green-lit. Lechner reiterated that content from both writers was included in the final cut of the film. Producer Richard N. Gladstein said that the script "was pretty much done" already, but that Shyamalan's changes "helped enormously with the relationship with Kevin Pollak [who played Laney's father, Wayne]". Iscove attributed the performance art piece and the hacky sack sequence to Shyamalan. Fleming attributed the line "Am I a fucking bet?" to Shyamalan. Fleming included various pop culture references in his script: Laney Boggs was named after two characters played by Winona Ryder, Kim Boggs from "Edward Scissorhands" and Laney Pierce from "Reality Bites"; the characters Zack and Taylor were named after two of the three members of the band Hanson. Pollak constantly guessing Jeopardy answers incorrectly is a running joke, which he previously did in the 1997 film "Truth or Consequences, N.M.". The idea was in Fleming's script but Pollak expanded and improvised his answers.


title: She's All That

text: Iscove was influenced by the movies of John Hughes and was trying do something different for the '90s generation that would still resonate. He stressed the importance of the story having a heart, how Zack had to be worthy of Laney, and how Laney had to learn to be more open. The story was rewritten to better fit Prinze Jr. and make Zack a more sympathetic character with his own challenges. Iscove was well aware that it was implausible to suggest Rachael Leigh Cook was ugly, but said it was standard practice in Hollywood to cast “the beautiful girl” and that it requires the audience to suspend their disbelief: "You either go along with it or you don't go along with it." Comparing Laney’s transformation to that of Clark Kent into Superman, Iscove said casting the role was more about finding an actor who had the range to give the necessary performance.


title: She's All That

text: Filming took place in various California locations. The high school scenes were shot at Torrance High School, where television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and "Beverly Hills, 90210" were previously filmed.


title: She's All That

text: Iscove was also a choreographer and wanted to expand and embellish the prom scenes, while also showing the Weinsteins how musical numbers could work in films. The dance scene was choreographed by Adam Shankman at the request of the film’s co-producer Jennifer Gibgot, who is Shankman’s sister. Shankman was assisted by Anne Fletcher. Shankman was concerned about the scene not tonally meshing with the rest of the film, but Iscove persisted. Test audiences didn't understand why the dance scene was happening, so Bob Weinstein asked for a reshoot with Usher to link the scene. Shankman also worked with Matthew Lillard on his solo dance scenes.


title: She's All That

text: Costume designer Denise Wingate said, "We had no budget so we had to be really creative—everything in that prom scene was white, black, and gold, and we got it all from The Salvation Army and just completely reworked it." Having majored in psychology, Wingate tried to explore the possible reasons for the characters’ wardrobe. Wingate concluded that Laney wore clothes like armor after the death of her mother, but also wanted to express herself as an artist, resulting in a mix of vintage clothes, overalls, aprons, and various quirky t-shirts. The falafel restaurant hat was created on short notice with items picked up from a Michaels craft store. Laney's transformation was reflected in the red dress, which demonstrated "a bold statement of her dressing in a color that was so different than anything we’d seen her in before." Leigh Cook recalled "feeling really self-conscious” in the scene where she first descends the stairs in the dress. There were two versions of the red dress: a stunt double dress reserved for the scene when Laney falls down in a driveway outside a party, and a second smaller dress, which left Cook holding her breath trying to get through the scene quickly.


title: She's All That

text: The song "Kiss Me" was used as the main theme song. The film's box office success helped "Kiss Me" to gain widespread mainstream attention and chart success. It climbed to No. 2 on "Billboard"'s Hot 100 list, and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 straight weeks and No. 4 in the UK and New Zealand.


title: She's All That

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critics consensus states: "Despite its charming young leads, "She's All That" can't overcome its predictable, inconsistently funny script." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: She's All That

text: It was the last movie to be reviewed by Gene Siskel before his death in February 1999. Siskel gave a positive review and wrote, "Rachael Leigh Cook, as Laney, the plain Jane object of the makeover, is forced to demonstrate the biggest emotional range as a character, and she is equal to the assignment." Roger Ebert suggested: "To give the movie credit, it's as bored with the underlying plot as we are. Even the prom queen election is only a backdrop for more interesting material, as "She's All That" explores differences in class and style, and peppers its screenplay with very funny little moments." Ebert says it "is not a great movie, but it has its moments" giving it 2.5 out of 4 stars. Stephen Holden of the "New York Times" praised Cook for her performance, comparing her to Winona Ryder, saying, "Unlike so many actors playing smart young people, she actually projects some intelligence along with a sly sense of comedy."


title: She's All That

text: Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" calls it "About one idea short of being an excellent teenage romance. As it stands it's a pleasing but routine effort." LaSalle criticizes the film for running out of plot about halfway, saying the "story line is stretched to the breaking point. In one instance, director Robert Iscove stops the action for a long dance sequence, set at the prom, that has nothing to do with anything." He says the film is "intermittently funny" and praises Matthew Lillard's performance, calling it the best thing in the picture.


title: She's All That

text: Geoff Berkshire "Variety magazine" was critical of the lack of originality and suggested that "Miramax needs to put Kevin Williamson on permanent retainer if it's going to remain in the teen-pics field, "She's All That" notably fails to bring to comedy the insight that the Williamson-penned "Scream" brought so memorably to horror". Berkshire is positive about the two leads, saying "appealing young actors come off as competent, nothing more, given a context that can't be transcended." He describes the direction as "nothing to be ashamed of here, but nothing of any distinction, either" and notes the soundtrack as a not unexpected plus.


title: She's All That

text: Jane Ganahl of The San Francisco Examiner wrote "And once, just once, I'd love to see a teen flick that doesn't send out a message to young girls that to be acceptable, you have to conform. I liked the artist girl much better before."


title: She's All That

text: William Thomas at "Empire magazine" criticized the film saying that despite a few scenes "The rest is just breezy propaganda for American high school fascism" and "The most worrying thing about "She's All That" is its message. The "ugly duckling" (specs, dungarees, art-lover) must conform (she gets a makeover and the boys notice her "bobos" for the first time) to fit in."


title: She's All That

text: "She's All That" premiered on January 19, 1999 at the Mann Festival Theater in Westwood, Los Angeles. The film went into general release on January 29.


title: She's All That

text: The film reached No. 1 at the box office in the first week of its release, grossing $16.1 million over the Super Bowl opening weekend. It earned $63.4 million in the United States and $39.8 million at international box offices, totaling $103.2 million worldwide against a production budget between $7–10 million. Miramax spent a further $18 million on television advertising to promote the film.


title: She's All That

text: In September 2020, a gender-swapped remake of the film was announced, titled "He's All That", with Mark Waters to direct, original screenwriter R. Lee Fleming Jr. to write, and starring Addison Rae and Tanner Buchanan. Myra Molloy, Madison Pettis, Peyton Meyer, Isabella Crovetti, and Annie Jacob have all been cast since.


title: She's All That

text: In December 2020, Rachael Leigh Cook joined the cast to portray Rae's character's mother. It has been confirmed that Cook's character is unrelated to her original character. "He's All That" was released on August 27, 2021, by Netflix.


title: Oedipus complex

text: The Oedipus complex (also spelled Œdipus complex) is an idea in psychoanalytic theory. The complex is an ostensibly universal phase in the life of a young boy in which, to try to immediately satisfy basic desires, he unconsciously wishes to have sex with his mother and disdains his father for having sex and being satisfied before him. Sigmund Freud introduced the idea in "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1899), and coined the term in his paper "A Special Type of Choice of Object made by Men" (1910).


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud later developed the ideas of castration anxiety and penis envy to refer to the differences of the sexes in their experience of the complex, especially as their observations appear to become cautionary; an incest taboo results from these cautions. Subsequently, according to sexual difference, a "positive" Oedipus complex refers to a child's sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and hatred for the same-sex parent, while a "negative" Oedipus complex refers to the desire for the same-sex parent and hatred for the opposite-sex parent. Freud considered that the child's identification with the same-sex parent is the socially acceptable outcome of the complex. Meanwhile, failure to move on from the compulsion to satisfy a basic desire and to reconcile with the same-sex parent leads to neurosis.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Critics have charged Freudian psychoanalysts who rely on the idea with the possibility that, because it succeeded Freud's original theory of childhood trauma, it has been used as a cover-up for child sexual abuse. Later theorists, scholars and psychologists have criticized it as incapable of applying to same-sex parents.


title: Oedipus complex

text: It is named for the mythological figure Oedipus, whose depiction in Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex" served as a reference point for Freud's idea. Freud rejected the term Electra complex, introduced by Carl Jung in 1913 as a proposed equivalent complex among young girls.


title: Oedipus complex

text: "Oedipus" refers to a 5th-century BC Greek mythological character Oedipus, who unwittingly kills his father, Laius, and marries his mother, Jocasta. A play based on the myth, "Oedipus Rex", was written by Sophocles, ca. 429 BC.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Modern productions of Sophocles' play were staged in Paris and Vienna in the 19th century and were phenomenally successful in the 1880s and 1890s. The Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) attended. In his book "The Interpretation of Dreams", first published in 1899, he proposes that an Oedipal desire is a universal, psychological phenomenon innate (phylogenetic) to human beings, and the cause of much unconscious guilt.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud believed that the Oedipal sentiment has been inherited through the millions of years it took for humans to evolve from apes. He based this on his analysis of his feelings attending the play, his anecdotal observations of neurotic or normal children, and on the fact that "Oedipus Rex" was effective on both ancient and modern audiences. Freud describes the Oedipus myth's timeless appeal thus:


title: Oedipus complex

text: His destiny moves us only because it might have been ours — because the Oracle laid the same curse upon us before our birth as upon him. It is the fate of all of us, perhaps, to direct our first sexual impulse towards our mother and our first hatred and our first murderous wish against our father. Our dreams convince us that this is so.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud also claims that the play "Hamlet" "has its roots in the same soil as "Oedipus Rex"", and that the differences between the two plays are revealing: In ["Oedipus Rex"] the child's wishful fantasy that underlies it is brought into the open and realized as it would be in a dream. In "Hamlet" it remains repressed; and—just as in the case of a neurosis—we only learn of its existence from its inhibiting consequences.


title: Oedipus complex

text: However, in "The Interpretation of Dreams", Freud makes it clear that the "primordial urges and fears" that are his concern and the basis of the Oedipal complex are inherent in the myths the play by Sophocles is based on, not primarily in the play itself, which Freud refers to as a "further modification of the legend" that originates in a "misconceived secondary revision of the material, which has sought to exploit it for theological purposes".


title: Oedipus complex

text: Before the idea of the Oedipus complex, Freud believed that childhood sexual trauma was the cause of neurosis. This idea, sometimes called Freud's seduction theory, was deemphasized in favor of the Oedipus complex around 1897.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud's original examples of the Oedipus complex are applied only to boys or men; he never fully clarified his views on the nature of the complex in girls. He described the complex as a young boy's hatred or desire to eliminate his father and to have sex with his mother.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud introduced the term "Oedipus complex" in a 1910 article titled "A Special Type of Choice of Object made by Men". It appears in a section of this paper describing what happens after a boy first becomes aware of prostitution:


title: Oedipus complex

text: In classical psychoanalytic theory, the Oedipus complex occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development (age 3–6 years), when also occurs the formation of the libido and the ego; yet it might manifest itself at an earlier age.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In the phallic stage, a boy's decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex—his son–father competition for possession of mother. It is in this third stage of psychosexual development that the child's genitalia is his or her primary erogenous zone; thus, when children become aware of their bodies, the bodies of other children, and the bodies of their parents, they gratify physical curiosity by undressing and exploring themselves, each other, and their genitals, so learning the anatomic differences between male and female and the gender differences between boy and girl.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Despite mother being the parent who primarily gratifies the child's desires, the child begins forming a discrete sexual identity—"boy", "girl"—that alters the dynamics of the parent and child relationship; the parents become objects of infantile libidinal energy. The boy directs his libido (sexual desire) upon his mother and directs jealousy and emotional rivalry against his father—because it is he who sleeps with his mother. Moreover, to facilitate union with mother, the boy's id wants to kill father (as did Oedipus), but the pragmatic ego, based upon the reality principle, knows that the father is the stronger of the two males competing to possess the one female. Nonetheless, the boy remains ambivalent about his father's place in the family, which is manifested as fear of castration by the physically greater father; the fear is an irrational, subconscious manifestation of the infantile id.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the id and the drives of the ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, and ideas from the conscious mind; yet its action does not resolve the id–ego conflict. The second defense mechanism is identification, in which the boy or girl child adapts by incorporating, to his or her (super)ego, the personality characteristics of the same-sex parent. As a result of this, the boy diminishes his castration anxiety, because his likeness to father protects him from father's wrath in their maternal rivalry. In the case of the girl, this facilitates identifying with mother, who understands that, in being females, neither of them possesses a penis, and thus are not antagonists.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Unresolved son–father competition for the psychosexual possession of the mother might result in a phallic stage fixation that leads to the boy becoming an aggressive, over-ambitious, and vain man. Therefore, the satisfactory parental handling and resolution of the Oedipus complex are most important in developing the male infantile super-ego. This is because, by identifying with a parent, the boy internalizes Morality; thereby, he chooses to comply with societal rules, rather than reflexively complying in fear of punishment.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In "Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy" (1909), the case study of the equinophobic boy "Little Hans", Freud showed that the relation between Hans's fears—of horses and of his father—derived from external factors, the birth of a sister, and internal factors, the desire of the infantile id to replace father as companion to mother, and guilt for enjoying the masturbation normal to a boy of his age. Moreover, his admitting to wanting to procreate with mother was considered proof of the boy's sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent; he was a heterosexual male. Yet, the boy Hans was unable to relate fearing horses to fearing his father. As the treating psychoanalyst, Freud noted that "Hans had to be told many things that he could not say himself" and that "he had to be presented with thoughts, which he had, so far, shown no signs of possessing".


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud applied the Oedipus complex to the psychosexual development of boys and girls, but later modified the female aspects of the theory as "feminine Oedipus attitude" and "negative Oedipus complex". His student–collaborator Carl Jung, who, in his 1913 work, ""Theory of Psychoanalysis"", proposed the Electra complex to describe a girl's daughter–mother competition for psychosexual possession of the father.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In the phallic stage, a girl's Electra complex is her decisive psychodynamic experience in forming a discrete sexual identity (ego). Whereas a boy develops castration anxiety, a girl develops penis envy, for she perceives that she has been castrated previously (and missing the penis), and so forms resentment towards her own kind as inferior, while simultaneously striving to claim her father's penis through bearing a male child of her own. Furthermore, after the phallic stage, the girl's psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud thus considered a girl's negative Oedipus complex to be more emotionally intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially, in a woman of submissive, insecure personality; thus might an unresolved Electra complex, daughter–mother competition for psychosexual possession of father, lead to a phallic-stage fixation conducive to a girl becoming a woman who continually strives to dominate men (viz. penis envy), either as an unusually seductive woman (high self-esteem) or as an unusually submissive woman (low self-esteem). Therefore, the satisfactory parental handling and resolution of the Electra complex are most important in developing the female infantile super-ego, because, by identifying with a parent, the girl internalizes morality; thereby, she chooses to comply with societal rules, rather than reflexively complying in fear of punishment.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In regard to narcissism, the Oedipus complex is viewed as the pinnacle of the individual's maturational striving for success or for love. In "The Economic Problem of Masochism" (1924), Freud writes that in "the Oedipus complex... [the parent's] personal significance for the superego recedes into the background' and 'the imagos they leave behind... link [to] the influences of teachers and authorities...". Educators and mentors are put in the ego ideal of the individual and they strive to take on their knowledge, skills, or insights.


title: Oedipus complex

text: The Oedipus complex, in narcissistic terms, represents that an individual can lose the ability to take a parental-substitute into his ego ideal without ambivalence. Once the individual has ambivalent relations with parental-substitutes, he will enter into the triangulating castration complex. In the castration complex the individual becomes rivalrous with parental-substitutes and this will be the point of regression. In "Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (Dementia paranoides)" (1911), Freud writes that "disappointment over a woman" (object drives) or "a mishap in social relations with other men" (ego drives) is the cause of regression or symptom formation. Triangulation can take place with a romantic rival, for a woman, or with a work rival, for the reputation of being more potent.


title: Oedipus complex

text: When Freud proposed that the Oedipus complex was psychologically universal, he provoked the evolution of Freudian psychology and the psychoanalytic treatment method, by collaborators and competitors alike.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In countering Freud's proposal that the psychosexual development of boys and girls is equal, i.e. equally oriented – that each initially experiences sexual desire (libido) for mother, and aggression towards father, student–collaborator Carl Jung counter-proposed that girls experienced desire for father and aggression towards mother via the Electra complex—derived from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Electra, who plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes, her brother, against Clytemnestra, their mother, and Aegisthus, their stepfather, for their murder of Agamemnon, her father (cf. "Electra", by Sophocles).


title: Oedipus complex

text: Moreover, because it is native to Freudian psychology, orthodox Jungian psychology uses the term "Oedipus complex" only to denote a boy's psychosexual development.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In classical Freudian psychology the super-ego, "the heir to the Oedipus complex", is formed as the infant boy internalizes the familial rules of his father. In contrast, in the early 1920s, using the term "pre-Oedipal", Otto Rank proposed that a boy's powerful mother was the source of the super-ego, in the course of normal psychosexual development. Rank's theoretic conflict with Freud excluded him from the Freudian inner circle; nonetheless, he later developed the psychodynamic Object relations theory in 1925.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Whereas Freud proposed that father (the paternal phallus) was central to infantile and adult psychosexual development, Melanie Klein concentrated upon the early maternal relationship, proposing that Oedipal manifestations are perceptible in the first year of life, the oral stage. Her proposal was part of the "controversial discussions" (1942–44) at the British Psychoanalytical Association. The Kleinian psychologists proposed that "underlying the Oedipus complex, as Freud described it ... there is an earlier layer of more primitive relationships with the Oedipal couple". She assigned "dangerous destructive tendencies not just to the father but also to the mother in her discussion of the child's projective fantasies". Moreover, Klein's work lessened the central role of the Oedipus complex, with the concept of the depressive position.


title: Oedipus complex

text: "For the post-Kleinian Bion, the myth of Oedipus concerns investigatory curiosity—the quest for knowledge—rather than sexual difference; the other main character in the Oedipal drama becomes Tiresias (the false hypothesis erected against anxiety about a new theory)". Resultantly, "Bion regarded the central crime of Oedipus as his insistence on knowing the truth at all costs".


title: Oedipus complex

text: From the postmodern perspective, Jacques Lacan argued against removing the Oedipus complex from the center of psychosexual developmental experience. He considered "the Oedipus complex—in so far as we continue to recognize it as covering the whole field of our experience with its signification ... [that] superimposes the kingdom of culture" upon the person, marking his or her introduction to symbolic order.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Thus "a child learns what power independent of itself is as it goes through the Oedipus complex ... encountering the existence of a symbolic system independent of itself". Moreover, Lacan's proposal that "the ternary relation of the Oedipus complex" liberates the "prisoner of the dual relationship" of the son–mother relationship proved useful to later psychoanalysts; thus, for Bollas, the "achievement" of the Oedipus complex is that the "child comes to understand something about the oddity of possessing one's own mind ... discovers the multiplicity of points of view". Likewise, for Ronald Britton, "if the link between the parents perceived in love and hate can be tolerated in the child's mind ... this provides us with a capacity for seeing us in interaction with others, and ... for reflecting on ourselves, whilst being ourselves". As such, in "The Dove that Returns, the Dove that Vanishes" (2000), Michael Parsons proposed that such a perspective permits viewing "the Oedipus complex as a life-long developmental challenge ... [with] new kinds of Oedipal configurations that belong to later life".


title: Oedipus complex

text: In 1920, Sigmund Freud wrote that "with the progress of psychoanalytic studies the importance of the Oedipus complex has become, more and more, clearly evident; its recognition has become the "shibboleth" that distinguishes the adherents of psychoanalysis from its opponents"; thereby it remained a theoretic cornerstone of psychoanalysis until about 1930, when psychoanalysts began investigating the pre-Oedipal son–mother relationship within the theory of psychosexual development. Janet Malcolm reports that by the late 20th century, to the object relations psychology "avant-garde, the events of the Oedipal period are pallid and inconsequential, in comparison with the cliff-hanging psychodramas of infancy. ... For Kohut, as for Winnicott and Balint, the Oedipus complex is an irrelevance in the treatment of severe pathology". Nonetheless, ego psychology continued to maintain that "the Oedipal period—roughly three-and-a-half to six years—is like Lorenz standing in front of the chick, it is the most formative, significant, moulding experience of human life ... If you take a person's adult life—his love, his work, his hobbies, his ambitions—they all point back to the Oedipus complex".


title: Oedipus complex

text: Studies of children's attitudes to parents at the supposedly oedipal stage do not demonstrate the shifts


title: Oedipus complex

text: in positive feelings that are predicted by the theory. Stories from mythology and anthropology that Freud used to illustrate his theory may fascinate his readers, but they do not constitute empirical evidence for the theory. Case studies that Freud relied upon, such as the case of Little Hans, could not be verified through research or experimentation on a larger population. Adolf Grünbaum argues that the type of evidence Freud and his followers used, the clinical productions of patients during analytic treatment, by their nature cannot provide cogent observational support for Freud's core hypotheses.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Evolutionary psychologists Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, in their 1988 book "Homicide", argue that the Oedipus complex theory yields few testable predictions. They find no evidence of the Oedipus complex in people. There is evidence of parent–child conflict but it is not for sexual possession of the opposite sex-parent.


title: Oedipus complex

text: According to psychiatrist Jeffrey Lieberman, Freud and his followers resisted subjecting his theories, including the Oedipus theory, to scientific testing and verification. Evidence-based investigations in disciplines like cognitive psychology appear to leave Freud's ideas unsupported or contradicted by evidence, so they are not used in evidenced-based treatments.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Freud's supposed cure of Sergei Pankejeff, an alleged triumph of the Oedipus complex theory, is regarded as fraudulent by the scientific community and by Pankejeff himself.


title: Oedipus complex

text: The Freudian Coverup is the claim that Freud intentionally ignored evidence that his patients were victims of childhood sexual abuse, misrepresenting abuse as incestuous desire. In the 1970s, social worker Florence Rush wrote that Freud's seduction theory, which came early in his career, correctly attributed his patients' memories of childhood trauma to the patient's family, often the father, implying that widespread sexual abuse of children by parents was common in his society. The discovery of this abuse made Freud uncomfortable, so he abandoned the theory. He invented the Oedipus complex to replace it, because the complex allowed him to attribute stories of childhood sexual abuse to the children themselves; Freud imagined that the stories were fantasies of hidden desires, rather than factual descriptions of trauma. Thus, Rush argues, Freud covered up illegal and immoral sexual abuse by undermining the perceptions of his patients, particularly his female patients.


title: Oedipus complex

text: A director of the Sigmund Freud Archives, Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, adopted the view that Freud's work was a cover-up for abuse after reading Freud's unpublished letters. In his book "The Assault on Truth", Masson argues that Freud misattributed accounts of sexual abuse to fabrications and fantasies of children because, for personal reasons, he was unable to accept that the accounts were real. Freud invented the Oedipus complex to explain away the sexual assault of children. Among his reasons to suppress the abuse was that Freud did not want to be confronted by the father of a patient who was accused of committing abuse. Late in his career Freud sought to suppress the work of a colleague, Sandor Ferenczi, because Ferenczi continued to believe that accounts of childhood sexual abuse were truthful.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Masson writes that, because the theory of the Oedipus complex became widely popular, psychoanalysts continue to do damage to their patients by doubting the reality of the patient's early memories of trauma.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Many scholars and psychologists observe that, because the theory of the Oedipus complex assigns distinct roles to a mother and father, it is a poor fit for families that do not use traditional gender roles.


title: Oedipus complex

text: As of November 2022 same-sex marriage is legal in 31 nations. Same-sex couples start families through adoption or surrogacy. The pillars of the family structure are diversifying to include parents who are single or of the same sex as their partner along with the traditional heterosexual, married parents. These new family structures pose new questions for the psychoanalytic theories such as the Oedipus complex that require the presence of the mother and the father in the successful development of a child.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Evidence suggests children who have been raised by parents of the same sex are not much different from children raised in a traditional family structure. The classic theory of the Oedipal drama has fallen out of favor in today's society, according to a study by Drescher, having been criticized for its "negative implications" towards same sex parents. Many psychoanalytic thinkers such as Chodorow and Corbett are working towards changing the Oedipus complex to eliminate "automatic associations among sex, gender, and the stereotypical psychological functions deriving from these categories" and make it applicable to today's modern society. From its Freudian conception, psychoanalysis and its theories have always relied on traditional gender roles to draw itself out.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In the 1950s, psychologists distinguished different roles in parenting for the mother and father. The role of primary caregiver is assigned to the mother. Motherly love was considered to be unconditional. While the father is assigned the role of secondary caregiver, fatherly love is conditional, responsive to the child's tangible achievements. The Oedipus complex is compromised in the context of modern family structures, as it requires the existence of the notions of masculinity and femininity. When there is no father present there is no reason for a boy to have castration anxiety and thus resolve the complex. Psychoanalysis presents non-heteronormative relationships a sort of perversion or fetish rather than a natural occurrence. To some psychologists, this emphasis on gender norms can be a distraction in treating homosexual patients.


title: Oedipus complex

text: The 1972 book "Anti-Oedipus" by Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari is "a critique of psychoanalytic normativity and Oedipus" according to Didier Eribon. Eribon criticizes the Oedipus complex described by Freud or Lacan as an "implausible ideological construct" which is an "inferiorization process of homosexuality". According to psychologist Geva Shenkman, "To examine the application of concepts such as Oedipus complex and primal scene to male same-sex families, we must first eliminate the automatic associations among sex, gender, and the stereotypical psychological functions based on these categories."


title: Oedipus complex

text: Postmodern psychoanalytic theories, which aim to reestablish psychoanalysis for modern times, suggest modifying or discarding the complex because it does not describe newer family structures. Shenkman suggests that a loose interpretation of the Oedipus complex in which the child seeks sexual satisfaction from any parent regardless of gender or sex, would be helpful: "From this perspective, any parental authority, or institution for that matter, may represent the taboo that gives rise to the complex". Psychoanalyst Melanie Klein proposed a theory which broke gender stereotypes but still kept traditional father-mother family structure. She assigned "dangerous destructive tendencies not just to the father but also to the mother in her discussion of the child's projective fantasies".


title: Oedipus complex

text: Anouchka Grose understands the Oedipus complex as "a way of explaining how human beings are socialised ... learning to deal with disappointment". Her summary of the complex is "You have to stop trying to be everything for your primary carer, and get on with being something for the rest of the world". This post-Lacanian interpretation of the complex diverges considerably from its description in 19th century. Eribon writes that it "stretches the Oedipus complex to a point where it almost doesn't look like Freud's any more".


title: Oedipus complex

text: Parent-child and sibling-sibling incestuous unions are almost universally forbidden. An explanation for this incest taboo is that rather than instinctual sexual desire, there is instinctual sexual aversion against these unions (See Westermarck effect). Steven Pinker wrote that "The idea that boys want to sleep with their mothers strikes most men as the silliest thing they have ever heard. Obviously, it did not seem so to Freud, who wrote that as a boy he once had an erotic reaction to watching his mother dressing. Of note is that Amalia Nathansohn Freud was relatively young during Freud's childhood and thus of reproductive age, and Freud having a wet-nurse, may not have experienced the early intimacy that would have tipped off his perceptual system that Mrs. Freud was his mother."


title: Oedipus complex

text: In "Esquisse pour une autoanalyse", Pierre Bourdieu argues that the success of the concept of Oedipus is inseparable from the prestige associated with ancient Greek culture and the relations of domination that are reinforced in the use of this myth. In other words, if Oedipus was Bantu or Baoulé, his story would probably not be viewed as a human universal. This remark recalls the historically and socially situated character of the founder of psychoanalysis.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Feminist views on the Oedipus complex include criticism of the phallocentrism of the theory by philosopher Luce Irigaray among others. Irigaray charges that Freud's work assumes a masculine perspective, epitomized by the centrality of the penis (or lack of a penis for girls) in the Oedipus complex. She thinks that Freud's desire for a neat, symmetrical theory leads him to a contrived understanding of women as inverse men. She charges that he does not explore mother–daughter relationships and that he dogmatically assumes female sexuality will be a perfect mirror of male sexuality.


title: Oedipus complex

text: In "No More Silly Love Songs: A Realist's Guide to Romance" (2010), Anouchka Grose says that "a large number of people, these days believe that Freud's Oedipus complex is defunct ... 'disproven', or simply found unnecessary, sometime in the last century".


title: Oedipus complex

text: Thomas Nagel wrote that psychoanalytic claims were not scientific, but a type of commonsense folk psychology. Adolf Grünbaum thinks this proposal is a failure because ordinary people typically find explanations based on forbidden unconscious motivations implausible.


title: Oedipus complex

text: A study conducted at Glasgow University potentially supports at least some aspects of the psychoanalytic conception of the Oedipus complex. The study demonstrated that men and women were twice as likely to choose a partner with the same eye color as the parent of the sex they are attracted to. Another study by anthropologist Allen W. Johnson and psychiatrist Douglas Price-Williams suggests that the classic version of the Oedipus Complex that boys go through is present, with the sexual and aggressive sentiments less repressed in cultures without class separation.


title: Oedipus complex

text: Another study examined adoptive-daughters and choice of husband. The study attempted to distinguish conceptually phenotypic matching from positive sexual imprinting. Phenotypic matching can be understood as an individual's seeking (presumably without conscious awareness) traits in mates that are similar to their own phenotype. Sexual imprinting can be understood as mate preferences that are influenced by experiences and observations with parents/caregivers in early childhood. Adoptive daughters were examined in part to disentangle these two influences. The results of the study support positive sexual imprinting independent of phenotypic matching: "Judges found significant resemblance on facial traits between daughter's husband and her adoptive father. Furthermore, this effect may be modified by the quality of the father–daughter relationship during childhood. Daughters who received more emotional support from their adoptive father were more likely to choose mates similar to the father than those whose father provided a less positive emotional atmosphere." The study's authors also hypothesized that "sexual imprinting on the observed features of the opposite-sex parent during a sensitive period in early childhood might be responsible for shaping people's later mate choice criteria," a hypothesis that would be at least partially in accordance with Freud's Oedipal model.


title: Cazzie David

text: Cazzie Laurel David (born May 10, 1994) is an American scriptwriter and actress. David co-created and co-starred in the web series "Eighty-Sixed" (2017")." Her first collection of essays "No One Asked For This" was released in 2020"." She also appears in the third season of Netflix's "The Umbrella Academy".


title: Cazzie David

text: David was born in 1994 to comedian and "Seinfeld" co-creator Larry David and environmental activist and film producer Laurie David. Her family is Jewish. She has one younger sister named Romy David. David earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in writing for film and television from Emerson College in 2016.


title: Cazzie David

text: David and co-writer Elisa Kalani created the web series "Eighty-Sixed", which ran for eight episodes. David and Kalani then developed "Half-Empty" for Amazon Prime Video. The show was picked up for a pilot episode in 2019, but ultimately was not developed into a series.


title: Cazzie David

text: David released the collection of essays "No One Asked For This" in 2020, which reached #2 on "The New York Times" Paperback Nonfiction Best Sellers List.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: Trace Dempsey Cyrus (born Neil Timothy Helson; February 24, 1989) is an American musician. The son of country singer Billy Ray Cyrus and brother of recording artists Miley Cyrus and Noah Cyrus, he is the backing vocalist and guitarist of the band Metro Station, with time out between 2010 and 2014. In 2010, he began providing vocals and guitar in the pop rock band Ashland HIGH. He also owns the clothing company From Backseats to Bedrooms.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: Cyrus was born in Ashland, Kentucky, as Neil Timothy Helson. His mother is Leticia "Tish" Cyrus. His biological father is Baxter Neal Helson. He was adopted as a toddler by Billy Ray Cyrus, his mother's second husband, and lived with them part of the time in Thompson's Station, Tennessee. Upon his adoption, his name was legally changed to Trace Dempsey Cyrus.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: Cyrus spent his school holidays touring and performing with Billy Ray. He has a younger sister, Miley, who starred in the Disney Channel original television series "Hannah Montana". He recorded a track with her on an album prepared in 2008.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: In 2006, he started working at a shopping mall in Burbank, California, and dropped out of La Cañada High School. Cyrus has added many tattoos on his arms and chest. He also has the words "stay gold" tattooed on his knuckles. He displayed these designs for PETA's "Ink Not Mink" anti-fur campaign in 2012.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: In 2006, Cyrus co-wrote a song called "Country Music Has the Blues," which was a track on Billy Ray's 2006 album "Wanna Be Your Joe". The song features guest appearances by Loretta Lynn and George Jones. Cyrus was a guitarist and vocalist in the pop rock band Metro Station. He started the band with Mason Musso in early 2006 when their mothers set them up to do a jam together. Musso's brother Mitchel was a "Hannah Montana" cast member. Columbia Records signed the band after an intern at the record label saw their MySpace page. Cyrus appeared with Musso on MTV's "Total Request Live" on June 9, 2008. Their band, along with The Maine, were the two special guest acts on the 2008 "Soundtrack of Your Summer Tour," co-headlined by Boys Like Girls and Good Charlotte. Metro Station parted ways in early 2010.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: In 2008, Cyrus featured in the song "Hovering" on Miley's album, "Breakout" in the Deluxe Edition. Also in 2008, he appeared in the music video for the song "Somebody Said a Prayer" for the lead single for Billy Ray's album, "Back to Tennessee." In 2010, he was featured in the song, "Alive" for Billy Ray's band, Brother Clyde.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: In early 2010, Cyrus formed a pop band called Ashland HIGH. Cyrus provided vocals and guitar on a single entitled "French Kiss". Ashland HIGH has released demos of songs titled "Break It Down" and "Pretty Girls" on the band's MySpace page. In 2013, he was featured in a remix version of the song "Dat Boi" by Millionaires. As of 2013, Ashland HIGH has released two albums, "Geronimo" and "Drugstore Cowboy".


title: Trace Cyrus

text: In August 2014, Cyrus returned as a member of Metro Station with the band releasing a single titled "Love & War". The band released their second studio album titled "Savior" in 2015. They toured with other bands such as Never Shout Never and Falling in Reverse from 2015–2016.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: In 2017, Cyrus began to release music independently and released his first single "Lights Out" that year. He released his first EP "Killing the Pain" on September 24, 2021.


title: Trace Cyrus

text: From 2010 into 2017, Cyrus had an on-and-off relationship with actress Brenda Song, to whom he was engaged in 2011.


title: Metallica discography

text: The discography of American band Metallica includes eleven studio albums, eight live albums, three extended plays, 44 singles, ten video albums, 43 music videos, one soundtrack album, one collaboration album and three box sets. They are a San Francisco-based metal band formed in 1981 by James Hetfield (lead vocals, rhythm guitar) and Lars Ulrich (drums). After several bassist and lead guitarist changes (including Dave Mustaine), the band settled on Cliff Burton and Kirk Hammett, respectively. Metallica started playing locally, releasing their first widely circulated demo, "No Life 'til Leather", in 1982. The demo caught the attention of Johny Zazula, who signed Metallica to Megaforce Records. The band released "Kill 'Em All" in 1983, and the following year they released "Ride the Lightning". After "Ride the Lightning" was released, Metallica left Megaforce and signed to Elektra Records. In March 1986, the band released its third studio album, "Master of Puppets", which was Metallica's first album to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). While promoting the album, Burton was killed in a bus accident. Jason Newsted was hired as a replacement. The band's first release to feature Newsted was "The $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited", and then followed by "...And Justice for All" in August 1988, which peaked at number six on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Metallica discography

text: Metallica's fifth, self-titled album, often called "The Black Album", was released in 1991 and debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200. The band embarked on a two-year tour in support of the album. "Metallica" has since been certified 16 times platinum by the RIAA. Metallica followed with the release of "Load" and "Reload", respectively. After the release of "Garage Inc." and "S&M", Newsted (who would later join Voivod) departed from the band. Metallica recorded "St. Anger" without an official bassist (bass parts for the writing & recording during the album sessions were played by the band's long-time producer Bob Rock). Bassist Robert Trujillo joined Metallica in 2003. In 2008, the band released its ninth studio album, "Death Magnetic", which was produced by Rick Rubin and distributed through Warner Bros. Records. In April 2009, the band's catalogue was released on the iTunes Store as "the Metallica Collection".


title: Metallica discography

text: In 2013, Metallica released the movie "", together with its soundtrack. Metallica then started writing their tenth studio album, "Hardwired... to Self-Destruct", which was released on November 18, 2016. Metallica has sold more than 125 million albums worldwide, with over 65 million records in the United States alone (56.3 million albums since 1991 when SoundScan started tracking actual sales figure).


title: Surströmming

text: Surströmming (; ) is lightly salted fermented Baltic Sea herring traditional to Swedish cuisine since at least the 16th century. Surströmming or fermented herring should not be confused with the common dish fried herring or typically preserved pickled herring.


title: Surströmming

text: Known as in Swedish, the Baltic herring is smaller than the Atlantic herring, found in the North Sea. Traditionally, is defined as herring fished in the brackish waters of the Baltic north of the Kalmar Strait. The herring used for surströmming are caught just prior to spawning in April and May.


title: Surströmming

text: During the production of surströmming, just enough salt is used to prevent the raw herring from rotting while allowing it to ferment. A fermentation process of at least six months gives the fish a characteristic strong smell and somewhat acidic taste. A newly opened can of surströmming has one of the most putrid food smells in the world, even stronger than similarly fermented fish dishes such as the Korean "hongeohoe" or Japanese "kusaya".


title: Surströmming

text: At the end of the 1940s, surströmming producers in Sweden lobbied for a royal ordinance () that would prevent incompletely fermented fish from being sold. The decree that was issued forbade sales of the current year's production in Sweden prior to the third Thursday in August. While the ordinance is no longer on the books, retailers still maintain the date for the "premiere" of that year's catch.


title: Surströmming

text: Fermented fish is an old staple in European cuisines. The oldest archeological findings of fish fermentation are 9,200 years old and from the south of today's Sweden. More recent examples include garum, a fermented fish sauce made by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and Worcestershire sauce, which also has a fermented fish ingredient.


title: Surströmming

text: Preservation of fish through fermentation in a weak brine may have developed when brining was still expensive due to the cost of salt. In modern times, the fish are initially marinated in a strong brine solution that draws out the blood, and then fermented in a weaker brine in barrels prior to canning.


title: Surströmming

text: The canning procedure, introduced in the 19th century, enabled the product to be marketed in shops and stored at home, whereas at one time the final stage would have been storage in large wooden barrels and smaller, one-litre kegs. Canning also enabled the product to be marketed farther south in Sweden.


title: Surströmming

text: The fermentation happens through autolysis and starts from a lactic acid enzyme in the spine of the fish. Together with bacteria, pungent smelling acids are formed, such as propionic acid, butyric acid and acetic acid. Hydrogen sulfide is also produced. The salt raises the osmotic pressure of the brine above the zone where bacteria responsible for rotting can thrive and prevents decomposition of proteins into oligopeptides and amino acids. Instead, the osmotic conditions enable "Halanaerobium" bacteria such as "H. praevalens" to thrive and decompose the fish glycogen into organic acids, making it sour (acidic).


title: Surströmming

text: The herring are caught in April and May, when they are in prime condition and just about to spawn, and have not yet fattened. They are put into a strong brine for about 20 hours that draws out the blood, after which the heads are removed and the fish is gutted and put into a weaker brine solution. The barrels are placed in a temperature controlled room kept at . Canning takes place at the beginning of July and for five weeks thereafter. Ten days prior to the premiere the final product is distributed to wholesalers.


title: Surströmming

text: The fermentation of the fish depends on a lactic acid enzyme in the spine that is activated if the conditions are right (temperature and brine concentration). The low temperature in Northern Sweden is one of the parameters that affects the character of the final product.


title: Surströmming

text: Prior to modern canning methods, surströmming was sold in wooden barrels for immediate consumption, as even the smaller one-litre kegs could leak.


title: Surströmming

text: Fermentation continues in the can, causing it to bulge noticeably, which would usually be a sign of botulism or other food poisoning concern in non-fermented canned foods. Species of "Halanaerobium" bacteria are responsible for the in-can ripening. These bacteria produce carbon dioxide and a number of compounds that account for the unique odor: pungent (propionic acid), rotten-egg (hydrogen sulfide), rancid-butter (butyric acid), and vinegary (acetic acid). Due to these gases, a thousand cans of surströmming exploded over a period of six hours during a fire at a Swedish warehouse in 2014.


title: Surströmming

text: Surströmming is commonly sold in grocery stores all over Sweden. According to the Surströmming Academy's statistics from 2009, there are about 2 million people who eat surströmming annually. Sweden's export of surströmming is only 0,2 percent of all produced surströmming.


title: Surströmming

text: However some people do not care for surströmming. It is a food that is subject to strong passions, as is "lutefisk".


title: Surströmming

text: Swedes usually consume surströmming after the third Thursday of August, labeled as "Surströmming day", through early September. Because of the strong smell, it is often eaten outdoors. The pressurized can is usually opened some distance away from the dining table and is often initially punctured while immersed in a bucket of water, or after tapping and angling it upwards at 45 degrees, to prevent escaping gas from spraying brine.


title: Surströmming

text: Surströmming comes both ungutted with just the heads removed and as fillets. Regarding the first version, the fish is gutted prior to eating, and the backbone and sometimes the skin are removed. The roe is commonly eaten along with the fish.


title: Surströmming

text: Surströmming is often eaten with tunnbröd, a thin, either soft or crispy bread (not to be confused with crispbread). The use of tunnbröd originated in the High Coast area, where the tradition is to make a sandwich (known as a "surströmmingsklämma") using two pieces of buttered hard tunnbröd. In addition to the fish, the two most common toppings are potatoes (either sliced or mashed, often almond potatoes) and finely diced red onion. Surströmming is also commonly eaten without bread together with the accompanying ingredients. To balance the strong flavour of the fish, Västerbotten cheese is sometimes added.


title: Surströmming

text: In the southern part of Sweden, it is customary to use a variety of condiments such as diced red onion, "gräddfil" (fat fermented sour cream similar to smetana) or crème fraîche, chives, and sometimes even tomato and chopped dill.


title: Surströmming

text: Surströmming is commonly served with "snaps", light beers like pilsner or lager, svagdricka (a type of small beer), water, or cold milk. What to drink with surströmming is disputed among connoisseurs. Surströmming is usually served as the focus of a traditional festivity called a "surströmmingsskiva".


title: Surströmming

text: German food critic and author Wolfgang Fassbender wrote that "the biggest challenge when eating surströmming is to vomit only after the first bite, as opposed to before".


title: Surströmming

text: Due to being made from herring from the Baltic Sea, surströmming today contains higher levels of dioxins and PCBs than permitted in the EU. Sweden was granted exceptions to these rules from 2002 to 2011, and a renewal of the exceptions was then applied for. Producers have said that if the application is denied they will only be allowed to use herring less than long, which contain lower levels, and which will affect the availability of herring.


title: Surströmming

text: Since gaining notoriety as one of the world's smelliest foods, surströmming has become the focus of a number of "challenge" videos on YouTube and other platforms where people uninitiated to the food show themselves opening a can for the first time, usually to visceral reaction, and then try to eat the fish without additional preparation. Often the videos show the participants gagging, swearing, holding their nose, or throwing up. The videos have been criticized for not following the normal preparation methods, which include opening the can outdoors and/or underwater, gutting the fish and removing the backbone, and serving with tunnbröd and other accoutrements to make a surströmmingsklämma.


title: Surströmming

text: In 1981, a German landlord evicted a tenant without notice after the tenant spread surströmming brine in the apartment building's stairwell. When the landlord was taken to court, the court ruled that the termination was justified when the landlord's party demonstrated their case by opening a can inside the courtroom. The court concluded that it "had convinced itself that the disgusting smell of the fish brine far exceeded the degree that fellow-tenants in the building could be expected to tolerate".


title: Surströmming

text: In April 2006, several major airlines (such as Air France, British Airways, Finnair, and KLM) banned the fish, claiming that the pressurised cans of fish are potentially explosive. The sale of the fish was subsequently discontinued in Stockholm's international airport. Those who produce the fish have called the airlines' decision "culturally illiterate", claiming that it is a "myth that the tinned fish can explode".


title: Surströmming

text: During March 2018 Hong Kong by-elections, the returning officer Amy Chan Yuen-man had disqualified two localist candidates Ventus Lau and James Chan Kwok-keung. Lau visited the Home Affairs Department of Sha Tin District Office in person asking for a meeting with Chan. Lau had brought a can of surströmming and opened it in public. Lau said that he would like Chan to sense that the Hong Kong people are facing an entirely rotten election system. Lau launched an appeal to the Court, which ruled that Chan's decisions were not justified.


title: Surströmming

text: On 4 June 2005, the first surströmming museum in the world was opened in Skeppsmalen, south-east of Örnsköldsvik, a town at the northern end of the High Coast. The name of the museum is ""Fiskevistet"" (translated as 'The Fish Encampment').


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The blue and yellow bicolour first appeared during the 1848 Spring of Nations in Lemberg, then part of the Austrian Empire. It was adopted as a state flag for the first time in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution by the Ukrainian People's Republic, the West Ukrainian People's Republic and the Ukrainian State. It was also later adopted by Carpatho-Ukraine in March 1939. When Ukraine was part of the Soviet Union, the flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was used and the bicolour was banned. During the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the bicolour gradually returned in use before officially being adopted again on 28 January 1992 by the Ukrainian parliament.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Ukrainian law states that the colours of Ukrainian flag are "blue and yellow", but other state bodies have determined the colours. In the table below, the colours are presented according to DSTU 4512:2006 technical specifications:


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: There has been disagreement over the shade of blue used in the flag. In 2013, scholar Dmytro Malakov argued that sky blue was the correct colour, and that, according to rules of heraldry, dark blue should not be used. The Ukrainian Heraldry Society stated that this heraldry issue does not apply to flags.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The flag is similar to that of the Austrian state of Lower Austria, the German city of Chemnitz and the Hungarian city of Pécs, but all of those flags have a darker shade of blue. The flag is also somewhat similar to that of the Malaysian state of Perlis, but has a reversed colour arrangement, darker shades of blue and yellow, and a different aspect ratio.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Article 20 of the Constitution of Ukraine states that "the State Flag of Ukraine is a banner of two equally sized horizontal bands of blue and yellow colour." ().


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: In addition to the normal horizontal format, many public buildings, such as the Verkhovna Rada, use vertical flags. Most town halls fly their town flag together with the national flag in this way; some town flags in Ukraine exist only in vertical form. The proportions of these vertical flags are not specified. When hung like a banner or draped, the blue band should be on the left. When flown from a vertical flagpole, the blue band must face the mast.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The flag did not appear on Ukrainian postal stamp issues until 1992, when they depicted the flag with the state coat of arms. Since then, the flag has frequently appeared on stamps. Cinderella stamps of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists were printed outside Ukraine during the Soviet period for patriotic purposes.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with a golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag, as long as it does not deface the flag proper. The tradition began with the flag of the Ukrainian SSR. In addition, the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" shows a flag decorated with a gold star. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use a fringe to enhance the allure of the flag. No specific law governs the use of the fringe. Traditionally, the Army, Guard, Navy and Air Force use a fringed flag for parades, colour guards and indoor displays, while the Office of the President and local authorities use a fringed flag on all occasions.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The flag is displayed at half-staff (or half-mast) as a sign of respect or mourning. When done nationwide, such a step is proclaimed by the president. Half-mast means flying a flag two-thirds of the way up a flagpole; the top of the flag must be at least a flag's height from the top of the flagpole. Black ribbons indicate mourning on banners that can't be lowered to half-mast.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The Day of the National Flag in Ukraine is celebrated on 23 August; it began in 2004. Previously, 24 July was National Flag Day in Kyiv. The first ceremonial raising of the yellow-and-blue Ukrainian flag in modern times took place on 24 July 1990, at the flagstaff of the Kyiv City Council, two years before the flag was officially adopted as the National flag. Since 1992, the Independence Day of Ukraine has been celebrated on 24 August. Following a government decree, the flag must be flown from public buildings on this date and certain other holidays; not all are public holidays. Flags must also be flown on parliamentary election days and regional-specific flag days. The public display of flags to mark other events, such as the election of the president or the death of a prominent politician (whereupon flags are flown at half-mast), can be declared at the discretion of the Cabinet of Ministers. When flags are flown at half-mast, vertical flags are not lowered. A black mourning ribbon is instead attached, either atop the mast if hung from a pole, or to each end of the flag's supporting cross-beams if flown like a banner.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The roots of Ukrainian national symbols come from pre-Christian times when yellow and blue prevailed in traditional ceremonies, reflecting fire and water. During the battle of Grunwald in 1410 two Polish banners of Lwów and Przemyśl Lands used flags with yellow and blue colours.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Blue-yellow, red-black, crimson-olive and especially raspberry colour banners were widely used by Cossacks between the 16th and 18th centuries. These were not the only possible combinations, since normally Cossacks would fly their hetman's banners, which were similar to the coats of arms of the nobility. Also, yellow and blue were the colours common on coats of arms in Galicia. In fact, the coat of arms of Lviv to this day remains a golden lion on a blue field.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Some put the starting point of the adoption of the current national flag of Ukraine to 1848 when, during the Spring of the Nations on 22 April 1848, a blue-and-yellow banner was adopted by the Supreme Ruthenian Council in Lemberg (Lviv), the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and flew over the city's magistrate for the first time. Although this move did not have significant consequences, the newly formed Ukrainian divisions in the Austrian army used blue-and-yellow banners in their insignia.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Both blue-yellow and yellow-blue flags were widely used during the Ukrainian struggle for independence in 1917. For the first time in the history of the Russian Empire, the blue-yellow flag was flown on 25 March 1917 in Petrograd during a 20,000-strong mass demonstration. On the territory of Ukraine the national flag was flown for the first time in Kyiv on 29 March 1917 by soldiers. On 1 April 1917, Kyiv saw a 100,000-strong demonstration where over 320 national flags were flown. Afterwards, similar demonstrations with Ukrainian flags took place across the entire Russian Empire, even beyond ethnic Ukrainian lands. Numerous famous Ukrainian politicians wrote about the 1 April demonstration, including Mykhailo Hrushevsky and Serhiy Yefremov, noting that there were blue-and-yellow flags, while Dmytro Doroshenko claimed that they were yellow and blue. The blue-yellow flag was flown at the First Ukrainian Military Congress on 18 May 1917.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The official flag established by the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1918 was blue-yellow. Instead, they refer to the decision on the Fleet Flag, which was to be light blue–yellow, as an indication that the official flag was light blue–yellow. Also adopted were several other service flags of the Ukrainian People's Republic.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The official flag of Pavlo Skoropadsky's Hetmanate was also light blue-yellow and remained the same under the Directorate of Symon Petlura. The flag of the West Ukrainian People's Republic was blue-yellow. The stateless Makhnovshchina, which existed during the Ukrainian War of Independence, used the black flag.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Among Ukrainian immigrant organisations, there were proponents of both blue-yellow and yellow-blue flags. Eventually, an agreement was reached to use the blue-yellow flag until the issue could be resolved by an independent Ukraine.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: During Soviet rule, the Ukrainian flag was banned, and anyone displaying it could be criminally prosecuted for "anti-Soviet propaganda". The first flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was adopted on 10 March 1919, to serve as the symbol of state of Soviet Ukraine. Details of the official flag changed periodically before the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, but all were based on the red flag of the October Revolution in Russia and an exact replica of the flags of the neighbouring Russian SFSR.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The first flag was red with the gold Cyrillic sans-serif letters У.С.С.Р. (USSR, acronym for Ukrayinskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Sovetskaya Respublika in the Russian language). In the 1930s, a gold border was added to the flag. In 1937, a new flag was adopted, with a small gold hammer and sickle added above the gold Cyrillic serif У.Р.С.Р. (URSR, for Ukrayins’ka Radyans’ka Sotsialistychna Respublika in the Ukrainian language).


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists is a Ukrainian political organisation which as a movement was originally created in 1929 in Western Ukraine (interwar Poland at the time). For a long time, the OUN did not officially have its own flag; however, during the Hungarian and Polish aggression against the Republic of Carpathian Ukraine in 1939, Carpathian Sich, a militarised wing of the OUN, adopted as its flag a design taken from the OUN's emblem – a golden nationalistic trident on a blue background. The flag was finalised and only officially adopted by the organisation in 1964 at the 5th Assembly of Ukrainian Nationalists.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The Ukrainian Insurgent Army was a Ukrainian nationalist paramilitary and later partisan army that engaged in a series of guerrilla conflicts during World War II against Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and both underground and communist Poland. The group was the military wing of the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists — Bandera faction (the OUN-B), originally formed in Volyn in the spring and summer of 1943. Its official date of creation is 14 October 1942. The battle flag of the UPA was a 2:3 ratio red-and-black banner. The flag continues to be a symbol of the Ukrainian nationalist movement. The colours of the flag symbolise 'Ukrainian red blood spilled on Ukrainian black earth'.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: In 1949, the flag of the Soviet Ukraine was changed once again. The Soviet Union managed to obtain two additional seats in the United Nations by adding Ukraine and Byelorussia as member states. The flag change came about because all the Soviet flags were the same. The new Ukrainian flag consisted of red (top, 2/3) and azure (bottom, 1/3) stripes, with the golden star, hammer and sickle in the top left corner. Communist party leaders such as Nikita Khrushchev and Lazar Kaganovich feared using words like 'light blue' and 'blue' in the official flag colors, as they were the terms used by the Ukrainian diaspora.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: During the Soviet period, multiple unsanctioned attempts to hoist the national blue-and-yellow flag were made. In 1958, an underground group was established in the village of Verbytsia, ; its members raised national flags and spread anti-Soviet pamphlets under cover of darkness.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Under the influence of Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost, individual Soviet republics gained a strengthened sense of national identity, leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. This was particularly true for the three Baltic states and Western Ukraine, which were the last territories annexed into Soviet Union. The national awakening was accompanied by attempts to restore historical national symbols. In 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR re-established Lithuania's national flag and coat of arms as the state symbol. The parliaments of Latvia and Estonia soon followed suit.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The events in the Baltic countries soon led to similar patterns in Ukraine. In particular, West Ukraine and the Ukrainian SSR's capital city of Kyiv were the scenes of near-constant political demonstrations, in which yellow-and-blue flags were waved by demonstrators.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The blue and yellow flag was provisionally adopted for official ceremonies in September 1991 following Ukrainian independence, before officially being restored on 28 January 1992 by the Parliament of Ukraine. At the beginning of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, landmarks all over the world were lit up with the colours of the Ukrainian flag, while numerous cities raised the Ukrainian flag in solidarity.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: One claimed version is that, since one of the first known coloured depictions of the Coat of Arms of Kyiv was mainly in yellow-blue colours, this tradition may have existed since the time of the Nordic-Slavic Grand Prince of Kyiv Volodymyr the Great. However, the blue-yellow colouring dates back to Kievan Rus’, as an early version of the "Tryzub", Ukraine's national coat of arms, sported the same colouring as the seal of Sviatoslav I of Kyiv (c. AD 945). During the 1709 Battle of Poltava, the Cossacks following Mazepa fought under yellow-blue banners, while their Swedish allies were under yellow ones. Some Cossacks and noblemen had coats of arms in yellow and blue.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Ukrainians commonly refer to the flag as "yellow and light blue" (, "zhovto-blakytnyy")—a different version of the flag used during UNR (Ukrainian National Republic) years (1917–1921) with yellow on the top and blue on the bottom. The yellow on the top allegedly represents golden domes (cupolas) of Christian churches and the blue the Dnieper river.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: The head of the Ukrainian Heraldry Society, Andriy Grechylo, points to the fact that the discussion about order of colours was taking place as far back as 1918. Nonetheless, both governments of the Ukrainian People's Republic as well as the Ukrainian State defined that the upper half would be light-blue, while the lower would be yellow. During 1918 it was taken into consideration that light blue would lose its shade under sun, therefore it was decided to make the colour darker.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: Already in the 1918 draft of the Constitution of the Ukrainian People's Republic, the order of colours was defined as blue and yellow. The same order could be found in legislative acts of the West Ukrainian People's Republic for November 1918 and the Republic of Carpathian Ukraine on 15 March 1939. The argument on the order of colours was taking place in the Ukrainian diaspora as well. In 1949 it was decided that, until Ukraine defined a single state flag, the diaspora would use the blue-and-yellow banner.


title: Flag of Ukraine

text: On 21 April 2011, the Verkhovna Rada passed a law allowing the Victory Banner to be raised on Victory Day. The current Victory Banner was adopted in Russia in 2007. On 20 May 2011, the law was signed by the President of Ukraine Viktor Yanukovych. On 17 June 2011, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine recognised the law as unconstitutional and proposed that the parliament implement required amendments to the Constitution of Ukraine. On 9 April 2015, the Ukrainian parliament passed legislation on decommunization, banning the promotion of symbols of “Communist and National Socialist totalitarian regimes". Since then, Soviet symbols, like the Victory Banner, have only been allowed in cemeteries.


title: Cessna 172

text: The Cessna 172 Skyhawk is an American four-seat, single-engine, high wing, fixed-wing aircraft made by the Cessna Aircraft Company. First flown in 1955, more 172s have been built than any other aircraft. It was developed from the 1948 Cessna 170 but with tricycle landing gear rather than conventional landing gear. The Skyhawk name was originally used for a trim package, but was later applied to all standard-production 172 aircraft, while some upgraded versions were marketed as the Cutlass.


title: Cessna 172

text: Measured by its longevity and popularity, the Cessna 172 is the most successful aircraft in history. Cessna delivered the first production model in 1956, and , the company and its partners had built more than 44,000 units. The aircraft remains in production today.


title: Cessna 172

text: A general aviation airplane, the Skyhawk's main competitors have been the Beechcraft Musketeer and Grumman AA-5 series (neither currently in production), the Piper Cherokee, and, more recently, the Diamond DA40 and Cirrus SR20.


title: Cessna 172

text: The Cessna 172 started life as a tricycle landing gear variant of the taildragger Cessna 170, with a basic level of standard equipment. In January 1955, Cessna flew an improved variant of the Cessna 170, a Continental O-300-A-powered Cessna 170C with larger elevators and a more angular tailfin. Although the variant was tested and certified, Cessna decided to modify it with a tricycle landing gear, and the modified Cessna 170C flew again on June 12, 1955. To reduce the time and cost of certification, the type was added to the Cessna 170 type certificate as the Model 172. Later, the 172 was given its own type certificate. The 172 became an overnight sales success, and over 1,400 were built in 1956, its first full year of production.


title: Cessna 172

text: Early 172s were similar in appearance to the 170s, with the same straight aft fuselage and tall landing gear legs, although the 172 had a straight tailfin while the 170 had a rounded fin and rudder. In 1960, the 172A incorporated revised landing gear and the swept-back tailfin, which is still in use today.


title: Cessna 172

text: The final aesthetic development, found in the 1963 172D and all later 172 models, was a lowered rear deck allowing an aft window. Cessna advertised this added rear visibility as "Omni-Vision."


title: Cessna 172

text: Production halted in the mid-1980s, but resumed in 1996 with the 160 hp (120 kW) Cessna 172R Skyhawk. Cessna supplemented this in 1998 with the 180 hp (135 kW) Cessna 172S Skyhawk SP.


title: Cessna 172

text: The Cessna 172 may be modified via a wide array of supplemental type certificates (STCs), including increased engine power and higher gross weights. Available STC engine modifications increase power from , add constant-speed propellers, or allow the use of automobile gasoline. Other modifications include additional fuel tank capacity in the wing tips, added baggage compartment tanks, added wheel pants to reduce drag, or enhanced landing and takeoff performance and safety with a STOL kit. The 172 has also been equipped with the fuel injected Superior Air Parts Vantage engine.


title: Cessna 172

text: From December 4, 1958, to February 7, 1959, Robert Timm and John Cook set the world record for (refueled) flight endurance in a used Cessna 172, registration number N9172B. They took off from McCarran Field (now Harry Reid International Airport) in Las Vegas, Nevada, and landed back at McCarran Field after 64 days, 22 hours, 19 minutes and 5 seconds in a flight covering an estimated 150,000 miles, over 6 times further than flying around the world at the equator. The flight was part of a fund-raising effort for the Damon Runyon Cancer Fund. The aircraft is now on display at the airport.


title: Cessna 172

text: "Cessna has historically used model years similar to a U.S. auto manufacturer, with sales of new models typically starting a few months prior to the actual calendar year."


title: Cessna 172

text: The basic 172 appeared in November 1955 as the 1956 model and remained in production until replaced by the 172A in early 1960. It was equipped with a Continental O-300 six-cylinder, air-cooled engine and had a maximum gross weight of . Introductory base price was US$8,995 and a total of 4,195 were constructed over the five years.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1960 model 172A introduced a swept-back tailfin and rudder, as well as float fittings. The price was US$9,450 and 1,015 were built.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172B was introduced in late 1960 as the 1961 model and featured a shorter landing gear, engine mounts lengthened three inches (76 mm), a reshaped cowling, and a pointed propeller spinner. For the first time, the "Skyhawk" name was applied to an available deluxe option package. This added optional equipment included full exterior paint to replace the standard partial paint stripes and standard avionics. The gross weight was increased to .


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1962 model was the 172C. It brought to the line an optional autopilot and a key starter to replace the previous pull-starter. The seats were redesigned to be six-way adjustable. A child seat was made optional to allow two children to be carried in the baggage area. The 1962 price was US$9,895. A total of 889 172C models were produced.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1963 172D model introduced the lower rear fuselage with a wraparound Omni-Vision rear window and a one-piece windshield. Gross weight was increased to , where it would stay until the 172P. New rudder and brake pedals were also added. 1,146 172Ds were built.


title: Cessna 172

text: 1963 also saw the introduction of the 172D Powermatic, powered by a Continental GO-300E, increasing cruise speed by relative to the standard 172D. In reality this was not a new model, but rather a Cessna 175 Skylark that had been rebranded to overcome a reputation for poor engine reliability. The ploy was unsuccessful and neither the Powermatic nor the Skylark were produced again after the 1963 model year.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172E was the 1964 model. The electrical fuses were replaced with circuit breakers. The 172E also featured a redesigned instrument panel. 1,401 172Es were built that year as production continued to increase.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1965 model 172F introduced electrically operated flaps to replace the previous lever-operated system. It was built in France by Reims Cessna as the F172 until 1971. These models formed the basis for the U.S. Air Force's T-41A Mescalero primary trainer, which was used during the 1960s and early 1970s as initial flight screening aircraft in USAF Undergraduate Pilot Training (UPT). Following their removal from the UPT program, some extant USAF T-41s were assigned to the U.S. Air Force Academy for the cadet pilot indoctrination program, while others were distributed to Air Force aero clubs.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1966 model year 172G introduced a more pointed spinner and sold for US$12,450 in its basic 172 version and US$13,300 in the upgraded Skyhawk version. 1,597 were built.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1967 model 172H was the last Continental O-300 powered model. It also introduced a shorter-stroke nose gear oleo to reduce drag and improve the appearance of the aircraft in flight. A new cowling was used, introducing shock-mounts that transmitted lower noise levels to the cockpit and reduced cowl cracking. The electric stall warning horn was replaced by a pneumatic one.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1967 model 172H sold for US$10,950 while the Skyhawk version was US$12,750. A total of 839 172Hs were built.


title: Cessna 172

text: The "I" model was introduced with a Lycoming O-320-E2D engine of , an increase of over the Continental powerplant. The increased power resulted in an increase in optimal cruise from TAS to TAS (true airspeed). There was no change in the sea level rate of climb at per minute.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172I also introduced the first standard "T" instrument arrangement. The 172I saw an increase in production over the "H" model, with 1,206 built.


title: Cessna 172

text: For 1968, Cessna planned to replace the 172 with a newly designed aircraft called the 172J, featuring the same general configuration but with a more sloping windshield, a strutless cantilever wing, a more stylish interior, and various other improvements. However, the popularity of the previous 172 with Cessna dealers and flight schools prompted the cancellation of the replacement plan, and the 172J was instead introduced as the 177 and sold alongside the 172. The 172J designation was never used for a production aircraft.


title: Cessna 172

text: The next model year was the 1969 "K" model. The 1969 172K had a redesigned tailfin cap and reshaped rear windows. Optional long-range wing fuel tanks were offered. The rear windows were slightly enlarged by . The 1969 model sold for US$12,500 for the 172 and US$13,995 for the Skyhawk, with 1,170 made.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1970 model was still called the 172K, but sported fiberglass, downward-shaped, conical wing tips. Fully articulated seats were offered as well. Production in 1970 was 759 units.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172L, sold during 1971 and 1972, replaced the main landing gear legs (which were originally flat spring steel) with tapered, tubular steel gear legs. The new gear had a width that was increased by . The new tubular gear was lighter, but required aerodynamic fairings to maintain the same speed and climb performance as experienced with the flat steel design. The "L" also had a plastic fairing between the dorsal fin and vertical fin to introduce a greater family resemblance to the 182's vertical fin.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1971 model sold for US$13,425 in the 172 version and US$14,995 in the Skyhawk version. 827 172Ls were sold in 1971 and 984 in 1972.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172M of 1973–76 gained a drooped wing leading edge for improved low-speed handling. This was marketed as the "camber-lift" wing.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1974 172M was also the first to introduce the optional 'II' package which offered higher standard equipment, including a second nav/comm radio, an ADF and transponder. The baggage compartment was increased in size, and nose-mounted dual landing lights were available as an option.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1975 model 172M sold for US$16,055 for the 172, US$17,890 for the Skyhawk and US$20,335 for the .


title: Cessna 172

text: In 1976, Cessna stopped marketing the aircraft as the 172 and began exclusively using the "Skyhawk" designation. This model year also saw a redesigned instrument panel to hold more avionics. Among other changes, the fuel and other small gauges were relocated to the left side for improved pilot readability compared with the earlier 172 panel designs. Total production of "M" models was 7306 over the four years it was manufactured.


title: Cessna 172

text: The Skyhawk N, or Skyhawk/100 as Cessna termed it, was introduced for the 1977 model year. The "100" designation indicated that it was powered by a Lycoming O-320-H2AD, engine designed to run on 100-octane fuel, whereas all previous engines used 80/87 fuel. But this engine proved troublesome and it was replaced by the similarly rated O-320-D2J to create the 1981 172P.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1977 "N" model 172 also introduced rudder trim as an option and standard "pre-selectable" flaps. The price was US$22,300, with the selling for US$29,950.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 1978 model brought a 28-volt electrical system to replace the previous 14-volt system. Air conditioning was an option.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172P, or Skyhawk P, was introduced in 1981 to solve the reliability problems of the "N" engine by replacing it with the Lycoming O-320-D2J.


title: Cessna 172

text: The "P" model also saw the maximum flap deflection decreased from 40 degrees to 30 to allow a gross weight increase from to . A wet wing was optional, with a capacity of 62 US gallons of fuel.


title: Cessna 172

text: The price of a new Skyhawk P was US$33,950, with the Skyhawk costing US$37,810 and the Nav/Pac equipped Skyhawk selling for US$42,460.


title: Cessna 172

text: In 1982, the "P" saw the landing lights moved from the nose to the wing to increase bulb life. The 1983 model added some minor soundproofing improvements and thicker windows.


title: Cessna 172

text: Production of the "P" ended in 1986, and no more 172s were built for eleven years as legal liability rulings in the US had pushed Cessna's insurance costs too high, resulting in dramatically increasing prices for new aircraft.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172Q was introduced in 1983 and given the name Cutlass to create an affiliation with the 172RG, although it was actually a 172P with a Lycoming O-360-A4N engine of . The aircraft had a gross weight of and an optimal cruise speed of compared to the 172P's cruise speed of on less. It had a useful load that was about more than the Skyhawk P and a rate of climb that was actually per minute lower, due to the higher gross weight. Production ended after only three years when all 172 production stopped.


title: Cessna 172

text: The Skyhawk R was introduced in 1996 and is powered by a derated Lycoming IO-360-L2A producing a maximum of at just 2,400 rpm. This is the first Cessna 172 to have a factory-fitted fuel-injected engine.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172R's maximum takeoff weight is . This model year introduced many improvements, including a new interior with soundproofing, an all new multi-level ventilation system, a standard four point intercom, contoured, energy absorbing, 26g front seats with vertical and reclining adjustments and inertia reel harnesses.


title: Cessna 172

text: The Cessna 172S was introduced in 1998 and is powered by a Lycoming IO-360-L2A producing . The maximum engine rpm was increased from 2,400 rpm to 2,700 rpm resulting in a increase over the "R" model. As a result, the maximum takeoff weight was increased to . This model is marketed under the name Skyhawk SP, although the Type Certification data sheet specifies it is a 172S.


title: Cessna 172

text: The 172S is built primarily for the private owner-operator and is, in its later years, offered with the Garmin G1000 avionics package and leather seats as standard equipment.


title: Cessna 172

text: Cessna introduced a retractable landing gear version of the 172 in 1980 and named it the Cutlass 172RG.


title: Cessna 172

text: The Cutlass featured a variable-pitch, constant-speed propeller and a more powerful Lycoming O-360-F1A6 engine of . The 172RG sold for about US$19,000 more than the standard 172 of the same year and produced an optimal cruise speed of 140 knots (260 km/h), compared to for the contemporary version.