title: Electron

text: The invariant mass of an electron is approximately  kilograms, or  atomic mass units. Due to mass–energy equivalence, this corresponds to a rest energy of 0.511 MeV. The ratio between the mass of a proton and that of an electron is about 1836. Astronomical measurements show that the proton-to-electron mass ratio has held the same value, as is predicted by the Standard Model, for at least half the age of the universe.


title: Electron

text: Electrons have an electric charge of coulombs, which is used as a standard unit of charge for subatomic particles, and is also called the elementary charge. Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign. As the symbol "e" is used for the elementary charge, the electron is commonly symbolized by , where the minus sign indicates the negative charge. The positron is symbolized by because it has the same properties as the electron but with a positive rather than negative charge.


title: Electron

text: The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of . This property is usually stated by referring to the electron as a spin- particle. For such particles the spin magnitude is , while the result of the measurement of a projection of the spin on any axis can only be ±. In addition to spin, the electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis. It is approximately equal to one Bohr magneton,=\frac{e\hbar}{2m_{\mathrm{e}}}.</math>}} which is a physical constant equal to . The orientation of the spin with respect to the momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as helicity.


title: Electron

text: The electron has no known substructure. Nevertheless, in condensed matter physics, spin–charge separation can occur in some materials. In such cases, electrons 'split' into three independent particles, the spinon, the orbiton and the holon (or chargon). The electron can always be theoretically considered as a bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the electron, the orbiton carrying the orbital degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but in certain conditions they can behave as independent quasiparticles.


title: Electron

text: The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics. The admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the theory of relativity. On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious mathematical difficulties due to the self-energy of the electron tending to infinity. Observation of a single electron in a Penning trap suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be 10 meters.


title: Electron

text: The upper bound of the electron radius of 10 meters can be derived using the uncertainty relation in energy. There "is" also a physical constant called the "classical electron radius", with the much larger value of , greater than the radius of the proton. However, the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of quantum mechanics; in reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of the electron.


title: Electron

text: There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles. An example is the muon, with a mean lifetime of  seconds, which decays into an electron, a muon neutrino and an electron antineutrino. The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate charge conservation. The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is years, at a 90% confidence level.


title: Electron

text: As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the wave–particle duality and can be demonstrated using the double-slit experiment.


title: Electron

text: The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi ("ψ"). When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability density.


title: Electron

text: Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, , where the variables "r" and "r" correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead.


title: Electron

text: In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit.


title: Electron

text: In a simplified picture, which often tends to give the wrong idea but may serve to illustrate some aspects, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle, the virtual positron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter. The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, Δ"E" · Δ"t" ≥ "ħ". In effect, the energy needed to create these virtual particles, Δ"E", can be "borrowed" from the vacuum for a period of time, Δ"t", so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant, . Thus, for a virtual electron, Δ"t" is at most .


title: Electron

text: While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the Coulomb force from the ambient electric field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes what is called vacuum polarization. In effect, the vacuum behaves like a medium having a dielectric permittivity more than unity. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron. This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator. Virtual particles cause a comparable shielding effect for the mass of the electron.


title: Electron

text: The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton (the anomalous magnetic moment). The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of quantum electrodynamics.


title: Electron

text: The apparent paradox in classical physics of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by the electron. These photons can heuristically be thought of as causing the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as zitterbewegung), which results in a net circular motion with precession. This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron. In atoms, this creation of virtual photons explains the Lamb shift observed in spectral lines. The Compton Wavelength shows that near elementary particles such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance.


title: Electron

text: An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law. When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field. The Ampère–Maxwell law relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons (the current) with respect to an observer. This property of induction supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor. The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the Liénard–Wiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light (relativistic).


title: Electron

text: When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the Lorentz force that acts perpendicularly to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This centripetal force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius called the gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself.


title: Electron

text: Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.


title: Electron

text: An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift.c} (1 - \cos \theta),</math>


title: Electron

text: where "c" is the speed of light in a vacuum and "m" is the electron mass. See Zombeck (2007). }} The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is "h"/"m""c", which is known as the Compton wavelength. For an electron, it has a value of . When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance, the wavelength of the visible light is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such interaction between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or linear Thomson scattering.


title: Electron

text: The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by "α" ≈ , which is approximately equal to .


title: Electron

text: When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV. On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.


title: Electron

text: In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed component of electron's wavefunction forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions, electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by emitting or absorbing a and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral current interaction via a exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering.


title: Electron

text: An electron can be "bound" to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus's electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their spin quantum number.


title: Electron

text: Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential. Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect. To escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom. This occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron.


title: Electron

text: The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized. Because the electron is charged, it produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital (so called, paired electrons) cancel each other out.


title: Electron

text: The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum mechanics. The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms, allowing the formation of molecules. Within a molecule, electrons move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms. A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of electron pairs. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei.


title: Electron

text: If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.


title: Electron

text: Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed "free" electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a different mass. When free electrons—both in vacuum and metals—move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.


title: Electron

text: At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. In any dielectric material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator. Most semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation. On the other hand, metals have an electronic band structure containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi gas) through the material much like free electrons.


title: Electron

text: Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed. This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material.


title: Electron

text: Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann–Franz law, which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.


title: Electron

text: When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS theory, pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance. (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.) However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.


title: Electron

text: Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles: spinons, orbitons and holons. The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge.


title: Electron

text: According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in a vacuum, "c". However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to "c"—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than "c", the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation.


title: Electron

text: The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor, defined as formula_1 where "v" is the speed of the particle. The kinetic energy "K" of an electron moving with velocity "v" is:


title: Electron

text: where "m" is the mass of electron. For example, the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51 GeV.


title: Electron

text: Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given by "λ" = "h"/"p" where "h" is the Planck constant and "p" is the momentum. For the 51 GeV electron above, the wavelength is about , small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus.


title: Electron

text: The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe. For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion kelvins and photons had mean energies over a million electronvolts. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons. Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons:


title: Electron

text: An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.


title: Electron

text: For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the number of particles over antiparticles. Hence, about one electron for every billion electron-positron pairs survived. This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known as baryon asymmetry, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe. The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This process peaked after about five minutes. Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process,


title: Electron

text: For about the next –, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic nuclei. What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation.


title: Electron

text: Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form. Within a star, stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei. These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons. However, the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus. An example is the cobalt-60 (Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 ().


title: Electron

text: At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black hole. According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, even electromagnetic radiation, from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius. However, quantum mechanical effects are believed to potentially allow the emission of Hawking radiation at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants.


title: Electron

text: When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) is created in the vicinity of the event horizon, random spatial positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior; this process is called quantum tunnelling. The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space. In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass-energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.


title: Electron

text: Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as have been recorded. When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions. More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.


title: Electron

text: Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy due to Bremsstrahlung radiation. Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by using radio telescopes.


title: Electron

text: The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy. As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies. For instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct dark lines appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation in places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by the atom's electrons. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the hydrogen spectral series. When detected, spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.


title: Electron

text: In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months. The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.


title: Electron

text: The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.


title: Electron

text: The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal space—a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material.


title: Electron

text: Electron beams are used in welding. They allow energy densities up to across a narrow focus diameter of and usually require no filler material. This welding technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons from interacting with the gas before reaching their target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding.


title: Electron

text: Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a micrometer. This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids. The last problem limits the resolution to about 10 nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of small numbers of specialized integrated circuits.


title: Electron

text: Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or sterilize medical and food products. Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g. intensive electron radiation causes a many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy.


title: Electron

text: Linear particle accelerators generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in radiation therapy. Electron therapy can treat such skin lesions as basal-cell carcinomas because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron energies in the range 5–20 MeV. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by X-rays.


title: Electron

text: Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies. These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the Sokolov–Ternov effect. Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles. Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions, which particle physics studies .


title: Electron

text: Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a collimated beam of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–200 eV. The reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°.


title: Electron

text: The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. Some electrons change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the material. Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved images of the material. In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm. By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-volt potential. The Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms. This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain.


title: Electron

text: Two main types of electron microscopes exist: transmission and scanning. Transmission electron microscopes function like overhead projectors, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device. Scanning electron microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample to produce the image. Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for both microscope types. The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.


title: Electron

text: In the free-electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam passes through a pair of undulators that contain arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron radiation that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation field at the resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices are used in manufacturing, communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.


title: Electron

text: Electrons are important in cathode-ray tubes, which have been extensively used as display devices in laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets. In a photomultiplier tube, every photon striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse. Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury, formerly Cadbury's and Cadbury Schweppes, is a British multinational confectionery company fully owned by Mondelez International (originally Kraft Foods) since 2010. It is the second largest confectionery brand in the world after Mars. Cadbury is internationally headquartered in Buckinghamshire, and operates in more than 50 countries worldwide. It is known for its Dairy Milk chocolate, the Creme Egg and Roses selection box, and many other confectionery products. One of the best-known British brands, in 2013 "The Daily Telegraph" named Cadbury among Britain's most successful exports.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury was founded in 1824, in Birmingham, England, by John Cadbury (1801–1889), a Quaker who sold tea, coffee and drinking chocolate. Cadbury developed the business with his brother Benjamin, followed by his sons Richard and George. George developed the Bournville estate, a model village designed to give the company's workers improved living conditions. Dairy Milk chocolate, introduced by George Jr in 1905, used a higher proportion of milk in the recipe compared with rival products. By 1914, it was the company's best-selling product. Successive members of the Cadbury family have made innovations with chocolate products. Cadbury, alongside Rowntree's and Fry's, were the big three British confectionery manufacturers throughout much of the 19th and 20th centuries.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury was granted its first royal warrant from Queen Victoria in 1854. It held a royal warrant from Elizabeth II from 1955 to 2022. Cadbury merged with J. S. Fry & Sons in 1919, and Schweppes in 1969, known as Cadbury Schweppes until 2008, when the American beverage business was split as Dr Pepper Snapple Group; the rights ownership of the Schweppes brand had already differed between various countries since 2006. In 1992, chairman of the company for 24 years, Sir Adrian Cadbury, produced the Cadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform of corporate governance around the world. Cadbury was a constant constituent of the FTSE 100 on the London Stock Exchange from the index's 1984 inception until the company was bought by Kraft Foods Inc. in 2010.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1824, John Cadbury, a Quaker, began selling tea, coffee and drinking chocolate in Bull Street in Birmingham, England. From 1831 he moved into the production of a variety of cocoa and drinking chocolates, made in a factory in Bridge Street and sold mainly to the wealthy because of the high cost of production. In 1847, John Cadbury became a partner with his brother Benjamin and the company became known as "Cadbury Brothers". In 1847, Cadbury's competitor Fry's of Bristol produced the first chocolate bar (which would be mass-produced as Fry's Chocolate Cream in 1866). Cadbury introduced his brand of the chocolate bar in 1849, and that same year, Cadbury and Fry's chocolate bars were displayed publicly at a trade fair in Bingley Hall, Birmingham. The Cadbury brothers opened an office in London, and in 1854 they received the royal warrant as manufacturers of chocolate and cocoa to Queen Victoria. The company went into decline in the late 1850s.


title: Cadbury

text: John Cadbury's sons Richard and George took over the business in 1861. At the time of the takeover, the business was in rapid decline: the number of employees had reduced from 20 to 11, and the company was losing money. By 1866, Cadbury was profitable again. The brothers had turned around the business by moving the focus from tea and coffee to chocolate, and by increasing the quality of their products.


title: Cadbury

text: The firm's first major breakthrough occurred in 1866 when Richard and George introduced an improved cocoa into Britain. A new cocoa press developed in the Netherlands removed some of the unpalatable cocoa butter from the cocoa bean. The firm began exporting its products in the 1850s. In 1861, the company created Fancy Boxes — a decorated box of chocolates — and in 1868 they were sold in boxes in the shape of a heart for Valentine's Day. Boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday.


title: Cadbury

text: Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, Cadbury created the modern chocolate Easter egg after developing a pure cocoa butter that could be moulded into smooth shapes. By 1893, Cadbury had 19 different varieties of chocolate Easter egg on sale.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1878, the brothers decided to build new premises in countryside from Birmingham. The move to the countryside was unprecedented in business. Better transport access for milk that was inward shipped by canal, and cocoa that was brought in by rail from London, Southampton and Liverpool docks was taken into consideration. With the development of the Birmingham West Suburban Railway along the path of the Worcester and Birmingham Canal, they acquired the Bournbrook estate, comprising of countryside south of Birmingham. Located next to the Stirchley Street railway station, which itself was opposite the canal, they renamed the estate Bournville and opened the Bournville factory in 1879. In 1891, the Cadbury brothers filed a patent for a chocolate-coated biscuit.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1893, George Cadbury bought of land close to the works and planned, at his own expense, a model village which would 'alleviate the evils of modern more cramped living conditions'. By 1900 the estate included 314 cottages and houses set on of land. As the Cadbury family were Quakers there were no pubs in the estate.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1897, following the lead of Swiss companies, Cadbury introduced its own line of milk chocolate bars. In 1899 Cadbury became a private limited company.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1905, Cadbury launched its Dairy Milk bar, a production of exceptional quality with a higher proportion of milk than previous chocolate bars. Developed by George's son, George Cadbury Jr (along with his research and development team), it was the first time a British company had been able to mass-produce milk chocolate. From the beginning, it had the distinctive purple wrapper. It was a great sales success, and became the company's best selling product by 1914. The stronger Bournville Cocoa line was introduced in 1906. Cadbury Dairy Milk and Bournville Cocoa were to provide the basis for the company's rapid pre-war expansion. In 1910, Cadbury sales overtook those of Fry for the first time.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury's Milk Tray was first produced in 1915 and continued in production throughout the remainder of the First World War. More than 2,000 of Cadbury's male employees joined the British Armed Forces, and to support the British war effort, Cadbury provided chocolate, books and clothing to the troops. George Cadbury handed over two company-owned buildings for use as hospitals – "The Beeches" and "Fircroft", and the management of both hospitals earned the War Office's highest award. Factory girls, dubbed 'The Cadbury Angels', volunteered to do the laundry of injured soldiers recovering in the hospitals. After the war, the Bournville factory was redeveloped and mass production began in earnest. In 1918, Cadbury opened their first overseas factory in Hobart, Tasmania. A trainline was also built for easier access to Hobart. Of the 16 women who came to Tasmania to set up the factory, seven are known to have returned to the UK, two married and stayed in Tasmania, two did not marry but stayed and five left no record.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1919, Cadbury merged with J. S. Fry & Sons, another leading British chocolate manufacturer, resulting in the integration of well-known brands such as Fry's Chocolate Cream and Fry's Turkish Delight. In 1921, the many small Fry's factories around Bristol were closed down, and production was consolidated at a new Somerdale Factory, outside Bristol.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury expanded its product range with Flake (1920), Creme eggs (1923), Fruit and Nut (1928), and Crunchie (1929, originally under the Fry's label). By 1930, Cadbury was the 24th-largest British manufacturing company as measured by estimated market value of capital. Cadbury took direct control of the under-performing Fry in 1935. Dairy Milk Whole Nut arrived in 1933, and tins of Roses were introduced in 1938 (competing with Quality Street launched by Mackintosh's in 1936). Roses has become a very popular Christmas (and Mother's Day) gift.


title: Cadbury

text: By the mid-1930s, Cadbury estimated that 90 percent of the British population could readily afford to buy chocolate as it was no longer considered a luxury item for the working classes. By 1936, Dairy Milk accounted for 60 percent of the UK milk chocolate market. Between the two world wars Cadbury sent test packages to British schoolchildren in exchange for their opinions on new products, one of whom, Roald Dahl, would later write the children’s novel "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory".


title: Cadbury

text: During the Second World War, parts of the Bournville factory were turned over to war work, producing milling machines and seats for fighter aircraft. Workers ploughed football fields to plant crops. As chocolate was regarded as an essential food, it was placed under government supervision for the entire war. The wartime rationing of chocolate ended in 1950, and normal production resumed. Cadbury subsequently invested in new factories and had an increasing demand for their products. In 1952 the Moreton factory was built.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury has been a holder of a Royal Warrant from Queen Elizabeth II since 1955. In 1967, Cadbury acquired an Australian confectioner, MacRobertson's, beating a rival bid from Mars. As a result of the takeover, Cadbury built a 60 percent market share in the Australian market.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury merged with drinks company Schweppes to form Cadbury Schweppes in 1969. Head of Schweppes, Lord Watkinson, became chairman, and Adrian Cadbury became deputy chairman and managing director. The benefits of the merger were to prove elusive.


title: Cadbury

text: The merger put an end to Cadbury's close links to its Quaker founding family and its perceived social ethos by instilling a capitalist venturer philosophy in management.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1978, the company acquired Peter Paul, the third largest chocolate manufacturer in the United States for $58 million, which gave it a 10 percent share of the world's largest confectionery market. In 1979, Margaret Thatcher made an election campaign visit to the Bournville factory in the lead up to the 1979 United Kingdom general election. The highly successful Wispa chocolate bar was launched in the North East of England in 1981, and nationwide in 1984. In 1982, trading profits were greater outside of Britain than in the UK for the first time.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1986, Cadbury Schweppes sold its Beverages and Foods division to a management buyout known as Premier Brands for £97 million. This saw the company divest itself of such brands as Typhoo Tea, Kenco, Smash and Hartley Chivers jam. The deal also saw Premier take the licence for production of Cadbury brand biscuits and drinking chocolate.


title: Cadbury

text: Meanwhile, Schweppes switched its alliance in the UK from Pepsi to Coca-Cola, taking a 51 percent stake in the joint venture Coca-Cola Schweppes. The acquisition of Canada Dry doubled its worldwide drinks market share, and it took a 30 percent stake in Dr Pepper. As a result of these acquisitions, Cadbury Schweppes became the third largest soft drinks manufacturer in the world. In August 1988, the company sold its U.S. confectionery operations to Hershey's for $284.5 million cash plus the assumption of $30 million in debt.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1992, company chairman Sir Adrian Cadbury produced the Cadbury Report (via the Cadbury committee set up by the London Stock Exchange), a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform of corporate governance around the world. In 1999, Cadbury Schweppes sold its worldwide beverage businesses to The Coca-Cola Company except in North America and continental Europe for $700 million.


title: Cadbury

text: Snapple, Mistic and Stewart's (formerly Cable Car Beverage) were sold by Triarc to Cadbury Schweppes in 2000 for $1.45 billion. In October of that same year, Cadbury Schweppes purchased Royal Crown from Triarc. In 2003, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Adams, the US chewing gum operations of Pfizer Inc., for $4.2 billion, making Cadbury the world's biggest confectionery company. In 2005, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Green & Black's for £20 million.


title: Cadbury

text: In March 2007, it was revealed that Cadbury Schweppes was planning to split its business into two separate entities: one focusing on its main chocolate and confectionery market; the other on its US drinks business. The demerger took effect on 2 May 2008, with the drinks business becoming Dr Pepper Snapple Group and Cadbury Schweppes plc becoming Cadbury plc. In December 2008 it was announced that Cadbury was to sell its Australian beverage unit to Asahi Breweries.


title: Cadbury

text: In October 2007, Cadbury announced the closure of the Somerdale Factory, in Keynsham, Somerset, formerly part of Fry's. Between 500 and 700 jobs were affected by this change. Production transferred to other plants in England and Poland.


title: Cadbury

text: In 2008, Monkhill Confectionery, the Own Label trading division of Cadbury Trebor Bassett was sold to Tangerine Confectionery for £58 million cash. This sale included factories at Pontefract, Cleckheaton and York and a distribution centre near Chesterfield, and the transfer of around 800 employees.


title: Cadbury

text: In mid-2009, Cadbury replaced some of the cocoa butter in their non-UK chocolate products with palm oil. Despite stating this was a response to consumer demand to improve taste and texture, there was no "new improved recipe" claim placed on New Zealand labels. Consumer backlash was significant from environmentalists and chocolate lovers in both Australia and New Zealand, with consumers objecting to both the taste from the cheaper formulation, and the use of palm oil given its role in the destruction of rainforests. By August 2009, the company announced that it was reverting to the use of cocoa butter in New Zealand and Australia, although palm oil is still listed as an ingredient in Cadbury's flavoured sugar syrup based fillings (where it referred to as 'vegetable oil'). In addition, Cadbury stated it would source cocoa beans through Fair Trade channels. In January 2010 prospective buyer Kraft pledged to honour Cadbury's commitment.


title: Cadbury

text: On 7 September 2009, Kraft Foods made a £10.2 billion (US$16.2 billion) indicative takeover bid for Cadbury. The offer was rejected, with Cadbury stating that it undervalued the company. Kraft launched a formal, hostile bid for Cadbury, valuing the firm at £9.8 billion on 9 November 2009. The UK Business Secretary Peter Mandelson warned Kraft not to try to "make a quick buck" from the acquisition of Cadbury.


title: Cadbury

text: On 19 January 2010, it was announced that Cadbury and Kraft Foods had reached a deal and that Kraft would purchase Cadbury for £8.40 per share, valuing Cadbury at £11.5bn (US$18.9bn). Kraft, which issued a statement stating that the deal will create a "global confectionery leader", had to borrow £7 billion (US$11.5bn) in order to finance the takeover.


title: Cadbury

text: The Hershey Company, based in Pennsylvania, manufactures and distributes Cadbury-branded chocolate (but not its other confectionery) in the United States and has been reported to share Cadbury's "ethos". Hershey had expressed an interest in buying Cadbury because it would broaden its access to faster-growing international markets. But on 22 January 2010, Hershey announced that it would not counter Kraft's final offer.


title: Cadbury

text: The acquisition of Cadbury faced widespread disapproval from the British public, as well as groups and organisations including trade union Unite, who fought against the acquisition of the company which, according to Prime Minister Gordon Brown, was very important to the British economy. Unite estimated that a takeover by Kraft could put 30,000 jobs "at risk", and UK shareholders protested over the mergers and acquisitions advisory fees charged by banks. Cadbury's M&A advisers were UBS, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley. Controversially, RBS, a bank 84% owned by the United Kingdom Government, funded the Kraft takeover.


title: Cadbury

text: On 2 February 2010, Kraft secured over 71% of Cadbury's shares thus finalising the deal. Kraft had needed to reach 75% of the shares in order to be able to delist Cadbury from the stock market and fully integrate it as part of Kraft. This was achieved on 5 February, and the company announced that Cadbury shares would be de-listed on 8 March. On 3 February, the Chairman Roger Carr, chief executive Todd Stitzer and chief financial officer Andrew Bonfield all announced their resignations. Stitzer had worked at the company for 27 years. On 9 February, Kraft announced that it was planning to close the Somerdale Factory, Keynsham, with the loss of 400 jobs. The management explained that existing plans to move production to Poland were too advanced to be realistically reversed, though assurances had been given regarding sustaining the plant. Staff at Keynsham criticised this move, suggesting that they felt betrayed and as if they have been "sacked twice". On 22 April 2010, Phil Rumbol, the man behind the famous Cadbury "Gorilla" advertisement, announced his plans to leave the Cadbury company in July following Kraft's takeover.


title: Cadbury

text: The European Commission decided that Kraft would have to divest Cadbury's confectionery businesses in Poland (Wedel) and Romania (Kandia). In June 2010, the Polish division, Cadbury-Wedel, was sold to Lotte of Korea. As part of the deal Kraft kept the Cadbury, Hall's and other brands along with two plants in Skarbimierz. Lotte took over the plant in Warsaw along with the E Wedel brand. Kandia was sold back to the Meinl family, which had owned the brand from 2003 to 2007.


title: Cadbury

text: On 4 August 2011, Kraft Foods announced it would be splitting into two companies beginning on 1 October 2012. The confectionery business of Kraft became Mondelez International, of which Cadbury would become a subsidiary.


title: Cadbury

text: In response to diminishing margins in early 2014, Mondelez hired Accenture to implement a US$3 billion cost-cutting programme of the company's assets including Cadbury and Oreo. Beginning in 2015, Mondelez began closing Cadbury factories in several developed countries including Ireland, Canada, the United States, and New Zealand and shifting production to "advantaged" country locations like China, India, Brazil, and Mexico. The closure of Cadbury factories in centres such as Dublin, Montreal, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Dunedin in New Zealand generated outcries from the local populations. The plan received approval from several market shareholders including the Australian and New Zealand banks Westpac and ASB Bank.


title: Cadbury

text: In January 2017, Cadbury became the official snack partner of the Premier League, and sponsored the Premier League Golden Boot and Premier League Golden Glove awards.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury has its head office at Cadbury House in the Uxbridge Business Park in Denham, Buckinghamshire, England.


title: Cadbury

text: The company occupies of leased space inside Building 3 of the business park, which it shares with Mondelez's UK division. After acquiring Cadbury, Kraft confirmed that the company would remain at Cadbury House.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury relocated to Uxbridge Business Park from its previous head office at 25 Berkeley Square in Mayfair, City of Westminster in 2007 as a cost-saving measure. In 1992, the company leased the space for £55 per ; by 2002 this had reached £68.75 per square foot.


title: Cadbury

text: Located south of Birmingham in England, the Cadbury plant in Bournville was opened in 1879 by company founder John Cadbury's son George, whose aim was that one-tenth of the Bournville estate should be "laid out and used as parks, recreation grounds and open space." It subsequently became known as "the factory in a garden". Cadbury's dark chocolate bar, Bournville, is named after the model village, and was first sold in 1908.


title: Cadbury

text: Bournville employs almost 1,000 people. In 2014, Mondelez announced a £75 million investment in the site, with Cadbury stating it “reinforces Bournville's position at the heart of the British chocolate industry”.


title: Cadbury

text: Bournville is home to Mondelez's Global Centre of Excellence for Chocolate research and development, so every new chocolate product created by Cadbury starts life at the Birmingham plant.


title: Cadbury

text: The confectionery business in the UK is called Cadbury (formerly Cadbury Trebor Bassett) and, as of August 2004, had eight factories and 3,000 staff in the UK. Mondelez also sells biscuits bearing the Cadbury brand, such as Cadbury Fingers. Mondelez also owns Fry's and Maynards Bassetts (created by merging Bassett's with Maynards).


title: Cadbury

text: Ice cream based on Cadbury products, like 99 Flake, is made under licence by Frederick's Dairies. Cadbury cakes and chocolate spread are manufactured under licence by Premier Foods, but the cakes were originally part of Cadbury Foods Ltd with factories at Blackpole in Worcester and Moreton on the Wirral, with distribution depots throughout the UK.


title: Cadbury

text: Other Kraft subsidiaries in the UK include Cadbury Two LLP, Cadbury UK Holdings Limited, Cadbury US Holdings Limited, Cadbury Four LLP, Cadbury Holdings Limited, and Cadbury One LLP.


title: Cadbury

text: According to the environmental charity Keep Britain Tidy, Cadbury chocolate wrappers along with Walkers crisps packets and Coca-Cola cans were the three top brands that were the most common pieces of rubbish found in UK streets in 2013. In 2014, Cadbury Dairy Milk was ranked the best-selling chocolate bar in the UK. A 2018 YouGov poll saw Cadbury's Chocolate Digestives ranked the second most popular biscuit (cookie) in the UK after McVitie's Chocolate Digestives.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury Ireland Limited is based in Coolock in Dublin, where the headquarters of Cadbury Ireland are located, and Rathmore, County Kerry. Products made by Cadbury in Ireland include Cadbury Dairy Milk Range, Cadbury Twirl, Cadbury Cadbury Snacks Range Flake and Boost (formerly Moro). Cadbury used to produce the Time Out bar in Ireland for the European market however this production was moved to Poland.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury USA produces candy, gum, breath mints and cough drops. It is headquartered in Parsippany, New Jersey. The company was formed after the then Cadbury Schweppes purchased the Adams brand from Pfizer in December 2002 for US$4.2 billion.


title: Cadbury

text: American Chicle was purchased by Warner–Lambert in 1962; Warner-Lambert renamed the unit Adams in 1997 and merged with Pfizer in 2000.


title: Cadbury

text: In 1978, Cadbury merged with Peter Paul, makers of Mounds and Almond Joy. In 1988, The Hershey Company acquired the U.S. rights to its chocolate business. Accordingly, although the Cadbury group's chocolate products have been sold in the U.S. since 1988, they are manufactured by Hershey, causing complaints by consumers, who claim the Hershey-made products are inferior to the originals. Before the May 2008 demerger, the North American business also contained beverage unit Cadbury Schweppes Americas Beverages. In 1982, Cadbury Schweppes purchased the Duffy-Mott Company.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury's products were first imported into Australia as early as 1853 when 3 cases of Cadbury's cocoa and chocolate were advertised for sale in Adelaide. Cadbury's first overseas order in 1881 was made for the Australian market. In 1919, as part of its plans to expand internationally, the company decided to build a factory in Australia. Tasmania was chosen as the location of Cadbury's first factory outside of the United Kingdom, due to its close proximity to the city of Hobart, good source of inexpensive hydro-electricity and plentiful supply of high-quality fresh milk. Cadbury's Claremont was modelled on Bournville, with its own village and sporting facilities.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury's Claremont was once a popular tourist attraction and operated daily tours; however, the factory ceased running full tours mid-2008, citing health and safety reasons.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury's Claremont is the largest chocolate factory in the Southern Hemisphere, producing a company-record of over of chocolate in 2021. Cadbury also operates a milk-processing plant in Cooee, Tasmania and two other factories in Melbourne, Victoria (Ringwood and Scoresby).


title: Cadbury

text: On 27 February 2009, the confectionery and beverages businesses of Cadbury Schweppes in Australia were formally separated and the beverages business began operating as Schweppes Australia Pty Ltd. In April 2009, Schweppes Australia was acquired by Asahi Breweries. In late June 2012, Cadbury introduced Marvellous Creations a new chocolate range with three flavours – Peanut Toffee Cookie, Jelly Crunchie Bits or Jelly Popping Candy Beanies covered in Dairy Milk Chocolate.


title: Cadbury

text: In 2015, the Australian Cadbury factory, located in Hobart, reduced its work force by 80 and in 2017 closed its visitor's centre. In August 2017, Cadbury announced that 50 workers will be shed from its Hobart factory. Within Australia there is debate regarding halal certification. Many of Cadbury's products are halal certified. This certification has generated controversy, especially from One Nation politician Pauline Hanson.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury had also operated a factory in Dunedin in New Zealand's South Island until its closure in March 2018. In 1930, Cadbury partnered with local confectionery businessman Richard Hudson, who owned a chocolate, confectionery, biscuit factory on Castle Street. Hudson's factory was rebranded as Cadbury Hudson and later became known as the Cadbury Confectionery. Cadbury later established a second factory in Auckland in the North Island. In 2003, Cadbury established a tourist attraction on the premises of the Dunedin factory known as Cadbury World, which featured a large chocolate waterfall. In 2007, Cadbury closed down its Auckland factory, leading to the loss of 200 jobs. In 2009, the Cadbury Dunedin factory attracted criticism from consumers and local environmentalists when it replaced cocoa butter with palm oil. In response, the company backtracked but still retained palm oil as a filling in some ingredients. Over the next several years, Cadbury began downsizing its products, including trimming chocolate blocks in 2015.


title: Cadbury

text: On 16 February 2017, it was reported that Cadbury would be closing its factory in Dunedin, New Zealand by March 2018. This is estimated to lead to the loss of 350 jobs. Amanda Banfield, Mondelez's vice-president for Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, clarified that the closure was done due to Mondelez's decision to shift chocolate manufacturing to Cadbury's Australian factories. However, Mondelez has also confirmed that Dunedin's Cadbury World tourist attraction would remain open due to its popularity with tourists.


title: Cadbury

text: Following four weeks of consultations with local Cadbury employees, the Mayor of Dunedin Dave Cull, and local trade union representatives, Banfield confirmed that the closure would go ahead the following year due to the lack of viable options to continue production in New Zealand. She also confirmed that Cadbury would offer a redundancy support package to staff and would also sponsor staff willing to move to Australia to work. Mondelez also confirmed that it was looking for a third-party manufacturer to continue making Cadbury's New Zealand brands Pineapple Lumps, Jaffas, Chocolate Fish and Buzz Bar. In early June 2017, local city councillor Jim O'Malley and a group of volunteers launched a crowdfunding campaign to keep the Dunedin factory running on a portion of the site. They formed a group called Dunedin Manufacturing Holdings (DMH). Despite generating NZ$6 million in funds, DMH abandoned its bid on 22 June due to Mondelez's stringent production and supply requirements and difficulties in acquiring manpower and machinery. Mondelez has also indicated that it is negotiating with two local chocolate companies to ensure the production of iconic local brands such as Pineapple Lumps, Jaffas, Chocolate Fish, Buzz Bars, and Pinky Bars in New Zealand.


title: Cadbury

text: On 17 October 2017, Cadbury announced that it would be shifting all production of its New Zealand brands to Australia after failing to find a local supplier. The termination of New Zealand production took effect in March 2018. Mondelez's New Zealand country head James Kane confirmed the shift on the grounds that the production of Cadbury products would require certain technologies, production processes and skills that local New Zealand manufacturers lacked.


title: Cadbury

text: On 4 May, it was reported that the Dunedin Cadbury World would be closing down after the Ministry of Health purchased the entire former Cadbury factory site to make way for a new public hospital. Mondelez area vice-president Banfield confirmed that Cadbury had sold the former factory site to the Ministry of Health for an undisclosed amount.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury's Canadian head office is located in Toronto. Cadbury Canada produce and import several products that are sold under the Cadbury and Maynards labels, including the following:


title: Cadbury

text: In 1948, Cadbury India began its operations in India by importing chocolates. On 19 July 1948, Cadbury was incorporated in India. It now has manufacturing facilities in Thane, Induri (Pune) and Malanpur (Gwalior), Hyderabad, Bangalore and Baddi (Himachal Pradesh) and sales offices in New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. The corporate head office is in Mumbai. The head office is presently situated at Pedder Road, Mumbai, under the name of "Cadbury House". This monumental structure at Pedder Road has been a landmark for the citizens of Mumbai since its creation. Since 1965 Cadbury has also pioneered the development of cocoa cultivation in India. For over two decades, Cadbury has worked with the Kerala Agricultural University to undertake cocoa research.


title: Cadbury

text: Currently, Cadbury India operates in five categories – Chocolate confectionery, Beverages, Biscuits, Gum and Candy. Its products include Cadbury Dairy Milk, Dairy Milk Silk, Bournville, Temptations, Perk, Eclairs, Bournvita, Celebrations, Gems, Bubbaloo, Cadbury Dairy Milk Shots, Halls, Bilkul, Tang, and Oreo.


title: Cadbury

text: It is the market leader in the chocolate confectionery business with a market share of over 70%. On 21 April 2014, Cadbury India changed its name to Mondelez India Foods Limited. In 2017, Cadbury/Mondelez agreed to pay a $13 million FCPA penalty for making illicit payments to government officials to obtain licences and approvals to build a factory in Baddi.


title: Cadbury

text: As part of Cadburys efforts to innovate and its focus on experiential marketing, Cadbury recently opened "The Purple Room". The room is located at the newly inaugurated Jio World Drive (JWD) Mall in Bandra Kurla Complex, Mumbai, inside the superstore – Freshpik. It is home the world's first customer facing 3D Cadbury chocolate printer and aims to offer a premium chocolate experience. The store offers 28 chocolate designs in 3D, including all alphabets for a personalised and unique experience, available for a limited time.


title: Cadbury

text: In 2003, "Businessworld" in India reported there were ‘Insects found in Cadbury’s chocolates’. In 2021, Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) carried out raids in Haryana and Himachal on Cadbury India Ltd premises. CBI filed FIR against Cadbury for corruption in connection with obtaining Himachal factory licence. CBI said Cadbury allegedly conspired with central excise officials between 2009 and 2011 and availed excise benefits to the tune of Rs 241 crore for its new unit in Himachal Pradesh.


title: Cadbury

text: In 2012, Alf Mizzi & Sons Marketing (Ltd) took over the importation and distribution of Cadbury, as well as several other Mondelez brands. Most of the Cadbury products are imported directly from the UK. The advertising of the brand was taken over by Sloane Ltd., which proved to be highly successful in creating market specific commercials, reaching more of the Maltese population than ever through digital advertising.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury was introduced to South Africa in 1903 by the Cadbury brothers, Richard and George. The brothers appointed a sales agent to sell their products to the locals. The brand's popularity grew such that in 1926, the South African arm of Cadbury was formed and plans were made to construct a local chocolate manufacturing plant.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury broke ground with a chocolate plant in Port Elizabeth in 1930. By 1938, the first locally produced moulded Cadbury Dairy Milk chocolate slabs were produced. The first slabs of chocolate produced were the "Milk, Nut Milk, Milk Fruit, Nut Brazil, Fruit & Nut and Bournville" variety of Cadbury products.


title: Cadbury

text: In the 1950s, the Port Elizabeth factory was expanded to include a new laboratory in order to start producing new products, such as the "Flake" and "Crunchie Bar" (1960s). By the 1970s, the factory was expanded again to add a new Raw Materials Store and crumb silos. These have since become a local landmark. The same factory still produces some of the supply of Cadbury chocolate in South Africa.


title: Cadbury

text: In 2011, Kraft Foods, the company that then owned Cadbury, announced that it would be launching a fair-trade Dairy Milk chocolate bar on the South African market. The product had been available in other countries where Cadbury operated since 2009. The South African operation of Cadbury has a completely Africa-based supply chain, with cocoa beans bought in Ghana and the chocolate bars made in the factory at Port Elizabeth.


title: Cadbury

text: The Cadbury script logo is derived from the signature of William Cadbury, the founder's grandson, in 1921. It was adopted as the worldwide logo in the 1970s. Cadbury famously trademarked the colour purple for chocolates with registrations in 1995 and 2004. However, the validity of these trademarks is the matter of an ongoing legal dispute following objections by Nestlé.


title: Cadbury

text: The brand has used immersive experiential marketing campaigns which include a Double Decker fun bus, Joy Generator machine and pop-up cafes. Cadbury has had famous names on their products, which includes a Paddington Bear branded chocolate bar in 1977, and Spice Girls-branded chocolate (individual chocolate bars, selection boxes, Easter Eggs) at the height of their 1990s success.


title: Cadbury

text: The 2007 "Gorilla" commercial promoting Cadbury Dairy Milk – featuring Phil Collins "In the Air Tonight" – won numerous awards, including Gold at the British Television Advertising Awards in 2008. Four commercials for Cadbury products featured in the top 50 of Channel 4’s 2000 UK poll of the "100 Greatest Adverts". Cadbury Flake, featuring Flake Girl, was ranked 26th, Cadbury Dairy Milk Fruit & Nut, featuring the slogan 'Everyone's a fruit and nutcase' sung by comedian Frank Muir, ranked 36th, Fry's Turkish Delight, with the slogan 'Full of Eastern Promise' accompanied with model Jane Lumb, ranked 37th, and Cadbury Milk Tray (which since 1968 has been advertised by the 'Milk Tray Man', a tough James Bond–style figure who undertakes daunting 'raids' to secretively deliver a box of Milk Tray chocolates to a lady), the "Avalanche" advert where he races ahead of it to deliver the chocolates, ranked 48th.


title: Cadbury

text: Every year Cadbury also launches a Secret Santa campaign which features offline and online advertisements. The brand also tours the UK's major cities encouraging people to anonymously give their loved ones a free chocolate bar. Cadbury has specifically designed booths for the occasion but in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic the campaign was done virtually.


title: Cadbury

text: Major chocolate brands produced by Cadbury include the bars Dairy Milk, Crunchie, Double Decker, Caramel, Wispa, Boost, Picnic, Flake, Curly Wurly, Chomp, and Fudge; chocolate Buttons; the boxed chocolate brand Milk Tray; and the twist-wrapped chocolates Heroes which are most popular around holidays, such as Christmas and Halloween (Cadbury Goo Heads (similar to Creme Eggs) are released for Halloween). Selection boxes (containing a selection of Cadbury bars and sweets) is a staple Christmas gift of chocolate, a tradition that in Britain goes back over a century (as are Cadbury Roses since the late 1930s).


title: Cadbury

text: Creme Eggs are only sold between New Year's Day and Easter. Tony Bilborough from Cadbury told BBC Radio 5 Live: "There's something special about Creme Egg season. We long for it in those long, eggless days of summer and autumn."


title: Cadbury

text: As well as Cadbury's chocolate, the company also owns Maynards and Halls, and is associated with several types of confectionery including former Trebor and Bassett's brands or products such as Liquorice Allsorts, Jelly Babies, Flumps, Mints, Black Jack chews, Trident gum, and Softmints. Global sales of Cadbury products amounted to £491 million in the 52 weeks to 16 August 2014.


title: Cadbury

text: On 20 January 2006, Cadbury Schweppes detected a strain of the "Salmonella" Montevideo (SmvdX07) bacteria, affecting seven of its products. The contamination was caused by a leaking pipe, from which waste water dripped onto a chocolate crumb production line at the company's plant in Marlbrook, Herefordshire. It was not until around six months after the leak was detected that Cadbury Schweppes notified the Food Standards Agency, a delay which Cadbury Schweppes was unable to explain satisfactorily, and for which it was criticised. The Food Standards Agency ordered the company to recall more than a million chocolate bars. In December 2006, the company announced that the cost of dealing with the incident reached £30 million.


title: Cadbury

text: In April 2007, Birmingham City Council announced that it would be prosecuting Cadbury Schweppes in relation to three alleged offences of breaching food safety legislation. At that time, the Health Protection Agency identified 37 people who had been infected with Salmonella Montevideo. One of the alleged victims had to be kept on a hospital isolation ward for five days after eating a Cadbury's caramel bar. An investigation that was carried by Herefordshire Council led to a further six charges being brought. The company pleaded guilty to all nine charges, and was fined one million pounds at Birmingham Crown Court—the sentencing of both cases was brought together. Analysts have said the fine is not material to the group, with mitigating factors limiting the fine being that the company quickly admitted its guilt and said it had been mistaken that the infection did not pose a threat to health.


title: Cadbury

text: On 10 February 2007, Cadbury recalled some of its Easter eggs due to a labelling error. The products were produced in a factory handling nuts, potential allergens, but this was not made clear on the packaging. Cadbury said the products were "perfectly safe" for people without nut allergies to eat.


title: Cadbury

text: On 14 September 2007, Cadbury Schweppes investigated a manufacturing error over allergy warning, recalling for the second time in two years thousands of chocolate bars. A printing mistake at Somerdale Factory resulted in the omission of tree nut allergy labels from 250g Dairy Milk Double Chocolate bars.


title: Cadbury

text: On 29 September 2008, Cadbury withdrew all of its 11 chocolate products made in its three Beijing factories, on suspicion of contamination with melamine. The recall affected the mainland China markets, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Australia. Products recalled included Dark Chocolate, a number of products in the 'Dairy Milk' range and Chocolate Eclairs.


title: Cadbury

text: Cadbury recalled two chocolate products after it was tested positive for traces of pork DNA, namely Cadbury Dairy Milk Hazelnut and Cadbury Dairy Milk Roast Almond. The traces were found during a periodic check for non-halal ingredients in food products by the Ministry of Health in Malaysia which on 24 May 2014 said two of three samples of the company's products may contain pork traces.


title: Cadbury

text: On 2 June 2014, Malaysia's Department of Islamic Development (JAKIM) declared that the sample did not contain pig DNA, as claimed in earlier reports. This statement was made after new tests were conducted.


title: Cadbury

text: JAKIM reportedly said in a statement that it tested 11 samples of Cadbury Dairy Milk Hazelnut, Cadbury Dairy Milk Roast Almond and other products from the company's factory but none of them tested positive for pork. The investigation followed reports that unscheduled checks had shown that two chocolates produced by Mondelez International Inc., the parent company of Cadbury, violated Islamic law and led to a boycott of all its products in the country.


title: Cadbury

text: In 2017, the Church of England condemned the company and the National Trust for rebranding their annual "Easter Egg Trails" as "Cadbury Egg Hunts". Prime Minister Theresa May called the rebranding "absolutely ridiculous"; however, Cadbury dismissed the criticism, with a spokesperson saying, "it is clear to see that within our communications we visibly state the word Easter. It is included a number of times across promotional materials." An ensuing controversy followed in Australia, where Cadbury was accused of removing the word 'Easter' from the packaging of its Easter eggs. Cadbury Australia responded that Easter was mentioned on "the back of pack", and that its eggs were obviously Easter eggs.


title: Cadbury

text: In the run-up to Easter 2019, Cadbury launched a "Treasures" promotion in the UK and Ireland that, as well as listing treasure exhibits in various museums, unintentionally encouraged people to engage in illegal metal-detecting and digging at protected archaeological sites around the British Isles in search of further treasure. This prompted a highly critical reaction from archaeologists.


title: Cadbury

text: In 2022, "Cadbury Exposed: Dispatches" aired on Channel 4 revealed child labour in cocoa farming for Cadbury chocolate. Mondelez International initially refused to comment before releasing a statement after the programme had aired. Mr Barnett claimed Mondelez CEO Dirk Van de Put had "refused to be interviewed" but the company "did not dispute our findings (and were) deeply concerned by the incidents documented by Dispatches and would launch an investigation."


title: Bewitched

text: Bewitched is an American fantasy sitcom television series that originally aired for eight seasons on ABC from September 17, 1964, to March 25, 1972. It is about a witch who marries an ordinary mortal man and vows to lead the life of a typical suburban housewife. The show was popular, finishing as the second-rated show in America during its debut season, staying in the top ten for its first three seasons, and ranking in eleventh place for both seasons four and five. The show continues to be seen throughout the world in syndication and on recorded media.


title: Bewitched

text: "Bewitched" was created by Sol Saks under executive producer Harry Ackerman and starred: Elizabeth Montgomery as Samantha Stephens; Dick York (1964–1969) as Darrin Stephens, her husband (Dick Sargent replaced an ailing York for the final three seasons, 1969–1972); Agnes Moorehead as Endora, Samantha's mother; David White as Larry Tate, Darrin's boss; Irene Vernon (1964–1966) and later Kasey Rogers (1966–1972) as Louise Tate, Larry's wife; Alice Pearce (1964–1966) as Gladys Kravitz; George Tobias (1964–1971) as her husband, Abner Kravitz; and Erin Murphy (1966–1972) as Tabitha Stephens (she shared this role for 18 episodes with her fraternal twin sister, Diane Murphy). In 1966, Sandra Gould took over the part of Gladys Kravitz (1966–1971) when Alice Pearce died. Annual semi-regulars included Maurice Evans as Maurice, Samantha's father; Marion Lorne as Samantha's Aunt Clara (1964–1968); Alice Ghostley as Esmeralda, Samantha's babysitter (1969–1972); Paul Lynde as Samantha's Uncle Arthur (1965–1971); Mabel Albertson as Darrin's mother, Phyllis Stephens (1964–1971); and Robert F. Simon and Roy Roberts alternating the role of Frank Stephens, Darrin's father (1964–1971).


title: Bewitched

text: Hanna-Barbera produced the opening and closing animation credits. In 2002, "Bewitched" was ranked No. 50 on "TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time". In 1997, the same magazine ranked the season 2 episode "Divided He Falls" #48 on their list of the "100 Greatest Episodes of All Time".


title: Bewitched

text: A beautiful witch named Samantha (Elizabeth Montgomery) meets and marries a mortal named Darrin Stephens (originally Dick York, later Dick Sargent). While Samantha complies with Darrin's wishes to become a normal suburban housewife, her magical family disapproves of the mixed marriage and frequently interferes in the couple's lives. Episodes often begin with Darrin becoming the victim of a spell, the effects of which wreak havoc with mortals such as his boss, clients, parents, and neighbors. By the epilogue, however, Darrin and Samantha most often embrace, having overcome the devious elements that failed to separate them. The witches and their male counterparts, warlocks, are very long-lived; while Samantha appears to be a young woman, many episodes suggest she is actually hundreds of years old. To keep their society secret, witches avoid showing their powers in front of mortals other than Darrin. Nevertheless, the effects of their spells—and Samantha's attempts to hide their supernatural origin from mortals—drive the plot of most episodes. Witches and warlocks usually use physical gestures along with their incantations. To perform magic, Samantha often twitches her nose to create a spell. Special visual effects are accompanied by music to highlight such an action.


title: Bewitched

text: The main setting for most episodes is the Stephenses' home at 1164 Morning Glory Circle, in an upper-middle-class suburban neighborhood, either in Westport, Connecticut or Patterson, New York as indicated by conflicting information presented throughout the series. Many scenes also take place at the fictional Madison Avenue advertising agency McMann and Tate, where Darrin works.


title: Bewitched

text: During its run, the series had a number of major cast changes, often because of illness or death of the actors.


title: Bewitched

text: Creator Sol Saks' inspirations for this series were the film "I Married a Witch" (1942), developed from Thorne Smith's unfinished novel "The Passionate Witch", and the John Van Druten Broadway play "Bell, Book and Candle", which was adapted into the 1958 film.


title: Bewitched

text: In "I Married a Witch", Wallace Wooley (Fredric March) is a descendant of people who executed witches at the Salem witch trials. As revenge, a witch (Veronica Lake) prepares a love potion for him. She ends up consuming her own potion and falling for her enemy. Her father is against this union. In the film of "Bell, Book and Candle", modern witch Gillian Holroyd (Kim Novak) uses a love spell on Shep Henderson (James Stewart) to have a simple fling with him but she genuinely falls for the man.


title: Bewitched

text: Both films were properties of Columbia Pictures, which also owned Screen Gems, the company that produced "Bewitched".


title: Bewitched

text: Sol Saks received credit as the creator of the show; he wrote the pilot of "Bewitched" but was not involved with the show after the pilot. Creator Saks, executive producer Harry Ackerman, and director William Asher started rehearsals for the pilot on November 22, 1963; this coincided with the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Asher felt personally affected by the event, as he knew Kennedy; he had produced the 1962 televised birthday party where Marilyn Monroe sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President". The pilot concerned "the occult destabilization of the conformist life of an upwardly mobile advertising man". For that first episode, "I Darrin, Take This Witch, Samantha", Academy Award-winning actor José Ferrer served as the narrator. First season producer and head writer Danny Arnold set the initial style and tone of the series, and he also helped develop supporting characters such as Larry Tate and the Kravitzes. Arnold, who wrote on "McHale's Navy" and other shows, thought of "Bewitched" essentially as a romantic comedy about a mixed marriage; his episodes kept the magic element to a minimum. One or two magical acts drove the plot, but Samantha often solved problems without magic. Many of the first season's episodes were allegorical, using supernatural situations as metaphors for the problems any young couple would face. Arnold stated that the two main themes of the series were the conflict between a powerful woman and a husband who cannot deal with that power, and the anger of a bride's mother at seeing her daughter marry beneath her. Though the show was a hit right from the beginning, finishing its first year as the number 2 show in the United States, ABC wanted more magic and more farcical plots, causing battles between Arnold and the network.


title: Bewitched

text: In its first season, "Bewitched" was American Broadcasting Company's number one show and the best rated sitcom among all three networks, coming second in ratings only to "Bonanza". "Bewitched" aired at 9 pm Thursday evenings. It was preceded on the air by another sitcom, "My Three Sons", and followed by the soap opera "Peyton Place". "My Three Sons" finished 13th in the ratings and "Peyton Place" ninth. The block formed by the three shows was the strongest ratings grabber in ABC's schedule. Arnold left the show after the first season, leaving producing duties to his friend Jerry Davis, who had already produced some of the first season's episodes (though Arnold was still supervising the writing). The second season was produced by Davis, and, with Bernard Slade as head writer, misunderstandings and farce became more prevalent elements, though this season still included a number of more low-key episodes in which the magical element was not strongly emphasized. With the third season and the switch to color, Davis left the show, and was replaced as producer by William Froug. Slade also left after the second season. According to William Froug's autobiography, William Asher (who had directed many episodes) wanted to take over as producer when Jerry Davis left, but the production company was not yet ready to approve the idea. Froug, a former producer of "Gilligan's Island" and the last season of "The Twilight Zone", was brought in as a compromise. By his own admission, Froug was not very familiar with "Bewitched" and found himself in the uncomfortable position of being the official producer even though Asher was making most of the creative decisions. After a year, Froug left the show, and Asher took over as full-time producer of the series for the rest of its run. The first two seasons had aired Thursdays at 9:00, and the time was moved to 8:30 shortly after the third year (1966–1967) had begun. Nevertheless, the ratings for "Bewitched" remained high and it placed among the top fifteen shows through the 1968–69 season. It was the seventh highest-rated show in both the U.S. '65–'66 and '66–'67 schedules. Similarly, it was number 11 the following two years.


title: Bewitched

text: At the time, the show had won three Emmy Awards. William Asher won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series in 1966. Alice Pearce posthumously won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her portrayal of Gladys Kravitz and Marion Lorne won the same award posthumously in 1968 for her portrayal of Aunt Clara. Producers were faced with how to deal with the deaths of both these actresses. When Pearce died in early 1966, Mary Grace Canfield was hired to play Gladys's sister-in-law Harriet Kravitz in four episodes. Comedienne Alice Ghostley was approached to take over the role of Gladys the next season, but turned it down. She and Pearce were good friends so Ghostley decided to decline the role out of respect for Pearce. (from the 2020 online blog "Do You Remember?" article 'Here's What Happened to ‘Bewitched’ Actress Alice Pearce Before and After Playing “Mrs. Kravitz” ' in which Ed Gross interviews "Bewitched" author Herbie J. Pilato talking about Alice Ghostley being approached to replace Alice Pearce) In the fall of 1966, Sandra Gould was hired as Gladys Kravitz. Gould would remain with the show until the spring of 1971. After Marion Lorne's death in the spring of 1968, she was not replaced, and the character of Aunt Clara was not seen after the fourth season. Beginning in the show's sixth year, Alice Ghostley was finally used to play the character of Esmeralda, a kind but shy and inept witch who served as a nanny and nursemaid to Darrin and Samantha's children, Tabitha and Adam. (Ironically, Ghostley had appeared in a similar role as Naomi, an incompetent domestic, hired by Darrin to do housecleaning for a pregnant Samantha in the second-season episode "Maid To Order".) In another notable casting change, Louise Tate, played by Irene Vernon during the first two seasons, was played by Kasey Rogers thereafter.


title: Bewitched

text: The fifth season of "Bewitched" (1968-1969) proved to be a turning point for the series, most notably with the mid-season departure of Dick York and the record eight episodes which were filmed without him afterwards (although aired out of order with previously filmed episodes). York was suffering from recurring back problems, the result of an accident during the filming of "They Came To Cordura" (1959). As a result, many episodes in seasons three and four had York's character of Darrin out of town on business. Towards the end of the season five, York's increased disability, which had caused numerous shooting delays and script rewrites, resulted in his collapsing on the set in January 1969 while filming the episode "Daddy Does His Thing". He was immediately rushed to the hospital and after a long talk with producer-director William Asher, York decided to leave the series. At about the same time, Montgomery and Asher announced that they were expecting another baby and it was decided that Samantha and Darrin would also have another child in the fall of that year. On screen, Samantha tells Darrin over the phone the news of her second pregnancy in the fifth-season episode "Samantha's Good News". That same month, Dick Sargent was cast to play Darrin beginning in the sixth season. It was also during this season that Serena (Samantha's identical cousin, also played by Montgomery) was used more frequently. Filming of scenes involving both Samantha and Serena was accomplished by using Melody McCord, Montgomery's stand-in.


title: Bewitched

text: Beginning with the sixth season's (1969–1970) opening credits, in addition to York being replaced with Sargent, Elizabeth Montgomery was billed above the title, and David White now received billing as well, after Agnes Moorehead's. During this year, the show saw a significant decline in ratings, falling from eleventh to 24th place. In mid-1970, the set of the Stephenses' home was being rebuilt due to a fire. In June, the cast and crew traveled to Salem, Magnolia, and Gloucester, Massachusetts to film an eight-part story arc in which Samantha, Darrin, and Endora travel to Salem for the centennial Witches Convocation. These location shoots marked the only times the show would film away from its Hollywood studio sets and backlot. Season seven premiered with eight so-called 'Salem Saga' episodes. On June 15, 2005, TV Land unveiled a Samantha statue in Salem to mark the show's 40th anniversary. On hand were three surviving actors from the show, Bernard Fox (Dr. Bombay), Erin Murphy (Tabitha), and Kasey Rogers (Louise Tate), as well as producer/director William Asher.


title: Bewitched

text: These on-location episodes helped the show's sagging ratings. However, during that year, scripts from old episodes were recycled frequently. By the end of the 1970–1971 season, the ratings for "Bewitched" had noticeably dropped and the show did not even rank in the list of the top thirty programs. ABC moved "Bewitched"s airtime from Thursdays at 8:30 pm to Wednesdays at 8:00 pm at the beginning of the eighth season. The schedule change did not help ratings as the show was now pitted against CBS's popular "The Carol Burnett Show". Fewer recurring characters were used this season; the Kravitzes, Darrin's parents and Uncle Arthur did not appear at all, and Louise Tate only featured in three episodes. Filming ended in December 1971, and in January 1972 the show was finally moved to Saturday night at 8:00 pm, opposite television's number one show, "All in the Family", where it fared even worse, with "Bewitched" finishing in 72nd place for the year.


title: Bewitched

text: During its first five seasons, "Bewitched" was sponsored by both General Motors’ Chevrolet division and the Quaker Oats Company. As a result, Chevrolet vehicles were often prominently featured on the series, even as a part of the storyline (an example of product placement), and there were many scenes of the Stephenses having breakfast in the kitchen. Sponsors in later seasons included Bristol-Myers, Eastman Kodak and Oscar Mayer.


title: Bewitched

text: The 1959 Columbia Pictures film "Gidget" was filmed on location at a real house in Santa Monica (at 267 18th Street). The blueprint design of this house was later reversed and replicated as a house facade attached to an existing garage on the backlot of Columbia's Ranch. This was the house seen on "Bewitched". The patio and living room sets seen in Columbia's "Gidget Goes to Rome" (1963) were soon adapted for the permanent "Bewitched" set for 1964. The interior of the Stephenses' house can be seen, substantially unaltered, in the Jerry Lewis film "Hook, Line & Sinker" (1969). The set was also used several times in the television series "Gidget" and "I Dream of Jeannie", as well as the television film "Brian's Song" (1971). It was also used, as a setting for an opening tag sequence, for the final episode of the first season of another Screen Gems property, "The Monkees" and in an episode of "The Fantastic Journey". The house served as Doctor Bellows' house on "I Dream of Jeannie", and was seen in an episode of "Home Improvement" when Tim Taylor took "Tool Time" on location to the house of Vinnie's mother to repair a gas leak in the basement furnace (with a second gas leak at the kitchen stove, unbeknownst to Tim). The Stephens house was also featured in a Fruit of the Loom Christmas commercial and it was used as Clark Griswold's boyhood home in his old home movies in "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation". On Marvel Studios' 2021 limited series "WandaVision", which pays homage to "Bewitched" in a number of episodes, the house's exterior serves throughout the series as the home of neighbor Agatha Harkness, while the interior set briefly appears in one episode as the ever-evolving home of the titular characters, Wanda and Vision.


title: Bewitched

text: On the Columbia studio backlot, the Kravitzes' house was actually down the street from the Stephenses' house exterior. Both houses' exterior doors opened to an unfinished entry, as the interiors were shot on studio sound stages elsewhere. A "front porch" set, replicating the porch of the backlot house was created as well. From 1964 through 1966, the Kravitzes' house was the same as used for "The Donna Reed Show". Beginning with season 3 color episodes in 1966, the Kravitz house sets were the same as what would (years later) be featured as "The Partridge Family" house.


title: Bewitched

text: Production and filming for "Bewitched" was based in Los Angeles and, although the setting is assumed to be New York, several episodes feature wide-angle exterior views of the Stephenses' neighborhood showing a California landscape with mountains in the distance. Another example of questionable continuity regarding the location can be seen in Season 6, Episode 6: Darrin's parents drive home after visiting the new baby, passing several large palm trees lining the street.


title: Bewitched

text: Despite the low ratings, "Bewitched" still had a contract for two more seasons on ABC. The network was willing to honor that contract by renewing the sitcom for a ninth season. However, by this time, Montgomery had grown tired of the series and wanted to move on to other roles. Also, she and her husband William Asher had separated and would divorce in 1974. As a consolation, Asher pitched an idea to ABC for a sitcom starring Paul Lynde. The concept was based on the play "Howie", about a lawyer, Paul Simms (played by Lynde), whose daughter marries a slacker named Howard, or "Howie". The Lynde character despises him, as he is not interested in earning money or traditional pursuits. In creating a series for Paul Lynde, Asher decided to resurrect the "Howie" concept for ABC and Screen Gems as a replacement for "Bewitched" the following year. Asher designed "The Paul Lynde Show" to be ABC's counterpart to CBS's "All In the Family"; however, the show lacked the controversial and topical issues brought up by that series, due to ABC's restriction on social realism. This was despite Lynde's rewrite of the show's dialog in an effort to make the series more lively and comedic. When "The Paul Lynde Show" debuted on ABC in the fall of 1972, it inherited "Bewitched"’s time slot during its last season on Wednesday nights opposite the first half of the Top 30 hit "The Carol Burnett Show" on CBS and the Top 20 hit "Adam-12" on NBC. While the first episode of "The Paul Lynde Show" did well in the ratings, strong negative reactions not only to Lynde's character but also the premise of the series led to bad word of mouth and, as the weeks went by, resulted in a collapse in viewership.


title: Bewitched

text: The show bore some similarities to "Bewitched". Some of the sets used for the Simms' house and backyard were repurposed from Samantha and Darrin Stephens's home. The name of Paul's law firm McNish & Simms was very similar to the name of Darrin Stephens's advertising agency McMann & Tate. In addition, many actors regularly seen on "Bewitched" were also used on Lynde's series including Mabel Albertson, Herb Voland, Jack Collins, Richard X. Slattery, and Dick Wilson.


title: Bewitched

text: At the same time, to help fulfill the network's contract with "Bewitched", Asher and Harry Ackerman created another ABC sitcom for the 1972–1973 season titled "Temperatures Rising". The series starred James Whitmore and Cleavon Little. In its first year, the sitcom was not only struggling with its format but with ratings. In mid-season, Asher was replaced as producer by Bruce Johnson and Duke Vincent. Despite its challenges, the series ended its first year with a respectable 29 share and was renewed for the 1973–1974 season. To improve ratings and help Paul Lynde fulfill his contract with the network, ABC wanted to make some changes. When "The New Temperatures Rising Show" debuted in September 1973, Whitmore was replaced by Lynde and the emphasis on black comedy in the show became more prominent. As a result, the ratings for the series fell well below the levels of the previous season.