title: Cryptography

text: In 1996, thirty-nine countries signed the Wassenaar Arrangement, an arms control treaty that deals with the export of arms and "dual-use" technologies such as cryptography. The treaty stipulated that the use of cryptography with short key-lengths (56-bit for symmetric encryption, 512-bit for RSA) would no longer be export-controlled. Cryptography exports from the US became less strictly regulated as a consequence of a major relaxation in 2000; there are no longer very many restrictions on key sizes in US-exported mass-market software. Since this relaxation in US export restrictions, and because most personal computers connected to the Internet include US-sourced web browsers such as Firefox or Internet Explorer, almost every Internet user worldwide has potential access to quality cryptography via their browsers (e.g., via Transport Layer Security). The Mozilla Thunderbird and Microsoft Outlook E-mail client programs similarly can transmit and receive emails via TLS, and can send and receive email encrypted with S/MIME. Many Internet users don't realize that their basic application software contains such extensive cryptosystems. These browsers and email programs are so ubiquitous that even governments whose intent is to regulate civilian use of cryptography generally don't find it practical to do much to control distribution or use of cryptography of this quality, so even when such laws are in force, actual enforcement is often effectively impossible.


title: Cryptography

text: Another contentious issue connected to cryptography in the United States is the influence of the National Security Agency on cipher development and policy. The NSA was involved with the design of DES during its development at IBM and its consideration by the National Bureau of Standards as a possible Federal Standard for cryptography. DES was designed to be resistant to differential cryptanalysis, a powerful and general cryptanalytic technique known to the NSA and IBM, that became publicly known only when it was rediscovered in the late 1980s. According to Steven Levy, IBM discovered differential cryptanalysis, but kept the technique secret at the NSA's request. The technique became publicly known only when Biham and Shamir re-discovered and announced it some years later. The entire affair illustrates the difficulty of determining what resources and knowledge an attacker might actually have.


title: Cryptography

text: Another instance of the NSA's involvement was the 1993 Clipper chip affair, an encryption microchip intended to be part of the Capstone cryptography-control initiative. Clipper was widely criticized by cryptographers for two reasons. The cipher algorithm (called Skipjack) was then classified (declassified in 1998, long after the Clipper initiative lapsed). The classified cipher caused concerns that the NSA had deliberately made the cipher weak in order to assist its intelligence efforts. The whole initiative was also criticized based on its violation of Kerckhoffs's Principle, as the scheme included a special escrow key held by the government for use by law enforcement (i.e. wiretapping).


title: Cryptography

text: Cryptography is central to digital rights management (DRM), a group of techniques for technologically controlling use of copyrighted material, being widely implemented and deployed at the behest of some copyright holders. In 1998, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which criminalized all production, dissemination, and use of certain cryptanalytic techniques and technology (now known or later discovered); specifically, those that could be used to circumvent DRM technological schemes. This had a noticeable impact on the cryptography research community since an argument can be made that any cryptanalytic research violated the DMCA. Similar statutes have since been enacted in several countries and regions, including the implementation in the EU Copyright Directive. Similar restrictions are called for by treaties signed by World Intellectual Property Organization member-states.


title: Cryptography

text: The United States Department of Justice and FBI have not enforced the DMCA as rigorously as had been feared by some, but the law, nonetheless, remains a controversial one. Niels Ferguson, a well-respected cryptography researcher, has publicly stated that he will not release some of his research into an Intel security design for fear of prosecution under the DMCA. Cryptologist Bruce Schneier has argued that the DMCA encourages vendor lock-in, while inhibiting actual measures toward cyber-security. Both Alan Cox (longtime Linux kernel developer) and Edward Felten (and some of his students at Princeton) have encountered problems related to the Act. Dmitry Sklyarov was arrested during a visit to the US from Russia, and jailed for five months pending trial for alleged violations of the DMCA arising from work he had done in Russia, where the work was legal. In 2007, the cryptographic keys responsible for Blu-ray and HD DVD content scrambling were discovered and released onto the Internet. In both cases, the Motion Picture Association of America sent out numerous DMCA takedown notices, and there was a massive Internet backlash triggered by the perceived impact of such notices on fair use and free speech.


title: Cryptography

text: In the United Kingdom, the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act gives UK police the powers to force suspects to decrypt files or hand over passwords that protect encryption keys. Failure to comply is an offense in its own right, punishable on conviction by a two-year jail sentence or up to five years in cases involving national security. Successful prosecutions have occurred under the Act; the first, in 2009, resulted in a term of 13 months' imprisonment. Similar forced disclosure laws in Australia, Finland, France, and India compel individual suspects under investigation to hand over encryption keys or passwords during a criminal investigation.


title: Cryptography

text: In the United States, the federal criminal case of "United States v. Fricosu" addressed whether a search warrant can compel a person to reveal an encryption passphrase or password. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) argued that this is a violation of the protection from self-incrimination given by the Fifth Amendment. In 2012, the court ruled that under the All Writs Act, the defendant was required to produce an unencrypted hard drive for the court.


title: Cryptography

text: The 2016 FBI–Apple encryption dispute concerns the ability of courts in the United States to compel manufacturers' assistance in unlocking cell phones whose contents are cryptographically protected.


title: Cryptography

text: As a potential counter-measure to forced disclosure some cryptographic software supports plausible deniability, where the encrypted data is indistinguishable from unused random data (for example such as that of a drive which has been securely wiped).


title: Kali Yuga

text: Kali Yuga, in Hinduism, is the fourth and worst of the four "yugas" (world ages) in a "Yuga Cycle", preceded by "Dvapara Yuga" and followed by the next cycle's "Krita (Satya) Yuga". It is believed to be the present age, which is full of conflict and sin.


title: Kali Yuga

text: The "Kali" of "Kali Yuga" means "strife", "discord", "quarrel", or "contention" and "Kali Yuga" is associated with the demon Kali (not to be confused with the goddess Kālī).


title: Kali Yuga

text: According to Puranic sources, Krishna's death marked the end of "Dvapara Yuga" and the start of "Kali Yuga", which is dated to 17/18 February 3102 BCE. Lasting for 432,000 years (1,200 divine years), "Kali Yuga" began years ago and has years left as of 2022 CE. "Kali Yuga" will end in the year 428,899 CE.


title: Kali Yuga

text: Yuga (), in this context, means "an age of the world", where its archaic spelling is yug, with other forms of yugam, ', and yuge, derived from yuj (), believed derived from ""' (Proto-Indo-European: 'to join or unite').


title: Kali Yuga

text: Kali Yuga () means "the age of Kali (demon)", "the age of darkness", "the age of vice and misery", or "the age of quarrel and hypocrisy".


title: Kali Yuga

text: A complete description of "Kali Yuga" is found in the "Mahabharata", "Manusmriti", "Vishnu Smriti", and various Puranas. It is used mathematically in the astronomical texts "Aryabhatiya" and "Surya Siddhanta".


title: Kali Yuga

text: According to P. V. Kane, one of the earliest inscriptions with one of the four "yugas" named is the Pikira grant of Pallava Simhavarman (mid-5th centuryCE):


title: Kali Yuga

text: Other epigraphs exist with named "yugas" in the Old Mysore region of India, published in "Epigraphia Carnatica".


title: Kali Yuga

text: According to the "Surya Siddhanta", Kali Yuga began at midnight (00:00) on 18 February 3102 BCE. This is also considered the date on which Krishna left the earth to return to Vaikuntha. This information is placed at the temple of Bhalka, the place of this incident (see photo).


title: Kali Yuga

text: According to the astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata, Kali Yuga started in 3102 BCE. He finished his book "Aryabhattiyam" in 499 CE, in which he gave the exact year of the beginning of Kali Yuga. He writes that he wrote the book in the "year 3600 of the Kali Age" at the age of 23. As it was the 3600th year of the Kali Age when he was 23 years old, and given that Aryabhata was born in 476 CE, the beginning of the Kali Yuga will come to (3600 - (476 + 23) + 1 (One year from 1 BCE to 1 CE)) = 3102 BCE.


title: Kali Yuga

text: According to K. D. Abhyankar, the starting point of Kali Yuga is an extremely rare planetary alignment, which is depicted in the Mohenjo-daro seals. Going by this alignment, the year 3102 BCE is slightly off. The actual date for this alignment is 7 February 3104 BCE. There is also sufficient proof to believe that Vrdhha Garga knew of precessions at least by 500 BCE. Garga had calculated the rate of precession to within 30% of what the modern scholars estimate.


title: Kali Yuga

text: Hindu texts describe four "yugas" (world ages) in a "Yuga Cycle", where, starting in order from the first age of "Krita (Satya) Yuga", each "yuga's" length decreases by one-fourth (25%), giving proportions of 4:3:2:1. Each "yuga" is described as having a main period ( "yuga" proper) preceded by its (dawn) and followed by its (dusk), where each twilight (dawn/dusk) lasts for one-tenth (10%) of its main period. Lengths are given in divine years (years of the gods), each lasting for 360 solar (human) years.


title: Kali Yuga

text: "Kali Yuga", the fourth age in a cycle, lasts for 432,000 years (1,200 divine years), where its main period lasts for 360,000 years (1,000 divine years) and its two twilights each lasts for 36,000 years (100 divine years). The current cycle's "Kali Yuga", the present age, has the following dates based on it starting in 3102BCE:


title: Kali Yuga

text: Hinduism often symbolically represents morality ("dharma") as an Indian bull. In the Satya Yuga, the first stage of development, the bull has four legs, which is reduced by one in each age that follows. By the age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age, so that the bull of Dharma has only one leg.


title: Kali Yuga

text: The Kurukshetra War and the decimation of Kauravas thus happened at the "Yuga-Sandhi", the point of transition from one yuga to another. The scriptures mention Narada as having momentarily intercepted the demon Kali on his way to the Earth when Duryodhana was about to be born in order to make him an embodiment of "arishadvargas" and "adharma" in preparation of the era of decay in values and the consequent havoc.


title: Kali Yuga

text: A discourse by Markandeya in the Mahabharata identifies some of the attributes of people, animals, nature, and weather during the Kali Yuga.


title: Kali Yuga

text: The Brahma Vaivarta Purana (related to Rathantara kalpa) mentions a 10,000-year period, starting from the traditional dating of the Kali Yuga epoch, during which bhakti yogis will be present.


title: Kali Yuga

text: In the "Nehkalanki Avatar" section of Chaubis Avatar, Guru Gobind Singh describes the characteristics of the Kali Yuga before the incarnation of Kalki, the twenty-fourth avatar of Vishnu. The author details various attitudes and actions that he perceives to be "adharmic" becoming increasingly prevalent among humans, including irreligion and engrossment in "kama" (sexual pleasure).


title: Kali Yuga

text: The Kali Yuga is an important concept in both Theosophy and Anthroposophy, and in the writings of Helena Blavatsky, W.Q. Judge, Rudolf Steiner, Savitri Devi, and Traditionalist philosophers such as René Guénon and Julius Evola, among others. Rudolf Steiner believed that the Kali Yuga ended in 1900.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Roy Richard Scheider (; November 10, 1932 – February 10, 2008) was an American actor and amateur boxer. Described by AllMovie as "one of the most unique and distinguished of all Hollywood actors", he gained fame for his leading and supporting roles in celebrated films from the 1970s through to the early to mid-1980s. He was nominated for two Academy Awards, a Golden Globe Award, and a BAFTA Award.


title: Roy Scheider

text: His best-known roles include Chief Martin Brody in "Jaws" (1975) and its sequel "Jaws 2" (1978), NYPD Detective "Cloudy" Russo in "The French Connection" (1971); NYPD Detective "Buddy" in "The Seven-Ups" (1973); Doc Levy in "Marathon Man" (1976); choreographer and film director Joe Gideon in "All That Jazz" (1979); Officer Frank Murphy in "Blue Thunder" (1983); and Dr. Heywood R. Floyd in the 1984 film "2010", the sequel to "". He was also known for playing Captain Nathan Bridger in the science-fiction television series "seaQuest DSV" (1993–1996).


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider was born in Orange, New Jersey, the son of Anna ("née" Crosson) and auto mechanic Roy Bernhard Scheider. Scheider's mother was of Irish descent with an Irish Catholic background, while his father was a Protestant German American. As a child, Scheider was an athlete, participating in organized baseball and boxing competitions, for which he was classed as a welterweight, weighing in at 140 lb (63.5 kg). Scheider competed in the Diamond Gloves Boxing Tournament in Elizabeth, New Jersey. He attended Columbia High School in Maplewood, New Jersey, graduating in 1950, and was inducted into the school's hall of fame in 1985. He traded his boxing gloves for the stage, studying drama at both Rutgers University and Franklin and Marshall College, where he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Between 1946 and 1949, Scheider boxed as an amateur in New Jersey. Scheider said in a television interview in the 1980s that he took up boxing to lose weight. He said he had no desire to fight, but that his trainer, Georgie Ward, encouraged him to compete. In his second bout, at the 1946 Diamond Gloves Tournament (Golden Gloves), Scheider suffered a broken nose and lost by technical knockout in two rounds to Myron Greenberg. He went on to post an 8–1 (six knockouts) record, reversing his defeat by Greenberg in the process.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider served three years in the United States Air Force as a first lieutenant in Air Operations from 1955 to 1958. He then became a reservist captain in the Air Force Reserve Command until 1964.


title: Roy Scheider

text: On television, he played running roles on two CBS soap operas, "Love of Life" and "The Secret Storm", and also played character roles in episodes of "Camera Three", "N.Y.P.D.", and "Coronet Blue". He was in the TV movie "Lamp at Midnight" (1966).


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider appeared with the New York Shakespeare Festival and won an Obie Award in 1968. He had a regular role on the TV series "Hidden Faces" (1968–69).


title: Roy Scheider

text: He appeared in the films "Stiletto" (1969), "Loving" (1970), and "Puzzle of a Downfall Child" (1970), and on television in "Where the Heart Is" and "Cannon".


title: Roy Scheider

text: In 1971, he appeared in two highly popular films, "Klute" (1971), directed by Alan Pakula, and "The French Connection" (1971), directed by William Friedkin. The latter, in which he played a fictionalized version of New York City detective Sonny Grosso, gained him an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Scheider became much in demand. He went to Europe to have key support roles in "The French Conspiracy" (1972) and "The Outside Man" (1972).


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider's first starring role came in "The Seven-Ups" (1973), a quasifollow-up to "The French Connection", in which Scheider's character is once again based on Grosso. He was second-billed in "Sheila Levine Is Dead and Living in New York" (1975).


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider portrayed Chief Martin Brody in the Hollywood blockbuster "Jaws" (1975), which also starred Robert Shaw and Richard Dreyfuss. Scheider's ad-libbed line, "You're gonna need a bigger boat," was voted 35th on the American Film Institute's list of best movie quotes. He appeared as secret agent Doc Levy in "Marathon Man" (1976), with Dustin Hoffman and Laurence Olivier.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider reunited with "French Connection" director William Friedkin in "Sorcerer" (1977), a remake of the 1953 French film "Le Salaire de la peur (The Wages of Fear)".


title: Roy Scheider

text: He was originally cast in "The Deer Hunter", the second movie of a three-movie deal with Universal Studios. Despite being under contract, though, Scheider dropped out two weeks before the start of filming. Universal offered him the option of reprising his role as Martin Brody for a "Jaws" sequel, and would consider his contractual obligations fulfilled if he accepted. Scheider accepted, and "Jaws 2" was released in 1978. It was a huge hit.


title: Roy Scheider

text: In 1979, he received his second Academy Award nomination, this time as Best Actor in "All That Jazz", in which he played a fictionalized version of the film's director and co-writer Bob Fosse. Some of the film's production was portrayed in the FX miniseries "Fosse/Verdon", in which Scheider was played by Lin-Manuel Miranda.


title: Roy Scheider

text: He made a thriller with Meryl Streep for Robert Benton, "Still of the Night" (1982), which was a box-office disappointment. The following year, however, his box office performance improved with "Blue Thunder" (1983), a John Badham film about a prototype attack helicopter that provided security over the city of Los Angeles during the 1984 Summer Olympic Games.


title: Roy Scheider

text: He made two TV movies, "" (1983) and "Tiger Town" (1984). This was followed by a role as Dr. Heywood Floyd in Peter Hyams' "2010", a 1984 sequel to Stanley Kubrick's 1968 science-fiction classic "", in which William Sylvester originated the role of Floyd. He provided narration for "" (1985).


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider was in "The Men's Club" (1986), "52 Pick-Up" (1986) for John Frankenheimer, "Cohen and Tate" (1988), "Listen to Me" (1989), "Night Game" (1989), "The Fourth War" (1990) again for Frankenheimer, "Somebody Has to Shoot the Picture" (1990), and "The Russia House" (1990).


title: Roy Scheider

text: One of his later parts was that of Dr. Benway in the long-in-production 1991 film adaptation of William S. Burroughs' novel "Naked Lunch". Scheider played a mob boss who meets a horrific fate in the Gary Oldman crime film "Romeo Is Bleeding" (1994) and a chief executive of a corrupt insurance company cross-examined by Matt Damon's character in 1997's "John Grisham's The Rainmaker", directed by Francis Ford Coppola.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Among his later films, he appeared as the crusty father of hero Frank Castle in "The Punisher" (2004), and in 2007, starred in "The Poet" and "If I Didn't Care". When Scheider died in February 2008, he had two movies upcoming: "Dark Honeymoon", which had been completed, and the thriller "Iron Cross". In "Iron Cross", Scheider plays the leading role of Joseph, a holocaust survivor with a propensity for justice, which was inspired by director Joshua Newton's late father Bruno Newton. "Iron Cross" was ultimately released in 2011.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider was lead star in the Steven Spielberg-produced television series "seaQuest DSV" as Captain Nathan Bridger. During the second season, Scheider voiced disdain for the direction in which the series was heading. His comments were highly publicized, and the media criticized him for panning his own show. NBC made additional casting and writing changes in the third season, and Scheider decided to leave the show. His contract, however, required that he make several guest appearances that season.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider hosted an episode of "Saturday Night Live" in the 10th (1984–1985) season and appeared on the "Family Guy" episode "Bill & Peter's Bogus Journey", voicing himself as the host of a toilet-training video, portions of which were censored on FOX and syndicated broadcasts.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider provided voiceover on the "Family Guy" episode "Three Kings" (which was recorded in September 2007 but aired in May 2009, a year and three months after his death in February 2008), which also featured his "Jaws" co-star Richard Dreyfuss. Scheider guest-starred in the "" episode "" as serial killer Mark Ford Brady, who is identified at the episode's end as being the biological father Detective Goren (played by Vincent D'Onofrio).


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider narrated and was associate producer of the 2006 "Jaws" documentary "The Shark is Still Working".


title: Roy Scheider

text: In 2007, Scheider received one of two annual Lifetime Achievement Awards at the SunDeis Film Festival in Waltham, Massachusetts.


title: Roy Scheider

text: After Scheider's death, a biography entitled "Roy Scheider: A Life" was released as a tribute, compiling reviews, essays, and narration on his life and career.


title: Roy Scheider

text: Scheider married Cynthia Bebout on November 8, 1962. The couple had one daughter, Maximillia (1963–2006), before divorcing in 1986. On February 11, 1989, he married actress Brenda Siemer, with whom he had a son, Christian Scheider, and adopted a daughter, Molly. They remained married until his death.


title: Roy Scheider

text: In 2004, Scheider was diagnosed with multiple myeloma. In June 2005, he received a bone marrow transplant to treat the cancer. He died on February 10, 2008, in Little Rock, Arkansas, at the University of Arkansas Medical Sciences Hospital.


The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is the regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union of states in South Asia. Its member states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. SAARC comprises 3% of the world's land area, 21% of the world's population and 5.21% (USD 4.47 trillion) of the global economy, as of 2021.


title: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

text: SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985. Its secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal. The organization promotes economic development and regional integration. It launched the South Asian Free Trade Area in 2006. SAARC maintains permanent diplomatic relations at the United Nations as an observer and has developed links with multilateral entities, including the European Union.


text: The idea of co-operation among South Asian Countries was discussed in three conferences: the Asian Relations Conference held in New Delhi in April 1947; the Baguio Conference in the Philippines in May 1950; and the Colombo Powers Conference held in Sri Lanka in April 1954.


text: In the ending years of the 1970s, the seven inner South Asian nations that included Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, agreed upon the creation of a trade block and to provide a platform for the people of South Asia to work together in a spirit of friendship, trust, and understanding. President Ziaur Rahman later addressed official letters to the leaders of the countries of South Asia, presenting his vision for the future of the region and compelling arguments for co-operation. During his visit to India in December 1977, Rahman discussed the issue of regional cooperation with the Indian Prime Minister, Morarji Desai. In the inaugural speech to the Colombo Plan Consultative Committee which met in Kathmandu also in 1977, King Birendra of Nepal gave a call for close regional cooperation among South Asian countries in sharing river waters.


text: After the USSR's intervention in Afghanistan, efforts to establish the union were accelerated in 1979 amid the resulting rapid deterioration of the South Asian security situation. Responding to Rahman and Birendra's convention, officials of the foreign ministries of the seven countries met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981. The Bangladeshi proposal was promptly endorsed by Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Maldives, however India and Pakistan were sceptical initially. The Indian concern was the proposal's reference to the security matters in South Asia and feared that Rahman's proposal for a regional organisation might provide an opportunity for new smaller neighbours to re-internationalize all bilateral issues and to join with each other to form an opposition against India. Pakistan assumed that it might be an Indian strategy to organize the other South Asian countries against Pakistan and ensure a regional market for Indian products, thereby consolidating and further strengthening India's economic dominance in the region.


text: However, after a series of diplomatic consultations headed by Bangladesh between South Asian UN representatives at the UN headquarters in New York, from September 1979 to 1980, it was agreed that Bangladesh would prepare the draft of a working paper for discussion among the foreign secretaries of South Asian countries. The foreign secretaries of the inner seven countries again delegated a Committee of the Whole in Colombo in September 1981, which identified five broad areas for regional cooperation. New areas of co-operation were added in the following years.


text: In 1983, at the international conference held in Dhaka by its Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the foreign ministers of the inner seven countries adopted the Declaration on South Asian Association Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and formally launched the Integrated Programme of Action (IPA) initially in five agreed areas of cooperation, namely, Agriculture; Rural Development; Telecommunications; Meteorology; and Health and Population Activities.


text: Officially, the union was established in Dhaka with Kathmandu being the union's secretariat-general. The first SAARC summit was held in Dhaka on 7–8 December 1985 and hosted by the President of Bangladesh Hussain Ershad. The declaration was signed by, namely, King of Bhutan Jigme Singye Wangchuk; President of Pakistan Zia-ul-Haq; Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi; King of Nepal Birendra Shah; President of Sri Lanka JR Jayewardene; and President of Maldives Maumoon Gayoom.


text: Economic data is sourced from the International Monetary Fund, current as of December 2019, and is given in US dollars.


text: The member states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.


text: SAARC was founded by seven states in 1985. In 2005, Afghanistan began negotiating their accession to SAARC and formally applied for membership in the same year. The issue of Afghanistan joining SAARC generated a great deal of debate in each member state, including concerns about the definition of South Asian identity because Afghanistan is considered a Central Asian country, while it is neither accepted as a Middle Eastern country, nor as a Central Asian country, or as part of the Indian subcontinent, other than being only in part of South Asia.


text: SAARC member states imposed a stipulation for Afghanistan to hold a general election; the non-partisan elections were held in late 2005. Despite initial reluctance and internal debates, Afghanistan joined SAARC as its eighth member state in April 2007.


text: States with observer status include Australia, China, the European Union, Iran, Japan, Mauritius, Myanmar, South Korea, and the United States.


text: On 2 August 2006, the foreign ministers of SAARC countries agreed in principle to grant observer status to three applicants; the US and South Korea (both made requests in April 2006), as well as the European Union (requested in July 2006). On 4 March 2007, Iran requested observer status, followed shortly by Mauritius.


text: Myanmar has expressed interest in upgrading its status from an observer to a full member of SAARC. China has requested joining SAARC. Russia has applied for observer status membership of SAARC. Turkey applied for observer status membership of SAARC in 2012. South Africa has participated in meetings. Indonesia, Jordan, Canada, New Zealand, Ireland, the United Kingdom and Yemen have expressed interest.


text: The SAARC Secretariat was established in Kathmandu on 16 January 1987 and was inaugurated by the late King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah of Nepal.


text: SAARC Member States have created the following Specialized Bodies of SAARC in the Member States which have special mandates and structures different from the Regional Centers. These bodies are managed by their respective Governing Boards composed of representatives from all the Member States, the representative of H.E. Secretary-General of SAARC and the Ministry of Foreign/External Affairs of the Host Government. The heads of these Bodies act as Member Secretary to the Governing Board which reports to the Programming Committee of SAARC.


text: The SAARC Secretariat is supported by following Regional Centres established in the Member States to promote regional co-operation. These Centres are managed by Governing Boards comprising representatives from all the Member States, SAARC Secretary-General and the Ministry of Foreign/External Affairs of the Host Government. The Director of the Centre acts as Member Secretary to the Governing Board which reports to the Programming Committee. After 31 December 2015, there 6 regional centers were stopped by unanimous decision. These are SMRC, SFC, SDC, SCZMC, SIC, SHRDC.


text: The South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Disaster Management Centre (SDMC-IU) has been set up at Gujarat Institute of Disaster Management (GIDM) Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. Eight Member States, i.e., Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are expected to be served by the SDMC (IU). It is entrusted with the responsibility of serving Member States by providing policy advice, technical support on system development, capacity building services and training for holistic management of disaster risk in the SAARC region. The centre also facilitates exchange of information and expertise for effective and efficient management of disaster risk.


text: Lasting peace and prosperity in South Asia has been elusive because of the various ongoing conflicts in the region. Political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings which have refrained from interfering in the internal matters of its member states. During the 12th and 13th SAARC summits, extreme emphasis was laid upon greater cooperation between SAARC members to fight terrorism.


text: The 19th SAARC summit scheduled to be held in Pakistan was called off as India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Afghanistan decided to boycott it due to a terrorist attack on an army camp in Uri. It was for the first time that four countries boycotted a SAARC summit, leading to its cancellation.


text: The SAFTA was envisaged primarily as the first step towards the transition to a South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) leading subsequently towards a Customs Union, Common Market and the Economic Union. In 1995, Sixteenth session of the Council of Ministers (New Delhi, 18–19 December 1995) agreed on the need to strive for the realization of SAFTA and to this end, an Inter-Governmental Expert Group (IGEG) was set up in 1996 to identify the necessary steps for progressing to a free trade area. The Tenth SAARC Summit (Colombo, 29–31 July 1998) decided to set up a Committee of Experts (COE) to draft a comprehensive treaty framework for creating a free trade area within the region, taking into consideration the asymmetries in development within the region and bearing in mind the need to fix realistic and achievable targets.


text: The SAFTA Agreement was signed on 6 January 2004 during Twelfth SAARC Summit held in Islamabad, Pakistan. The Agreement entered into force on 1 January 2006, and the Trade Liberalization Programme commenced from 1 July 2006. Under this agreement, SAARC members will bring their duties down to 20 percent by 2009. Following the Agreement coming into force the SAFTA Ministerial Council (SMC) has been established comprising the Commerce Ministers of the Member States. In 2012 SAARC exports increased substantially to $354.6 billion from $206.7 billion in 2009. Imports too increased from $330 billion to $602 billion over the same period. But the intra-SAARC trade amounts to just a little over 1% of SAARC's GDP. In contrast to SAARC, in ASEAN (which is actually smaller than SAARC in terms of the size of the economy) the intra-bloc trade stands at 10% of its GDP.


text: The SAFTA was envisaged to gradually move towards the South Asian Economic Union, but the current intra-regional trade and investment relation are not encouraging and it may be difficult to achieve this target. SAARC intra-regional trade stands at just five percent on the share of intra-regional trade in overall trade in South Asia. Similarly, foreign direct investment is also dismal. The intra-regional FDI flow stands at around four percent of the total foreign investment.


text: The Asian Development Bank has estimated that inter-regional trade in SAARC region possessed the potential of shooting up agricultural exports by $14 billion per year from existing level of $8 billion to $22 billion. The study by Asian Development Bank states that against the potential average SAARC intra-regional trade of $22 billion per year, the actual trade in South Asia has been only around $8 billion. The uncaptured potential for intra-regional trade is therefore $14 billion per year, i.e., 68%.


text: The SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme was launched in 1992. The leaders at the Fourth Summit (Islamabad, 29–31 December 1988), realizing the importance of people-to-people contact among SAARC countries, decided that certain categories of dignitaries should be entitled to a Special Travel document. The document would exempt them from visas within the region. As directed by the Summit, the Council of Ministers regularly kept under review the list of entitled categories.


text: Currently, the list included 24 categories of entitled persons, which include dignitaries, judges of higher courts, parliamentarians, senior officials, entrepreneurs, journalists, and athletes.


text: The Visa Stickers are issued by the respective Member States to the entitled categories of that particular country. The validity of the Visa Sticker is generally for one year. The implementation is reviewed regularly by the Immigration Authorities of SAARC Member States.


text: The Twelfth (12th) Summit approved the SAARC Award to support individuals and organizations within the region. The main aims of the SAARC Award are:


text: The SAARC Award consists of a gold medal, a letter of citation, and cash prize of $25,000. Since the institution of the SAARC Award in 2004, it has been awarded only once and the Award was posthumously conferred upon the late President Ziaur Rahman of Bangladesh.


text: The SAARC Literary Award is an annual award conferred by the Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature (FOSWAL) since 2001 which is an apex SAARC body. Shamshur Rahman, Mahasweta Devi, Jayanta Mahapatra, Abhi Subedi, Mark Tully, Sitakant Mahapatra, Uday Prakash, Suman Pokhrel and Abhay K are some of the prominent recipients of this award.


text: The SAARC Youth Award is awarded to outstanding individuals from the SAARC region. The award is notable because of the recognition it gives to the Award winner in the SAARC region. The award is based on specific themes which apply to each year. The award recognizes and promotes the commitment and talent of the youth who give back to the world at large through various initiatives such as Inventions, Protection of the Environment and Disaster relief. The recipients who receive this award are ones who have dedicated their lives to their individual causes to improve situations in their own countries as well as paving a path for the SAARC region to follow.


text: The Committee for the SAARC Youth Award selects the best candidate based on his/her merits and their decision is final.


text: Leaders are either heads of state or heads of government, depending on which is constitutionally the chief executive of the nation's government.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Jujutsu Kaisen 0 is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Gege Akutami. The manga, which was originally titled Tokyo Metropolitan Curse Technical School, was serialized in Shueisha's magazine "Jump GIGA" from April to July 2017. After Akutami launched "Jujutsu Kaisen" in 2018, the series was retroactively retitled "Jujutsu Kaisen 0"—making it a prequel—and released in a single "tankōbon" volume in December 2018. It was licensed for English release in North America by Viz Media. The series follows Yuta Okkotsu, a young student who becomes a sorcerer and seeks to control the cursed spirit of his childhood friend Rika Orimoto.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Akutami wrote the series with no themes to follow but wanted to write and draw cool-looking characters. They were often supported by their two editors while writing the manga. The manga was a commercial success in both Japan and North America. Critical response to the manga was generally positive; several reviewers praised Yuta's role and his relationship with Rika. Critics found Yuta more compelling than "Jujutsu Kaisen"s Yuji Itadori who, while having several similarities with Yuta, has different characterizations. The relationships of the main cast were also well-received and the manga's artwork was praised.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: "Jujutsu Kaisen 0" received an anime film adaptation by MAPPA, which was directed by Sunghoo Park and premiered in Japan in December 2021. It was followed by a novelization and a new gag chapter written by Akutami.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Yuta Okkotsu is a timid, 16-year-old, high-school student who is haunted by Rika Orimoto, the cursed spirit of his childhood friend who died six years prior; they had promised to get married when they grew up. Whenever Yuta is bullied, Rika comes to his defense and violently assaults his attackers. In November 2016, Yuta meets Satoru Gojo, a jujutsu sorcerer under whose guidance he joins the Tokyo Prefectural Jujutsu High School to learn how to control Rika. There, Yuta meets the sorcerers Panda, Maki Zenin, and Toge Inumaki, who try exorcising Rika but are easily stopped by her. Yuta starts training with Maki, who mentors him in swordsmanship. During a mission, Maki motivates Yuta to fight if he wants to be accepted, which causes him to briefly control Rika to destroy a cursed spirit.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: As three months pass, Yuta becomes more skilled, and is able to control Rika and develop a closer relationship with his fellow students. In a mission with Toge, Yuta is spotted by Suguru Geto, a powerful enemy sorcerer who was previously friends with Gojo, and wishes to eliminate all non-sorcerers. Launching an attack on jujutsu society, Geto invades the school to take Rika by force. Fearing for Yuta's safety, Gojo sends Panda and Toge to the school, where they and Maki clash with Geto, who severely wounds them. Angered, Yuta releases Rika and promises to give her his soul if she helps him defeat their enemy. In the aftermath, Geto has escaped, but is grievously injured and missing an arm. He is found by Gojo, who thanks him for intentionally sparing the students. Both reflect on their old friendship.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: After the battle, Yuta is surprised to find himself still alive. Gojo explains Rika did not curse Yuta; rather, when Rika died, Yuta accidentally cursed her using hidden energy he inherited from the figure Sugawara no Michizane, forcing her to remain by his side. Rika peacefully passes to the afterlife, asking an apologetic Yuta to live a full life. Yuta continues his work as a sorcerer with his friends, still wearing Rika's engagement's ring.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: In 2017, Gege Akutami suffered writer's block in regards to what he do in his manga, having lost the motivation he had when reading "My Hero Academia" and "Hinomaru Sumo". He presented to a horror-like manga in its prototype storyboard to his editor Yamanaka. Yuta and Rika remained in the same form as in the final product. The concept of the story was creating sorcerers who would be able to stop Yuta and Rika from killing others. Rather than Satoru Gojo, the character meant to recruit Yuta was Maki Zen'in. Yuta's relatives were meant to be included into the story, most notably his sister who would be taken by Rika over jealousy. Although several changes were made until the official version, Akutami believes it should have kept the original concept. Yamanaka was interested by the storyboard and talked to other members from Shueisha about it. However, Akutami was stressed about expectations.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Akutami's first editor claimed the story was interesting but too dark and persuaded him give it a school setting much to his anger. When learning that the manga would be written in the "Jump Giga" over the more famous "Weekly Shōnen Jump", Akutami was saddened by this decision and kept silent rather than argue over it. Akutami was still motivated when remembering that Mikki Yuki became famous in "Jump Giga" for writing "Ginata Shiki". When "Jujutsu Kaisen O" was being written, the editor criticized the handling of Rika, believing a darker figure would be more suitable for the story, such as Oda Nobunaga. Yamanaka was transferred after the first chapter was published. The concept of Rika was that of an ordinary girl who would come across as evil when being remembered. Akutami placed hidden references to other works like Tite Kubo's "Zombiepowder." while the first scene of Yuta being interrogated was influenced by the anime series "Neon Genesis Evangelion". Akutami wanted to avoid a protagonist like himself due to his lack of credits but was still active. The plot was given training scenes and jokes to balance the story. Several parts of the manga were based on real life. The side character Ichiji and Yaga were based on people the author made. On the other hand, the ranking of sorcerers were made to contrast Akutami's high school which did not have such style.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: The third and fourth chapters were given a feeling of "climax" to reference it if there ever was a need to give it a series. While Akutami aimed to have several ideas, he realized by the third chapter that he committed a mistake as a result of relying on several characters. As a result, the story wasw revised into sorcerers being a minority. The original idea behind Rika was that she would become stronger the more time she spends with Yuta. However, this was revised under the advice of Akutami's superiors in order to give the manga a more proper ending. Yuta's unique white uniform was made to reference problematic students but wears a black one in the final pages to fit with his classmates. Nevertheless, Akutami planned that once Yuta would return in "Jujutsu Kaisen", he would once again wear a white uniform in hopes older readers would remember him.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: During publication of the monthly series, Akutami had no intention of having his series published in "Weekly Shōnen Jump". The positive response to "Tokyo Metropolitan Curse Technical School", however, led him to turn the series into the main manga, "Jujutsu Kaisen". When starting this series, Akutami had not planned any themes for the narrative but had the idea of giving the characters a cool appeal. The narrative of "Jujutsu Kaisen 0" became connected with the other manga, with the final chapter being conceived as soon as he started writing it. He said, however, he was not sure about the possibility of properly connecting the beginning with the ending.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Yuta and Rika, the first characters created, were intended as a combination for the manga. Akutami found that the early design of Yuta was so similar to that of fellow jujutsu sorcerer Megumi Fushiguro they might confuse readers. He noted the same similarities between Inumaki and Yuji Itadori. As a result, Akutami changed Yuta's look for the main series. Akutami included a line about Michizane Sugawara, a famous figure in Japanese history who is mentioned as Yuta and Gojo's predecessor, as a tribute to a late editor Yamanaka. When Yuta comforts Maki in the third chapter to the point she cries, the new editor Katayama said he liked it too much because he felt Yuta really understood Maki's feelings. Akutami decided to revise this scene in the storyboard following his editor's praise. He also said Suguro Geto is a strong villain, believing he could have won his fight against Yuta if he had destroyed the supernatural barrier between Shinjuku and Kyoto. Sagawara was added under the advice that the series should feature a real person.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: The four-chapter series "Tokyo Metropolitan Curse Technical School", was published in Shueisha's magazine "Jump GIGA" from April 28 to July 28, 2017. The chapters were later published in a single "tankōbon" volume that was retroactively titled "Jujutsu Kaisen 0" and released along with the third volume of "Jujutsu Kaisen" on December 4, 2018. A nine-page one-shot chapter, following the daily lives of Yuta and the other first-year students, was included in a ""Jujutsu Kaisen #0.5 Tokyo Prefectural Jujutsu High School"" booklet, released in December 2021, to promote the film adaptation of the story. During the month, Shueisha also released an alternative cover featuring Yuta and Yuji to connect it with the first volume of "Jujutsu Kaisen".


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: In North America, Viz Media announced the English language release of the volume in July 2020. The volume was published on January 5, 2021.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Sunghoo Park, who directed the first season of the series' anime adaptation, originally wanted to cover Yuta's story in the first few episodes of the "Jujutsu Kaisen" anime but decided to begin the show with Yuji's introduction to the world of sorcerers and curses. After the finale of the first season of "Jujutsu Kaisen" anime television series, an anime film adaptation of "Jujutsu Kaisen 0" was announced. As with the "Jujutsu Kaisen" television series, the film is produced by MAPPA and directed by Park. The film is distributed by Toho and premiered on December 24, 2021. Park said the movie includes new content that is not in the original "Jujutsu Kaisen 0" manga. Film's scriptwriter Hiroshi Seko commented they wanted to alter the focus on Yuta's growth in the movie due to the difference in length.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: A novel adaptation of " Jujutsu Kaisen 0", which was written by Baraddo Kitaguni and based on a script by Hiroshi Seko, was published on the same day as the film's premiere, December 24, 2021.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: "Jujutsu Kaisen 0" sold 70,774 print copies in its first week. According to Oricon, the manga has sold over 1.6 million copies between November 23, 2020, and May 23, 2021. It had sold over 1.9 million copies by November 2021. The volume was also popular with ICv2, noticing the manga's sudden popularity in Western regions might be connected to its release in January 2021. The book was listed 13th in "The New York Times"' monthly Graphic Books list in January 2022. It once again took the 14th place in May 2022. In the NPD Group, the manga was ranked as the fifth-best-selling manga between late November 2021 and early January 2022.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Critics have commented about the manga's narrative. Since it was released after the earlier volumes, Anime News Network and The Mary Sue said Yuta is often mentioned in "Jujutsu Kaisen", making his introduction in the prequel intriguing. Manga News enjoyed the focus on Yuta's tragic romance and their deep bond in the prequel, and hoped he might return in "Jujutsu Kaisen". The site said the story reached a proper conclusion. Boston Bartand Brigade and Otaquest said Yuta is a more appealing character than Yuji Itadori due to their different curses, which Otaquest said makes Yuji simple, like Ichigo Kurosaki from "Bleach", in contrast to the more compelling Yuta. Bleeding Cool regarded it as a story worth recommending for Valentine's Day. Comic Book Resources enjoyed the handling of Yuta's curse and his relationship with the antagonistic Geto.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: The Mary Sue saw parallels between Yuji and Yuta, both of whom deal with a curse they are trying to get rid of, although Yuta's growth makes him appealing because he stops wanting to die and appreciates his life. According to the reviewer, Yuta's cursing of Rika rather than the reverse felt like a strong twist. The supporting characters Maki, Panda and Inugaki were praised for developing alongside Yuta; Real Sound particularly praised the bond the Jujutsu sorcerers have in general; in one volume, it is shown Maki trains Yuta and befriends in the process, which gives further depth to the main manga. Otaquest lamented the demoted roles of the supporting characters in the finale when they are defeated by Geto but noted the manga helps readers to further understand them. Despite Gojo being identical to his regular persona, critics found the pilot helps to further explore his past as a result of his tragic relationship with Geto, which reveals a major twist in the main series. Geto's link with Yuta through the late Sugawara no Michizane made Real Sound wonder if Akutami had planned to develop such character in the main series because it helps explain why the protagonist and his mentor are so powerful.


title: Jujutsu Kaisen 0

text: Comic Book Resources stated the manga's artwork was well executed to portray the character's emotions and the story's dark elements. Manga News also found the art interesting, especially the character designs, but often noted its strange proportions. The art was favorably compared with the sequel as Akutami's sharp line goes very well. The fight scenes were generally well-regarded by critics, which include the handling of limbs and explosions.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Robinson Crusoe () is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. The first edition credited the work's protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading many readers to believe he was a real person and the book a travelogue of true incidents.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Epistolary, confessional, and didactic in form, the book is presented as an autobiography of the title character (whose birth name is Robinson Kreutznaer) – a castaway who spends 28 years on a remote tropical desert island near the coasts of Venezuela and Trinidad, roughly resembling Tobago, encountering cannibals, captives, and mutineers before being rescued. The story has been thought to be based on the life of Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish castaway who lived for four years on a Pacific island called "Más a Tierra" (now part of Chile) which was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island in 1966.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Despite its simple narrative style, "Robinson Crusoe" was well received in the literary world and is often credited as marking the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. It is generally seen as a contender for the first English novel. Before the end of 1719, the book had already run through four editions, and it has gone on to become one of the most widely published books in history, spawning so many imitations, not only in literature but also in film, television, and radio, that its name is used to define a genre, the Robinsonade. A film based on the same name was released.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Robinson Crusoe (the family name corrupted from the German name "Kreutznaer") sets sail from Kingston upon Hull on a sea voyage in August 1651, against the wishes of his parents, who wanted him to pursue a career in law. After a tumultuous journey where his ship is wrecked in a storm, his desire for the sea remains so strong that he sets out to sea again. This journey, too, ends in disaster, as the ship is taken over by Salé pirates (the Salé Rovers) and Crusoe is enslaved by a Moor. Two years later, he escapes in a boat with a boy named Xury; a captain of a Portuguese ship off the west coast of Africa rescues him. The ship is "en route" to Brazil. Crusoe sells Xury to the captain. With the captain's help, Crusoe procures a plantation in Brazil.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Years later, Crusoe joins an expedition to purchase slaves from Africa but is shipwrecked in a storm about forty miles out to sea on an island off the Venezuelan coast (which he calls the "Island of Despair") near the mouth of the Orinoco river on 30 September 1659. He observes the latitude as 9 degrees and 22 minutes north. He sees penguins and seals on this island. Only he, the captain's dog, and two cats survive the shipwreck. Overcoming his despair, he fetches arms, tools and other supplies from the ship before it breaks apart and sinks. He builds a fenced-in habitat near a cave which he excavates. By making marks in a wooden cross, he creates a calendar. By using tools salvaged from the ship, and some which he makes himself, he hunts, grows barley and rice, dries grapes to make raisins, learns to make pottery and raises goats. He also adopts a small parrot. He reads the Bible and becomes religious, thanking God for his fate in which nothing is missing but human society.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: More years pass and Crusoe discovers cannibals, who occasionally visit the island to kill and eat prisoners. He plans to kill them for committing an abomination, but later realizes he has no right to do so, as the cannibals do not knowingly commit a crime. He dreams of obtaining one or two servants by freeing some prisoners; when a prisoner escapes, Crusoe helps him, naming his new companion "Friday" after the day of the week he appeared. Crusoe teaches Friday English and converts him to Christianity.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: After more cannibals arrive to partake in a feast, Crusoe and Friday kill most of them and save two prisoners. One is Friday's father and the other is a Spaniard, who informs Crusoe about other Spaniards shipwrecked on the mainland. A plan is devised wherein the Spaniard would return to the mainland with Friday's father and bring back the others, build a ship, and sail to a Spanish port.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Before the Spaniards return, an English ship appears; mutineers have commandeered the vessel and intend to maroon their captain on the island. Crusoe and the ship's captain strike a deal in which Crusoe helps the captain and the loyal sailors retake the ship. With their ringleader executed by the captain, the mutineers take up Crusoe's offer to be marooned on the island rather than being returned to England as prisoners to be hanged. Before embarking for England, Crusoe shows the mutineers how he survived on the island and states that there will be more men coming.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Crusoe leaves the island 19 December 1686 and arrives in England on 11 June 1687. He learns that his family believed him dead; as a result, he was left nothing in his father's will. Crusoe departs for Lisbon to reclaim the profits of his estate in Brazil, which has granted him much wealth. In conclusion, he transports his wealth overland to England from Portugal to avoid traveling by sea. Friday accompanies him and, "en route", they endure one last adventure together as they fight off famished wolves while crossing the Pyrenees.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Robinson Crusoe was published in 1719 during the Enlightenment period of the 18th century. In the novel, Crusoe sheds light on different aspects of Christianity and his beliefs. The book can be considered a spiritual autobiography as Crusoe's views on religion change dramatically from the start of his story to the end.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: At the beginning of the book, Crusoe is concerned with sailing away from home, whereupon he meets violent storms at sea. He promises to God that, if he survived that storm, he would be a dutiful Christian man and head home according to his parents' wishes. However, when Crusoe survives the storm, he decides to keep sailing and notes that he could not fulfill the promises he had made during his turmoil.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: After Robinson is shipwrecked on his island, he begins to suffer from extreme isolation. He turns to his animals, such as his parrot, to talk to but misses human contact. He turns to God during his time of turmoil in search of solace and guidance. He retrieves a Bible from a ship that was washed along the shore and begins to memorize verses. In times of trouble, he would open the Bible to a random page and read a verse that he believed God had made him open and read, and that would ease his mind. Therefore, during the time in which Crusoe was shipwrecked, he became very religious and often would turn to God for help.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: When Crusoe meets his servant Friday, he begins to teach him scripture and about Christianity. He tries to teach Friday to the best of his ability about God and what Heaven and Hell are. His purpose is to convert Friday into being a Christian and to his values and beliefs. "During a long time that Friday has now been with me, and that he began to speak to me, and understand me, I was not wanting to lay a foundation of religious knowledge in his mind; particularly I asked him one time who made him?"


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Lynne W. Hinojosa has argued that throughout the novel Crusoe interprets scripture in a way that "[s]cripture never has ramifications beyond his own needs and situations" (651). For Hinojosa, Crusoe places a biblical narrative inside himself unlike earlier interpretations of scripture in which the individual was subsumed by the biblical narrative. For this reason, Hinojosa contends that "Crusoe displays no desire… to carry out the mission of the church or to be reunited with society in order to participate in God's plan for human history" (652).


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: There were many stories of real-life castaways in Defoe's time. Most famously, Defoe's suspected inspiration for "Robinson Crusoe" is thought to be Scottish sailor Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years on the uninhabited island of Más a Tierra (renamed Robinson Crusoe Island in 1966) in the Juan Fernández Islands off the Chilean coast. Selkirk was rescued in 1709 by Woodes Rogers during an English expedition that led to the publication of Selkirk's adventures in both "A Voyage to the South Sea, and Round the World" and "A Cruising Voyage Around the World" in 1712. According to Tim Severin, "Daniel Defoe, a secretive man, neither confirmed nor denied that Selkirk was the model for the hero of his book. Apparently written in six months or less, "Robinson Crusoe" was a publishing phenomenon."


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: According to Andrew Lambert, author of "Crusoe's Island", it is a "false premise" to suppose that Defoe's novel was inspired by the experiences of a single person such as Selkirk, because the story is "a complex compound of all the other buccaneer survival stories." However, "Robinson Crusoe" is far from a copy of Rogers' account: Becky Little argues three events that distinguish the two stories:


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: "The economic and dynamic thrust of the book is completely alien to what the buccaneers are doing," Lambert says. "The buccaneers just want to capture some loot and come home and drink it all, and Crusoe isn’t doing that at all. He's an economic imperialist: He's creating a world of trade and profit."


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Other possible sources for the narrative include Ibn Tufail's "Hayy ibn Yaqdhan", and Spanish sixteenth-century sailor Pedro Serrano. Ibn Tufail's "Hayy ibn Yaqdhan" is a twelfth-century philosophical novel also set on a desert island, and translated from Arabic into Latin and English a number of times in the half-century preceding Defoe's novel.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Pedro Luis Serrano was supposed to be a Spanish sailor who was marooned for seven or eight years on a small desert island after shipwrecking in the 1520s on a small island in the Caribbean off the coast of Nicaragua. He had no access to fresh water and lived off the blood and flesh of sea turtles and birds. He was quite a celebrity when he returned to Europe; before passing away, he recorded the hardships suffered in documents that show the endless anguish and suffering, the product of absolute abandonment to his fate, now held in the General Archive of the Indies, in Seville. There is some doubt of the historicity of the tale; nonetheless it is possible that Defoe heard his story in one of his visits to Spain before becoming a writer.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Yet another source for Defoe's novel may have been the Robert Knox account of his abduction by the King of Ceylon Rajasinha II of Kandy in 1659 in "An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon".


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Severin (2002) unravels a much wider range of potential sources of inspiration, and concludes by identifying castaway surgeon Henry Pitman as the most likely:


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Severin argues that since Pitman appears to have lived in the lodgings above the father's publishing house and that Defoe himself was a mercer in the area at the time, Defoe may have met Pitman in person and learned of his experiences first-hand, or possibly through submission of a draft. Severin also discusses another publicized case of a marooned man named only as Will, of the Miskito people of Central America, who may have led to the depiction of Friday.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Secord (1963) analyses the composition of "Robinson Crusoe" and gives a list of possible sources of the story, rejecting the common theory that the story of Selkirk is Defoe's only source.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: The book was published on 25 April 1719. Before the end of the year, this first volume had run through four editions.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: By the end of the nineteenth century, no book in the history of Western literature had more editions, spin-offs, and translations (even into languages such as Inuktitut, Coptic, and Maltese) than "Robinson Crusoe", with more than 700 such alternative versions, including children's versions with pictures and no text.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Defoe went on to write a lesser-known sequel, "The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe" (1719). It was intended to be the last part of his stories, according to the original title page of the sequel's first edition, but a third book was published (1720) "Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: With his Vision of the Angelick World".


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: The novel has been subject to numerous analyses and interpretations since its publication. In a sense, Crusoe attempts to replicate his society on the island. This is achieved through the use of European technology, agriculture and even a rudimentary political hierarchy. Several times in the novel Crusoe refers to himself as the "king" of the island, whilst the captain describes him as the "governor" to the mutineers. At the very end of the novel the island is referred to as a "colony". The idealized master-servant relationship Defoe depicts between Crusoe and Friday can also be seen in terms of cultural assimilation, with Crusoe representing the "enlightened" European whilst Friday is the "savage" who can only be redeemed from his cultural manners through assimilation into Crusoe's culture. Nonetheless, Defoe used Friday to criticize the Spanish colonization of the Americas.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: According to J.P. Hunter, Robinson is not a hero but an everyman. He begins as a wanderer, aimless on a sea he does not understand, and ends as a pilgrim, crossing a final mountain to enter the promised land. The book tells the story of how Robinson becomes closer to God, not through listening to sermons in a church but through spending time alone amongst nature with only a Bible to read.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Conversely, cultural critic and literary scholar Michael Gurnow views the novel from a Rousseauian perspective: The central character's movement from a primitive state to a more civilized one is interpreted as Crusoe's denial of humanity's state of nature.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: "Robinson Crusoe" is filled with religious aspects. Defoe was a Puritan moralist and normally worked in the guide tradition, writing books on how to be a good Puritan Christian, such as "The New Family Instructor" (1727) and "Religious Courtship" (1722). While "Robinson Crusoe" is far more than a guide, it shares many of the themes and theological and moral points of view.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: "Crusoe" may have been taken from Timothy Cruso, a classmate of Defoe's who had written guide books, including "God the Guide of Youth" (1695), before dying at an early age – just eight years before Defoe wrote "Robinson Crusoe". Cruso would have been remembered by contemporaries and the association with guide books is clear. It has even been speculated that "God the Guide of Youth" inspired "Robinson Crusoe" because of a number of passages in that work that are closely tied to the novel. A leitmotif of the novel is the Christian notion of providence, penitence, and redemption. Crusoe comes to repent of the follies of his youth. Defoe also foregrounds this theme by arranging highly significant events in the novel to occur on Crusoe's birthday. The denouement culminates not only in Crusoe's deliverance from the island, but his spiritual deliverance, his acceptance of Christian doctrine, and in his intuition of his own salvation.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: When confronted with the cannibals, Crusoe wrestles with the problem of cultural relativism. Despite his disgust, he feels unjustified in holding the natives morally responsible for a practice so deeply ingrained in their culture. Nevertheless, he retains his belief in an absolute standard of morality; he regards cannibalism as a "national crime" and forbids Friday from practising it.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: In classical, neoclassical and Austrian economics, Crusoe is regularly used to illustrate the theory of production and choice in the absence of trade, money, and prices. Crusoe must allocate effort between production and leisure and must choose between alternative production possibilities to meet his needs. The arrival of Friday is then used to illustrate the possibility of trade and the gains that result.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: The work has been variously read as an allegory for the development of civilization; as a manifesto of economic individualism; and as an expression of European colonial desires. Significantly, it also shows the importance of repentance and illustrates the strength of Defoe's religious convictions. Critic M.E. Novak supports the connection between the religious and economic themes within "Robinson Crusoe", citing Defoe's religious ideology as the influence for his portrayal of Crusoe's economic ideals, and his support of the individual. Novak cites Ian Watt's extensive research which explores the impact that several Romantic Era novels had against economic individualism, and the reversal of those ideals that takes place within "Robinson Crusoe".


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: In Tess Lewis's review, "The heroes we deserve", of Ian Watt's article, she furthers Watt's argument with a development on Defoe's intention as an author, "to use individualism to signify nonconformity in religion and the admirable qualities of self-reliance". This further supports the belief that Defoe used aspects of spiritual autobiography to introduce the benefits of individualism to a not entirely convinced religious community. J. Paul Hunter has written extensively on the subject of "Robinson Crusoe" as apparent spiritual autobiography, tracing the influence of Defoe's Puritan ideology through Crusoe's narrative, and his acknowledgement of human imperfection in pursuit of meaningful spiritual engagements – the cycle of "repentance [and] deliverance."


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: This spiritual pattern and its episodic nature, as well as the re-discovery of earlier female novelists, have kept "Robinson Crusoe" from being classified as a novel, let alone the first novel written in English – despite the blurbs on some book covers. Early critics, such as Robert Louis Stevenson, admired it, saying that the footprint scene in "Crusoe" was one of the four greatest in English literature and most unforgettable; more prosaically, Wesley Vernon has seen the origins of forensic podiatry in this episode. It has inspired a new genre, the "Robinsonade", as works such as Johann David Wyss' "The Swiss Family Robinson" (1812) adapt its premise and has provoked modern postcolonial responses, including J. M. Coetzee's "Foe" (1986) and Michel Tournier's "Vendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique" (in English, "Friday, or, The Other Island") (1967). Two sequels followed: Defoe's "The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe" (1719) and his "Serious reflections during the life and surprising adventures of Robinson Crusoe: with his Vision of the angelick world" (1720). Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver's Travels" (1726) is in part a parody of Defoe's adventure novel.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: The book proved to be so popular that the names of the two main protagonists, Crusoe and Friday, have entered the language. During World War II, people who decided to stay and hide in the ruins of the German-occupied city of Warsaw for a period of three winter months, from October to January 1945, when they were rescued by the Red Army, were later called Robinson Crusoes of Warsaw ("Robinsonowie warszawscy"). Robinson Crusoe usually referred to his servant as "my man Friday", from which the term "Man Friday" (or "Girl Friday") originated.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: "Robinson Crusoe" marked the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. Its success led to many imitators, and castaway novels, written by Ambrose Evans, Penelope Aubin, and others, became quite popular in Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Most of these have fallen into obscurity, but some became established, including "The Swiss Family Robinson", which borrowed Crusoe's first name for its title.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver's Travels", published seven years after "Robinson Crusoe", may be read as a systematic rebuttal of Defoe's optimistic account of human capability. In "The Unthinkable Swift: The Spontaneous Philosophy of a Church of England Man", Warren Montag argues that Swift was concerned about refuting the notion that the individual precedes society, as Defoe's novel seems to suggest. In "Treasure Island", author Robert Louis Stevenson parodies Crusoe with the character of Ben Gunn, a friendly castaway who was marooned for many years, has a wild appearance, dresses entirely in goat skin, and constantly talks about providence.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's treatise on education, "Emile, or on Education", the one book the protagonist is allowed to read before the age of twelve is "Robinson Crusoe". Rousseau wants Emile to identify himself as Crusoe so he can rely upon himself for all of his needs. In Rousseau's view, Emile needs to imitate Crusoe's experience, allowing necessity to determine what is to be learned and accomplished. This is one of the main themes of Rousseau's educational model.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: In "The Tale of Little Pig Robinson", Beatrix Potter directs the reader to "Robinson Crusoe" for a detailed description of the island (the land of the Bong tree) to which her eponymous hero moves. In Wilkie Collins' most popular novel, "The Moonstone", one of the chief characters and narrators, Gabriel Betteredge, has faith in all that Robinson Crusoe says and uses the book for a sort of divination. He considers "The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe" the finest book ever written, reads it over and over again, and considers a man but poorly read if he had happened not to read the book.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: French novelist Michel Tournier published "Friday, or, The Other Island" (French "Vendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique") in 1967. His novel explores themes including civilization versus nature, the psychology of solitude, as well as death and sexuality in a retelling of Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" story. Tournier's Robinson chooses to remain on the island, rejecting civilization when offered the chance to escape 28 years after being shipwrecked. Likewise, in 1963, J. M. G. Le Clézio, winner of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Literature, published the novel "Le Proces-Verbal". The book's epigraph is a quote from "Robinson Crusoe", and like Crusoe, the novel's protagonist Adam Pollo suffers long periods of loneliness.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: "Crusoe in England", a 183 line poem by Elizabeth Bishop, imagines Crusoe near the end of his life, recalling his time of exile with a mixture of bemusement and regret.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: J. M. Coetzee's 1986 novel "Foe" recounts the tale of Robinson Crusoe from the perspective of a woman named Susan Barton.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Other stories inspired by "Robinson Crusoe" include William Golding's "Lord Of The Flies" (1954), J. G. Ballard's "Concrete Island" (1974), and Andy Weir's "The Martian" (2011).


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: The story was also illustrated and published in comic book form by "Classics Illustrated" in 1943 and 1957. The much improved 1957 version was inked / penciled by Sam Citron, who is most well known for his contributions to the earlier issues of "Superman". British illustrator Reginald Ben Davis drew a female version of the story titled "Jill Crusoe, Castaway" (1950–1959).


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: A pantomime version of "Robinson Crusoe" was staged at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1796, with Joseph Grimaldi as Pierrot in the harlequinade. The piece was produced again in 1798, this time starring Grimaldi as Clown. In 1815, Grimaldi played Friday in another version of "Robinson Crusoe".


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Jacques Offenbach wrote an opéra comique called "Robinson Crusoé", which was first performed at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 23 November 1867. This was based on the British pantomime version rather than the novel itself. The libretto was by Eugène Cormon and Hector-Jonathan Crémieux.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: There have been a number of other stage adaptations, including those by Isaac Pocock, Jim Helsinger and Steve Shaw and a musical by Victor Prince.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: There is a 1927 silent film titled "Robinson Crusoe". The Soviet 3D film "Robinson Crusoe" was produced in 1947.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: One of the first adaptations still available dates from 1932 titled Mr. Robinson Crusoe. This film was produced by Douglas Fairbanks Sr and directed by Eddie Sutherland. Set in Tahiti, the film depicts Defoe trying to survive on a desert island for almost a year. This film was not very successful.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Luis Buñuel directed "Adventures of Robinson Crusoe" starring Dan O'Herlihy, released in 1954. Luis Buñuel filmed an account which at first viewing appeared to be a rather simple straightforward telling of Robinson Crusoe. A big stand out with this film is that Buñuel breaks the previous films’ traditions of having Friday as a slave and Crusoe as the master. The two manage to become actually friends and they operate essentially as equals.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Walt Disney later comedicized the novel with "Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N.", featuring Dick Van Dyke. In this version, Friday became a beautiful woman, but named 'Wednesday' instead.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Variations on the theme include the 1954 "Miss Robin Crusoe", with a female castaway, played by Amanda Blake, and a female Friday, and in 1965 we get the film adaptation Robinson Crusoe on Mars, starring Paul Mantee, with an alien Friday portrayed by Victor Lundin and an added character played by Adam West. Byron Haskins manages to underscore Crusoe's removal and field of the red planet that we call mars. Our main character meets a Friday-esque character but makes no effort to try and understand his language. Like the book, in this film, Friday is trying to escape from cruel masters. This movie has lots of appeal to fans of adventures stories and the film has a distinctive visual style that adds to its character.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Peter O'Toole and Richard Roundtree co-starred in a 1975 film "Man Friday" which sardonically portrayed Crusoe as incapable of seeing his dark-skinned companion as anything but an inferior creature, while Friday is more enlightened and sympathetic. In 1988, Aidan Quinn portrayed Robinson Crusoe in the film "Crusoe". A 1997 movie entitled "Robinson Crusoe" starred Pierce Brosnan and received limited commercial success. The 2000 film "Cast Away", with Tom Hanks as a FedEx employee stranded on an island for many years, also borrows much from the Robinson Crusoe story.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: In 1981, Czechoslovakian director and animator Stanislav Látal made a version of the story under the name "Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, a Sailor from York" combining traditional and stop-motion animation. The movie was coproduced by regional West Germany broadcaster Südwestfunk Baden-Baden.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: In 1988, an animated cartoon for children called "Classic Adventure Stories Robinson Crusoe" was released. Crusoe's early sea travels are simplified, as his ship outruns the Salé Rovers pirates but then gets wrecked in a storm.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: In 1964, a French film production crew made a 13 part serial of The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. It starred Robert Hoffmann. The black and white series was dubbed into English and German. In the UK, the BBC broadcast it on numerous occasions between 1965 and 1977.


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: Two 2000s reality television series, "Expedition Robinson" and "Survivor", have their contestants try to survive on an isolated location, usually an island. The concept is influenced by "Robinson Crusoe".


title: Robinson Crusoe

text: The term inverted Crusoeism is coined by J. G. Ballard. The paradigm of Robinson Crusoe has been a recurring topic in Ballard's work. Whereas the original Robinson Crusoe became a castaway against his own will, Ballard's protagonists often choose to maroon themselves; hence inverted Crusoeism (e.g., Concrete Island). The concept provides a reason as to why people would deliberately maroon themselves on a remote island; in Ballard's work, becoming a castaway is as much a healing and empowering process as an entrapping one, enabling people to discover a more meaningful and vital existence.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: West Side Story is a 1961 American musical romantic drama film directed by Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins. With a screenplay by Ernest Lehman, the film is an adaptation of the 1957 Broadway musical of the same title, which in turn was inspired by Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet". It stars Natalie Wood, Richard Beymer, Russ Tamblyn, Rita Moreno, and George Chakiris, and was photographed by Daniel L. Fapp in Super Panavision 70. The music was composed by Leonard Bernstein, with lyrics by Stephen Sondheim.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Released on October 18, 1961, through United Artists, the film received praise from critics and viewers, and became the highest-grossing film of 1961. It was nominated for 11 Academy Awards and won 10, including Best Picture (in addition to a special award for Robbins), becoming the record holder for the most wins for a musical. "West Side Story" is regarded as one of the greatest musical films of all time. The film has been deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1997. A second film adaptation of the same name by Steven Spielberg was released in December 2021.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: In New York City in 1957, two teenage gangs compete for control on the Upper West Side. The Jets, a group of whites led by Riff, brawl with the Sharks, Puerto Ricans led by Bernardo. Lieutenant Schrank and Officer Krupke arrive and break it up. The Jets challenge the Sharks to a rumble to be held after an upcoming dance.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Riff wants his best friend Tony, a co-founder and former member of the Jets, to fight at the rumble. Riff invites Tony to the dance, but Tony says he senses something important is coming. Riff suggests it could happen at the dance. Tony finally agrees to go. Meanwhile, Bernardo's younger sister, Maria, tells her best friend and Bernardo's girlfriend, Anita, how excited she is about the dance. At the dance, the two gangs and their girls refuse to intermingle. Tony arrives; he and Maria fall in love instantly, but Bernardo angrily demands that Tony stay away from her. Riff proposes a midnight meeting with Bernardo at Doc's drug store to settle the rules for the rumble.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Maria is sent home; Anita argues that Bernardo is overprotective of Maria, and they compare the advantages of Puerto Rico and the mainland United States. Tony sneaks onto Maria's fire escape where they reaffirm their love. Krupke, who suspects the Jets are planning something, warns them not to cause trouble. The Sharks arrive, and the gangs agree to a showdown the following evening under the highway, with a one-on-one fistfight. When Schrank arrives, the gangs feign friendship. Schrank orders the Sharks out and fails to discover information about the fight.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: The next day at the bridal shop where they work, Anita accidentally tells Maria about the rumble. Tony arrives to see Maria. Anita, shocked, warns them about the consequences if Bernardo learns of their relationship. Maria makes Tony promise to prevent the rumble. Tony and Maria fantasize about their wedding.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: The gangs approach the area under the highway. Tony arrives to stop the fight, but Bernardo antagonizes him. Unwilling to watch Tony be humiliated, Riff initiates a knife fight. Tony intervenes, leading to Bernardo stabbing and killing Riff. Tony kills Bernardo with Riff's knife, and a melee ensues. Police sirens blare, and everyone flees, leaving behind the dead bodies. Maria waits for Tony on the roof of her apartment building; her fiancé Chino (an arranged engagement) arrives and tells her what happened. Tony arrives and asks for Maria's forgiveness. He plans to turn himself in to the police. Maria is devastated but confirms her love for Tony and asks him to stay.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: The Jets and their new leader, Ice, reassemble outside a garage and focus on reacting to the police. Anybodys arrives and warns them that Chino is after Tony with a gun. Ice sends the Jets to warn Tony. A grieving Anita enters the apartment while Tony and Maria are in the bedroom. The lovers arrange to meet at Doc's, where they will pick up getaway money to elope. Anita spots Tony leaving through the window and chides Maria for the relationship with Bernardo's killer, but Maria convinces her to help them elope. Schrank arrives and questions Maria about the rumble. Maria sends Anita to tell Tony that Maria is detained from meeting him.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: When Anita reaches Doc's, the Jets harass and even try to rape her, when Doc appears and intervenes. Anita angrily lies, saying that Chino has killed Maria. Doc banishes the Jets, gives Tony his getaway money and delivers Anita's message. Tony, distraught, runs into the streets, shouting for Chino to kill him, too. In the playground next to Doc's, Tony spots Maria and they run toward each other, only for Chino to shoot Tony. The gangs arrive to find Maria holding Tony, who dies in her arms. Maria stops the gangs from fighting, takes the gun from Chino and threatens to shoot everyone, blaming their hate for the deaths. Schrank and Krupke arrive to arrest Chino, and the gangs unite to carry Tony’s body away in a funeral procession with Maria following, the feud finally over.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Executive producer Walter Mirisch enlisted the services of Jerome Robbins, who had directed and choreographed the stage version of "West Side Story". Because Robbins had no prior film experience, Mirisch hired Robert Wise to co-direct and produce because of his "experience in gritty subject matter" and his ability to complete motion pictures under budget and ahead of schedule. Robbins was to direct the musical sequences, while Wise would handle the story's dramatic elements. Robbins directed his portion of the film first, spending a great deal of time on retakes, on-set rehearsals and discussing setups with Wise. Assistant director Robert Relyea recalled an unusual number of injuries endured by the dancers. After 45 days of shooting, the picture was 24 days behind schedule. With the film already also over budget, the producers dismissed Robbins. The remaining dance numbers were directed with the help of Robbins's assistants. Recognizing Robbins's considerable creative contribution to the film, Wise agreed that Robbins should be given co-directing credit. Robbins and Wise also kept in contact and discussed the production, with Wise taking on board many of Robbins's suggestions about the editing of the film. The titles and end credits sequences were designed by Saul Bass with Elaine Makatura Bass. Bass was also credited as visual consultant for creating the opening sequence over the film's overture.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: On location shooting for the "Prologue" and "Jet Song" occurred at two different Manhattan, New York locations. A playground located at East 110th Street, now Tito Puente Way, between 2nd and 3rd Avenues, served as the backdrop for introducing the two gangs. West 68th Street between West End and Amsterdam Avenues, three blocks north of the San Juan Hill community, provided additional realism for where the gangs roamed. The sound stages at the Samuel Goldwyn Studio, located in West Hollywood, California, were used for rehearsals and studio shooting.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Although Robbins pushed for 29-year-old Carol Lawrence, the first Maria, to be cast in the same role in the film, after seeing her screen test the producers agreed she was too old to play the part. A number of other cast members from the Broadway and West End productions were cast in the film. Tony Mordente, who played A-Rab on stage, was cast as Action in the film, and George Chakiris, Riff in the London stage production, played Bernardo in the film. Tucker Smith, who joined the Broadway production several months into its run, played Diesel, renamed Ice for the film. David Winters, the first stage Baby John, played A-Rab, Eliot Feld, an ensemble member and understudy for Baby John on Broadway, played Baby John. Jay Norman, Juano on stage, appeared as Pepe. Reprising their stage roles in the film were Carole D'Andrea as Velma, Tommy Abbott as Gee-Tar, and William Bramley as Officer Krupke.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Elvis Presley was approached for Tony, but his manager Colonel Tom Parker turned down the part. Others who were considered for the part included Russ Tamblyn, Warren Beatty, Burt Reynolds, Anthony Perkins, Bobby Darin, Troy Donahue, Marlon Brando, Richard Chamberlain, and Robert Redford. Reynolds was considered "too tough" for the part. Chamberlain was believed to be "too mature" for the role. Tamblyn impressed producer Robert Wise, and was given the supporting role of Riff. Ultimately, Richard Beymer won the part of Tony.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Natalie Wood was filming "Splendor in the Grass" with Warren Beatty and was involved with him romantically off-screen. The producers were not considering her for the role of Maria at that time. When considering Beatty for the role of Tony, Robert Wise requested a reel of his work. However, after seeing a clip from "Splendor in the Grass", the producers decided his co-star Wood was perfect for Maria, but Beatty was not suitable for the role of Tony. Jill St. John, Audrey Hepburn, Diane Baker, Elizabeth Ashley, Suzanne Pleshette and Angela Dorian were among the many actresses who were considered for the role of Maria in the film.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Thomas Stanford won the Academy Award for Best Film Editing for his work on "West Side Story". The film was listed as the 38th best-edited film of all time in a 2012 survey of members of the Motion Picture Editors Guild. The dance sequences in particular have been noted by critics. In Louis Giannetti's textbook "Understanding Movies", he writes: "Musicals are often edited in a radically formalist style, without having to observe the cutting conventions of ordinary dramatic movies. The editing of "West Side Story" is very abstract. The music ... and the dance numbers ... are edited together for maximum aesthetic impact, rather than to forward the story. Nor are the shots linked by some principle of thematic association. Rather, the shots are juxtaposed primarily for their lyrical and kinetic beauty, somewhat like a music video". In his retrospective review, Roger Ebert also singled out the dances as extraordinary. Robbins participated in the editing of the musical numbers along with Stanford, Robert Wise, and Walter Mirisch. His notes to Stanford stress that the editing should reveal the characters' emotions even if that compromised the dancing. The quote from Giannetti above indicates that the notes didn't strongly affect the final cuts of the dance numbers.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: "West Side Story" is regarded as one of the greatest musical films ever made. It holds a 92% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 115 reviews, with an average rating of 8.4/10; the site's critical consensus states: "Buoyed by Robert Wise's dazzling direction, Leonard Bernstein's score, and Stephen Sondheim's lyrics, "West Side Story" remains perhaps the most iconic of all the Shakespeare adaptations to visit the big screen".


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote that "moving [the story] from stage to screen is to reconstruct its fine material into nothing short of a cinema masterpiece". Whitney Williams of "Variety" was also effusive, writing: "Technically, it is superb; use of color is dazzling, camera work often is thrilling, editing fast with dramatic punch, production design catches mood as well as action itself". "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "a magnificent show, a milestone in movie musicals, a box-office smash. It is so good that superlatives are superfluous. Let it be noted that the film musical, the one dramatic form that is purely American and purely Hollywood, has never been done better". By contrast, Pauline Kael derided the film as "frenzied hokum", decrying that the dialogue was "painfully old-fashioned and mawkish" and the dancing was a "simpering, sickly romantic ballet".


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Writing in 2004, Roger Ebert included the film in his list of "Great Movies": "So the dancing is remarkable, and several of the songs have proven themselves by becoming standards, and there are moments of startling power and truth. "West Side Story" remains a landmark of musical history. But if the drama had been as edgy as the choreography, if the lead performances had matched Moreno's fierce concentration, if the gangs had been more dangerous and less like bad-boy Archies and Jugheads, if the ending had delivered on the pathos and tragedy of the original, there's no telling what might have resulted".


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: "West Side Story" was a commercial success upon its release. It became the highest-grossing film of 1961, earning rentals of $19,645,000 in the United States and Canada. It remained the highest-grossing musical film of all-time until the release of "The Sound of Music" in 1965. The film grossed $44.1 million worldwide ($ million in ). Because of profit participation, United Artists earned a profit of only $2.5 million on the film ($ million in ).


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: "West Side Story" won 10 Academy Awards, making it the musical film with the most Oscar wins (including Best Picture). It was the first film to share the Academy Award for Best Director between two people, with Robert Wise winning in the Best Picture and Best Director categories.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: The film's cast appeared and was honored at the 50th anniversary of "West Side Story" at the 2011 Ventura Film Festival.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Leonard Bernstein was displeased with the orchestration for the movie, which was the work of Sid Ramin and Irwin Kostal, who had orchestrated the original Broadway production. That show had been orchestrated for roughly 30 musicians; for the movie, United Artists allowed them triple that, including six saxophone parts, eight trumpets, five pianos and five xylophones. Bernstein found it "overbearing and lacking in texture and subtlety".


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Stephen Sondheim, who did not like the sequence of the songs in the Broadway version, had the song "Gee, Officer Krupke" being sung before the rumble in place of the song "Cool" which is sung instead "after" the rumble; the song "I Feel Pretty" is also sung before the rumble instead of after. In addition, the song "America" was sung in-between the two love songs "Maria" and "Tonight", instead of having the two love songs being sung consecutively. Though mentioned in earlier scripts, the "Somewhere" dream ballet was not well defined for the film and was put on the back burner for Robbins to conceive and execute towards the end of shooting. With Robbins relieved of his duties midway in the production, the dance sequence was eliminated. "Somewhere" was left to be sung by Tony and Maria in her bedroom. Reprises of the lyrics were omitted as well, especially in the songs "One Hand, One Heart" and "A Boy Like That". Some lyrics were changed in order to avoid censorship, especially in the songs "Jet Song", "Gee, Officer Krupke", "America" and the "Tonight Quintet". Even the phrase "Womb to Tomb, Sperm to Worm" between Riff and Tony had to be replaced with "Womb to Tomb, Birth to Earth" between Riff and Tony near the beginning of the film and "One-Two-Three, One-Two-Three" between Riff and Diesel in the Quintet.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: As provided in her contract, Wood prerecorded her songs and allowed the production team to decide whether to use her voice. She found the songs challenging, but was allowed to film her scenes lip-synching to her own vocals and was led to believe that these versions would be used, although music supervisors Saul Chaplin and Johnny Green had already decided to use Marni Nixon's voice. Wood's singing voice is only heard during the reprise of the song "Somewhere" when Tony dies. Though Nixon had recorded the songs in the same orchestra sessions as Wood, she had to re-record them to synch with Wood's filmed performances. Even the one song for which Wood had lip-synched to Nixon's voice, "One Hand, One Heart", had to be recorded again because Wood's lip-synching was unsatisfactory. When Marni Nixon learned that she had not signed a contract for participating in the recording and demanded a percentage of the LP record, she was told that all percentages had been allocated. Bernstein gave her 0.25% of his album royalties. This set a precedent for all future "ghost singers".


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: Beymer's vocals were performed by Jimmy Bryant. Tucker Smith, who played Ice, dubbed the singing voice of Riff in "Jet Song", instead of Russ Tamblyn. Tamblyn's own voice was used in "Gee, Officer Krupke" and the "Quintet". Rita Moreno was dubbed by Betty Wand in the song "A Boy Like That" because the song needed to be performed at a register that was too low for her. However, Moreno sang her own vocals in "America". Marni Nixon sang some of Moreno's parts in the "Quintet" when illness prevented Moreno from doing so. Wand was also ill on the day of final recording, and so Nixon recorded Anita's vocal line as well.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: For the 50th anniversary of the film's 1961 release, a score closer to the Broadway version was created by Garth Edwin Sunderland of the Leonard Bernstein Office to be performed live at screenings of the movie with the score removed, but with the original vocals maintained. The score's New York City premiere was presented at Lincoln Center's David Geffen Hall, called Avery Fisher Hall at the time, built atop the original film locations, which were razed in a late 1950s urban renewal project.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: In 2009, photographer Mark Seliger re-created scenes from the film for magazine "Vanity Fair" called "West Side Story Revisited", using Camilla Belle as Maria, Ben Barnes as Tony, Jennifer Lopez as Anita, Rodrigo Santoro as Bernardo and Chris Evans as Riff. Portraying the Sharks are Minka Kelly, Jay Hernandez, Natalie Martinez, Brandon T. Jackson and Melonie Diaz. Portraying the Jets are Ashley Tisdale, Sean Faris, Robert Pattinson, Cam Gigandet, Trilby Glover, Brittany Snow and Drake Bell.


title: West Side Story (1961 film)

text: "West Side Story" influenced Michael Jackson's "Beat It" and "Bad" music videos. The first features Jackson as a peacemaker between two rival gangs in a homage to his favorite film.