title: Cradle of civilization

text: The exact cause of the decline of the Olmec culture is uncertain. Between 400 and 350 BC, the population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously. This depopulation was probably the result of serious environmental changes that rendered the region unsuited for large groups of farmers, in particular changes to the riverine environment that the Olmec depended upon for agriculture, hunting and gathering, and transportation. These changes may have been triggered by tectonic upheavals or subsidence, or the silting up of rivers due to agricultural practices. Within a few hundred years of the abandonment of the last Olmec cities, successor cultures became firmly established. The Tres Zapotes site, on the western edge of the Olmec heartland, continued to be occupied well past 400 BC, but without the hallmarks of the Olmec culture. This post-Olmec culture, often labeled Epi-Olmec, has features similar to those found at Izapa, some 550 km (330 miles) to the southeast.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Olmecs are sometimes referred to as the mother culture of Mesoamerica, as they were the first Mesoamerican civilization and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed. However, the causes and degree of Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures has been a subject of debate over many decades. Practices introduced by the Olmec include ritual bloodletting and the Mesoamerican ballgame; hallmarks of subsequent Mesoamerican societies such as the Maya and Aztec. Although the Mesoamerican writing system would fully develop later, early Olmec ceramics show representations that may be interpreted as codices.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The Black Sea area is a cradle of the European civilization. The site of Solnitsata (5500 BC - 4200 BC) is believed to be the oldest town in Europe - prehistoric fortified (walled) stone settlement (prehistoric city). The first gold artifacts in the world appear from the 4th millennium BC, such as those found in a burial site from 4569–4340 BC and one of the most important archaeological sites in world prehistory – the Varna Necropolis near Lake Varna in Bulgaria, thought to be the earliest "well-dated" find of gold artifacts.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: There is academic consensus that Classical Greece was the seminal culture that provided the foundation of modern Western culture, democracy, art, theatre, philosophy, and science. For this reason it is known as the cradle of Western Civilization. Along with Greece, Rome has sometimes been described as a birthplace or as the cradle of Western Civilization because of the role the city had in politics, republicanism, law, architecture, warfare and Western Christianity.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The phrase "cradle of civilization"... plays a certain role in national mysticism. It has been used in Eastern as well as Western cultures, for instance, in Indian nationalism ("In Search of the Cradle of Civilization" 1995) and Taiwanese nationalism ("Taiwan;— The Cradle of Civilization" 2002). The terms also appear in esoteric pseudohistory, such as the Urantia Book, claiming the title for "the second Eden", or the pseudoarchaeology related to Megalithic Britain ("Civilization One" 2004,


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The following timeline shows a timeline of cultures, with the approximate dates of the emergence of civilization (as discussed in the article) in the featured areas, the primary cultures associated with these early civilizations. It is important to note that the timeline is not indicative of the beginning of human habitation, the start of a specific ethnic group, or the development of Neolithic cultures in the area – any of which often occurred significantly earlier than the emergence of civilization proper. In the case of the Indus Valley Civilization, this was followed by a period of de-urbanization and regionalisation, and the co-existence of indigenous local agricultural cultures and the pastoral Indo-Aryans, who came from Central Asia.


title: Cradle of civilization

text: The dates given are only approximate as the development of civilization was incremental and the exact date when "civilization" began for a given culture is subject to interpretation.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Cabaret is a 1966 musical with music by John Kander, lyrics by Fred Ebb, and book by Joe Masteroff. The musical was based on John Van Druten's 1951 play "I Am a Camera" which was adapted from "Goodbye to Berlin" (1939), a semi-autobiographical novel by Anglo-American writer Christopher Isherwood which drew upon his experiences in the poverty-stricken Weimar Republic and his intimate friendship with nineteen-year-old cabaret singer Jean Ross.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Set in 1929–1930 Berlin during the twilight of the Jazz Age as the Nazis are ascending to power, the musical focuses on the hedonistic nightlife at the seedy Kit Kat Klub and revolves around American writer Clifford Bradshaw's relations with English cabaret performer Sally Bowles. A subplot involves the doomed romance between German boarding house owner Fräulein Schneider and her elderly suitor Herr Schultz, a Jewish fruit vendor.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Overseeing the action is the Master of Ceremonies at the Kit Kat Klub, and the club itself serves as a metaphor for ominous political developments in late Weimar Germany. The musical depicts Weimar-era Berlin during this chaotic interwar period as a carnival of debauchery and despair inhabited by desperate people who are unaware of the national catastrophe that awaits them.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The original Broadway production opened on November 20, 1966, at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York City and became a box office hit that ran for 1,166 performances. The award-winning musical inspired numerous subsequent productions in London and New York as well as the 1972 film of the same name.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The events depicted in the 1966 musical are derived from Anglo-American writer Christopher Isherwood's semi-autobiographical tales of his colorful escapades in the Weimar Republic. In 1929, Isherwood visited Weimar-era Berlin during the final months of the Golden Twenties. At the time, Isherwood was an apprentice novelist who was politically indifferent about the rise of fascism in Germany. He relocated to Berlin in order to avail himself of underage male prostitutes and to enjoy the city's orgiastic Jazz Age cabarets. He socialized with a coterie of gay writers that included Stephen Spender, Paul Bowles, and W.H. Auden.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In Berlin, Isherwood shared modest lodgings with 19-year-old British flapper Jean Ross, an aspiring film actress who earned her living as a chanteuse in lesbian bars and second-rate cabarets. While rooming together with Isherwood at Nollendorfstrasse 17 in Schöneberg, Ross engaged in a series of brief heterosexual liaisons and became pregnant. She assumed the father of the child to be jazz pianist—and later film actor—Peter van Eyck.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: As a personal favor to Ross, Isherwood pretended to be her heterosexual impregnator in order to facilitate an abortion procedure. Ross nearly died as a result of the botched abortion due to the carelessness of the doctor. Following the procedure, Isherwood visited an ailing Ross in a Berlin hospital. Wrongly assuming the shy gay author to be her heterosexual partner, the hospital staff despised him for callously forcing Ross to undergo a near-fatal abortion. These tragicomic events later inspired Isherwood to write his 1937 novella "Sally Bowles" and serves as its narrative climax.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: While Ross recovered from the botched abortion procedure, the political situation rapidly deteriorated in Weimar Germany as the incipient Nazi Party continued to grow stronger day by day. As Berlin's daily scenes featured "poverty, unemployment, political demonstrations and street fighting between the forces of the extreme left and the extreme right," Isherwood, Ross, Spender, and other British nationals soon realized that they must leave the country. "There was a sensation of doom to be felt in the Berlin streets," Spender recalled.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Two weeks after Adolf Hitler implemented the Enabling Act which cemented his dictatorship, Isherwood fled Germany and returned to England on April 5, 1933. Afterwards, most of Berlin's seedy cabarets were shuttered by the Nazis, and many of Isherwood's cabaret acquaintances would later flee abroad or perish in concentration camps. These factual events served as the genesis for Isherwood's Berlin tales. His 1939 novel "Goodbye to Berlin" was later adapted by playwright John Van Druten into the 1951 Broadway play "I Am a Camera" and, ultimately, the 1966 "Cabaret" musical.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In early 1963, producer David Black commissioned English composer and lyricist Sandy Wilson to undertake a musical adaptation of Van Druten's 1951 play "I Am a Camera". Black envisioned the musical as a star vehicle for singer Julie Andrews, but Andrews' manager refused to allow her to accept the role of Sally Bowles due to the character's immorality. By the time Wilson completed his work, however, Black's option on both the 1951 Van Druten play and its source material by Isherwood had lapsed and been acquired by rival Broadway producer Harold Prince.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Prince hired playwright Joe Masteroff to work on the adaptation. Prince and Masteroff believed that Wilson's score failed to capture the carefree hedonism of the Jazz Age in late 1920s Berlin. Consequently, the songwriting team John Kander and Fred Ebb were invited to join the project. Their new version was initially a dramatic play preceded by a prologue of songs describing the Berlin atmosphere from various points of view. As the composers distributed the songs between scenes, they realized the story could be told in the structure of a more traditional book musical, and they replaced several songs with tunes more relevant to the plot.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Prince and Masteroff altered Isherwood's original characters as well. The male protagonist became an American writer; the antisemitic landlady was transformed into a tolerant woman with a Jewish beau who owned a fruit store; the two language students were excised, and new characters—such as the Nazi smuggler Ernst Ludwig—were added for dramatic purposes. The musical ultimately expressed two stories in one: the first, a revue centered on the decadence of the Kit Kat Klub; the second, a story set in the society of the club.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In Fall 1966, the musical entered rehearsals. After viewing one of the last rehearsals before the company headed to Boston for the pre-Broadway run, Prince's friend Jerome Robbins suggested cutting the songs outside the cabaret, but Prince ignored his advice. In Boston, lead actress Jill Haworth struggled with her characterization of Sally Bowles. Critics thought Sally's blonde hair and white dress suggested a debutante at a senior prom instead of a cabaret singer, so Sally became a brunette before the show opened on Broadway.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Prince's staging was unusual for the time. As the audience filled the theater, the curtain was already up, revealing a stage containing only a large mirror reflecting the auditorium. There was no overture; instead, a drum roll and cymbal crash led into the opening number. The juxtaposition of dialogue scenes with expository songs and separate cabaret numbers providing social commentary was a novel concept that initially startled audiences. Gradually, they came to understand the difference between the two and were able to accept the reasoning behind them.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: At the twilight of the Jazz Age in Berlin, the incipient Nazi Party is growing stronger. The Kit Kat Klub is a seedy cabaret—a place of decadent celebration. The club's Master of Ceremonies, or Emcee, together with the cabaret girls and waiters, warm up the audience ("Willkommen"). Meanwhile, a young American writer named Clifford Bradshaw arrives via a railway train in Berlin. He has journeyed to the city to work on a new novel. Cliff encounters Ernst Ludwig, a German smuggler who offers him black market work and recommends a boarding house. At the boarding house, the proprietress Fräulein Schneider offers Cliff a room for one hundred reichsmarks, but he can only pay fifty. After a brief debate, she relents and allows Cliff to live there for fifty marks. Fräulein Schneider observes that she has learned to take whatever life offers ("So What?").


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: When Cliff visits the Kit Kat Klub, the Emcee introduces an English chanteuse, Sally Bowles, who performs a flirtatious number ("Don't Tell Mama"). Afterward, she asks Cliff to recite poetry for her, and he recites Ernest Thayer's tragic poem "Casey at the Bat". Cliff offers to escort Sally home, but she says that her boyfriend Max, the club's owner, is too jealous. Sally performs her final number at the Kit Kat Klub aided by a female ensemble of jazz babies ("Mein Herr"). The cabaret ensemble performs a song and dance, calling each other on inter-table phones and inviting each other for dances and drinks ("The Telephone Song").


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The next day at the boarding house, Cliff has just finished giving an English lesson to Ernst when Sally arrives. Max has fired her and thrown her out, and now she has no place to live. Sally asks Cliff if she can live in his room. At first he resists, but she convinces him to take her in ("Perfectly Marvelous"). The Emcee and two female companions sing a song ("Two Ladies") that comments on Cliff and Sally's new living arrangement. Herr Schultz, an elderly Jewish fruit-shop owner who lives in the boarding house, gives a pineapple to Fräulein Schneider as a romantic gesture ("It Couldn't Please Me More"). In the Kit Kat Klub, a young waiter starts to sing a song—a patriotic anthem to the Fatherland that slowly descends into a darker, Nazi-inspired marching song—becoming the strident "Tomorrow Belongs to Me". He initially sings "a cappella", before the customers and the band join in.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Months later, Cliff and Sally are still living together and have grown intimate. Cliff knows that he is in a "dream", but he enjoys living with Sally too much to come to his senses ("Why Should I Wake Up?"). Sally reveals that she is pregnant, but she does not know who is the father and decides to obtain an abortion. Cliff reminds her that it could be his child and tries to convince her to have the baby ("Maybe This Time"). Ernst enters and offers Cliff a chance to earn easy money—picking up a suitcase in Paris and delivering it to his "client" in Berlin. The Emcee comments on this with the song "Sitting Pretty" (or, in later versions, "Money").


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Meanwhile, Fräulein Schneider has caught one of her boarders, the prostitute Fräulein Kost, bringing sailors into her room. Fräulein Schneider forbids her from doing so again, but Kost threatens to leave. Kost reveals that she has seen Fräulein Schneider with Herr Schultz in her room. Herr Schultz saves Fräulein Schneider's reputation by telling Fräulein Kost that he and Fräulein Schneider are to be married in three weeks. After Fräulein Kost departs, Fräulein Schneider thanks Herr Schultz for lying to Fräulein Kost. Herr Schultz says that he was serious and proposes to Fräulein Schneider ("Married").


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: At Fräulein Schneider and Herr Schultz's engagement party, Cliff arrives and delivers the suitcase of contraband to Ernst. A tipsy Schultz sings "Meeskite" ("meeskite", he explains, is Yiddish for ugly or funny-looking), a song with a moral ("Anyone responsible for loveliness, large or small/Is not a at all"). Afterward, seeking revenge on Fräulein Schneider, Kost tells Ernst, who now sports a Nazi armband, that Schultz is a Jew. Ernst warns Schneider that marrying a Jew is unwise. Kost and company reprise "Tomorrow Belongs to Me", with more overtly Nazi overtones, as Cliff, Sally, Schneider, Schultz, and the Emcee look on.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The cabaret girls—along with the Emcee in drag—perform a kickline routine which eventually becomes a goose-step. Fräulein Schneider expresses her concerns about her impending nuptials to Herr Schultz, who assures her that everything will be all right ("Married" Reprise). They are interrupted by the crash of a brick being thrown through the glass window of Herr Schultz's fruit shop. Schultz tries to reassure her that it is merely rowdy children making trouble, but Fräulein Schneider is now afraid.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Back at the Kit Kat Klub, the Emcee performs a song-and-dance routine with a woman in a gorilla suit, singing that their love has been met with universal disapproval ("If You Could See Her"). Encouraging the audience to be more open-minded, he defends his ape-woman, concluding with, "if you could see her through my eyes... she wouldn't look Jewish at all." Fräulein Schneider goes to Cliff and Sally's room and returns their engagement present, explaining that her marriage has been called off. When Cliff protests and states that she can't just give up this way, she asks him what other choice she has ("What Would You Do?").


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Cliff begs Sally to leave Germany with him so that they can raise their child together in America. Sally protests and claims that their life in Berlin is wonderful. Cliff urges her to "wake up" and to notice the growing social upheaval around them. Sally retorts that politics have nothing to do with them and returns to the Kit Kat Klub ("I Don't Care Much"). At the club, after another heated argument with Sally, Cliff is accosted by Ernst, who has another delivery job for him. Cliff tries to brush him off. When Ernst inquires if Cliff's attitude towards him is because of "that Jew at the party", Cliff attacks him—only to be beaten by Ernst's bodyguards and ejected from the club. On stage, the Emcee introduces Sally, who enters to perform again, singing that "life is a cabaret, old chum," cementing her decision to live in carefree ignorance ("Cabaret").


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The next morning, a bruised Cliff is packing his clothes in his room when Herr Schultz visits. He informs Cliff that he is moving to another boarding house, but he is confident that these difficult times will soon pass. He understands the German people, he declares, because he is a German too. When Sally returns, she announces that she has had an abortion, and Cliff slaps her. He still hopes that she will join him in France, but Sally retorts that she has "always hated Paris." She hopes that, when Cliff finally writes his novel, he will dedicate the work to her. Cliff leaves, heartbroken.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: On the railway train to Paris, Cliff begins to compose his novel, reflecting on his experiences: "There was a cabaret, and there was a master of ceremonies ... and there was a city called Berlin, in a country called Germany—and it was the end of the world and I was dancing with Sally Bowles—and we were both fast asleep" ("Willkommen" Reprise). In the Kit Kat Klub, the Emcee welcomes the audience, and the backdrop raises to reveal a white space with the ensemble standing within. The cabaret ensemble reprises "Willkommen", but the song is now harsh and discordant as the Emcee sings, "Auf Wiedersehen... à bientôt..." followed by a crescendo-ing drum roll and a cymbal crash.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Every production of "Cabaret" has modified the original score, with songs being changed, cut, or added from the film version. This is a collective list featuring all songs from every major production.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Many songs planned for the 1966 production were cut. Three excised songs—"Good Time Charlie", "It'll All Blow Over", and "Roommates"—were recorded by Kander and Ebb, and the sheet music published in a collector's book. "Good Time Charlie" was to be sung by Sally to Cliff while walking to Fräulein Schneider and Herr Schultz's engagement party, with Sally mocking Cliff for his gloominess. "It'll All Blow Over" was planned for the end of the first act: Fräulein Schneider is concerned that marrying a Jew might be unwise, while Cliff is concerned about Germany's incipient Nazism. In the song, Sally declares that all will turn out well in the end. "Roommates" was replaced by "Perfectly Marvelous" and serves the same plot function of Sally convincing Cliff to let her move in with him.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The 1972 film added several songs, notably "" and "Maybe This Time" which were included in later productions. The latter song had been written by Kander and Ebb for the unproduced musical "Golden Gate". The later 1987 and 1998 Broadway revivals also added new songs such as "I Don't Care Much". In the 1987 revival, a new song was written for Cliff entitled "Don't Go". In the 1998 revival, "Mein Herr" replaced "The Telephone Song", and "Maybe This Time" replaced "Why Should I Wake Up?".


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Originally, the song "Sitting Pretty" was sung by the Emcee accompanied by the cabaret girls in international costumes and their units of currency representing Russian rubles, Japanese yen, French francs, American dollars, and German reichsmarks. For the 1972 film, this number was then replaced by "Money, Money", and sung by the Emcee and Sally Bowles. However, "Sitting Pretty" is still heard briefly in the film as orchestral background music. For the 1987 revival, there was a special version comprising a medley of both money songs, and motifs from the later song were incorporated into the "international" dance that had "Sitting Pretty". For the 1998 revival, only the later song written for the film was used. This version added the cabaret girls and had a darker undertone.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The musical opened on Broadway on November 20, 1966, at the Broadhurst Theatre, transferred to the Imperial Theatre and then the Broadway Theatre before closing on September 6, 1969, after 1,166 performances and 21 previews. Directed by Harold Prince and choreographed by Ron Field, the cast featured Jill Haworth as Sally, Bert Convy as Cliff, Lotte Lenya as Fräulein Schneider, Jack Gilford as Herr Schultz, Joel Grey as the Emcee, Edward Winter as Ernst, and Peg Murray as Fräulein Kost. Replacements later in the run included Anita Gillette and Melissa Hart as Sally, Ken Kercheval and Larry Kert as Cliff, and Martin Ross as the Emcee. In addition, John Serry Sr. performed as the orchestral accordionist.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The original Broadway production was not an instant success according to playwright Joe Masteroff due to its perceived immoral content. "When the show opened in Boston," Masteroff recalled, "there were a lot of walkouts. Once the reviews came out, the public came back." At the time, actor Joel Grey was merely fifth-billed in the show. Nevertheless, audiences were hypnotized by Grey's sinister performance as the Emcee.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In contrast, Jill Haworth's performance as Sally was less well-received and was criticized for its blandness. Emory Lewis, the reviewer for "The Morning Call", wrote that "Jill Haworth, the lovely English actress who played Sally Bowles on opening night, was personable, but she was not sufficiently trained for so pivotal a role. And her voice was small and undramatic. Her performance threw 'Cabaret' out of kilter."


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The 1967–68 US national tour featured Melissa Hart as Sally, Signe Hasso as Fräulein Schneider, and Leo Fuchs as Herr Schultz. The tour included the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut in December 1967, the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles in May 1968, the Curran Theatre in San Francisco in September 1968, and many others.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The musical premiered in the West End on February 28, 1968, at the Palace Theatre with Judi Dench as Sally, Kevin Colson as Cliff, Barry Dennen as the Emcee, Lila Kedrova as Fräulein Schneider and Peter Sallis as Herr Schultz. It ran for 336 performances. Critics such as Ken Mandelbaum have asserted that "Judi Dench was the finest of all the Sallys that appeared in Hal Prince's original staging, and if she's obviously not much of a singer, her Sally is a perfect example of how one can give a thrilling musical theatre performance without a great singing voice."


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In 1986, the show was revived in London at the Strand Theatre starring Kelly Hunter as Sally, Peter Land as Cliff and Wayne Sleep as the Emcee, directed and choreographed by Gillian Lynne.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The first Broadway revival opened on October 22, 1987, with direction and choreography by Prince and Field. The revival opened at the Imperial Theatre, and then transferred to the Minskoff Theatre to complete its 261-performance run. Joel Grey received star billing as the Emcee, with Alyson Reed as Sally, Gregg Edelman as Cliff, Regina Resnik as Fräulein Schneider, Werner Klemperer as Herr Schultz, and David Staller as Ernst Ludwig. The song "Don't Go" was added for Cliff's character.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In 1993, Sam Mendes directed a new production for the Donmar Warehouse in London's West End. The revival starred Jane Horrocks as Sally, Adam Godley as Cliff, Alan Cumming as the Emcee and Sara Kestelman as Fräulein Schneider. Cumming received an Olivier Award nomination for his performance and Kestelman won the Olivier for Best Supporting Performance in a Musical.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Mendes' conception was very different from either the original production or the conventional first revival. The most significant change was the character of the Emcee. The role, as played by Joel Grey in both prior incarnations, was an asexual, edgy character with rouged cheeks dressed in a tuxedo. Alan Cumming's portrayal was highly sexualized, as he wore suspenders around his crotch and red paint on his nipples.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Staging details differed as well. Instead of "Tomorrow Belongs to Me" being performed by a male choir of waiting staff, the Emcee plays a recording of a boy soprano singing it. In the final scene, the Emcee removes his outer clothes to reveal a striped uniform of the type worn by the internees in concentration camps; on it are pinned a yellow badge (identifying Jews), a red star (marking Communists and socialists), and a pink triangle (denoting homosexuals). Other changes included added references to Cliff's bisexuality, including a brief scene where he kisses one of the Cabaret boys. "I Don't Care Much," which was added for the 1987 Broadway revival, was maintained for this production, and "Mein Herr" was added from the film.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The second Broadway revival was based on the 1993 Mendes-Donmar Warehouse production. For the Broadway transfer, Rob Marshall was co-director and choreographer. The production opened after 37 previews on March 19, 1998, at the Kit Kat Klub, housed in what previously had been known as Henry Miller's Theatre. Later that year it transferred to Studio 54, where it remained for the rest of its 2,377-performance run, becoming the third longest-running revival in Broadway musical history, third only to "Oh! Calcutta!" and "Chicago". For the Broadway production, Cumming reprised his role as the Emcee, opposite newcomers Natasha Richardson as Sally, John Benjamin Hickey as Cliff, Ron Rifkin as Herr Schultz, Denis O'Hare as Ernst Ludwig, Michele Pawk as Fräulein Kost, and Mary Louise Wilson as Fräulein Schneider.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The Broadway production was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning four for Cumming, Richardson and Rifkin, as well as the Tony for Best Revival of a Musical. This production featured a number of notable replacements later in the run: Jennifer Jason Leigh, Susan Egan, Joely Fisher, Gina Gershon, Debbie Gibson, Teri Hatcher, Melina Kanakaredes, Jane Leeves, Molly Ringwald, Brooke Shields, and Lea Thompson as Sally; Michael C. Hall, Raúl Esparza, Neil Patrick Harris, Adam Pascal, Jon Secada, Norbert Leo Butz and John Stamos as the Emcee; Boyd Gaines and Michael Hayden as Cliff; Tom Bosley, Dick Latessa, Hal Linden, Laurence Luckinbill, and Tony Roberts as Herr Schultz; and Blair Brown, Polly Bergen, Mariette Hartley and Carole Shelley as Fräulein Schneider.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: There were a number of changes made between the 1993 and 1998 revivals, despite the similarities in creative team. The cabaret number "Two Ladies" was staged with the Emcee, a cabaret girl, and a cabaret boy in drag and included a shadow play simulating various sexual positions. The score was re-orchestrated using synthesizer effects and expanding the stage band, with all the instruments now being played by the cabaret girls and boys. The satiric "Sitting Pretty", with its mocking references to deprivation, despair and hunger, was eliminated, as it had been in the film version, and where in the 1993 revival it had been combined with "Money" (as it had been in 1987 London production), "Money" was now performed on its own. "Maybe This Time", from the film adaptation, was added to the score.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In September 2006, a new production of the show opened at the Lyric Theatre, directed by Rufus Norris, and starring Anna Maxwell Martin as Sally, James Dreyfus as the Emcee, Harriet Thorpe as Fräulein Kost, and Sheila Hancock as Fräulein Schneider. Hancock won the Olivier Award for Best Supporting Performance in a Musical. Replacements later in the run included Kim Medcalf and Amy Nuttall as Sally, Honor Blackman and Angela Richards as Fräulein Schneider, and Julian Clary and Alistair McGowan as the Emcee. This production closed in June 2008 and toured nationally for two years with a cast that included Wayne Sleep as the Emcee and Samantha Barks as Sally, before Siobhan Dillon took over the role.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: A revival opened in the West End at the Savoy Theatre on October 3, 2012, following a four-week tour of the UK, including Bromley, Southampton, Nottingham, Norwich and Salford. Will Young played the Emcee and Michelle Ryan portrayed Sally Bowles. It was announced on August 10, 2012, that Siân Phillips, Harriet Thorpe and Matt Rawle would also be joining the cast. The production was made by the creative team behind the 2006 London revival, but they created a different set, lighting, costumes, choreography and direction. In August 2013 the show went on tour, again with Young as The Emcee, Siobhan Dillon reprising her role of Sally and Lyn Paul joining the cast as Fräulein Schneider.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The production toured the UK in autumn 2017 with Young reprising his role as the Emcee and Louise Redknapp as Sally Bowles. Another UK tour began in Autumn 2019 starring John Partridge as the Emcee, Kara Lily Hayworth as Sally Bowles and Anita Harris as Fräulein Schneider.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In September 2013 Roundabout Theatre Company announced plans to return the company's acclaimed 1998 production to Studio 54 in New York. For this, the show's third Broadway revival, Sam Mendes and Rob Marshall reprised their respective roles as director and co-director/choreographer to recreate their work from the earlier production. Alan Cumming starred again as the Emcee while Academy Award-nominee Michelle Williams made her Broadway debut as Sally Bowles. On October 7, 2013, Tony Award nominees Danny Burstein and Linda Emond joined the cast as Herr Schultz and Fräulein Schneider. The production began a 24-week limited engagement with previews from March 21, 2014, with opening night on April 24, 2014. This engagement was later extended to a 36-week run concluding on January 4, 2015.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Emma Stone replaced Michelle Williams as Sally from November 11, 2014, until February 15, 2015. Critics praised Stone's performance for her interpretation of the hard-drinking Sally Bowles "as a flaming flapper, the kind hymned by F. Scott Fitzgerald and embodied by the young Joan Crawford in silent movies." Alan Cumming continued in the role of the Emcee until the show's final curtain in March 2015. On February 17, Sienna Miller replaced Stone as Sally through to the show's closing on March 29, 2015.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The production later toured the US from January 2016 with Randy Harrison as the Emcee and Andrea Goss (following her appearance as Frenchie in the Broadway production). They were later replaced by Jon Peterson and Leigh Ann Larkin.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In May 2021, it was announced that Eddie Redmayne and Jessie Buckley would star as the Emcee and Sally Bowles in a new production directed by Rebecca Frecknall, designed by Tom Scutt, choreographed by Julia Cheng with musical supervision and direction by Jennifer Whyte, lighting design by Isabella Byrd, sound design by Nick Lidster, casting by Stuart Burt and fight direction by Jonathan Holby. The production also features Omari Douglas as Cliff Bradshaw, Liza Sadovy as Fraulein Schneider, Elliot Levey as Herr Schultz, Stewart Clarke as Ernst Ludwig and Anna-Jane Casey as Fraulein Kost.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Produced by Underbelly and Ambassador Theatre Group, the production entitled "Cabaret at the Kit Kat Club" began previews at the Playhouse Theatre on November 15, 2021, which has been refurbished as the "Kit Kat Club" which includes an intimate in-the-round stage reduced to a 550-seat capacity with tables that audience members can dine at as well as a refurbished foyer. On December 14, 2021, it was announced that the production's run would be extended to October 2022. The production led the 2022 Olivier Award nominations with 11 nods, including Best Musical Revival, Best Actor in a Musical for Redmayne and Best Actress in a Musical for Buckley. The production won 7 awards and set a record for being the most award-winning revival in Olivier history, as well for being the first production to obtain awards in all 4 eligible acting categories.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: On March 1, 2022, it was announced that Fra Fee and Amy Lennox would take over as The Emcee and Sally Bowles with Omar Baroud as Cliff Bradshaw and Vivien Parry as Fraulein Schneider from March 21, 2022. Richard Katz took over as Herr Schultz on 27 June 2022. From 3 October 2022, Callum Scott Howells and Madeline Brewer will take over as The Emcee and Sally Bowles with Sid Sagar as Cliff Bradshaw, Danny Mahoney as Ernst Ludwig and Michelle Bishop as Fraulein Kost.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In 1993 a production of "Cabaret" debuted at the Octagon Theatre in Bolton, England. This version was directed by Ian Forest, designed by Ashley Sharp, and starred Ashley Artus as the Emcee. Critic Natalia Anglesey of "The Stage" opined that "undoubtedly the star of this particular production of "Cabaret" is the physically flexible Ashley Artus as the sinister Emcee who adroitly controls the cast and members of his club whilst leading us into the nightmarish world of pre-war Berlin." Artus would later garner the Manchester Evening News Drama Award Nomination for his performance.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: A BBC Radio 2 radio broadcast in 1996 at the Golders Green Hippodrome starred Claire Burt as Sally Bowles, Steven Berkoff as the Emcee, Alex Hanson as Clifford Bradshaw, Keith Michell as Herr Schultz, and Rosemary Leach as Fräulein Schneider.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Since 2003, there have been successful international stagings of the show—many of which have been influenced by Mendes' concept—including productions in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, France, Portugal, Greece, Israel, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Serbia, South Africa, Spain, and Venezuela. In 2008, the Stratford Shakespeare Festival performed a well-received production at the Avon Theatre designed by Douglas Paraschuk and directed by Amanda Dehnert, featuring Bruce Dow as the Emcee, Trish Lindström as Sally, Sean Arbuckle as Cliff, Nora McClellan as Fräulein Schneider and Frank Moore as Herr Schultz.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The Shaw Festival at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, included "Cabaret" in its 2014 season. The production, which ran from April 10 – October 26, 2014 at the Festival Theatre, was directed by Peter Hinton with choreography by Denise Clarke. The production featured Juan Chioran as the Emcee, Deborah Hay as Sally, Gray Powell as Cliff, Benedict Campbell as Herr Schultz, and Corrine Koslo as Fräulein Schneider. Hinton's version was influenced by Mendes' 1993 revival.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In 2016, Project Broadway and Broadway Workshop presented "Cabaret" as their main stage production. The cast, made of over 50 teenage actors divided into two casts, played to the sold-out Baruch Performing Arts Center in New York City. The production was the first in New York City since the Roundabout Theatre Company revival in 2014. The production was directed by Broadway Workshop founder Marc Tumminelli. Among the cast were Michael Nigro and Micaela Diamond.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: A 2017 revival production with new direction played Sydney and Melbourne, Australia. The production starred Paul Capsis as the Emcee and Chelsea Gibb as Sally. The production mixed elements of the Mendes production, such as its version of "Two Ladies" and its portrayal of a gay Cliff, with the colorful art design of the original (the Emcee is in full makeup and clothed) and most of the additional songs from the 1972 film (with the exception of "Mein Herr").


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The first recording of "Cabaret" was the original cast album with a number of the songs either truncated (e.g., "Sitting Pretty"/"The Money Song") or outright cut to conserve disk space. When this album was released on compact disc, Kander and Ebb's voice-and-piano recordings of songs cut from the musical were added as bonus material.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The 1968 London cast recording purportedly features "a more accurate rendering of the score" and includes "the Act One finale 'Tomorrow Belongs To Me' reprise, the second-act finale as performed in the theatre, and a number of other previously unrecorded bits and pieces." It was released in the UK and reissued on the CBS Embassy label in 1973.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The 1972 movie soundtrack with Liza Minnelli is perhaps the best-known of the recordings, although the movie is much re-written and eliminates all but six of the original songs from the stage production.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: Both the 1986 London and 1998 Broadway revival casts were recorded. A 1993 two-CD studio recording contains more or less the entire score, including songs written for the movie or for later productions, and many incidentals and instrumentals not usually recorded. This recording features Jonathan Pryce as the Emcee, Maria Friedman as Sally, Gregg Edelman as Cliff, Judi Dench as Fräulein Schneider, and Fred Ebb as Herr Schultz.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: The most recent recording of "Cabaret" is the cast recording of the 2006 London revival at the Lyric Theatre. The recording includes James Dreyfus as the Emcee and Anna Maxwell Martin as Sally Bowles. The recording peaked number 107 on the French Albums Chart, and number 49 on the Dutch Albums Chart.


title: Cabaret (musical)

text: In addition to these recordings, cast albums for the French, Spanish, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Austrian, Dutch, Mexican, and two German productions have been released.


title: General Motors LS-based small-block engine

text: "LS engine" is the colloquial name given to the third and fourth generation small-block V8 gasoline engine used in General Motors' vehicles. The name evolved from the need to differentiate the Gen 3/Gen 4 small blocks from the original Gen 1/Gen 2 small blocks released in 1954, which are commonly referred to as "Small Block Chevrolets". The "LS" name originates from the engine RPO code of the first Gen 3 small block, the LS1, introduced in the 1997 Corvette. The term "LS engine" is used to describe any Gen 3 or Gen 4 Small Block Chevrolet, including those that do not specifically include "LS" as part of their RPO code. Sometimes referred to as an "LSx", with the lower case "x" standing in for one of the many RPO code variations of the motor, the term can cause confusion since GM now sells an aftermarket LS cylinder block named "LSX" with a capital "X". The original RPO code "LS1" is still sometimes used, if not confusingly, to describe the entire Gen 3/Gen 4 engine family.


text: LS engines were a clean sheet modular design. Most components interchange between these Gen 3 and Gen 4 motors. LS motors share no interchangeable parts except connecting rod bearings & valve lifters with the Gen 1/2 Small Block Chevrolet engines. Likewise, while GM engineers clearly took design inspiration from the LS motor when creating their fifth Generation "LT" Small Block in 2014, it was predominantly a new design. There is almost no parts interchange between the LS and LT families.


text: All cars sold with LS motors were equipped with aluminum blocks while most trucks received cast iron blocks. LS engines enjoy several notable improvements over previous generations of small blocks. The lower section of the block incorporates deep side skirts along with 4-bolt cross-bolted main bearing caps and a structural cast aluminum oil pan. Nearly all LS motors were manufactured with high airflow aluminum cylinder heads, even in truck applications. The design uses long runner intake manifolds to enhance airflow within the engines operating range. These dry intake manifolds omit the coolant passages of earlier generations to minimize heat uptake in the air charge. They are made from a light weight yet durable nylon polymer. A large improvement was made to the ignition system by forgoing the camshaft driven distributor of the early small blocks in favor of valve cover mounted ignition coils, one for each cylinder. LS ignition timing is handled by the ECU via camshaft and crankshaft position sensors.


text: GM engineered the LS as a pushrod motor which was a controversial choice at the time. It was seen as an old-style, low-tech decision that could not compete with the higher technology dual overhead cam strategy (DOHC) that Ford had adopted. However, GM had its justification for it and it turned out to be an unprecedented success. The choice kept the cost of the engines low, allowing them to be installed in a large variety of vehicles. The cam-in-block strategy kept the external size of the motor down relative to DOHC design, while still allowing 7.0L (427ci) displacements in stock form. Combined with the airflow potential of well engineered cylinder heads and intake manifolds, this added displacement allowed higher outputs in a smaller external package relative to a DOHC configuration. The combination of a small package size, low cost and availability has earned LS motors a cult like following among engine swap hobbyists where slogans like "LS Swap the World" are often echoed. This popularity has spurred a tremendous level of support from the automotive aftermarket industry and has been a cultural phenomenon as social media has exploded with LS content from sources like Sloppy Mechanics and Richard Holdener. Grass roots racers are now chasing stock bottom end "SBE" records pushing factory hardware to in-excess of 1500 hp and running 7 second 1/4 miles at 170+ even with 4.8L, the smallest of the factory LS displacements.


text: Much of the credit for this engine family must go to Ed Koerner, GM's Powertrain vice president of engineering operations at the time. He was a V8 design veteran and former National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) record holder in drag racing. Koerner had been the Chief Engineer for all the existing GM small-block V8 engines and was put in charge of the "all-new" Gen III LS1 V8 development project, which would share no parts with previous engines. Design team members included Alan Hayman, Jim Mazzola, Ron Sperry, Bill Compton, Brian Kaminski, Jon Lewis, Stan Turek, Don Weiderhold, and Dave Wandel.


text: The GM Generation I and Generation II (LT) engine families are both derived from the longstanding Chevrolet small block V8. The Generation III small-block V8 was a "clean sheet" design, which replaced the Gen I and Gen II engine families in 2002 and 1995 respectively.


text: Like the previous two generations, the Buick and Oldsmobile small blocks, the Gen III/IV can be found in many different brands. The engine blocks were cast in aluminum for car applications, and iron for most truck applications (notable exceptions include the Chevrolet TrailBlazer SS, Chevrolet SSR, and a limited run of Chevrolet/GMC Extended Cab Standard Box Trucks).


text: The architecture of the LS series makes for an extremely strong engine block with the aluminum engines being nearly as strong as the iron generation I and II engines. The LS engine also used coil-near-plug style ignition to replace the distributor setup of all previous small-block based engines.


text: The traditional five-bolt pentagonal cylinder head pattern was replaced with a square four-bolt design (much like the 64-90 Oldsmobile V8), and the pistons are of the flat-topped variety (in the LS1, LS2, LS3, LS6, LS7, LQ9, and L33), while all other variants, including the new LS9 and LQ4 truck engine, received a dished version of the GM hypereutectic piston.


text: The cylinder firing order was changed to 1-8-7-2-6-5-4-3 so that the LS series now corresponds to the firing pattern of other modern V8 engines (for example the Ford Modular V8).


text: The first of the Generation IIIs, the LS1 was the progenitor of the new architecture design that would transform the entire V8 line and influence the last of the Big Blocks.


text: The Generation III 5.7L (LS1 and LS6) engines share little other than similar displacement, external dimensions, and rod bearings, with its predecessor (LT1). It is an all-aluminum pushrod engine with a bore and a stroke of .


text: When introduced in the 1997 Corvette the LS1 was rated at at 5,600 rpm and at 4,400 rpm. After improvements to the intake and exhaust manifolds in 2001 the rating improved to and ( for Manual Transmission Corvettes . The LS1 was used in the Corvette from 97 to 04. It was also used in 98-02 GM F-Body (Camaro & Firebird) cars with a rating of over , which was rumored to be conservative. The extra horsepower was claimed to come from the intake ram-air effect available in the SS and WS6 models. In Australia, continuous modifications were made to the LS1 engine throughout its lifetime, reaching 362 hp/350 ft-lb in the HSV's YII series, and a Callaway modified version named "C4B" was fitted to HSV GTS models producing and of torque.


text: The LS6 is a higher-output version of GM's LS1 engine and retains the same capacity. The initial 2001 LS6 produced and , but the engine was modified for 2002 through 2004 to produce and of torque. The LS6 was originally only used in the high-performance C5 Corvette Z06 model, with the Cadillac CTS V-Series getting the engine later. The V-Series used the LS6 for two years before being replaced by the LS2 in 2006. For 2006, the Z06 replaced the LS6 with the new LS7. The LS6 shares its basic block architecture with the GM LS1 engine, but other changes were made to the design such as windows cast into the block between cylinders, improved main web strength and bay to bay breathing, an intake manifold and MAF-sensor with higher flow capacity, a camshaft with higher lift and more duration, a higher compression ratio of 10.5:1, sodium-filled exhaust valves, and a revised oiling system better suited to high lateral acceleration.


text: LS6 intake manifolds were also used on all 2001+ LS1/6 engines. The casting number, located on the top rear edge of the block, is 12561168.


text: The 4.8 L and the 5.3 L are smaller truck versions of the LS1 and were designed to replace the 305 and the 350 in trucks. The 4.8L and the 5.3L engines share the same Gen III LS-series engine block and heads (upper end) and therefore, some parts interchange freely between these engines and other variants in the LS family.


text: The Vortec 4800 LR4 (VIN code "V") is a Generation III small block V8 truck engine. Displacement is with a bore and stroke of . It is the smallest of the Generation III Vortec truck engines and was the replacement for the 5.0 L 5000 L30. The LR4 engines in 1999 produced while the 2000 and above models made and all have a torque rating between , depending on the model year and application. The 2005–2006 models made and , LR4s are manufactured at St. Catharines, Ontario and Romulus, Michigan. It uses flat top pistons.


text: The Vortec 5300, or LM7/L59/LM4, is a V8 truck engine. It is a longer-stroked by version of the Vortec 4800 and replaced the L31. L59 denoted a flexible fuel version of the standard fuel LM7 engine. Displacement is from a bore and stroke of . Vortec 5300s are built in St. Catharines, Ontario and Romulus, Michigan. Another engine variant, the L33, shares the same displacement, but has an aluminum block with cast in cylinder liners, much like the LS1.


text: The Vortec 5300 LM7 (VIN code 8th digit "T") was introduced in 1999. The "garden variety" Generation III V8 has a cast-iron block and aluminum heads.


text: The Vortec 5300 L59 (VIN code "Z") is a flexible fuel version of the LM7. The 2002–2003 made and , while the 2004–2007 L59s made and .


text: The Vortec 5300 LM4 (VIN code "P") is an aluminum block version of the LM7, and had a short production life, as did the specific vehicles in which LM4s are found.


text: The Vortec 5300 L33 (VIN code "B") is an aluminum block version of the LM7, marketed as the Vortec 5300 HO. Instead of the LM7's dished pistons, the L33 uses the 4.8L's flat top pistons. It also uses 799 cylinder heads, identical to 243 castings found on LS6s and LS2s, lacking only the LS6-spec valve springs and hollow stem exhaust valves. This combination raised the compression from 9.5:1 to 10.0:1. The L33 also used a unique camshaft not shared with any other engine, specs @ .050 duration are: 193 duration, .482 lift, 116 LSA. As a result, power increased by , to and 335 lb·ft (441 N·m). It was only available on extended cab short bed 4WD pickup trucks. Only 25% of 2005-made pickup trucks had an L33 engine.


text: The 6.0 L is a larger version of the LS motor. 6.0 L blocks were cast of iron, designed to bridge the gap between the new small blocks and big blocks in truck applications. There were two versions of this engine: LQ4, and LQ9, the latter being more performance oriented.


text: The Vortec 6000 is a V8 truck engine. Displacement is from a bore and stroke of . It is an iron/aluminum (1999 & 2000 model year engines had cast iron heads) design and produces and .


text: The Vortec 6000 LQ4 (VIN code "U") is a V8 truck engine. Displacement is from a bore and stroke of . It is an iron/aluminum (1999 & 2000 model year engines had cast iron heads) design and produces and . LQ4s are built in Romulus, Michigan and Silao, Mexico.


text: The Vortec HO 6000 or VortecMAX (VIN code "N") is a special high-output version of the Vortec 6000 V8 truck engine originally designed for Cadillac in 2002. This engine was renamed as the VortecMAX for 2006. It features high-compression (10:1) flat-top pistons for an extra and , bringing output to and . LQ9 came exclusively with 4.10 gears. LQ9s are built only in Romulus, Michigan.


text: In 2004, Generation III was superseded by the Generation IV. This category of engines has provisions for high-displacement ranges up to and power output to . Based on the Generation III design, Generation IV was designed with displacement on demand in mind, a technology that allows every other cylinder in the firing order to be deactivated. It can also accommodate variable valve timing.


text: A 3 valves per cylinder design was originally slated for the LS7, which would have been a first for a GM pushrod engine; but the idea was shelved owing to design complexities and when the same two-valve configuration as the other Generation III and IV engines proved to be sufficient to meet the goals for the LS7.


text: This family of blocks was the first of the generation IV small block with the LS2 being the progenitor of this family and generation. This family of blocks has seen a wide range of applications from performance vehicles to truck usage.


text: The Generation IV 6000 is a V8 engine that displaces from bore and stroke of . It features either a cast iron or aluminum engine block with cast aluminum heads. Certain versions feature variable cam phasing, Active Fuel Management, and Flex-fuel capability.


text: The LS2 was introduced as the Corvette's new base engine for the 2005 model year. It also appeared as the standard powerplant for the 2005–2006 GTO. It produces at 6000 rpm and at 4400 rpm from a slightly larger displacement of . It is similar to the high-performance LS6, but with improved torque throughout the rpm range. The LS2 uses the "243" casting heads used on the "LS6" (although without the sodium-filled valves), a smaller camshaft, and an additional . The compression of the "LS2" was also raised to 10.9:1 compared to the LS1s' 10.25:1 and the "LS6"s' 10.5:1. The "LS2" in the E-series HSVs are modified in Australia to produce and of torque. The "LS2" in the Chevrolet Trailblazer SS and the Saab 9-7X Aero are rated at (2006–2007) or (2008–2009) and of torque due to a different (sometimes referred to as a "truck") intake manifold that produces more torque at lower RPMs.


text: The "LS2" is also used as the basis of the NASCAR Specification Engine that is used as an optional engine in NASCAR's Camping World Series East and West divisions starting in 2006, and starting in 2010 may also be used on tracks shorter than two kilometers (1.25 miles) in the Camping World Truck Series.


text: A version of NASCAR V8 cylinder block cast in Compacted Graphite Iron by Grainger & Worrall won the UK's Casting of the Year Award 2010.


text: The L76 is derived from the LS2, and like the "LS2" it features an aluminum engine block. However, the "L76" does feature Active fuel management (AFM). While the displacement on demand technology was disabled on Holdens, this feature is enabled on the 2008 Pontiac G8 GT and subsequently refitted in the 2009 model Holdens with AFM enabled, but only on models fitted with the 6L80 Automatic Transmission. The engine also meets Euro III emissions requirements. Output is at 5600 rpm and at 4400 rpm for the Holden variant, and and for the G8 GT. The Vortec 6000 or new VortecMax version is based on the Holden "L76" engine, and features variable cam phasing, along with Active Fuel Management. It can be considered the replacement for the Generation III LQ9 engine. It produces at 5400 rpm and at 4400 rpm. Production of the truck-spec L76 started in late 2006, and it was only available with the new body style Silverado and Sierra, as well as the then-new Suburban. The final year for the truck-spec L76 was 2009 for all three applications; it was replaced by the 6.2L L9H engine for MY 2010 in the pickup trucks.


text: The L98 is a slightly modified version of the "L76". Since Holden did not use the displacement on demand technology of the "L76", some redundant hardware was removed to form the "L98". Power increased to at 5700 rpm and at 4400 rpm.


text: L77 engines were released in the Holden Commodore Series II VE range in both manual and automatic transmissions, along with the Chevrolet Caprice PPV (police car). The "L77" differs from the "L76" with its inclusion of Flex-fuel capability, allowing it to run on E85 ethanol. The "L77" is rated at and of torque in the manual Commodore SS and SS-V, in automatic Commodores it is rated at and of torque.


text: The LY6 is a Generation IV small-block V8 truck engine with a cast-iron block. It shares the same bore and stroke as its LQ4 predecessor. Like other Gen IV engines, it features variable valve timing. It generated at 5,600 rpm and of torque at 4,400 rpm using "regular" gas, or ~87 octane. Redline is 6,000 rpm and the compression ratio is 9.6:1. This engine uses L92 / LS3 style rectangle port cylinder heads, though without the sodium-filled exhaust valves of the LS3.


text: The L96 is essentially identical to its predecessor, the LY6. The primary difference is that the L96 is Flex-Fuel capable, while the LY6 is not.


text: The "LFA" is a Generation IV small block V8 truck engine. The "LFA" variant is used in the GM's "two mode" hybrid GMT900 trucks and SUVs, and is an all-aluminum design. It has a 10.8:1 compression ratio and produces at 5100 rpm and at 4100 rpm. Engine VIN code of 5.


text: In 2008 this engine was selected by Wards as one of the 10 best engines in any regular production vehicle.


text: The LZ1 is almost entirely based on its predecessor, the LFA, but with some revisions, such as including up-integrated electronic throttle control, long-life spark plugs, GM's Oil Life System, Active Fuel Management and variable valve timing. It has the same compression ratio, power and torque ratings as its predecessor, the "LFA".


text: This family of blocks is just an updated version of its Generation III predecessor with Generation IV updates and capabilities. Applications of this family were mainly for trucks but did see some mild usage (with some modifications) in front-wheel-drive cars.


text: The Vortec 4800 "LY2" (VIN code "C") is a Generation IV small-block V8 truck engine. Like its LR4 predecessor, it gets its displacement from a bore and stroke of . The smallest member of the Generation IV engine family is unique in that it is the only member of that family that is used in trucks that do not feature variable valve timing. It has a cast-iron block. Power output is and torque is .


text: The Vortec 4800 L20 makes more power and features variable valve timing. The system adjusts both intake and exhaust timing but does not come with Active Fuel Management. The L20 has a cast-iron block and power output is while torque is . The Vortec 4800 base engines were dropped from the Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon in favor of the 5300 with Active Fuel Management.


text: The Generation IV 5.3L engines share all the improvements and refinements found in other Generation IV engines. 8 versions of the Gen IV 5.3L engine were produced: 3 iron blocks (LY5, LMG, and LMF) and 5 aluminum blocks (LH6, LH8, LH9, LC9, and LS4). All versions featured Active Fuel Management except for the LH8, LH9, and LMF.


text: The Vortec 5300 LH6 (VIN code "M") with Active Fuel Management replaced the LM4 for 2005, and was the first of the Generation IV small block V8 truck engines to go into production. The LH6 produced and . It is the aluminum block counterpart to the LY5.


text: The LS4 is a version of the Generation IV block. Though it has the same displacement as the Vortec 5300 LY5, it features an aluminum block instead of iron, and uses the same cylinder head casting as the Generation III LS6 engine. The LS4 is adapted for transverse front-wheel drive applications, with a bell-housing bolt pattern that differs from the rear-wheel-drive blocks (so as to mate with the 4T65E).


text: According to GM, "The crankshaft is shortened at the flywheel end and at the accessory drive end – to reduce the length of the engine compared to the 6.0 L. All accessories are driven by a single serpentine belt to save space. The water pump is mounted remotely with an elongated pump manifold that connects it to the coolant passages. Revised oil pan baffles, or windage trays, are incorporated into the LS4 to ensure that the oil sump stays loaded during high-g cornering." Active Fuel Management is also used. Output of this version is /300 hp on LaCrosse Super and .


text: Introduced in 2007, the Vortec 5300 LY5 (VIN code "J") is the replacement for the LM7 Generation III engine. For SUV applications, it is rated at and of torque; while for pickup truck applications, it is rated at at 5200 rpm and at 4000 rpm


text: The Vortec 5300 LC9 (VIN code "3" or "7") is the aluminum block Flex-Fuel version of the LH6, and is found in 4WD models. SUV applications are rated at at 5400 rpm and at 4000 rpm. Pickup truck applications are rated at at 5300 rpm and at 4000 rpm. Variable valve timing was added for the 2010 model year.


text: The Vortec 5300 LMG (VIN code "0") is the flexible-fuel version of the LY5. Power and torque ratings for SUV and pickup truck applications are the same as each application's LY5 rating. Variable valve timing was added for the 2010 model year. Active Fuel Management is standard on this model for fuel economy purposes.


text: The LH8 was introduced in 2008 as the V8 option for the Hummer H3. It was the simplest most basic 5.3L V8 of its family, lacking any special technologies. Also known as the Vortec 5300, the LH8 was available in the H3 and GM mid-size pickups through 2009.


text: The LH8 is a variant of the 5.3 L Gen IV small block V8 modified to fit in the engine bay of the GMT 345 SUV and GMT 355 trucks. It produces at 5200 rpm and at 4000 rpm. It has a displacement of and a compression ratio of 9.9:1.


text: In 2010, the LH8 was replaced by the LH9. The LH9 was upgraded with Variable Valve Timing (VVT) and flex fuel capability (but not Active Fuel Management). The Vortec 5300 LH9 produces at 5200 rpm and at 4000 rpm. It has a displacement of . The compression ratio was 9.9:1 for 2010, but was reduced to 9.7:1 for the remaining two years of production.


text: Introduced in 2010, the LMF is a low-tech LY5, used in the lower volume half-ton AWD cargo vans that still used the 4L60E 4-speed automatic, lacking Active Fuel Management. The LMF features variable valve timing.


text: Inspired by the LS1.R in size and performance goals, this family of blocks was designed for race-oriented performance. The only engine with this bore size that was used in a production vehicle is the LS7 with the LSX being only for aftermarket use. One unique feature of this family is that the cylinders are siamesed, no water passages between neighboring cylinders. This was done to increase both bore size and block strength.


text: The LS7 is a engine, based on the Gen IV architecture. The block is changed, with sleeved cylinders in an aluminum block with a larger bore and longer stroke than the LS2. The small-block's bore spacing is retained, requiring pressed-in cylinder liners. The crankshaft and main bearing caps are forged steel for durability, the connecting rods are forged titanium, and the pistons are hypereutectic. The two-valve arrangement is retained, though the titanium intake valves by Del West have grown to and sodium-filled exhaust valves are up to .


text: Peak output is at 6300 rpm (72.0 BHP/L) and of torque at 4800 rpm with a 7000 rpm redline. During GM's reliability testing of this engine in its prototype phase, the LS7 was remarked to have been repeatedly tested to be 8000 rpm capable, although power was not recorded at that rpm level, due to the constraints of the camshaft's hydraulic lifters and the intake manifold ability to flow required air at that engine speed.


text: The LS7 is hand-built by the General Motors Performance Build Center in Wixom, Michigan. Most of these engines are installed in the Z06, some are also sold to individuals by GM as a crate engine. The 2014 and 2015 Z28 were the only Camaros to receive the 427 LS7. As of early 2022, the LS7 is no longer being supplied as a crate engine, with Chevrolet intending to fulfill all current orders until inventory is depleted.


text: After an extensive engineering process over several years, Holden Special Vehicles fitted the LS7 to a special edition model: the W427. The HSV-tuned engine produced at 6500 rpm and at 5000 rpm of torque. It was unveiled at the Melbourne International Motor Show on February 29, 2008 and went on sale in August 2008. The first Australian car to be fitted with this engine, however, was the CSV GTS of 2007, which was claimed to have a power output of and .


text: This family was designed as a replacement for the LS2 but enlarged to better accommodate variable valve timing and Active Fuel Management while still generating good performance. This family of engines has mainly seen duty in performance cars and high-end SUVs.


text: The 2007 Cadillac Escalade has a Vortec 6200 (RPO L92) engine. It is an all-aluminum design which, while still a pushrod engine, boasts variable valve timing. The system adjusts both intake and exhaust timing between two settings. This engine produces and in the GMC Yukon Denali/XL Denali, GMC Sierra Denali, Hummer H2, and briefly in the Chevrolet Tahoe LTZ (midway through MY 2008 through MY 2009) and rated at and . Starting in 2009, it was also available in the Chevrolet Silverado and GMC Sierra, as the L9H, with power ratings of and . Engines built prior to April 1, 2006, contained AFM components, but the software was not present in the PCM and thus the system was not functional. Engines built after this date did not have any AFM components, and instead used a valley cover plate similar to the L20, save for the L94 variants mentioned below.


text: The 2009 L92 was modified with Flex Fuel capability, becoming the L9H. In 2010, the L9H was further modified with Active Fuel Management, becoming the L94 (in the Cadillac Escalade and GMC Yukon Denali).


text: The LS3 was introduced as the Corvette's new base engine for the 2008 model year. It produces at 5900 rpm and at 4600 rpm without the optional Corvette exhaust and is SAE certified. The block is an updated version of the LS2 casting featuring a larger bore of creating a displacement of . It also features higher flowing cylinder heads sourced from the L92, a more aggressive camshaft with lift, a 10.7:1 compression ratio, a revised valvetrain with offset intake rocker arms, a high-flow intake manifold and /hr fuel injectors from the LS7 engine.


text: The L76/L92/LS3 cylinder heads use intake valves, and exhaust valves. Improved manufacturing efficiency makes these heads cheaper to produce than the outgoing LS6 heads, significantly undercutting the price of aftermarket heads. The large valves, however, limit maximum rpm - 6000 in the L76 (with AFM), and 6600 in the LS3 (with hollow stem valves).


text: In addition to the above, a dual-mode exhaust package with a bypass on acceleration was available on C6 Corvettes. The dual-mode exhaust uses vacuum-actuated outlet valves, which control engine noise during low-load operation, but open for maximum performance during high-load operation. The system is similar to the C6 Z06, but uses a diameter exhaust compared to the Z06's . Power is boosted to and with this option. A similar system was optional on later model 5th generation Chevrolet Camaros and standard on the 2016–2017 Chevrolet SS, but no horsepower or torque increases were advertised on those vehicles.


text: From April 2008, Australian performance car manufacturer HSV adopted the LS3 as its standard V8 throughout the range, replacing the LS2. The LS3 received modifications for its application to HSV E Series models, producing . The LS3 engine in the E Series II GTS (released September 2009) was upgraded to produce . All HSV MY12.5 excluding the base Maloo and Clubsport variants have been upgraded to produce .


text: From September 2015 Holden introduced the LS3 in all V8 models of the VF II Commodore and WN II Caprice-V, replacing the 6.0L L77.


text: The L99 is derived from the LS3 with reduced output but adds Active Fuel Management (formerly called Displacement on Demand) and variable valve timing, which allows it to run on only four cylinders during light load conditions.


text: The Gen IV LS9 is a supercharged engine, based on the LS3; the LS7 block was not used due to the higher cylinder pressures created by the supercharger requiring the thicker cylinder walls of the LS3. Cylinder dimensions are now bore and stroke of . It is equipped with an Eaton four-lobe Roots type supercharger and has a compression ratio of 9.1:1. Power output is rated at 6500 rpm and at 3800 rpm of torque. Note: GM previously used the LS9 RPO code on 1969 and later Chevrolet trucks (both 2WD and 4WD) including Blazers, Jimmys, Suburbans, as well as car carriers. The original LS9 was a V8, developing and of torque.


text: In 2017, Holden Special Vehicles used a modified version of the LS9 in their GTSR W1, the last ever Holden Commodore based vehicle produced in Australia.


text: The supercharged 6.2L LSA is similar to the LS9 and debuted in the 2009 CTS-V. The LSA has been SAE certified at at 6100 rpm and at 3800 rpm. GM labeled it "the most powerful ever offered in Cadillac's nearly 106-year history". The LSA features a smaller capacity supercharger rather than the variant of the LS9. Other differences include a slightly lower 9.0:1 compression ratio, single unit heat exchanger and cast pistons.


text: A and version of the LSA engine is used in the 2012 Camaro ZL1. On May 15, 2013, Holden Special Vehicles announced that this version of the LSA engine will also be used in the GEN-F GTS.


text: In 2007, wardsauto.com reported that the LS3 (used by 2008 Chevrolet Corvette) and Vortec 6000 LFA (used by 2008 Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid) engines would be the final two designs in the Generation IV small-block engine family, and the future designs would be part of the Generation V engine family. An experimental engine was built based on L92 engine from Cadillac Escalade, GMC Yukon Denali and Hummer H2, and reported to generate on gasoline via direct fuel injection, increased compression ratio to 11.5:1, and a modified engine controller. The first Gen V LT engine was the LT1, announced in 2012 as the initial powerplant for the redesigned Corvette C7, succeeding the LS engine family. The new logo formally adopts the Small Block name for the engines.


text: The fifth generation of the iconic GM small block engine family features the same cam-in-block architecture and bore centers (the distance between the centers of each cylinder) that were born with the original small block in 1954. Structurally, the Gen-V small-block is similar to the Gen III/IV engines, including a deep-skirt cylinder block. Refinements and new or revised components are used throughout, including a revised cooling system and all-new cylinder heads. Because the positions of the intake and exhaust valves are flipped from where they would be in an LS engine, as well as the need for an addition to the camshaft to drive the high-pressure fuel pump for the direct fuel injection, few parts are interchangeable with the Gen III/IV engines.


text: All Gen V engines are aluminum blocks (except for the L8T) with aluminum cylinder heads, and include direct injection, piston cooling jets, active fuel management, variable displacement oil pump, and continuously variable valve timing. However, they all retain their ancestors' two-valve pushrod valvetrain.


text: This family of blocks was the first of the generation V small block with the LT1 being the progenitor of this family and generation. This family of blocks has seen a wide range of applications from performance vehicles to truck usage.


text: The LT1 engine debuted in the 2014 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray and is the first Generation V small block engine. Like its LS3 predecessor, it gets its displacement from a bore and stroke of with a compression ratio of 11.5 to 1.


text: The LT2 engine debuted in the 2020 Corvette Stingray as the successor to the LT1. It was designed specifically with mid-engine placement and dry-sump lubrication in mind.


text: The EcoTec3 is a Generation V small-block V8 truck engine (VIN Code "J"). The L86 is an LT1 engine modified for truck use with a compression ratio of 11.5 to 1. In 2019, GM introduced the L87 as the successor to the L86. Power and Torque remain the same, but whereas the L86's 'Active Fuel Management' alternates between V-4 & V8 modes, the L87's 'Dynamic Fuel Management' can alternate between any of 17 different firing orders which vary both how many and which cylinder[s] are actually firing based on demand calculated every 125 milliseconds.


text: The LT4 engine builds on the design strengths of the previous LS9 supercharged engine used in the sixth-generation Corvette ZR1 and leverages the technologies introduced on the seventh-generation Corvette Stingray, including direct injection, cylinder deactivation, and continuously variable valve timing, to take Corvette performance to an all-new level. The LT4 engine is based on the same Gen 5 small block foundation as the Corvette Stingray's LT1 6.2 L naturally aspirated engine, incorporating several unique features designed to support its higher output and the greater cylinder pressures created by forced induction, including: Rotocast A356T6 aluminum cylinder heads that are stronger and handle heat better than conventional aluminum heads, lightweight titanium intake valves, forged powder metal steel connecting rods, 10.0:1 compression ratio, enhances performance and efficiency and is enabled by direct injection, forged aluminum pistons with unique, stronger structure to ensure strength under high cylinder pressures, stainless steel exhaust manifolds for structure at higher temperatures, aluminum balancer for reduced mass, and standard dry-sump oiling system with a dual-pressure-control oil pump. The engine uses a Eaton TVS Supercharger. Although smaller than the previous supercharger used on the sixth-gen ZR1, it spins to 5000 rpm faster thus generating boost quicker while making only slightly less total boost than the LS9 engine. The Escalade-V variant uses a Eaton TVS Supercharger. This engine is also used by Scuderia Cameron Glickenhaus for their SCG 004S.


text: The LT5 engine debuted in the seventh-generation Corvette ZR1 at the 2017 Dubai Motor Show. It draws its name from the 5.7 L LT5 from the C4, and was manufactured from 1989–1993. The original LT5 is rarely known as a Chevy small block V8, as it was designed by Lotus, built by Mercury Marine, and implements a DOHC 32-valve multi-port injection system, instead of the 16-valve push-rod design. The new (and unrelated) LT5, however, has increased its displacement from , retains the Gen V OHV valvetrain, and is topped with a Eaton TVS supercharger and an improved intercooler. It simultaneously couples the standard direct injection system found on Gen 5 engines with port fuel injection. Power output is at 6400 rpm and of torque at 3600 rpm.


text: The L8T is the first iron block member of the Gen V family. It shares its bore with the L86, but with a longer stroke of to displace . It is rated for at 5,200 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm. The compression ratio is 10.8:1. The longer stroke yields little additional peak torque output compared to the L86, but only requires 87 Octane. The stroke is also shorter than the LS7's , to optimize rod ratio for reliability.


text: Rather than allow a "high-strung" small block to fail the HD truck market, the iron block, lack of both stop-start and cylinder deactivation, longer stroke and rod ratio, lower compression, mere 87 Octane requirement, and greater displacement all suggest that the L8T was designed specifically to assuage the HD truck market's concerns.


text: Unlike the previous Generation III/IV bore block families, there is no displacement variant (having been 'replaced' by GM's 5th Generation LT V8-based V6, the LV3).


text: Dubbed EcoTec3 is a Generation V small block V8 truck engine (VIN Code "C"). Like its Vortec 5300 Generation IV predecessor, it gets its displacement from a bore and stroke of with a compression ratio of 11.0 to 1.


text: The L8B is an eAssist mild hybrid version of the L83 featuring a .45-KWH lithium ion battery pack. This setup can improve fuel efficiency by about 13%. This adds about to the total weight of the truck but provides an additional and .


text: The L82 is one of two 5.3 liter V8s available in the 4th generation Chevrolet Silverado and 5th generation GMC Sierra. The L82 uses Active Fuel Management instead of the L84's Dynamic Fuel Management system and is only available on lower-trim trucks.


text: The L84 is one of two 5.3 liter V8s available in the 4th generation Chevrolet Silverado and GMC Sierra. The L84 is distinguished from the L82 by the presence of the Dynamic Fuel Management System and is either available or standard on mid- to high-level trims. The L84 is also the base engine on the 2021- Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, Chevrolet Suburban, & GMC Yukon XL.


text: These V6 engines are based on the V8 version of the Gen V family, but with two fewer cylinders - a design lineage that dates back to the previous 4.3 L V6, which was itself a Gen I small block with a pair of cylinders removed.


text: Dubbed EcoTec3 is a Generation V small block V6 truck engine. It gets its displacement from bore and stroke of with a compression ratio of 11.0 to 1. Firing order is 1-6-5-4-3-2.


text: The engine is essentially the same as the LV3, but without Active Fuel Management technology. The LV1 made its debut in the 2018 model year GM full-size vans — the 2018 Chevrolet Express and 2018 GMC Savana.


text: The 8th character in the VIN or the RPO code from the glove box sticker can be used to identify which type of LS engine a vehicle has.


text: In the early production run of the LS-series engine, some engines encountered 'piston slap' during the first few minutes after a cold engine start; this sound is caused by the pistons rocking slightly in the cylinder until they reach operating temperature/size. 'Piston slap' sometimes sounds more like a knock or the sound of a diesel engine running. It is typically only present when the engine is cold and disappears as the engine reaches operating temperature. The noise of 'piston slap' often is louder when listening for it below the oil pan.


text: Another common problem with the 2001–2006 5.3L engines was cracking cylinder heads. This is commonly called the 'Castech Head' failure on the internet. GM issued a TSB on this failure to help service techs identify the problem. The head casting number (which can be viewed from the passenger side of the vehicle just in front of the valve cover) was 706. Some heads with this casting number would fail (but not all of them) as GM had different suppliers for the same head. The failure was due to undetected porosity around the oil drains in the head.


text: In 2011, Chevrolet Performance began to offer the build your own engine program for LS7 (part number 19259944) or LS9 (part number 19259945) crate engines. It also provides customers the experience of visiting GM's unique Performance Build Center in Wixom, Michigan, where they will join a specially trained engine builder to assist in the start-to-finish assembly of the engine they purchased – from installing the crankshaft in the cylinder block to topping off the engine with its intake system. In the case of the LS9, it also means installing the supercharger assembly. Upon completion, a personalized nameplate is added to the engine.


text: The build-your-own engine program associated with the V8 engines, available for buyers of Chevrolet Corvette, Cadillac XLR, and certain top-spec Chevrolet Camaro models, were temporarily halted after the closure of GM Performance Build Center in Wixom, Michigan. The program's venue was reported to be relocated to the Corvette assembly plant in Bowling Green, Kentucky.


text: The LS7.R engine is a variation of the LS7 used in the highly successful C6.R American Le Mans Series racecar. It was crowned as Global Motorsport Engine of the year by a jury of 50 race engine engineers on the Professional Motorsport World Expo 2006 in Cologne, Germany.


text: At the 2006 SEMA show, GM Performance Parts introduced the LSX engine, an all-new cast-iron racing block based on the LS7 engine. It was designed with help from drag racing legend Warren Johnson. It offers displacements ranging from with a bore x stroke of and is capable of withstanding . This block incorporates two extra rows of head-bolt holes per bank for increased clamping capacity. The six bolt steel main caps are the same ones used on the LS7 engine. The engine debuted at the auto show in a customized 1969 Camaro owned by Reggie Jackson. The LSX was available starting the second quarter of 2007, set to be available in authorized dealerships and retailers on March 31, 2007. The Hennessey Venom GT also uses the LSX engine based on LS7.


text: Chevrolet Performance LSX Bowtie block includes LSX specific six-bolts-per-cylinder head bolt pattern, billet-steel six-bolt dowel-located main bearing caps, extra-thick deck for maximum clamping force, extra-thick cylinder walls allow increased bore capacity (maximum bore still allows minimum wall thickness), true priority main oiling system, main web bay-to-bay breathing holes reduce crank windage, orange powder coat finish, machined bore at is ready for final boring/honing.


text: A version engineered by Ilmor is used in NASCAR for the Gander Outdoors Truck Series and the ARCA Racing Series as an option engine. Most teams in both series (known as "NT1" in the Truck Series and the "ARCA 396" in ARCA) have switched to the engine because of cost savings.


text: Chevrolet Performance LSX376 crate engines are updated versions of LSX crate engine family designed to support up to . All models use the Chevrolet Performance LSX Bowtie block.


text: LSX376-B15 (part number 19299306) includes forged steel crankshaft, forged powdered metal I-beam rods (both the crankshaft and rods from LSA engine) and forged aluminum pistons (9.0:1 compression), high-flow rectangular-port six-bolt LSX-LS3 heads for supercharged and turbocharged combinations producing up to of boost and up to about .


text: LSX376-B8 (part number 19171049) is a more economical version that is capable of approximately , for engine producing approximately . It is designed for production-style supercharger and turbo systems used without enhancements or modifications.


text: Chevrolet Performance created the 454 big-block Chevy race engine in 1970 and continued production of the crate engine through 2001. The addition of EFI and picking up the Vortec 7400 name took place in 1996 which was replaced with the 8100 series Vortec platform once the 7400 was retired. Chevrolet Performance released the 454 again in 2011 as a small-block crate engine dubbed the LSX454R officially rated at 776 horsepower at 7,000 rpm and 649 lb-ft of torque at 5,100 rpm. The LSX454R was discontinued in July 2018 but will be recorded as one of the more powerful LS crate engines to be assembled from Chevy Performance.


text: Noonan Race Engineering developed two billet aluminum blocks based on the LS engine. Bore sizes are up to 4.185 in and stroke up to 4.5 in are available, making a 495 cu in displacement possible. The billet construction provides added block integrity suited to high horsepower applications. The block design incorporates turbocharger pressure feed lines in the front of the valley and oil dump ports in the side of the block to return oil to the sump. In addition to the solid block, a waterjacketed version was also designed to provide better cooling options for street or endurance purposes. Noonan also has developed intake manifolds for the LS; specifically for turbocharging or twin turbo charging or supercharging.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: Laurene Powell Jobs ( Powell; born November 6, 1963) is an American billionaire businesswoman and executive. She is the founder and chair of Emerson Collective and XQ Institute. Powell Jobs resides in Palo Alto, California, with her three children. She is the widow of Steve Jobs, co-founder and former CEO of Apple Inc., and she manages the Steve Jobs Trust. She has recently been a major donor to Democratic Party politicians.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: Powell Jobs grew up in West Milford, New Jersey. She earned a B.A. in political science from the University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences and a B.S. degree in economics from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1985. She received her M.B.A. degree from the Stanford Graduate School of Business in 1991.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In October 1989, Steve Jobs gave a "View from the Top" lecture at Stanford Business School. Laurene Powell was a new MBA student and sneaked to the front of the lecture and started up a conversation with Jobs, who was seated next to her. They ended up having dinner together that night. A year and a half later, on March 18, 1991, they married in a ceremony at the Ahwahnee Hotel in Yosemite National Park. Presiding over the wedding was Kōbun Chino Otogawa, a Zen Buddhist monk. Their son, Reed, was born in September 1991, followed by daughters Erin in 1995 and Eve in 1998. Laurene is also the stepmother of Lisa Brennan-Jobs, Steve's daughter from a previous relationship, who was born in 1978.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: Powell Jobs co-founded Terravera, a natural foods company that sold to retailers throughout Northern California. She also served on the board of directors of Achieva, which created online tools to help students study more effectively at standardized testing. Before business school, Powell Jobs worked for Merrill Lynch Asset Management and spent three years at Goldman Sachs as a fixed-income trading strategist.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In 2017, Powell Jobs purchased a 20 percent stake in the ownership group Monumental Sports & Entertainment, which holds the NBA's Washington Wizards, NHL's Washington Capitals, and Capital One Arena. She was the second-largest shareholder behind chairman Ted Leonsis.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: On October 5, 2011, at the age of 56, Steve Jobs, the CEO of Apple, died due to complications from a relapse of islet cell neuroendocrine pancreatic cancer. Powell Jobs inherited the Steven P. Jobs Trust, which as of May 2013 had a 7.3% stake in The Walt Disney Company worth about $12.1 billion, and 38.5 million shares of Apple Inc.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: , Powell Jobs and her family were ranked 59th in the "Forbes"' annual list of the world's billionaires and 30th in Forbes 400. According to the same list, she is the wealthiest woman in the technology industry.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In 2004, Powell Jobs founded the Emerson Collective, a private company structured as a Limited Liability Company, that supports social entrepreneurs and organizations working in education and immigration reform, social justice, media, and journalism and conservation through partnerships, grants, and investments. Through Emerson, Powell Jobs owns "The Atlantic" and a stake in Axios.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Powell Jobs donated $2 million to Hillary Clinton and raised a further $4 million for her.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: Powell Jobs was an early investor in, and board member of, Ozy. In addition, Ozy credited her as a "contributor."


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In 2017, she backed the founding of the political organization ACRONYM, which raised ethical questions for Powell Jobs for its creation of Courier Newsroom.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In 2018, she issued a statement that the book "Small Fry" by her stepdaughter, Lisa Brennan, contains false information about Steve Jobs as a father.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In 1997, Powell Jobs and Carlos Watson co-founded College Track, a nonprofit organization in East Palo Alto to improve high school graduation, college enrollment, and college graduation rates for "underserved" students.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: Of College Track's high school graduates, many of whom are first-generation college students, about 90 percent attend four-year colleges, and 70 percent finish college in six years, whereas the national average for first-generation college students is 24 percent. College Track has facilities in East Palo Alto, Sacramento, San Francisco, Oakland, Watts, Boyle Heights, New Orleans, Aurora, Colorado, Denver, and the Washington, D.C., area. "We have a wait list of five cities where we'd like to open up centers," Powell Jobs has said. "We want to keep our standards high, though, and are reluctant to grow through franchising or through dissemination of our curriculum and training."


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: In September 2015, Powell Jobs launched a $50 million project to create high schools with new approaches to education. Called XQ: The Super School Project, the initiative aims to inspire teams of educators, students, and community leaders to create and implement new plans for high schools. Efforts include altering school schedules, curriculums and technologies in order to replace the country's century-old high school education model. Funding for XQ comes from Powell Jobs' Emerson Collective. Following an initial $50 million financial contribution, XQ announced an additional contribution, awarding ten schools $10 million each, for a total financial contribution of $100 million. The schools were chosen from approximately 700 submissions nationwide. Powell Jobs's team of advisors is led by Russlynn H. Ali.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: As of 2018, Powell Jobs sits on the board of directors of College Track, Conservation International, and Stanford University. She is chair of the board of directors of XQ and also sits on the chairman's advisory board of the Council on Foreign Relations. In 2014, she was ranked as the 29th most powerful woman in the world by "Forbes". Her ranking rose from #39 in 2013.


title: Laurene Powell Jobs

text: Powell Jobs's philanthropy has been described as of limited "transparency and accountability." In 2019, Powell Jobs was named the "Least Transparent Mega-Giver" by "Inside Philanthropy".


title: Blue

text: Blue is one of the three primary colours in the RYB colour model (traditional colour theory), as well as in the RGB (additive) colour model. It lies between violet and cyan on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall effect explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.


title: Blue

text: Blue has been an important colour in art and decoration since ancient times. The semi-precious stone lapis lazuli was used in ancient Egypt for jewellery and ornament and later, in the Renaissance, to make the pigment ultramarine, the most expensive of all pigments. In the eighth century Chinese artists used cobalt blue to colour fine blue and white porcelain. In the Middle Ages, European artists used it in the windows of cathedrals. Europeans wore clothing coloured with the vegetable dye woad until it was replaced by the finer indigo from America. In the 19th century, synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced organic dyes and mineral pigments. Dark blue became a common colour for military uniforms and later, in the late 20th century, for business suits. Because blue has commonly been associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations and the European Union.


title: Blue

text: Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and occasionally with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, chosen by almost half of both men and women as their favourite colour. The same surveys also showed that blue was the colour most associated with the masculine, just ahead of black, and was also the colour most associated with intelligence, knowledge, calm, and concentration.


title: Blue

text: The modern English word "blue" comes from Middle English or , from the Old French , a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word (meaning 'shimmering, lustrous'). In heraldry, the word "azure" is used for "blue".


title: Blue

text: In Russian, Spanish and some other languages, there is no single word for blue, but rather different words for light blue (, ; ) and dark blue (, ; ). See Colour term.


title: Blue

text: Several languages, including Japanese and Lakota Sioux, use the same word to describe blue and green. For example, in Vietnamese, the colour of both tree leaves and the sky is . In Japanese, the word for blue (, ) is often used for colours that English speakers would refer to as green, such as the colour of a traffic signal meaning "go". In Lakota, the word is used for both blue and green, the two colours not being distinguished in older Lakota. (For more on this subject, see Distinguishing blue from green in language.)


title: Blue

text: Linguistic research indicates that languages do not begin by having a word for the colour blue. Colour names often developed individually in natural languages, typically beginning with black and white (or dark and light), and then adding red, and only much later – usually as the last main category of colour accepted in a language – adding the colour blue, probably when blue pigments could be manufactured reliably in the culture using that language.


title: Blue

text: Human eyes perceive blue when observing light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 450–495 nanometres. Blues with a higher frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency and a longer wavelength gradually appear more green. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometres.


title: Blue

text: Isaac Newton included blue as one of the seven colours in his first description the visible spectrum. He chose seven colours because that was the number of notes in the musical scale, which he believed was related to the optical spectrum. He included indigo, the hue between blue and violet, as one of the separate colours, though today it is usually considered a hue of blue.


title: Blue

text: In painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments (red, yellow, blue), which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green. Mixing all three primary colours together produces a dark brown. From the Renaissance onward, painters used this system to create their colours. (See RYB colour model.)


title: Blue

text: The RYB model was used for colour printing by Jacob Christoph Le Blon as early as 1725. Later, printers discovered that more accurate colours could be created by using combinations of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink, put onto separate inked plates and then overlaid one at a time onto paper. This method could produce almost all the colours in the spectrum with reasonable accuracy.


title: Blue

text: On the HSV colour wheel, the complement of blue is yellow; that is, a colour corresponding to an equal mixture of red and green light. On a colour wheel based on traditional colour theory (RYB) where blue was considered a primary colour, its complementary colour is considered to be orange (based on the Munsell colour wheel).


title: Blue

text: Lasers emitting in the blue region of the spectrum became widely available to the public in 2010 with the release of inexpensive high-powered 445–447 nm laser diode technology. Previously the blue wavelengths were accessible only through DPSS which are comparatively expensive and inefficient, but still widely used by scientists for applications including optogenetics, Raman spectroscopy, and particle image velocimetry, due to their superior beam quality. Blue gas lasers are also still commonly used for holography, DNA sequencing, optical pumping, among other scientific and medical applications.


title: Blue

text: Blue is the colour of light between violet and cyan on the visible spectrum. Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Azure, which is a lighter shade of blue, similar to the colour of the sky; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens such as turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.


title: Blue

text: Blue also varies in shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. (For a more complete list see the List of colours).


title: Blue

text: In nature, many blue phenomena arise from structural colouration, the result of interference between reflections from two or more surfaces of thin films, combined with refraction as light enters and exits such films. The geometry then determines that at certain angles, the light reflected from both surfaces interferes constructively, while at other angles, the light interferes destructively. Diverse colours therefore appear despite the absence of colourants.


title: Blue

text: Egyptian blue, the first artificial pigment, was produced in the third millennium BC in Ancient Egypt. It is produced by heating pulverized sand, copper, and natron. It was used in tomb paintings and funereal objects to protect the dead in their afterlife. Prior to the 1700s, blue colourants for artwork were mainly based on lapis lazuli and the related mineral ultramarine. A breakthrough occurred in 1709 when German druggist and pigment maker Johann Jacob Diesbach discovered Prussian blue. The new blue arose from experiments involving heating dried blood with iron sulphides and was initially called Berliner Blau. By 1710 it was being used by the French painter Antoine Watteau, and later his successor Nicolas Lancret. It became immensely popular for the manufacture of wallpaper, and in the 19th century was widely used by French impressionist painters. Beginning in the 1820s, Prussian blue was imported into Japan through the port of Nagasaki. It was called "bero-ai", or Berlin blue, and it became popular because it did not fade like traditional Japanese blue pigment, "ai-gami", made from the dayflower. Prussian blue was used by both Hokusai, in his wave paintings, and Hiroshige.


title: Blue

text: In 1799 a French chemist, Louis Jacques Thénard, made a synthetic cobalt blue pigment which became immensely popular with painters.