title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: The U.S. Treasury was deeply involved with the IMF in finding solutions. The American markets were severely hit. On 27 October 1997, the Dow Jones industrial plunged 554 points or 7.2%, amid ongoing worries about the Asian economies. During the crisis, it fell 12%. The crisis led to a drop in consumer and spending confidence (see 27 October 1997 mini-crash). Nevertheless the economy grew at a very robust 4.5% for the entire year, and did very well in 1998 as well.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: The crisis had significant macroeconomic-level effects, including sharp reductions in values of currencies, stock markets, and other asset prices of several Asian countries. The nominal U.S. dollar GDP of ASEAN fell by $9.2 billion in 1997 and $218.2 billion (31.7%) in 1998. In South Korea, the $170.9 billion fall in 1998 was equal to 33.1% of the 1997 GDP. Many businesses collapsed, and as a consequence, millions of people fell below the poverty line in 1997–1998. Indonesia, South Korea and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: The above tabulation shows that despite the prompt raising of interest rates to 32% in the Philippines upon the onset of crisis in mid-July 1997, and to 65% in Indonesia upon the intensification of crisis in 1998, their local currencies depreciated just the same and did not perform better than those of South Korea, Thailand, and Malaysia, which countries had their high interest rates set at generally lower than 20% during the Asian crisis. This created grave doubts on the credibility of IMF and the validity of its high-interest-rate prescription to economic crisis.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: The economic crisis also led to a political upheaval, most notably culminating in the resignations of President Suharto in Indonesia and Prime Minister General Chavalit Yongchaiyudh in Thailand. There was a general rise in anti-Western sentiment, with George Soros and the IMF in particular singled out as targets of criticisms. Heavy U.S. investment in Thailand ended, replaced by mostly European investment, though Japanese investment was sustained. Islamic and other separatist movements intensified in Southeast Asia as central authorities weakened.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: New regulations weakened the influence of the bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese family-owned businesses that dominate the private sector of Southeast Asia. After the crisis, business relationships were more frequently based on contracts, rather than the trust and family ties of the traditional bamboo network.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: More long-term consequences included reversal of some gains made in the boom years just preceding the crisis. Nominal U.S. dollar GNP per capita fell 42.3% in Indonesia in 1997, 21.2% in Thailand, 19% in Malaysia, 18.5% in South Korea and 12.5% in the Philippines. Falls in income per capita with purchasing power parity were much smaller: in Indonesia by 15%, Thailand 12%, Malaysia 10%, South Korea 6%, Philippines 3%. In most countries recovery was fast. Between 1999 and 2005 average per capita annual growth was 8.2%, investment growth nearly 9%, foreign direct investment 17.5%. Precrisis levels of income per capita with purchasing power parity were exceeded in 1999 in South Korea, in 2000 in Philippines, in 2002 in Malaysia and Thailand, in 2005 in Indonesia. Within East Asia, the bulk of investment and a significant amount of economic weight shifted from Japan and ASEAN to China and India.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: The crisis has been intensively analyzed by economists for its breadth, speed, and dynamism; it affected dozens of countries, had a direct impact on the livelihood of millions, happened within the course of a mere few months, and at each stage of the crisis leading economists, in particular the international institutions, seemed a step behind. Perhaps more interesting to economists was the speed with which it ended, leaving most of the developed economies unharmed. These curiosities have prompted an explosion of literature about financial economics and a litany of explanations why the crisis occurred. A number of critiques have been leveled against the conduct of the IMF in the crisis, including one by former World Bank economist Joseph Stiglitz. Politically there were some benefits. In several countries, particularly South Korea and Indonesia, there was renewed push for improved corporate governance. Rampaging inflation weakened the authority of the Suharto regime and led to its toppling in 1998, as well as accelerating East Timor's independence.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: It is believed that 10,400 people committed suicide in Hong Kong, Japan and South Korea as a result of the crisis.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: In August 2001, the International Labour Organization arranged the Thirteenth Asian Regional Meeting with 39 member states as a result of the financial crisis. It focused on providing social protection, rights at work and creating new jobs.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: After the Asian crisis, international investors were reluctant to lend to developing countries, leading to economic slowdowns in developing countries in many parts of the world. The powerful negative shock also sharply reduced the price of oil, which reached a low of about $11 per barrel towards the end of 1998, causing a financial pinch in OPEC nations and other oil exporters. In response to a severe fall in oil prices, the supermajors that emerged in the late-1990s, undertook some major mergers and acquisitions between 1998 and 2002 – often in an effort to improve economies of scale, hedge against oil price volatility, and reduce large cash reserves through reinvestment.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: The reduction in oil revenue also contributed to the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which in turn caused Long-Term Capital Management in the United States to collapse after losing $4.6 billion in 4 months. A wider collapse in the financial markets was avoided when Alan Greenspan and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a $3.625 billion bailout. Major emerging economies Brazil and Argentina also fell into crisis in the late 1990s (see Argentine debt crisis). The September 11 attacks contributed to major shockwave in developed and developing economies (see Stock market downturn of 2002)


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: The crisis in general was part of a global backlash against the Washington Consensus and institutions such as the IMF and World Bank, which simultaneously became unpopular in developed countries following the rise of the anti-globalization movement in 1999. Four major rounds of world trade talks since the crisis, in Seattle, Doha, Cancún, and Hong Kong, have failed to produce a significant agreement as developing countries have become more assertive, and nations are increasingly turning toward regional or bilateral free trade agreements (FTAs) as an alternative to global institutions.


title: 1997 Asian financial crisis

text: Many nations learned from this, and quickly built up foreign exchange reserves as a hedge against attacks, including Japan, China, South Korea. Pan Asian currency swaps were introduced in the event of another crisis. China, in particular, bought up the government debt of the United States to protect itself. However, nations such as Brazil, Russia, and India as well as most of East Asia began copying the Japanese model of weakening their currencies, and restructuring their economies so as to create a current account surplus to build large foreign currency reserves. This has led to ever-increasing funding for U.S. treasury bonds, allowing or aiding housing (in 2001–2005) and stock asset bubbles (in 1996–2000) to develop in the United States, setting the factors that led to the financial crisis of 2007–2008.


title: Blueface

text: Johnathan Jamall Porter (born January 20, 1997), known professionally as Blueface, is an American rapper. In October 2018, after releasing the music video for his song "Respect My Cryppin'", he became a viral meme due to his offbeat style of rapping. The following month, he was signed to Cash Money West, the West Coast branch of Birdman's Cash Money Records label. In 2019, a remix of his song "Thotiana" (featuring Cardi B and YG), became his most successful single to date, peaking at number 8 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In 2020, he released his debut studio album, "Find the Beat".


title: Blueface

text: Blueface was born on January 20, 1997, in Los Angeles, California. He grew up in Mid-City in central Los Angeles and attended multiple elementary schools before moving in with his mother in Santa Clarita Valley, but later settled in Oakland with his father. After relocating to San Fernando Valley, Blueface attended Arleta High School and joined the marching band playing alto saxophone and football team, becoming the starting quarterback in 2014, standing at 6<nowiki>'4"</nowiki> and weighing 160lbs. As starting quarterback, Blueface led the team to an East Valley League championship in 2014. Throwing for 1,234 yards and 17 touchdowns in 2013 and 1,724 yards and 21 touchdowns in 2014, Blueface committed to play for Fayetteville State University and briefly played college football before leaving in 2016. Blueface references his past experiences as a football player in the video for the remix to "Thotiana", where the rapper portrays a top prospect high school quarterback disrespecting his coach due to his desire to pursue women and fame.


title: Blueface

text: Blueface began to take an interest in rap music at a young age, and mainly listened to 50 Cent, The Game and Snoop Dogg.


title: Blueface

text: Blueface began rapping in January 2017 under the name Blueface Bleedem, a reference to his ties to the School Yard Crips street gang. Originally moving back to Los Angeles after leaving Fayetteville State University, he was invited to his friend Laudiano's music studio to retrieve a phone charger, and after being challenged to rap over a beat, Blueface began to work to release his first song, "Deadlocs", produced by Laudiano, onto SoundCloud. In June 2018, he released his first full-length project, "Famous Cryp". In September 2018, after the song and EP helped him build a local following in California, he released his second EP, "Two Coccy", onto SoundCloud and Spotify.


title: Blueface

text: On October 8, 2018, Blueface released a music video for his song, "Respect My Cryppin'", on WorldstarHipHop's YouTube channel, and shortly after the song was posted to Twitter, where it became a viral meme. The video's popularity led to more of Blueface's music receiving attention, with his songs "Thotiana" and "Next Big Thing" earning newfound popularity. His popularity increased even further after holding a contest on his Instagram stories and posts using polls to determine which high school he should visit, with Pasadena High School edging out a victory over Santa Monica High School. The social media challenge brought in new followers, increasing his already growing popularity. In November 2018, Blueface was signed to Cash Money Records' West Coast affiliate Cash Money West, and posted clips of himself in the studio with Canadian rapper Drake and Quavo on his Instagram page.


title: Blueface

text: In December 2018, Blueface again went viral thanks to an acoustic video with Einer Bankz previewing his new song, "Bleed It" which released officially in January 2019. He released the song two days later, including a video on the Lyrical Lemonade YouTube channel, directed by Cole Bennett, that amassed over 2 million views in the first 24 hours of its release.


title: Blueface

text: On January 26, 2019, Blueface's track, "Thotiana", debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 75, making it his first track to chart on a "Billboard" chart. The song was released as a remix with YG with a music video. The following week, he released a remix with Cardi B, coinciding with another video from Cole Bennett. On streaming services, the two remixes are separate, but there is also a third where all three versions are put together. On May 1, 2019, Blueface released the music video for his single, "Stop Cappin", which has amassed over 5 million views over the first four days on YouTube.


title: Blueface

text: In August 2019, Blueface released an EP titled "Dirt Bag"; the album was preceded by the singles "Stop Cappin'", "Daddy" and "Bussdown". At eight tracks, the EP featured guest appearances from The Game, Rich the Kid, Offset, Lil Pump, and Mozzy. His song "Daddy" featuring Rich the Kid on the EP peaked at No. 78 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and "Stop Cappin'" with The Game reached No. 15 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100. The EP peaked at No. 48 on the "Billboard" 200. Despite commercial success, the EP received overwhelmingly negative critical reviews. Riley Wallace at Hip-Hop DX rated the project at 3/5, while listeners rated it at 2.33/5. Album of the Year appraised a total critic score of 60/100, while listeners reviewed it at 51/100. Fred Thomas of AllMusic followed a trend of middle-ranged reviews, giving the project a 3/5. Similar to other reviews, listeners at Rate Your Music gave an average rating of 2.52 for the project.


title: Blueface

text: On October 11, 2019, Blueface announced his debut studio album, "Find the Beat", and its tracklist. He has released four singles from the album, "Close Up" featuring Jeremih, "First Class" featuring Gunna, "Obama" featuring DaBaby, and "Holy Moly" featuring NLE Choppa. On December 6, 2019, the album was set to release but was delayed due to trademark issues. On January 17, 2020, the second release date was confirmed, but it was delayed again. On March 13, 2020, the third release date, the album released, with features from Polo G, Ambjaay, Lil Baby, Stunna 4 Vegas, YBN Nahmir, Gunna, Jeremih, NLE Choppa, and DaBaby, totaling 16 songs. Fellow rapper Lil Uzi Vert, who released an album titled, "Lil Uzi Vert vs. the World 2", on the same day "Find the Beat" was released, praised the album. In a private exchange with Blueface, Lil Uzi Vert said "album fye" ["sic"] and offered to collaborate with Blueface.


title: Blueface

text: Blueface's off-beat style of rapping and unique voice has been compared to fellow California rappers E-40 and Suga Free, as well as rapper Silkk the Shocker. Blueface has said that he writes "to the beat", and uses the instrumental as a base for all of his songs.


title: Blueface

text: Blueface made his amateur boxing debut fighting TikTok star Kane Trujillo on the undercard of Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship 19: VanZant vs. Ostovich on July 23, 2021. Blueface defeated Trujillo via unanimous decision after three rounds.


title: Blueface

text: Blueface was originally set to have two professional boxing matches in 2022, however, both organizers removed Blueface from their card. Blueface was scheduled to face FaZe Temperrr as the co-feature on August 27, however, due to an altercation he had with his girlfriend prior to the bout, he was removed. Blueface was also scheduled to face Swaggy P as the co-feature on September 10 but was removed due to being declined a pro boxing license.


title: Blueface

text: On November 15, 2022, Porter was arrested on charges of attempted murder and shooting in Las Vegas, Nevada, on October 8 of that year. He was imprisoned in the Clark County Detention Center.


title: Blueface

text: Blueface has two kids. Prior to entering the music industry, he had spent most of his adult life unemployed, occasionally holding a few temporary jobs.


title: Blueface

text: On November 16, 2018, at approximately 8:30 p.m. local time, Blueface was approached by a man at a Chevron gas station, who proceeded to attempt to rob him. Blueface shot at the suspect's car, and was later arrested and charged with shooting at an occupied vehicle, a felony in the state of California. Blueface was released on $69,000 bail on November 18. Blueface was also arrested on February 1, 2019, for felony gun possession after law enforcement recovered a loaded, unregistered handgun in his possession.


title: Blueface

text: In December 2019, Blueface garnered backlash after he posted a video of himself standing on top of a black SUV and throwing cash into a crowd of people in Skid Row, a notoriously poverty-stricken area of Los Angeles. Although some saw it as a good gesture, it was criticized as "dehumanizing".


title: Blueface

text: In June 2021, Blueface announced he had signed to fight for Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship. He made his debut in a special gloved match against Tiktoker Kane Trujillo on July 23, 2021, at BKFC 19. He won the amateur bout by unanimous decision.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: The House of Glücksburg (also spelled "Glücksborg" or "Lyksborg"), shortened from House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, is a collateral branch of the German House of Oldenburg, members of which have reigned at various times in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Greece, several northern German states, and the United Kingdom.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, King Harald V of Norway, former king of Greece Constantine II, former Queen Anne-Marie of Greece, Queen Sofía of Spain and King Charles III of the United Kingdom are patrilineal members of cadet branches of the House of Glücksburg.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: The family takes its ducal name from Glücksburg, a small coastal town in Schleswig, on the southern, German side of the fjord of Flensburg that divides Germany from Denmark. In 1460, Glücksburg came, as part of the conjoined Dano-German duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, to Count Christian of Oldenburg whom, in 1448, the Danes had elected their king as Christian I, the Norwegians likewise taking him as their hereditary king in 1450.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: In 1564, Christian I's great-grandson, King Frederick II, in re-distributing Schleswig and Holstein's fiefs, retained some lands for his own senior royal line while allocating Glücksburg to his brother Duke John the Younger (1545–1622), along with Sønderborg, in appanage. John's heirs further sub-divided their share and created, among other branches, a line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg dukes at Beck (an estate near Minden bought by the family in 1605), who remained vassals of Denmark's kings.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: By 1825, the castle of Glücksburg had returned to the Danish crown (from another ducal branch called Glücksburg, extinct in 1779) and was given that year by King Frederick VI, along with a new ducal title, to his kinsman Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck. Frederick suffixed the territorial designation to the ducal title he already held, in lieu of "Beck" (an estate the family had, in fact, sold in 1745). Thus emerged the extant "Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg".


title: House of Glücksburg

text: The Danish line of Oldenburg kings died out in 1863, and the elder line of the Schleswig-Holstein family became extinct with the death of the last Augustenburg duke in 1931. Thereafter, the House of Glücksburg became the senior surviving line of the House of Oldenburg. Another cadet line of Oldenburgs, the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp, consisted of two branches which held onto sovereignty into the 20th century. But members of the Romanov line were executed in or exiled from their Russian Empire in 1917, while the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg was abolished in 1918, although its dynastic line survives.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: Neither the Dukes of Beck nor of Glücksburg had been sovereign rulers; they held their lands in fief from the ruling Dukes of Schleswig and Holstein, i.e. the Kings of Denmark and (until 1773) the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, the fourth son of Duke Friedrich of Glücksburg, was recognized in the London Protocol of 1852 as successor to the childless King Frederick VII of Denmark. He became King of Denmark as Christian IX on 15 November 1863.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: Prince Vilhelm, the second son of Crown Prince Christian and Crown Princess Luise, was elected King of the Hellenes on 30 March 1863, succeeding the ousted Wittelsbach Otto of Greece and reigning under the name George I.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: Prince Carl, the second son of Frederick VIII of Denmark, Christian IX's eldest son, became King of Norway on 18 November 1905 as Haakon VII of Norway.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: Christian IX's daughters, Alexandra of Denmark and Dagmar of Denmark (as "Maria Feodorovna") became the consorts of, respectively, Edward VII of the United Kingdom and Alexander III of Russia. As a result, by 1914 descendants of King Christian IX held the crowns of several European realms, and he became known as the "Father-in-law of Europe".


title: House of Glücksburg

text: Christian IX's older brother inherited formal headship of the family as Karl, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. It is his descendants who now represent the senior line of the Schleswig-Holstein branch of the House of Oldenburg.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: The Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg constitute the senior male line of the branch. They hold the headship by primogeniture of the cadet house of Glücksburg. The headship by agnatic primogeniture of the entire House of Oldenburg is held by Christoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: In 1853, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg became heir to the Kingdom of Denmark, and in 1863, he ascended the throne. He was the fourth son of Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, whose elder brother (and male-line descendants) retained the Glücksburg dukedom. The Danish royal family call itself Glücksborg, using a slightly Danicized form of Glücksburg.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: The heir apparent is Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark (born 1968), who belongs agnatically to the Monpezat family. See the present line of succession. Although there are no more male members of the dynastic line of Glũcksburgs domiciled in Denmark, there are descendants of Christian IX who married without the monarch's permission, thus forfeiting their royal status.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: In 1863 and with the name George I, Prince Wilhelm of Denmark was elected King of the Hellenes on the recommendation of Europe's Great Powers. He was a younger son of King Christian IX of Denmark.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: The Hellenic constitutional monarchy was usurped in a "coup d'état" by a military junta in 1967 and the royal family fled into exile. After the collapse of the military dictatorship in 1974, 69.18% of votes recorded in a republic referendum were against the return of the monarchy.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: In 1905, Prince Carl of Denmark became Norway's first independent monarch in 518 years, taking the regnal name Haakon VII. His father was King Frederick VIII of Denmark, and one of his uncles was King George I of Greece.


title: House of Glücksburg

text: In 1918, Iceland was elevated from an autonomous Danish province to a separate Kingdom of Iceland. Christian X of Denmark was henceforth King of Denmark and Iceland until 1944, when Iceland dissolved the personal union between the two countries.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Ronald Koeman (; born 21 March 1963) is a Dutch professional football manager and former player. He is the younger brother of his former international teammate Erwin Koeman and the son of former Dutch international Martin Koeman. Koeman was capable of playing both as a defender and as a midfielder; he frequently played as a sweeper, although he was equally known for his goalscoring, long–range shooting, and accuracy from free kicks and penalties.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Born in Zaandam, Koeman began his career at Groningen before transferring to the Netherlands' most successful club Ajax in 1983, where they won the national Eredivisie title in 1984–85. He then joined Ajax's rivals PSV in 1986, winning three consecutive Eredivisie titles (1986–87, 1987–88 and 1988–89) and the European Cup in 1988. Ronald Koeman is one of five European players to ever win a treble with their club and a cup with their national team in the same year. The other four players are his teammates Hans van Breukelen, Berry van Aerle, Gerald Vanenburg and Wim Kieft. In 1989, Koeman moved to Barcelona and became part of Johan Cruyff's "Dream Team", helping the club win La Liga four years in a row between 1991 and 1994, and the 1991–92 European Cup, where he scored the winning goal of the final against Sampdoria.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: At international level, Koeman was one of the stars of the Netherlands national team, alongside Marco van Basten, Ruud Gullit, Frank Rijkaard and Dennis Bergkamp. During his career with the Netherlands, Koeman won UEFA Euro 1988 and played at the UEFA Euro 1992, 1990 and 1994 FIFA World Cups, captaining the team at the latter.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In his managerial career, Koeman has won three Eredivisie titles: twice with Ajax (2001–02 and 2003–04) and once with PSV (2006–07). He is the only individual to have both played for and managed the "Big Three" of Dutch football: Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord. Abroad, he had spells in Portugal with Benfica and Spain with Valencia, coaching "Los Ché" to victory in the 2007–08 Copa del Rey, and managed Premier League clubs Southampton and Everton in the 2010s. He was the manager of the Netherlands national team between 2018 and 2020, finishing runners-up in the 2019 UEFA Nations League. In August 2020, he was appointed manager of Barcelona, with whom he won the 2020–21 Copa del Rey, but was sacked in October 2021, following a poor start to the new season.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman started his professional career at Groningen, making his debut at the age of 17 years and 183 days in a 2–0 win over NEC in the Eredivisie. This made him the third-youngest player in the club's history, after Piet Wildschut and Bert de Voogt. Thirty-three goals from ninety appearances in his three seasons at the club saw the young defender called up by the Netherlands national team and earn a transfer to Eredivisie champions Ajax. After failing to defend their title in Koeman's first season at the club, the Amsterdam team regained the championship in 1984–85. The following season saw Johan Cruyff take over as Ajax head coach and, despite scoring 120 goals in 34 Eredivisie matches and winning the KNVB Cup, "de Godenzonen" could only finish second in the league behind rivals PSV.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In the summer of 1986, Koeman controversially transferred to PSV to play for Hans Kraay's champions. Towards the end of the 1986–87 season, Kraay resigned and was replaced by Guus Hiddink, under the management of whom PSV overtook league leaders Ajax in the final weeks of the season to defend their league title. Koeman enjoyed further success with Hiddink and PSV in the following seasons, as the team also won the 1987–88 and 1988–89 Eredivisie titles and the club's first, and to date only, European Cup against Benfica in Stuttgart on 25 May 1988. PSV had also won the KNVB Cup in both 1988 and 1989, making their successes in the two years trebles and doubles respectively. In his three seasons at PSV, Koeman scored 51 goals in 98 league appearances, averaging more than one goal every two matches. During 1987–88 season, he recorded the highest scoring season of his club career, with 21 goals scored in the league.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In 1989, Koeman re-joined his former Ajax coach Johan Cruyff at Barcelona, where he became a member of the famous "Dream Team". During his first season at the club, Barcelona won the Copa del Rey, beating Real Madrid 2–0 in the final. Along with players such as Hristo Stoichkov, Romário, Pep Guardiola and Michael Laudrup, Koeman helped the club win La Liga four years in a row from 1991 to 1994. He scored the only goal of the 1992 European Cup Final with a free-kick from the edge of the 18-yard box against Sampdoria at Wembley Stadium to make "Barça" European champions for the first time in its history. With this, he became the first player to score in two consecutive finals of different European competitions, having scored Barcelona's consolation goal in a 1–2 defeat against Manchester United in the 1991 European Cup Winners' Cup Final.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman was known for his powerful right-footed free kicks and deadball ability where he scored many vital goals for the team. One of his best strikes in La Liga came in the memorable 5–0 win over Real Madrid in 1994, with his bending free kick making the scoreline 2–0. Koeman was joint-top scorer with eight goals in the 1993–94 UEFA Champions League, in which Barcelona were beaten 0–4 in the final by A.C. Milan at the Olympic Stadium in Athens.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: His nicknames while playing for Barcelona were "Tintin", due to his physical similarity with Hergé's fictional character, and "Floquet de Neu", after the famous albino gorilla in the Barcelona Zoo.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: After six years and over 200 appearances at Barcelona, Koeman left Spain to return to the Netherlands in 1995. In joining Feyenoord, he became one of the few players to represent all of Dutch football's "Big Three". Koeman spent two seasons in Rotterdam, captaining Feyenoord to third- and second-place finishes in the Eredivisie respectively.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman ended his career with 193 league goals from 533 matches (ahead of Daniel Passarella, who netted 182 goals in 556 matches) during his career, more than any other defender in the history of football.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In April 1983, Koeman debuted for the Netherlands national team in a 3–0 friendly loss to Sweden in Utrecht. This match also marked the first "Oranje" appearance for his elder brother Erwin. Ronald's first international goal came in September of the same year, in a 3–0 victory of Iceland at Groningen's Oosterpark Stadion.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: With the Netherlands unable to qualify for UEFA Euro 1984 and the 1986 FIFA World Cup, Koeman's tournament debut came at Euro 1988 in West Germany, where Rinus Michels' team defeated the hosts at the semi-final stage, with Koeman scoring a crucial penalty to equalize and make it 1–1. After this match, Koeman provocatively pretended to wipe his backside with the shirt of Olaf Thon in front of the home supporters.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In the final, the Netherlands defeated the Soviet Union 2–0 at Munich's Olympiastadion to win the nation's only major international trophy. This completed Koeman's extraordinary 1988 after winning the treble with PSV. Both Koeman and his central defensive partner Frank Rijkaard were named in UEFA's Team of the Tournament.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman went on to represent his nation at the 1990 and 1994 World Cups, as well as Euro 1992, and picked up a total of 78 caps for the Netherlands, scoring 14 goals.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Having retired as a player after his stint with Feyenoord, Koeman became a member of the Netherlands international coaching staff of Guus Hiddink during the 1998 World Cup along with Johan Neeskens and Frank Rijkaard. After the tournament, he was appointed the assistant coach of Barcelona, and in 2000, he was handed his first managerial job as the head coach of Vitesse, where he led the team to a UEFA Cup spot in his only season.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman was appointed the manager of Ajax in 2001. He won a domestic double in 2001–02. Despite regaining the title in 2003–04, Ajax had fallen eight points behind rivals PSV in the Eredivisie. This situation, coupled with Ajax being knocked out of the UEFA Cup by Auxerre, 3–2 on aggregate, led Koeman to resign the following day on 25 February 2005.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In June 2005, Koeman took up the vacant position at Portuguese champions Benfica, following the departure of Giovanni Trapattoni. On 13 August, he won the 2005 Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira against Vitória de Setúbal with a single goal by Nuno Gomes. The team finished the Primeira Liga in third place (behind rivals Porto and Sporting CP) and was knocked out of the Taça de Portugal in the quarter-finals by Vitória de Guimarães. This, along with an offer from PSV, sufficed for the manager to leave one year before the end of his contract. Under Koeman, Benfica did reach the quarter-finals of the 2005–06 UEFA Champions League; eliminating Manchester United in the final game of the group stage and Liverpool in the first knockout stage, before losing to Barcelona on an aggregate score of 0–2, who ended up winning the trophy.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In the 2006–07 season, Koeman served as head coach of PSV, as successor to Guus Hiddink. PSV dominated the first season half, keeping competitors AZ Alkmaar and Ajax at a reasonable distance, and PSV seemed almost destined to become champions again. PSV, however, suffered in the second half of the season, also because of injuries of players Jefferson Farfán, Alex and Ibrahim Afellay, obtaining only 19 out 39 possible points. Alkmaar and Ajax regained their momentum, making for a close finish, with all three teams tied at 72 points before the last competition day. Alkmaar played struggling Excelsior in their final match, but did not manage to win. Ajax played at Willem II, but did not score enough goals; it was PSV eventually who triumphed, winning at home 5–1 against Vitesse, and thereby becoming Eredivisie champions, one goal ahead of Ajax.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: For the second consecutive season he guided a team to the quarter-finals of the Champions League, this time defeating another English club in the shape of Arsenal in the first knockout stage by an aggregate score of 2–1, before losing 4–0 on aggregate to eventual runners-up Liverpool in the quarter-finals.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 31 October 2007, Koeman agreed to be the new coach of Valencia after the sacking of Quique Sánchez Flores, starting on 5 November 2007. With Valencia, he won the 2007–08 Copa del Rey, a tournament he previously won as a player with Barcelona. This was Valencia's first Copa del Rey since 1999. The remainder of his tenure at Valencia would prove disappointing: the team would slump to 15th in the league, only two points above the relegation zone, as well as finishing bottom of their Champions League group. A 1–5 defeat by Athletic Bilbao would prove the final straw for Koeman's time with Valencia. He was sacked the following day, on 21 April 2008.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman was appointed manager of AZ Alkmaar on 18 May 2009, after Louis van Gaal, who won the 2008–09 Eredivisie with Alkmaar, joined Bayern Munich. On 5 December 2009, Alkmaar announced that Koeman no longer was in charge of the club, after losing 7 of the first 16 games in the Dutch competition.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 21 July 2011, Koeman was appointed manager of Feyenoord, signing a one-year contract with the Dutch club as replacement for outgoing trainer Mario Been. Through this appointment, Koeman notably became the first individual ever to serve as both player and head coach at all teams of the so-called "traditional big three" of Dutch football – Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord. Moreover, he has completed this in the same order as player and as manager. At the beginning of 2012, it was announced that his contract was extended. In February 2014, Koeman announced that he would leave his position at Feyenoord at the end of the 2013–14 season to pursue other ambitions.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In June 2014, Koeman was announced as the replacement for Southampton manager Mauricio Pochettino, signing a three-year deal with the club. His brother Erwin was appointed assistant manager.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: In his first six Premier League games in charge of the club, Koeman managed four wins, a draw and a defeat, propelling Southampton to second place in the league standings and resulting in Koeman being named Premier League Manager of the Month for September. In January 2015, Southampton won all three of their matches, including a first win at Manchester United since 1988, and Koeman was again named Manager of the Month. He led Southampton to a seventh-place finish at the end of the season.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman won his third Premier League Manager of the Month for January 2016, on the way to Southampton's highest ever Premier League finish, sixth place, highest ever Premier League points total, 63, and qualification for the group stage of the UEFA Europa League.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 14 June 2016, Koeman was confirmed as manager of Everton, signing a three-year contract. His brother was again hired as his assistant. In his first season, Koeman led Everton to qualification for the Europa League.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Prior to the 2017–18 season, Koeman was given the largest budget in Everton's history to spend on new players. An estimated £150 million was spent on new players, but Koeman admitted that he had not bought a centre forward to replace Romelu Lukaku, the previous season's squad top scorer who had been sold to Manchester United. Koeman was sacked by the club on 23 October 2017, after his side fell into the relegation zone, following a 2–5 home defeat against Arsenal the previous day. Koeman later stated his belief that the failure to sign Olivier Giroud in the summer transfer window contributed to his sacking.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 6 February 2018, Koeman was appointed manager of the Netherlands national team on a four-and-half-year contract up to and including the 2022 FIFA World Cup. He replaced Dick Advocaat who resigned after failing to guide the Netherlands to the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 9 June 2019, the Netherlands finished runners-up in the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League after a 0–1 defeat against Portugal in the final.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 19 August 2020, Koeman left the national team to become manager of Barcelona. Under his management, Netherlands qualified for a final tournament, UEFA Euro 2020, for the first time since the 2014 FIFA World Cup after missing out on the UEFA Euro 2016 and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 19 August 2020, Koeman was announced as the new manager of Barcelona, on a two-year contract until 30 June 2022. He took over after Quique Setién had been dismissed from the post following a disastrous 8–2 defeat to Bayern Munich in the quarter final of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League. In his first competitive game in charge, Barcelona beat Villarreal 4–0 at the Camp Nou in La Liga. On 17 October, Koeman suffered his first loss as Barcelona manager after a 1–0 away defeat against Getafe. On 24 October, he lost the first "Clásico" of the season to arch rivals Real Madrid by a 3–1 scoreline. That defeat was followed by a 1–1 draw against Alavés, which resulted in Barcelona equalling their worst tally after the first six games in La Liga (8 points, as few as in 2002–03 season).


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 17 January 2021, Koeman managed Barcelona for the first time in a cup final, with his side losing 3–2 to Athletic Bilbao after extra time in the final of the 2020–21 Supercopa de España at the Estadio de La Cartuja in Seville. On 7 February, Koeman led Barcelona to their sixth consecutive away win in La Liga after winning 3–2 against Real Betis, equalling Luis Enrique's feat achieved in the 2015–16 season. On 11 March, Barcelona were knocked out of the Champions League in the round of 16 against PSG after failing to turn around a 1–4 loss at home, losing 2–5 on aggregate. On 10 April, Barcelona's 19-game unbeaten run in La Liga came to an end after falling to Real Madrid 2–1 away from home in the second "Clásico" of the season. On 17 April, Koeman led "Barça" to a 4–0 win over Athletic Bilbao in the 2021 Copa del Rey Final, gaining revenge for the Supercopa defeat at the same venue three months earlier. On 29 April, Barcelona were presented with a golden opportunity to go top of La Liga but failed to capitalize after losing out to Granada away 2–1 despite taking the lead. Barcelona's title charge ended with a disappointment after winning only two of their last five matches and eventually finished third in the league table. Following the end of the season, club president Joan Laporta admitted that Koeman was not his first choice and was looking for a manager, however on 3 June, he confirmed that Koeman would be staying in charge for another season.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Barcelona began the 2021–22 season with a 4–2 home victory over Real Sociedad in La Liga. However, in their next ten matches, they had a disappointing run of games with 4 wins, 3 draws and 3 defeats including consecutive 3–0 losses against Bayern Munich and Benfica in the Champions League group stage and a 2–0 away defeat against title contenders Atletico Madrid in La Liga. On 24 October, following "Barça's" 2–1 defeat against Real Madrid at home, Koeman became the first manager since Patrick O’Connell in 1936 to lose three consecutive "Clásicos." On 28 October, the club announced that Koeman had been relieved of his duties as manager following the team's 1–0 away defeat against Rayo Vallecano. A week later, Xavi was announced as his replacement.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: On 6 April 2022, Koeman was announced as returning to role of manager of the Netherlands national team, and would commence in the role on 1 January 2023 after the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, following the third retirement of Louis van Gaal.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: A composed player on the ball, Koeman was capable of being deployed both as a defender and as a midfielder, and he frequently played as a sweeper, due to his vision and his ability on the ball. Regarded as one of the best and most prolific attacking central defenders of all time, due to his eye for goal, Koeman was renowned for his long-range passing, as well as his shooting accuracy and power from distance, especially on free kicks; he is the top scoring defender in world football, and Barcelona's top scoring defender. A versatile set piece specialist, Koeman was nicknamed the "King of free kicks", and was capable of striking the ball with power from long range free kicks, or curling shots on goal from close range; he was also an accurate penalty kick taker. Regarding his unique run-up and approach to taking free kicks and penalties, Rob Smyth of "The Guardian" commented in 2009: "We tend to associate Koeman with that particular type of free-kick, where he would lace the ball in a manner that was paradoxically sledgehammer rather than silk, yet if anything he was more adept at the seductive, shorter-range curler. As with his penalties, when he would charge towards the ball like a man with murder in mind only to tap it gently into the net, part of the skill was in the deception. With Koeman, there was more than one way to skin a defensive wall; as all Englishmen know well, he could flippin' flip one as well."


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman is the top scoring defender in world football, and Barcelona's top scoring defender, with 90 goals in all competitions. An accurate free kick and penalty kick taker, Koeman was nicknamed the "King of free kicks" throughout his playing career, and is Barcelona's second-highest goalscorer from free kicks, after previous club captain Lionel Messi, with 26 goals from set pieces in all competitions; he is also Barcelona's second-highest scorer from penalties in La Liga, behind Messi once again, with 46 goals from spot kicks, and the highest scoring defender in La Liga from penalties. With 67 goals, he is the second most prolific defender in La Liga history, behind Sergio Ramos. He currently holds the record for 25 consecutive successful penalty conversions in La Liga.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Ronald is the younger brother of Erwin, who was the head coach of Oman, being the first set of brothers to take charge of two different national teams at the same time.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: He is married to Bartina Koeman. Their son, Ronald Koeman Jr., is a professional goalkeeper for SC Telstar in the Eerste Divisie.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman is an ambassador for the anti-smoking campaign Kick it with Help. He said that the cancer diagnoses of his wife and his friend Johan Cruyff motivated him to join the campaign.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: During the transfer as a manager to Barcelona in 2020, Koeman was filmed for a 3-part docuseries entitled, "Força Koeman". The series can be seen on Dutch streaming service "videoland" from 17 February 2021.


title: Ronald Koeman

text: Koeman stated that he has been visiting the Portuguese region of Algarve since 1988 after the victory of PSV in the 1988 European Cup Final against Portuguese football club SL Benfica. He bought a plot of land with there in 2004 and built a 2,000,000 euro house for him in Vale do Lobo between 2005 and 2006.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography and composition of the sample. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the position of the beam is combined with the intensity of the detected signal to produce an image. In the most common SEM mode, secondary electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam are detected using a secondary electron detector (Everhart–Thornley detector). The number of secondary electrons that can be detected, and thus the signal intensity, depends, among other things, on specimen topography. Some SEMs can achieve resolutions better than 1 nanometer.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Specimens are observed in high vacuum in a conventional SEM, or in low vacuum or wet conditions in a variable pressure or environmental SEM, and at a wide range of cryogenic or elevated temperatures with specialized instruments.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: An account of the early history of scanning electron microscopy has been presented by McMullan. Although Max Knoll produced a photo with a 50 mm object-field-width showing channeling contrast by the use of an electron beam scanner, it was Manfred von Ardenne who in 1937 invented a microscope with high resolution by scanning a very small raster with a demagnified and finely focused electron beam. Ardenne applied scanning of the electron beam in an attempt to surpass the resolution of the transmission electron microscope (TEM), as well as to mitigate substantial problems with chromatic aberration inherent to real imaging in the TEM. He further discussed the various detection modes, possibilities and theory of SEM, together with the construction of the . Further work was reported by Zworykin's group, followed by the Cambridge groups in the 1950s and early 1960s headed by Charles Oatley, all of which finally led to the marketing of the first commercial instrument by Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company as the "Stereoscan" in 1965, which was delivered to DuPont.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The signals used by a SEM to produce an image result from interactions of the electron beam with atoms at various depths within the sample. Various types of signals are produced including secondary electrons (SE), reflected or back-scattered electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays and light (cathodoluminescence) (CL), absorbed current (specimen current) and transmitted electrons. Secondary electron detectors are standard equipment in all SEMs, but it is rare for a single machine to have detectors for all other possible signals.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Secondary electrons have very low energies on the order of 50 eV, which limits their mean free path in solid matter. Consequently, SEs can only escape from the top few nanometers of the surface of a sample. The signal from secondary electrons tends to be highly localized at the point of impact of the primary electron beam, making it possible to collect images of the sample surface with a resolution of below 1 nm. Back-scattered electrons (BSE) are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample by elastic scattering. Since they have much higher energy than SEs, they emerge from deeper locations within the specimen and, consequently, the resolution of BSE images is less than SE images. However, BSE are often used in analytical SEM, along with the spectra made from the characteristic X-rays, because the intensity of the BSE signal is strongly related to the atomic number (Z) of the specimen. BSE images can provide information about the distribution, but not the identity, of different elements in the sample. In samples predominantly composed of light elements, such as biological specimens, BSE imaging can image colloidal gold immuno-labels of 5 or 10 nm diameter, which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to detect in secondary electron images. Characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner shell electron from the sample, causing a higher-energy electron to fill the shell and release energy. The energy or wavelength of these characteristic X-rays can be measured by Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy or Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and used to identify and measure the abundance of elements in the sample and map their distribution.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample. This is exemplified by the micrograph of pollen shown above. A wide range of magnifications is possible, from about 10 times (about equivalent to that of a powerful hand-lens) to more than 500,000 times, about 250 times the magnification limit of the best light microscopes.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: SEM samples have to be small enough to fit on the specimen stage, and may need special preparation to increase their electrical conductivity and to stabilize them, so that they can withstand the high vacuum conditions and the high energy beam of electrons. Samples are generally mounted rigidly on a specimen holder or stub using a conductive adhesive. SEM is used extensively for defect analysis of semiconductor wafers, and manufacturers make instruments that can examine any part of a 300 mm semiconductor wafer. Many instruments have chambers that can tilt an object of that size to 45° and provide continuous 360° rotation.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Nonconductive specimens collect charge when scanned by the electron beam, and especially in secondary electron imaging mode, this causes scanning faults and other image artifacts. For conventional imaging in the SEM, specimens must be electrically conductive, at least at the surface, and electrically grounded to prevent the accumulation of electrostatic charge. Metal objects require little special preparation for SEM except for cleaning and conductively mounting to a specimen stub. Non-conducting materials are usually coated with an ultrathin coating of electrically conducting material, deposited on the sample either by low-vacuum sputter coating or by high-vacuum evaporation. Conductive materials in current use for specimen coating include gold, gold/palladium alloy, platinum, iridium, tungsten, chromium, osmium, and graphite. Coating with heavy metals may increase signal/noise ratio for samples of low atomic number (Z). The improvement arises because secondary electron emission for high-Z materials is enhanced.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: An alternative to coating for some biological samples is to increase the bulk conductivity of the material by impregnation with osmium using variants of the OTO staining method (O-osmium tetroxide, T-thiocarbohydrazide, O-osmium).


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Nonconducting specimens may be imaged without coating using an environmental SEM (ESEM) or low-voltage mode of SEM operation. In ESEM instruments the specimen is placed in a relatively high-pressure chamber and the electron optical column is differentially pumped to keep vacuum adequately low at the electron gun. The high-pressure region around the sample in the ESEM neutralizes charge and provides an amplification of the secondary electron signal. Low-voltage SEM is typically conducted in an instrument with a field emission guns (FEG) which is capable of producing high primary electron brightness and small spot size even at low accelerating potentials. To prevent charging of non-conductive specimens, operating conditions must be adjusted such that the incoming beam current is equal to sum of outgoing secondary and backscattered electron currents, a condition that is most often met at accelerating voltages of 0.3–4 kV.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Embedding in a resin with further polishing to a mirror-like finish can be used for both biological and materials specimens when imaging in backscattered electrons or when doing quantitative X-ray microanalysis.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The main preparation techniques are not required in the environmental SEM outlined below, but some biological specimens can benefit from fixation.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: For SEM, a specimen is normally required to be completely dry, since the specimen chamber is at high vacuum. Hard, dry materials such as wood, bone, feathers, dried insects, or shells (including egg shells) can be examined with little further treatment, but living cells and tissues and whole, soft-bodied organisms require chemical fixation to preserve and stabilize their structure.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Fixation is usually performed by incubation in a solution of a buffered chemical fixative, such as glutaraldehyde, sometimes in combination with formaldehyde and other fixatives, and optionally followed by postfixation with osmium tetroxide. The fixed tissue is then dehydrated. Because air-drying causes collapse and shrinkage, this is commonly achieved by replacement of water in the cells with organic solvents such as ethanol or acetone, and replacement of these solvents in turn with a transitional fluid such as liquid carbon dioxide by critical point drying. The carbon dioxide is finally removed while in a supercritical state, so that no gas–liquid interface is present within the sample during drying.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The dry specimen is usually mounted on a specimen stub using an adhesive such as epoxy resin or electrically conductive double-sided adhesive tape, and sputter-coated with gold or gold/palladium alloy before examination in the microscope. Samples may be sectioned (with a microtome) if information about the organism's internal ultrastructure is to be exposed for imaging.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: If the SEM is equipped with a cold stage for cryo microscopy, cryofixation may be used and low-temperature scanning electron microscopy performed on the cryogenically fixed specimens. Cryo-fixed specimens may be cryo-fractured under vacuum in a special apparatus to reveal internal structure, sputter-coated and transferred onto the SEM cryo-stage while still frozen. Low-temperature scanning electron microscopy (LT-SEM) is also applicable to the imaging of temperature-sensitive materials such as ice and fats.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Freeze-fracturing, freeze-etch or freeze-and-break is a preparation method particularly useful for examining lipid membranes and their incorporated proteins in "face on" view. The preparation method reveals the proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Back-scattered electron imaging, quantitative X-ray analysis, and X-ray mapping of specimens often requires grinding and polishing the surfaces to an ultra-smooth surface. Specimens that undergo WDS or EDS analysis are often carbon-coated. In general, metals are not coated prior to imaging in the SEM because they are conductive and provide their own pathway to ground. Fractography is the study of fractured surfaces that can be done on a light microscope or, commonly, on an SEM. The fractured surface is cut to a suitable size, cleaned of any organic residues, and mounted on a specimen holder for viewing in the SEM. Integrated circuits may be cut with a focused ion beam (FIB) or other ion beam milling instrument for viewing in the SEM. The SEM in the first case may be incorporated into the FIB, enabling high-resolution imaging of the result of the process. Metals, geological specimens, and integrated circuits all may also be chemically polished for viewing in the SEM. Special high-resolution coating techniques are required for high-magnification imaging of inorganic thin films.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: In a typical SEM, an electron beam is thermionically emitted from an electron gun fitted with a tungsten filament cathode. Tungsten is normally used in thermionic electron guns because it has the highest melting point and lowest vapor pressure of all metals, thereby allowing it to be electrically heated for electron emission, and because of its low cost. Other types of electron emitters include lanthanum hexaboride () cathodes, which can be used in a standard tungsten filament SEM if the vacuum system is upgraded or field emission guns (FEG), which may be of the cold-cathode type using tungsten single crystal emitters or the thermally assisted Schottky type, that use emitters of tungsten single crystals coated in zirconium oxide.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The electron beam, which typically has an energy ranging from 0.2 keV to 40 keV, is focused by one or two condenser lenses to a spot about 0.4 nm to 5 nm in diameter. The beam passes through pairs of scanning coils or pairs of deflector plates in the electron column, typically in the final lens, which deflect the beam in the "x" and "y" axes so that it scans in a raster fashion over a rectangular area of the sample surface.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the electrons lose energy by repeated random scattering and absorption within a teardrop-shaped volume of the specimen known as the interaction volume, which extends from less than 100 nm to approximately 5 µm into the surface. The size of the interaction volume depends on the electron's landing energy, the atomic number of the specimen and the specimen's density. The energy exchange between the electron beam and the sample results in the reflection of high-energy electrons by elastic scattering, emission of secondary electrons by inelastic scattering and the emission of electromagnetic radiation, each of which can be detected by specialized detectors. The beam current absorbed by the specimen can also be detected and used to create images of the distribution of specimen current. Electronic amplifiers of various types are used to amplify the signals, which are displayed as variations in brightness on a computer monitor (or, for vintage models, on a cathode-ray tube). Each pixel of computer video memory is synchronized with the position of the beam on the specimen in the microscope, and the resulting image is, therefore, a distribution map of the intensity of the signal being emitted from the scanned area of the specimen. Older microscopes captured images on film, but most modern instrument collect digital images.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Magnification in an SEM can be controlled over a range of about 6 orders of magnitude from about 10 to 3,000,000 times. Unlike optical and transmission electron microscopes, image magnification in an SEM is not a function of the power of the objective lens. SEMs may have condenser and objective lenses, but their function is to focus the beam to a spot, and not to image the specimen. Provided the electron gun can generate a beam with sufficiently small diameter, a SEM could in principle work entirely without condenser or objective lenses, although it might not be very versatile or achieve very high resolution. In an SEM, as in scanning probe microscopy, magnification results from the ratio of the raster on the display device and dimensions of the raster on the specimen. Assuming that the display screen has a fixed size, higher magnification results from reducing the size of the raster on the specimen, and vice versa. Magnification is therefore controlled by the current supplied to the x, y scanning coils, or the voltage supplied to the x, y deflector plates, and not by objective lens power.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The most common imaging mode collects low-energy (<50 eV) secondary electrons that are ejected from conduction or valence bands of the specimen atoms by inelastic scattering interactions with beam electrons. Due to their low energy, these electrons originate from within a few nanometers below the sample surface. The electrons are detected by an Everhart–Thornley detector, which is a type of collector-scintillator-photomultiplier system. The secondary electrons are first collected by attracting them towards an electrically biased grid at about +400 V, and then further accelerated towards a phosphor or scintillator positively biased to about +2,000 V. The accelerated secondary electrons are now sufficiently energetic to cause the scintillator to emit flashes of light (cathodoluminescence), which are conducted to a photomultiplier outside the SEM column via a light pipe and a window in the wall of the specimen chamber. The amplified electrical signal output by the photomultiplier is displayed as a two-dimensional intensity distribution that can be viewed and photographed on an analogue video display, or subjected to analog-to-digital conversion and displayed and saved as a digital image. This process relies on a raster-scanned primary beam. The brightness of the signal depends on the number of secondary electrons reaching the detector. If the beam enters the sample perpendicular to the surface, then the activated region is uniform about the axis of the beam and a certain number of electrons "escape" from within the sample. As the angle of incidence increases, the interaction volume increases and the "escape" distance of one side of the beam decreases, resulting in more secondary electrons being emitted from the sample. Thus steep surfaces and edges tend to be brighter than flat surfaces, which results in images with a well-defined, three-dimensional appearance. Using the signal of secondary electrons image resolution less than 0.5 nm is possible.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Backscattered electrons (BSE) consist of high-energy electrons originating in the electron beam, that are reflected or back-scattered out of the specimen interaction volume by elastic scattering interactions with specimen atoms. Since heavy elements (high atomic number) backscatter electrons more strongly than light elements (low atomic number), and thus appear brighter in the image, BSEs are used to detect contrast between areas with different chemical compositions. The Everhart–Thornley detector, which is normally positioned to one side of the specimen, is inefficient for the detection of backscattered electrons because few such electrons are emitted in the solid angle subtended by the detector, and because the positively biased detection grid has little ability to attract the higher energy BSE. Dedicated backscattered electron detectors are positioned above the sample in a "doughnut" type arrangement, concentric with the electron beam, maximizing the solid angle of collection. BSE detectors are usually either of scintillator or of semiconductor types. When all parts of the detector are used to collect electrons symmetrically about the beam, atomic number contrast is produced. However, strong topographic contrast is produced by collecting back-scattered electrons from one side above the specimen using an asymmetrical, directional BSE detector; the resulting contrast appears as illumination of the topography from that side. Semiconductor detectors can be made in radial segments that can be switched in or out to control the type of contrast produced and its directionality.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Backscattered electrons can also be used to form an electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) image that can be used to determine the crystallographic structure of the specimen.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The nature of the SEM's probe, energetic electrons, makes it uniquely suited to examining the optical and electronic properties of semiconductor materials. The high-energy electrons from the SEM beam will inject charge carriers into the semiconductor. Thus, beam electrons lose energy by promoting electrons from the valence band into the conduction band, leaving behind holes.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: In a direct bandgap material, recombination of these electron-hole pairs will result in cathodoluminescence; if the sample contains an internal electric field, such as is present at a p-n junction, the SEM beam injection of carriers will cause electron beam induced current (EBIC) to flow. Cathodoluminescence and EBIC are referred to as "beam-injection" techniques, and are very powerful probes of the optoelectronic behavior of semiconductors, in particular for studying nanoscale features and defects.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Cathodoluminescence, the emission of light when atoms excited by high-energy electrons return to their ground state, is analogous to UV-induced fluorescence, and some materials such as zinc sulfide and some fluorescent dyes, exhibit both phenomena. Over the last decades, cathodoluminescence was most commonly experienced as the light emission from the inner surface of the cathode-ray tube in television sets and computer CRT monitors. In the SEM, CL detectors either collect all light emitted by the specimen or can analyse the wavelengths emitted by the specimen and display an emission spectrum or an image of the distribution of cathodoluminescence emitted by the specimen in real color.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Characteristic X-rays that are produced by the interaction of electrons with the sample may also be detected in an SEM equipped for energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy or wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Analysis of the x-ray signals may be used to map the distribution and estimate the abundance of elements in the sample.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: SEM is not a camera and the detector is not continuously image-forming like a CCD array or film. Unlike in an optical system, the resolution is not limited by the diffraction limit, fineness of lenses or mirrors or detector array resolution. The focusing optics can be large and coarse, and the SE detector is fist-sized and simply detects current. Instead, the spatial resolution of the SEM depends on the size of the electron spot, which in turn depends on both the wavelength of the electrons and the electron-optical system that produces the scanning beam. The resolution is also limited by the size of the interaction volume, the volume of specimen material that interacts with the electron beam. The spot size and the interaction volume are both large compared to the distances between atoms, so the resolution of the SEM is not high enough to image individual atoms, as is possible with a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The SEM has compensating advantages, though, including the ability to image a comparatively large area of the specimen; the ability to image bulk materials (not just thin films or foils); and the variety of analytical modes available for measuring the composition and properties of the specimen. Depending on the instrument, the resolution can fall somewhere between less than 1 nm and 20 nm. As of 2009, The world's highest resolution conventional (≤30 kV) SEM can reach a point resolution of 0.4 nm using a secondary electron detector.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Conventional SEM requires samples to be imaged under vacuum, because a gas atmosphere rapidly spreads and attenuates electron beams. As a consequence, samples that produce a significant amount of vapour, e.g. wet biological samples or oil-bearing rock, must be either dried or cryogenically frozen. Processes involving phase transitions, such as the drying of adhesives or melting of alloys, liquid transport, chemical reactions, and solid-air-gas systems, in general cannot be observed with conventional high-vacuum SEM. In environmental SEM (ESEM), the chamber is evacuated of air, but water vapor is retained near its saturation pressure, and the residual pressure remains relatively high. This allows the analysis of samples containing water or other volatile substances. With ESEM, observations of living insects have been possible.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The first commercial development of the ESEM in the late 1980s allowed samples to be observed in low-pressure gaseous environments (e.g. 1–50 Torr or 0.1–6.7 kPa) and high relative humidity (up to 100%). This was made possible by the development of a secondary-electron detector capable of operating in the presence of water vapour and by the use of pressure-limiting apertures with differential pumping in the path of the electron beam to separate the vacuum region (around the gun and lenses) from the sample chamber. The first commercial ESEMs were produced by the ElectroScan Corporation in USA in 1988. ElectroScan was taken over by Philips (who later sold their electron-optics division to FEI Company) in 1996.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: ESEM is especially useful for non-metallic and biological materials because coating with carbon or gold is unnecessary. Uncoated plastics and elastomers can be routinely examined, as can uncoated biological samples. This is useful because coating can be difficult to reverse, may conceal small features on the surface of the sample and may reduce the value of the results obtained. X-ray analysis is difficult with a coating of a heavy metal, so carbon coatings are routinely used in conventional SEMs, but ESEM makes it possible to perform X-ray microanalysis on uncoated non-conductive specimens; however some specific for ESEM artifacts are introduced in X-ray analysis. ESEM may be the preferred for electron microscopy of unique samples from criminal or civil actions, where forensic analysis may need to be repeated by several different experts. It is possible to study specimens in liquid with ESEM or with other liquid-phase electron microscopy methods.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The SEM can also be used in transmission mode by simply incorporating an appropriate detector below a thin specimen section. Detectors are available for bright field, dark field, as well as segmented detectors for mid-field to high angle annular dark-field. Despite the difference in instrumentation, this technique is still commonly referred to as scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM).


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Electron microscopes do not naturally produce color images, as an SEM produces a single value per pixel; this value corresponds to the number of electrons received by the detector during a small period of time of the scanning when the beam is targeted to the (x, y) pixel position.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: This single number is usually represented, for each pixel, by a grey level, forming a monochrome image. However, several ways have been used to get color electron microscopy images.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: The easiest way to get color is to associate to this single number an arbitrary color, using a color look-up table (i.e. each grey level is replaced by a chosen color). This method is known as false color. On a BSE image, false color may be performed to better distinguish the various phases of the sample.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: As an alternative to simply replacing each grey level by a color, a sample observed by an oblique beam allows researchers to create an approximative topography image (see further section "Photometric 3D rendering from a single SEM image"). Such topography can then be processed by 3D-rendering algorithms for a more natural rendering of the surface texture.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Very often, published SEM images are artificially colored. This may be done for aesthetic effect, to clarify structure or to add a realistic appearance to the sample and generally does not add information about the specimen.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Coloring may be performed manually with photo-editing software, or semi-automatically with dedicated software using feature-detection or object-oriented segmentation.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: In some configurations more information is gathered per pixel, often by the use of multiple detectors.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: As a common example, secondary electron and backscattered electron detectors are superimposed and a color is assigned to each of the images captured by each detector, with a result of a combined color image where colors are related to the density of the components. This method is known as density-dependent color SEM (DDC-SEM). Micrographs produced by DDC-SEM retain topographical information, which is better captured by the secondary electrons detector and combine it to the information about density, obtained by the backscattered electron detector.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Measurement of the energy of photons emitted from the specimen is a common method to get analytical capabilities. Examples are the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) detectors used in elemental analysis and cathodoluminescence microscope (CL) systems that analyse the intensity and spectrum of electron-induced luminescence in (for example) geological specimens. In SEM systems using these detectors it is common to color code these extra signals and superimpose them in a single color image, so that differences in the distribution of the various components of the specimen can be seen clearly and compared. Optionally, the standard secondary electron image can be merged with the one or more compositional channels, so that the specimen's structure and composition can be compared. Such images can be made while maintaining the full integrity of the original signal data, which is not modified in any way.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: SEMs do not naturally provide 3D images contrary to SPMs. However 3D data can be obtained using an SEM with different methods as follows.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: This method typically uses a four-quadrant BSE detector (alternatively for one manufacturer, a 3-segment detector). The microscope produces four images of the same specimen at the same time, so no tilt of the sample is required. The method gives metrological 3D dimensions as far as the slope of the specimen remains reasonable. Most SEM manufacturers now (2018) offer such a built-in or optional four-quadrant BSE detector, together with proprietary software to calculate a 3D image in real time.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: Other approaches use more sophisticated (and sometimes GPU-intensive) methods like the optimal estimation algorithm and offer much better results at the cost of high demands on computing power.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: In all instances, this approach works by integration of the slope, so vertical slopes and overhangs are ignored; for instance, if an entire sphere lies on a flat, little more than the upper hemisphere is seen emerging above the flat, resulting in wrong altitude of the sphere apex. The prominence of this effect depends on the angle of the BSE detectors with respect to the sample, but these detectors are usually situated around (and close to) the electron beam, so this effect is very common.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: This method requires an SEM image obtained in oblique low angle lighting. The grey-level is then interpreted as the slope, and the slope integrated to restore the specimen topography. This method is interesting for visual enhancement and the detection of the shape and position of objects; however the vertical heights cannot usually be calibrated, contrary to other methods such as photogrammetry.


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: One possible application is measuring the roughness of ice crystals. This method can combine variable-pressure environmental SEM and the 3D capabilities of the SEM to measure roughness on individual ice crystal facets, convert it into a computer model and run further statistical analysis on the model. Other measurements include fractal dimension, examining fracture surface of metals, characterization of materials, corrosion measurement, and dimensional measurements at the nano scale (step height, volume, angle, flatness, bearing ratio, coplanarity, etc.).


title: Scanning electron microscope

text: SEM is also used by art conservationists to discern threats to paintings' surface stability due to aging, such as the formations of complexes of zinc ions with fatty acids. Forensic scientists use SEM to detect art forgeries.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Charles IX (Charles Maximilien; 27 June 1550 – 30 May 1574) was King of France from 1560 until his death in 1574. He ascended the French throne upon the death of his brother Francis II in 1560, and as such was the penultimate monarch of the House of Valois.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Charles' reign saw the culmination of decades of tension between Protestants and Catholics. Civil and religious war broke out between the two parties after the massacre of Vassy in 1562. In 1572, following several unsuccessful attempts at brokering peace, Charles arranged the marriage of his sister Margaret to Henry of Navarre, a major Protestant nobleman in the line of succession to the French throne, in a last desperate bid to reconcile his people. Facing popular hostility against this policy of appeasement and at the instigation of his mother Catherine de' Medici, Charles oversaw the massacre of numerous Huguenot leaders who gathered in Paris for the royal wedding, though his direct involvement is still debated. This event, known as the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, was a significant blow to the Huguenot movement, and religious civil warfare soon began anew. Charles sought to take advantage of the disarray of the Huguenots by ordering the siege of La Rochelle, but was unable to take the Protestant stronghold.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Many of Charles' decisions were influenced by his mother, a fervent Roman Catholic who initially supported a policy of relative religious tolerance. However, after the events of St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, he began to support the persecution of Huguenots. However, the incident haunted Charles for the rest of his life, and historians suspect that it caused his physical and mental health to deteriorate in his later years. Charles died of tuberculosis in 1574 without legitimate male issue, and was succeeded by his brother Henry III, whose own death in 1589 without issue allowed for the ascension of Henry of Navarre to the French throne as Henry IV, establishing the House of Bourbon as the new French royal dynasty.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Charles Maximilien of France, third son of King Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici, was born on 27 June 1550 at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. He was the fifth of ten children born to the royal couple. Styled since birth as Duke of Angoulême, he was created Duke of Orléans after the death of his older brother Louis, his parents' second son, who had died in infancy on 24 October 1550. The royal children were raised under the supervision of the governor and governess of the royal children, Claude d'Urfé and Françoise d'Humières, under the orders of Diane de Poitiers.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Charles' father died in 1559, and was succeeded by Charles' elder brother, King Francis II. Francis II died in 1560. The ten-year-old Charles was immediately proclaimed king on 5 December 1560, and the Privy Council appointed his mother, Catherine de' Medici, as governor of France ("gouvernante de France"), with sweeping powers, at first acting as regent for her young son. On 15 May 1561, Charles was consecrated in the cathedral at Reims. Antoine of Bourbon, himself in line to the French throne and husband to Queen Joan III of Navarre, was appointed Lieutenant-General of France.


title: Charles IX of France

text: In 1560 a group of Huguenot nobles at Amboise had planned to try to abduct King Francis II and arrest the Catholic leaders Francis, Duke of Guise, and his brother Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. The plot was found out ahead of time, and the Guises were prepared, executing hundreds of Huguenots. This was followed by cases of Protestant iconoclasm and Catholic reprisals.


title: Charles IX of France

text: The regent Catherine tried to foster reconciliation at the Colloquy at Poissy and, after that failed, made several concessions to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain in January 1562. Nonetheless, the Massacre of Vassy, perpetrated on 1 March 1562, when the Duke of Guise and his troops attacked and killed or wounded over 100 Huguenot worshipers and citizens, brought France spiralling towards civil war. The tragedy is identified as the first major event in the French Wars of Religion


title: Charles IX of France

text: Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Condé, brother of the Lieutenant-General and the suspected architect of the Amboise conspiracy, had already prepared for war and, taking Wassy as the pretext, assumed the role of a protector of Protestantism and began to seize and garrison strategic towns along the Loire Valley. In return, the monarchy revoked the concessions given to the Huguenots. After the military leaders of both sides were either killed or captured in battles at Rouen, Dreux, and Orléans, the regent mediated a truce and issued the Edict of Amboise (1563).


title: Charles IX of France

text: The war was followed by four years of an uneasy "armed peace", during which time Catherine united the factions in the successful effort to recapture Le Havre from the English. After this victory, Charles declared his legal majority in August 1563, formally ending the regency. However, Catherine continued to play a principal role in politics, and often dominated her son. In March 1564, the King and his mother set out from Fontainebleau on a grand tour of France. Their tour spanned two years and brought them through Bar, Lyon, Salon-de-Provence (where they visited Nostradamus), Carcassonne, Toulouse (where the King and his younger brother Henry were confirmed), Bayonne, La Rochelle, and Moulins. During this trip, Charles IX issued the Edict of Roussillon, which standardised 1 January as the first day of the year throughout France.


title: Charles IX of France

text: War again broke out in 1567 after Charles added 6,000 Swiss mercenaries to his personal guards. Huguenots, fearing a Catholic attack was imminent, tried to abduct the king at Meaux, seized various cities, and massacred Catholics at Nîmes in an action known as the Michelade. The Battle of Saint-Denis resulted in a Huguenot defeat and the death of Anne de Montmorency, the royal commander-in-chief, and the short war ended in 1568 with the Peace of Longjumeau. The privileges granted to Protestants were widely opposed, however, leading to their cancellation and the resumption of war. The Dutch Republic, England and Navarre intervened on the Protestant side, while Spain, Tuscany and Pope Pius V supported the Catholics. Finally, the royal debt and the King's desire to seek a peaceful solution led to yet another truce, the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in August 1570, which again granted concessions to the Huguenots.


title: Charles IX of France

text: On 26 November 1570, Charles married Elisabeth of Austria, with whom he fathered one daughter, Marie Elisabeth. In 1573, Charles fathered an illegitimate son, Charles, Duke of Angoulême, with his mistress, Marie Touchet.


title: Charles IX of France

text: After the conclusion of the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1570, the king increasingly came under the influence of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, who had succeeded the slain Prince of Condé as leader of Huguenots after the Battle of Jarnac in 1569. Catherine, however, became increasingly fearful of Coligny's unchecked power, especially since he was pursuing an alliance with England and the Dutch. Coligny was also hated by Henry, Duke of Guise, who accused the Admiral of having ordered the assassination of his father Francis of Guise during the siege of Orléans in 1563.


title: Charles IX of France

text: During the peace settlement, a marriage was arranged between Charles' sister Margaret of Valois and Henry of Navarre, the future King Henry IV, who was at that time heir to the throne of Navarre and one of the leading Huguenots. Many Huguenot nobles, including Admiral de Coligny, thronged into Paris for the wedding, which was set for 18 August 1572. On 22 August, a failed attempt on Coligny's life put the city in a state of apprehension, as both visiting Huguenots and Parisian Catholics feared an attack by the other side.


title: Charles IX of France

text: In this situation, in the early morning of 24 August 1572, the Duke of Guise moved to avenge his father and murdered Coligny in his lodgings. As Coligny's body was thrown into the street, Parisians mutilated the body. The mob action then erupted into the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, a systematic slaughter of Huguenots that was to last five days. Henry of Navarre managed to avoid death by pledging to convert to Catholicism. Over the next few weeks, the disorder spread to more cities across France. In all, up to 10,000 Huguenots were killed in Paris and the provinces.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Though the massacres weakened Huguenot power, they also reignited war, which only ceased after the Edict of Boulogne in 1573 granted Huguenots amnesty and limited religious freedom. However, the year 1574 saw a failed Huguenot coup at Saint-Germain and successful Huguenot uprisings in Normandy, Poitou and the Rhône valley, setting the stage for another round of war.


title: Charles IX of France

text: In the aftermath of the massacre, the king's fragile mental and physical constitution weakened drastically. His moods swung from boasting about the extremity of the massacre to exclamations that the screams of the murdered Huguenots kept ringing in his ears. Frantically, he blamed alternately himself – "What blood shed! What murders!", he cried to his nurse. "What evil counsel I have followed! O my God, forgive me... I am lost! I am lost!" – or his mother – "Who but you is the cause of all of this? God's blood, you are the cause of it all!" Catherine responded by declaring she had a lunatic for a son.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Charles' physical condition, tending towards tuberculosis, deteriorated to the point where, by spring of 1574, his hoarse coughing turned bloody and his hemorrhages grew more violent.


title: Charles IX of France

text: Charles IX died at the Château de Vincennes, 30 May 1574, aged 23. As his younger brother, Henry, Duke of Anjou, had recently been elected King of Poland and was away from France, their mother Catherine resumed the regency until Henry's return from Poland.


title: Charles IX of France

text: In 1625, long after his death, a book Charles wrote on hunting "La Chasse Royale" was published. It is a valuable source for those interested in the history of hounds and hunting.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Christopher Pike is a fictional character in the "Star Trek" science fiction franchise. He is the immediate predecessor to James T. Kirk as captain of the starship .


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Pike first appeared as the main character of the original unaired pilot episode for "", "", portrayed by Jeffrey Hunter. When this pilot was rejected, Hunter withdrew from the series, and the character of Pike was replaced with Kirk. The series later established Pike as being Kirk's predecessor in the two-part story "", which extensively used archive footage from "The Cage"; the framing story included an older, scarred, and disabled Fleet Captain Pike portrayed by Sean Kenney.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: The films "Star Trek" (2009) and "Star Trek Into Darkness" (2013), which take place in an alternate timeline, feature Bruce Greenwood as a version of Pike who acts as a mentor to the young Kirk. Christopher Pike is a main character in the second season of "" (broadcast 2019), portrayed by Anson Mount; set several years after "The Cage", the show has Captain Pike assume temporary command of the USS "Discovery". The series "" (2022), a spinoff of "Discovery", is centered on Pike's time as captain of the USS "Enterprise", with Mount reprising the role.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: According to dialogue in "The Cage", he is from the city of Mojave on Earth and once owned a horse named Tango.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Pike is the second captain of the USS "Enterprise" NCC-1701 and the first to be shown in "Star Trek" canon. "" reveals that Captain Robert April predated Pike, and printed "Star Trek" fiction and reference books also identify April as Pike's predecessor. Pike took command of the USS "Enterprise" in the year 2250, at the age of 38, taking over command from Robert April, who commanded the "Enterprise" for five years.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: At the beginning of "", set in the year 2254, Pike and his crew are recuperating from a mission to Rigel VII during which several members of the landing party were killed by the inhabitants. The incident filled Pike with so much guilt that he is considering resigning his commission.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: At some point prior to the two-part episode "", set in the year 2267, Pike is promoted to fleet captain. He is severely injured while rescuing several cadets from a baffle plate rupture on board a J-class training vessel, the delta ray radiation leaving him paralyzed, unable to speak, badly scarred, and using a brainwave-operated wheelchair for mobility. His only means of communicating is through a light on the chair: one flash meaning "yes" and two flashes indicating "no".


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Prior to appearing on "" as a main character, Pike is referenced twice in the show's first season. The episode "Choose Your Pain" has Pike listed on the Starfleet Database as one of Starfleet's most decorated Captains as of 2256. (Also included in the list are Jonathan Archer, Matt Decker, Philippa Georgiou, and Robert April.) The season finale "Will You Take My Hand?" shows the "Enterprise" on-screen, with Pike sending a distress call to the "Discovery". Anson Mount being cast as Captain Pike for the second season was announced on April 9, 2018.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Captain Christopher Pike was introduced to "Star Trek: Discovery" in the second-season premiere, "", which first aired in the U.S. on January 17, 2019. Set in the years 2257–2258, the season-long story arc involves Pike assuming temporary command of the USS "Discovery" while the "Enterprise" is disabled, in order to investigate the mysterious "red signals" – temporal anomalies appearing throughout space that have some connection to the apparent breakdown and disappearance of Spock. The planet Talos IV reappears in the episode "If Memory Serves", which also has Pike and Vina once again making mental contact. In the episode "Through the Valley of Shadows", Pike receives a premonition of his own future including his injury and disfigurement. Pike departs the show in the season finale "Such Sweet Sorrow, Part 2", first aired 18 April 2019, which shows him resuming command of the "Enterprise".


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Anson Mount reprised his role as Pike in the first three episodes of the second season of the anthology series "". originally airing October 5 to November 14, 2019.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: After Anson Mount left "Discovery" following the second-season finale, fans of the series began calling for him to reprise his role of Christopher Pike in a spin-off set on the USS "Enterprise", alongside Rebecca Romijn as Number One and Ethan Peck as Spock. Alex Kurtzman confirmed that development on such a series had begun in January 2020. Production began on the series in February 2021, and the series premiered in May 2022.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Captain Pike appears in the 2009 reboot "Star Trek", this time portrayed by Bruce Greenwood. In the film, Pike encourages a young, directionless James T. Kirk (Chris Pine) to follow in the footsteps of his hero father and enlist in Starfleet. Pike is the first Captain of the USS "Enterprise", with the then deselected, cadet Kirk on board as a stowaway. In the culmination of the Battle of Vulcan, Pike follows an ultimatum of Nero (Eric Bana) to board the enemy ship. Pike leaves Spock in command of the Enterprise saying "And I'm not the captain. You are." (Kirk subsequently assumes Spock's role of acting captain). Pike is tortured for information about Earth's defenses but is later rescued by Kirk, whom Pike also manages to save from an attack despite his wounds. At the end of the film, Pike is promoted to the rank of admiral and uses a wheelchair. Unlike his counterpart in "The Menagerie", however, Pike still retains the ability to speak and to use his upper body. He proudly yields command of the "Enterprise" to Kirk while he recovers from his injuries, stating that Kirk's father would be proud of his actions.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Greenwood reprised his role as Pike in the next film, "Star Trek Into Darkness". In the film, Pike has partially recovered from the trauma Nero inflicted, using a cane rather than a wheelchair. After Kirk violates the Prime Directive to rescue Spock (Zachary Quinto), Pike briefly retakes command of the "Enterprise" and warns Kirk that the Admiralty is threatening to put him back into the academy. Pike confronts Kirk about his reckless behavior and how his own actions can get those nearest to him killed. Despite his anger at Kirk, however, Pike retains him as his First Officer, sparing him from having to return to the academy. He later explains to Kirk that he still believes in him and that he also sees a "greatness" behind his recklessness. During a meeting with the Starfleet commanders, including veteran Admiral Marcus and Captain Kirk, Pike is killed in a terrorist attack on Starfleet by John Harrison. Pike's death incites a desire for revenge in Kirk, who seeks to hunt down Harrison, nearly bringing the Federation into a full-scale war with the Klingons. At the end of the film, a memorial service is held for Pike and all of the other people who died as a result of Admiral Marcus and Harrison's actions.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Pike is referenced in the episode "". An alternate-universe version of Captain Kirk reportedly assassinated Pike to become captain of the ISS "Enterprise" (the Mirror Universe version of the USS "Enterprise").


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: In the "" episode "The Most Toys", the name "Pike" can be seen briefly on the side of the shuttlecraft Lt. Commander Data was going to pilot at the beginning of the episode.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: A citation named for Pike is revealed in the "" episode "Tears of the Prophets"; Captain Benjamin Sisko receives the "Christopher Pike Medal of Valor" for his actions during the Dominion War. Captain Sisko and his Vulcan rival Captain Solok congratulate each other on receiving "Christopher Pike Medal" in the Deep Space Nine episode "Take Me Out to the Holosuite" (S07E04).


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Pike appears in the Pocket Books novels "Enterprise: The First Adventure" (Vonda N. McIntyre, 1986), "Final Frontier" (Diane Carey, 1988), "Vulcan's Glory" (D. C. Fontana, 1989), "The Rift" (Peter David, 1991), "Burning Dreams" (Margaret Wander Bonanno, 2006), and "Child of Two Worlds" (Greg Cox, 2015).


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: A mirror-universe version of Pike (established in "", as having been assassinated by the mirror James T. Kirk.)


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: He also appears in the novel "Dark Victory" (William Shatner, 1999), and the short story "The Greater Good" (Margaret Wander Bonanno) in the anthology "Star Trek: Mirror Universe: Shards and Shadows" (2009).


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Captain Pike has his own novel in "Captain's Table" series, "Where Sea Meets Sky", written by Jerry Oltion and published in October 1998.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: Captain Pike and the "Enterprise" appear in the first novel "Desperate Hours" (David Mack, 2017) and feature prominently in the fifth novel "The Enterprise War" (John Jackson Miller, 2019), which chronicles the "Enterprise"'s activities concurrent with the first season of that series.


title: Christopher Pike (Star Trek)

text: In the Paramount-licensed "Star Trek" comic book series published by Marvel Comics, "" chronicled the adventures of the "Enterprise" under the command of Pike. The earliest issues lead up to the events seen in "The Cage", which was retold from Yeoman Colt's point of view. Although extremely popular, the comic series ended on a cliffhanger when Marvel lost the "Star Trek" license rights.