title: Affirmative action

text: With the introduction of Affirmative Action, black economic empowerment (BEE) rose further in South Africa. The BEE was not a moral initiative to redress the wrongs of the past but to promote growth and strategies that aim to realize a country's full potential. The idea was targeting the weakest link in economics, which was inequality and which would help develop the economy. This is evident in the statement by the Department of Trade and Industry, "As such, this strategy stresses a BEE process that is associated with growth, development and enterprise development, and not merely the redistribution of existing wealth". Similarities between the BEE and affirmative action are apparent; however there is a difference. BEE focuses more on employment equality rather than taking wealth away from the skilled white labourers.


title: Affirmative action

text: The main goal of affirmative action is for the country to reach its full potential. This would result in a completely diverse workforce in economic and social sectors, thus broadening the economic base and stimulating economic growth.


title: Affirmative action

text: Once applied within the country, many different outcomes arose, some positive and some negative. This depended on the approach to and the view of The Employment Equality Act and affirmative action.


title: Affirmative action

text: Pre-Democracy, the apartheid governments discriminated against non-white races, so with affirmative action, the country started to redress past discriminations. Affirmative action also focused on combating structural racism and racial inequality, hoping to maximize diversity in all levels of society and sectors. Achieving this would elevate the status of the perpetual underclass and to restore equal access to the benefits of society.


title: Affirmative action

text: As with all policies, there have also been negative outcomes. A quota system was implemented, which aimed to achieve targets of diversity in a workforce. This target affected the hiring and level of skills in the workforce, ultimately impacting the free market. Affirmative action created marginalization for coloured and Indian races in South Africa, as well as developing and aiding the middle and elite classes, leaving the lower class behind. This created a bigger gap between the lower and middle class, which led to class struggles and a greater segregation. Entitlement began to arise with the growth of the middle and elite classes, as well as race entitlement. Some assert that affirmative action is discrimination in reverse. Negative consequences of affirmative action, specifically the quota system, drove skilled labour away, resulting in bad economic growth. This is due to very few international companies wanting to invest in South Africa. As a result of the outcomes of affirmative action, the concept is continually evolving.


title: Affirmative action

text: South African jurist Martin van Staden argues that the way affirmative action and transformation policies have been implemented in South Africa has eroded state institutions, grown corruption, and undermined the rule of law in the country.


title: Affirmative action

text: There is affirmative action in education for minority nationalities. This may equate to lowering minimum requirements for the National University Entrance Examination, which is a mandatory exam for all students to enter university. Some universities set quotas for minority (non-Han) student intake. Further, minority students enrolled in ethnic minority-oriented specialties (e.g. language and literature programs) are provided with scholarships and/or pay no tuition, and are granted a monthly stipend.


title: Affirmative action

text: A class-based affirmative action policy was incorporated into the admission practices of the four most selective universities in Israel during the early to mid-2000s. In evaluating the eligibility of applicants, neither their financial status nor their national or ethnic origins are considered. The emphasis, rather, is on structural disadvantages, especially neighborhood socioeconomic status and high school rigor, although several individual hardships are also weighed. This policy made the four institutions, especially the echelons at the most selective departments, more diverse than they otherwise would have been. The rise in geographic, economic and demographic diversity of a student population suggests that the plan's focus on structural determinants of disadvantage yields broad diversity dividends.


title: Affirmative action

text: Israeli citizens who are women, Arabs, Blacks or people with disabilities are supported by affirmative action in the civil service employment. Also Israeli citizens who are Arabs, Blacks or people with disabilities are entitled to full university scholarships by the state.


title: Affirmative action

text: In her study of gender politics in Israel, Dafna Izraeli showed that the paradox of affirmative action for women directors is that the legitimation for legislating their inclusion on boards also resulted in the exclusion of women's interested as a legitimate issue on the boards' agendas. "The new culture of the men's club is seductive token women are under the pressure to become "social males" and prove that their competence as directors, meaning that they are not significantly different from men. In the negotiation for status as worthy peers, emphasizing gender signals that a woman is an "imposter", someone who does not rightfully belong in the position she is claiming to fill." And once affirmative action for women is fulfilled, and then affirmative action shares the element, as Izraeli put it, the "group equality discourse," making it easier for other groups to claim for a fairer distribution of resources. This suggests that affirmative action can have applications for different groups in Israel.


title: Affirmative action

text: Reservation in India is a form of affirmative action designed to improve the well-being of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SC/ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC), defined primarily by their caste. Members of these categories comprise about two-thirds of the population of India. According to the Constitution of India, up to 50% of all government-run higher education admissions and government job vacancies may be reserved for members of the SC/ST/OBC-NCL categories, and 10% for those in Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), with the remaining unreserved. In 2014, the Indian National Sample Survey found that 12% of surveyed Indian households had received academic scholarships, with 94% being on account of SC/ST/OBC membership, 2% based on financial weakness and 0.7% based on merit.


title: Affirmative action

text: Indonesia has offered affirmative action for native Papuans in education, government civil worker selection, and police & army selection. After the 2019 Papua protests, many Papuan students chose to abandon their scholarship and return to their respective provinces. The program has been subject to criticism, with complaints made towards a lack of sufficient quotas and alleged corruption. Prabowo Subianto, Indonesian defense minister, has expressed that he will direct more effort towards recruiting Papuans to the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Education scholarship by Ministry of Education and Culture, called ADik to the native Papuans and students from perhipery regions close to Indonesian border.


title: Affirmative action

text: The Malaysian New Economic Policy or NEP is a form of ethnicity-based affirmative action. Malaysia provides affirmative action to those that are deemed "Bumiputera", which includes the Malay population, Orang Asli, and the indigenous people of Sabah and Sarawak, who together form a majority of the population. However, the indigenous people of Malaysia (Orang Asli) do not have the same special rights of the rest of the Bumiputera as granted under Article 153, as the Orang Asli are not referenced within the article 153 itself.


title: Affirmative action

text: The historical/common argument is that the Malays have lower incomes than the Chinese and Indians, who have traditionally been involved in businesses and industries, who were also general migrant workers. Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country, with Malays making up the majority of close to 52% of the population. About 23% of the population is of Chinese descent, while those of Indian descent comprise about 7% of the population.


title: Affirmative action

text: The Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP) has been dubbed a failure as of recent years, as evidence has pointed to the ever-growing wealth disparity among Malays, that have widened the gap between the rich and poor Malays, while the Malaysian New Economic Policy has been shown to benefit the existing rich Malays instead of achieving its intention of helping poor Malays.


title: Affirmative action

text: ("See also Bumiputra") The mean income for Malays, Chinese and Indians in 1957/58 were 134, 288 and 228 respectively. In 1967/68 it was 154, 329 and 245, and in 1970 it was 170, 390 and 300. Mean income disparity ratio for Chinese/Malays rose from 2.1 in 1957/58 to 2.3 in 1970, whereas for Indians/Malays the disparity ratio also rose from 1.7 to 1.8 in the same period.


title: Affirmative action

text: In 1981 the Standardization policy of Sri Lankan universities was introduced as an affirmative action program for students from areas which had lower rates of education than other areas due to missionary activity in the north and east, which essentially were the Tamil areas. Successive governments cultivated a historical myth after the colonial powers had left that the British had practised communal favouritism towards Christians and the minority Tamil community for the entire 200 years they had controlled Sri Lanka. However, the Sinhalese in fact benefitted from trade and plantation cultivations over the rest of the other groups and their language and culture as well as the religion of Buddhism was fostered and made into mediums for schools over the Tamil language, which did not have the same treatment and Tamils learned English instead as there was no medium for Tamil until near independence. Tamils' knowledge of English and education came from the very American missionary activity by overseas Christians that the British were concerned will anger the Sinhalese and destroy their trading relationships, so they sent them to the Tamil areas instead to teach, thinking it would have no consequences and due to their small numbers. The British sending the missionaries to the north and east was for the protection of the Sinhalese and in fact, showed favouritism to the majority group instead of the minorities to maintain trading relationships and benefits from them. The Tamils, out of this random benefit from learning English and basic education excelled and flourished and were able to take many civil service jobs to the chagrin of the Sinhalese. The myth of Divide and Rule is untrue. The 'policy of standardisation' was typical of affirmative action policies, in that it required drastically lower standards for Sinhalese students than for the more academic Tamils who had to get about ten more marks to enter into universities. The policy in fact is an example of discrimination against the Tamil ethnic group.


title: Affirmative action

text: A 2004 legislation requires that, for a firm with 100 employees or more wishing to compete for government contracts, at least 1 percent of its employees must be Taiwanese aborigines. Ministry of Education and Council of Aboriginal Affairs announced in 2002 that Taiwanese Aboriginal students would have their high-school or undergraduate entrance exams boosted by 33% for demonstrating some knowledge of their tribal language and culture. The percentage of boost have been revised several times, and the latest percentage is 35% in 2013.


title: Affirmative action

text: Greenlanders have special advantages when applying for university, college or vocation university degrees in Denmark. With these specific rules, Greenlanders can get into degrees without the required grade averages by fulfilling certain criteria. They need to have a grade average of over 6,0 and have lived a certain number of years in Greenland. These rules have been in force since 1 January 2014.


title: Affirmative action

text: In certain university education programs, including legal and medical education, there are quotas for persons who reach a certain standard of skills in the Swedish language; for students admitted in these quotas, the education is partially arranged in Swedish. The purpose of the quotas is to guarantee that a sufficient number of professionals with skills in Swedish are educated for nationwide needs. The quota system has met with criticism from the Finnish speaking majority, some of whom consider the system unfair. In addition to these linguistic quotas, women may get preferential treatment in recruitment for certain public sector jobs if there is a gender imbalance in the field.


title: Affirmative action

text: No distinctions based on race, religion or sex are allowed under the 1958 French Constitution. Since the 1980s, a French version of affirmative action based on neighborhood is in place for primary and secondary education. Some schools, in neighborhoods labeled "Priority Education Zones", are granted more funds than the others. Students from these schools also benefit from special policies in certain institutions (such as Sciences Po).


title: Affirmative action

text: The French Ministry of Defence tried in 1990 to make it easier for young French soldiers of North-African descent to be promoted in rank and obtain driving licenses. After a strong protest by a young French lieutenant in the Ministry of Defence newspaper ("Armées d'aujourd'hui"), the driving license and rank plan was cancelled. After the Sarkozy election, a new attempt in favour of Arab-French students was made, but Sarkozy did not gain enough political support to change the French constitution. However, some French schools do implement affirmative action in that they are obligated to take a certain number of students from impoverished families.


title: Affirmative action

text: Additionally, following the Norwegian example, after 27 January 2014, women must represent at least 20% of board members in all stock exchange listed or state-owned companies. After 27 January 2017, the proportion will increase to 40%. All appointments of males as directors will be invalid as long as the quota is not met, and monetary penalties may apply for other directors.


title: Affirmative action

text: Article 3 of the German Basic Law provides for equal rights of all people regardless of sex, race or social background. There are programs stating that if men and women have equal qualifications, women have to be preferred for a job; moreover, the disabled should be preferred to non-disabled people. This is typical for all positions in state and university service , typically using the phrase "We try to increase diversity in this line of work". In recent years, there has been a long public debate about whether to issue programs that would grant women a privileged access to jobs in order to fight discrimination. Germany's "Left Party" brought up the discussion about affirmative action in Germany's school system. According to Stefan Zillich, quotas should be "a possibility" to help working class children who did not do well in school gain access to a "Gymnasium" (University-preparatory school). Headmasters of "Gymnasien" have objected, saying that this type of policy would "be a disservice" to poor children.


title: Affirmative action

text: In all public stock companies (ASA) boards, either gender should be represented by at least 40%. This affects roughly 400 companies of over 300,000 in total.


title: Affirmative action

text: Seierstad & Opsahl in their study of the effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway found that there are few boards chaired by a woman, from the beginning of the implementation of the affirmative action policy period to August 2009, the proportion of boards led by a woman has increased from 3.4% to 4.3%. This suggests that the law has had a marginal effect on the sex of the chair and the boards remain internally segregated. Although at the beginning of our observation period, only 7 of 91 prominent directors were women. The gender balance among prominent directors has changed considerably throughout the period, and at the end of the period, 107 women and 117 men were prominent directors. By applying more restrictive definitions of prominence, the proportion of directors who are women generally increases. If only considering directors with at least three directorships, 61.4% of them are women. When considering directors with seven or more directorships, all of them are women. Thus, affirmative action increases the female population in the director position.


title: Affirmative action

text: A 2016 study found no effect of the ASA representation requirement on either valuation or profits of the affected companies, and also no correlation between the requirement and the restructuring of companies away from ASA.


title: Affirmative action

text: Quota systems existed in the USSR for various social groups including ethnic minorities (as compensation of their "cultural backwardness"), women and factory workers.


title: Affirmative action

text: Soon after the 1918 revolution, Inessa Armand, Lenin's secretary and lover, was instrumental in creating Zhenotdel, which functioned until the 1930s as part of the international egalitarian and affirmative action movements.


title: Affirmative action

text: Quotas for access to university education, offices in the Soviet system and the Communist Party existed: for example, the position of First Secretary of a Soviet Republic's (or Autonomous Republic's) Party Committee was always filled by a representative of this republic's "titular ethnicity".


title: Affirmative action

text: Modern Russia retains this system partially. Quotas are abolished, but preferences for some ethnic minorities and inhabitants of certain territories remain.


title: Affirmative action

text: The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia from 2006 established the principles of equality and the prohibition of discrimination on any grounds. It also promotes affirmative action "special measures" for certain marginalized groups, such as national minorities. In Serbia the Roma national minority is enabled to enroll in public schools under more favorable conditions.


title: Affirmative action

text: The Constitutional Court declared in October 2005 that affirmative action i.e. "providing advantages for people of an ethnic or racial minority group" as being against its Constitution.


title: Affirmative action

text: The Equality Act 2010 established the principles of equality and their implementation in the UK. In the UK, any discrimination, quotas or favouritism due to sex, race and ethnicity among other "protected characteristics" is illegal by default in education, employment, during commercial transactions, in a private club or association, and while using public services, although exceptions exist, to wit: "Section 159 of the Equality Act 2010 allows an employer to treat an applicant or employee with a protected characteristic (eg race, sex or age) more favourably in connection with recruitment or promotion than someone without that characteristic who is as qualified for the role. The employer must reasonably think that people with the protected characteristic suffer a disadvantage or are under-represented in that particular activity. Taking the positive action must be a proportionate means of enabling or encouraging people to overcome the disadvantage or to take part in the activity.")


title: Affirmative action

text: In 2019, an employment tribunal ruled that, while attempting to create a diverse force, the Cheshire Police had discriminated against a "well prepared" white heterosexual male. The ruling stated that "while positive action can be used to boost diversity, it should only be applied to distinguish between candidates who were all equally well qualified for a role".


title: Affirmative action

text: The equality section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms explicitly permits affirmative action type legislation, although the Charter does not "require" legislation that gives preferential treatment. Subsection 2 of Section 15 states that the equality provisions do "not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability".


title: Affirmative action

text: The Canadian "Employment Equity Act" requires employers in federally-regulated industries to give preferential treatment to four designated groups: Women, persons with disabilities, aboriginal peoples, and visible minorities. Less than one-third of Canadian Universities offer alternative admission requirements for students of aboriginal descent. Some provinces and territories also have affirmative action-type policies. For example, in the Northwest Territories in the Canadian north, aboriginal people are given preference for jobs and education and are considered to have P1 status. Non-aboriginal people who were born in the NWT or have resided half of their life there are considered a P2, as well as women and people with disabilities.


title: Affirmative action

text: The policy of affirmative action dates to the Reconstruction Era in the United States, 1863–1877. Current policy was introduced in the early 1960s in the United States, as a way to combat racial discrimination in the hiring process, with the concept later expanded to address gender discrimination. Affirmative action was first created from Executive Order 10925, which was signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961 and required that government employers "not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin" and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".


title: Affirmative action

text: On 24 September 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Executive Order 11246, thereby replacing Executive Order 10925 and affirming Federal Government's commitment "to promote the full realization of equal employment opportunity through a positive, continuing program in each executive department and agency". Affirmative action was extended to women by Executive Order 11375 which amended Executive Order 11246 on 13 October 1967, by adding "sex" to the list of protected categories. In the U.S. affirmative action's original purpose was to pressure institutions into compliance with the nondiscrimination mandate of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Civil Rights Acts do not cover discrimination based on veteran status, disabilities, or age that is 40 years and older. These groups may be protected from discrimination under different laws.


title: Affirmative action

text: Affirmative action has been the subject of numerous court cases, and has been questioned upon its constitutional legitimacy. In 2003, a Supreme Court decision regarding affirmative action in higher education ("Grutter v. Bollinger", 539 US 244 – Supreme Court 2003) permitted educational institutions to consider race as a factor when admitting students. Alternatively, some colleges use financial criteria to attract racial groups that have typically been under-represented and typically have lower living conditions. Some states such as California (California Civil Rights Initiative), Michigan (Michigan Civil Rights Initiative), and Washington (Initiative 200) have passed constitutional amendments banning public institutions, including public schools, from practicing affirmative action within their respective states. In 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court held that "States may choose to prohibit the consideration of racial preferences in governmental decisions". By that time eight states, Oklahoma, New Hampshire, Arizona, Colorado, Nebraska, Michigan, Florida, Washington and California, had already banned affirmative action. Conservative activists have alleged that colleges quietly use illegal quotas to discriminate against people of Asian, Jewish, and Caucasian backgrounds and have launched numerous lawsuits to stop them.


title: Affirmative action

text: Individuals of Maori or other Polynesian descent are often afforded improved access to university courses, or have scholarships earmarked specifically for them. Such access to University courses have in the past faced criticism, particularly at the University of Auckland due to a phenomenon known as Mismatch theory, accusations of setting the kids up to fail have been made due to a lack of transparency as to the preferred groups graduation rates and the university informing the students of such historical statistics dating back to the 1970s. Affirmative action is provided for under section 73 of the Human Rights Act 1993 and section 19(2) of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990.


title: Affirmative action

text: Some Brazilian universities (state and federal) have created systems of preferred admissions (quotas) for racial minorities (blacks and Amerindians), the poor and people with disabilities. There are also quotas of up to 20% of vacancies reserved for people with disabilities in the civil public services. The Democrats party, accusing the board of directors of the University of Brasília for "resurrecting Nazist ideals", appealed to the Supreme Federal Court against the constitutionality of the quotas the university reserves for minorities. The Supreme Court unanimously approved their constitutionality on 26 April 2012.


title: Affirmative action

text: The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination stipulates (in Article 2.2) that affirmative action programs may be required of countries that ratified the convention, in order to rectify systematic discrimination. It states, however, that such programs "shall in no case entail as a consequence the maintenance of unequal or separate rights for different racial groups after the objectives for which they were taken have been achieved".


title: Affirmative action

text: The United Nations Human Rights Committee states that "the principle of equality sometimes requires States parties to take affirmative action in order to diminish or eliminate conditions which cause or help to perpetuate discrimination prohibited by the Covenant. For example, in a State where the general conditions of a certain part of the population prevent or impair their enjoyment of human rights, the State should take specific action to correct those conditions. Such action may involve granting for a time to the part of the population concerned certain preferential treatment in specific matters as compared with the rest of the population. However, as long as such action is needed to correct discrimination, in fact, it is a case of legitimate differentiation under the Covenant."


title: Affirmative action

text: The principle of affirmative action is to promote societal equality through the preferential treatment of socioeconomically disadvantaged people. Often, these people are disadvantaged for historical reasons, such as oppression or slavery.


title: Affirmative action

text: Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has sought to achieve a range of goals: bridging inequalities in employment and pay; increasing access to education; enriching state, institutional, and professional leadership with the full spectrum of society; redressing apparent past wrongs, harms, or hindrances, in particular addressing the apparent social imbalance left in the wake of slavery and slave laws.


title: Affirmative action

text: A 2017 study of temporary federal affirmative action regulation in the United States estimated that the regulation "increases the black share of employees over time: in 5 years after an establishment is first regulated, the black share of employees increases by an average of 0.8 percentage points. Strikingly, the black share continues to grow at a similar pace even after an establishment is deregulated. [The author] argue[s] that this persistence is driven in part by affirmative action inducing employers to improve their methods for screening potential hires."


title: Affirmative action

text: According to a poll taken by "USA Today" in 2005, the majority of Americans support affirmative action for women, while views on minority groups were more split. Men are only slightly more likely to support affirmative action for women; though a majority of both do. However, a slight majority of Americans do believe that affirmative action goes beyond ensuring access and goes into the realm of preferential treatment. More recently, a Quinnipiac poll from June 2009 finds that 55% of Americans feel that affirmative action, in general, should be discontinued, though 55% support it for people with disabilities. A Gallup poll from 2005 showed that 72% of black Americans and 44% of white Americans supported racial affirmative action (with 21% and 49% opposing), with support and opposition among Hispanics falling between those of blacks and whites. Support among blacks, unlike among whites, had almost no correlation with political affiliation.


title: Affirmative action

text: A 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute survey found 65% of American voters opposed the application of affirmative action to homosexuals, with 27% indicating they supported it.


title: Affirmative action

text: A Leger poll taken in 2010 found 59% of Canadians opposed considering race, gender, or ethnicity when hiring for government jobs.


title: Affirmative action

text: A 2014 Pew Research Center poll found that 63% of Americans thought affirmative action programs aimed at increasing minority representation on college campuses were "a good thing", compared to 30% who thought they were "a bad thing". The following year, Gallup released a poll showing that 67% of Americans supported affirmative action programs aimed at increasing female representation, compared to 58% who supported such programs aimed at increasing the representation of racial minorities.


title: Affirmative action

text: Critics of affirmative action offer a variety of arguments as to why it is counterproductive or should be discontinued. For example, critics may argue that affirmative action hinders reconciliation, replaces old wrongs with new wrongs, undermines the achievements of minorities, and encourages individuals to identify themselves as disadvantaged, even if they are not. It may increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within minority groups at the expense of the least fortunate within majority groups.


title: Affirmative action

text: Some opponents of affirmative action argue that it is a form of reverse discrimination, that any effort to cure discrimination through affirmative action is wrong because it, in turn, is another form of discrimination. Some critics claim that court cases such as "Fisher v. University of Texas", which held that colleges have some discretion to consider race when making admissions decisions, demonstrate how discrimination occurs in the name of affirmative action.


title: Affirmative action

text: Some critics of affirmative action argue that affirmative action devalues the actual accomplishments of people who are chosen based on the social group to which they belong rather than their qualifications, thus rendering affirmative action counterproductive.


title: Affirmative action

text: Some argue that affirmative action policies create an opportunity for fraud, by encouraging non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups (that is, members of groups that benefit from affirmative action) in order to take advantage of group preference policies.


title: Affirmative action

text: Critics of affirmative action suggest that programs may benefit the members of the targeted group that least need the benefit, that is those who have the greatest social, economic and educational advantages within the targeted group. Other beneficiaries may be described as wholly unqualified for the opportunity made available through affirmative action. They may argue that at the same time the people who lose the most to affirmative action are the least fortunate members of non-preferred groups.


title: Affirmative action

text: Another criticism of affirmative action is that it may reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best. Beneficiaries of affirmative action may conclude that it is unnecessary to work as hard, and those who do not benefit may perceive hard work as futile.


title: Affirmative action

text: Mismatching is the term given to the supposed negative effect that affirmative action has when it places a student into a college that is too difficult for them. For example, in the absence of affirmative action, a student will be admitted to a college that matches their academic ability and has a good chance of graduating. However, according to the mismatching hypothesis, affirmative action often places a student into a college that is too difficult, and this increases the student's chance of dropping out of the college or of their desired major. Thus, affirmative action hurts its intended beneficiaries, because it increases their dropout rates. Mismatching has also been cited as a contributing factor in lowered pursuit and completion of STEM degrees among certain populations.


title: Affirmative action

text: Evidence in support of the mismatching theory was presented by Gail Heriot, a professor of law at the University of San Diego and a member of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, in a 24 August 2007 article published in "The Wall Street Journal". Richard Sander concluded that there were 7.9% fewer black attorneys than there would have been if there had been no affirmative action. The article also states that because of mismatching, blacks are more likely to drop out of law school and fail bar exams.


title: Affirmative action

text: Sander's paper on mismatching has been criticized by several law professors, including Ian Ayres and Richard Brooks from Yale who argue that eliminating affirmative action would actually reduce the number of black lawyers by 12.7%. A 2008 study by Jesse Rothstein and Albert H. Yoon confirmed Sander's mismatch findings, but also found that eliminating affirmative action would "lead to a 63 percent decline in black matriculants at all law schools and a 90 percent decline at elite law schools". These high numbers predictions were doubted in a review of previous studies by Peter Arcidiacono and Michael Lovenheim. Their 2016 article found a strong indication that affirmative action results in a mismatch effect. They argued that the attendance by some African-American students to less-selective schools would significantly improve the low first attempt rate at passing the state bar, but they cautioned that such improvements could be outweighed by decreases in law school attendance.


title: Affirmative action

text: A 2011 study proposed that mismatch can only occur when a selective school possesses private information that, had this information been disclosed, would have changed the student's choice of school. The study found that this is in fact the case for Duke University, and that this information predicts the student's academic performance after beginning college.


title: Affirmative action

text: A 2016 study on affirmative action in India finds evidence for the mismatching hypothesis. In India 90% IIT-Roorkee dropouts are members of a backward caste.


title: Purple

text: Purple is any of a variety of colors with hue between red and blue. In the RGB color model used in computer and television screens, purples are produced by mixing red and blue light. In the RYB color model historically used by painters, purples are created with a combination of red and blue pigments. In the CMYK color model used in printing, purples are made by combining magenta pigment with either cyan pigment, black pigment, or both.


title: Purple

text: Purple has long been associated with royalty, originally because Tyrian purple dye, made from the mucus secretion of a species of snail, was extremely expensive in antiquity. Purple was the color worn by Roman magistrates; it became the imperial color worn by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, and later by Roman Catholic bishops. Similarly in Japan, the color is traditionally associated with the emperor and aristocracy.


title: Purple

text: According to contemporary surveys in Europe and the United States, purple is the color most often associated with rarity, royalty, magic, mystery and piety. When combined with pink, it is associated with eroticism, femininity, and seduction.


title: Purple

text: The modern English word "purple" comes from the Old English "purpul," which derives from Latin "purpura", which, in turn, derives from the Greek ("porphura"), the name of the Tyrian purple dye manufactured in classical antiquity from a mucus secreted by the spiny dye-murex snail. The first recorded use of the word "purple" dates to the late 900s AD.


title: Purple

text: Purple is closely associated with violet. In common usage, both refer to a variety of colors between blue and red in hue. Historically, purple has tended to be used for redder hues and violet for bluer hues. In optics, violet is a spectral color: It refers to the color of any different single wavelength of light on the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum, between approximately 380 and 450 nanometers, whereas purple is the color of various combinations of red, blue, and violet light, some of which humans perceive as similar to violet.


title: Purple

text: Purple first appeared in prehistoric art during the Neolithic era. The artists of Pech Merle cave and other Neolithic sites in France used sticks of manganese and hematite powder to draw and paint animals and the outlines of their own hands on the walls of their caves. These works have been dated to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC.


title: Purple

text: As early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia (present day Lebanon), were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex. Clothing colored with the Tyrian dye was mentioned in both the "Iliad" of Homer and the "Aeneid" of Virgil. The deep, rich purple dye made from this snail became known as Tyrian purple.


title: Purple

text: The process of making the dye was long, difficult and expensive. Thousands of the tiny snails had to be found, their shells cracked, the snail removed. Mountains of empty shells have been found at the ancient sites of Sidon and Tyre. The snails were left to soak, then a tiny gland was removed and the juice extracted and put in a basin, which was placed in the sunlight. There, a remarkable transformation took place. In the sunlight the juice turned white, then yellow-green, then green, then violet, then a red which turned darker and darker. The process had to be stopped at exactly the right time to obtain the desired color, which could range from a bright crimson to a dark purple, the color of dried blood. Then either wool, linen or silk would be dyed. The exact hue varied between crimson and violet, but it was always rich, bright and lasting.


title: Purple

text: Tyrian purple became the color of kings, nobles, priests and magistrates all around the Mediterranean. It was mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament); in the Book of Exodus, God instructs Moses to have the Israelites bring him an offering including cloth "of blue, and purple, and scarlet," to be used in the curtains of the Tabernacle and the garments of priests. The term used for purple in the 4th-century Latin Vulgate version of the Bible passage is "purpura" or Tyrian purple. In the "Iliad" of Homer, the belt of Ajax is purple, and the tails of the horses of Trojan warriors are dipped in purple. In the "Odyssey", the blankets on the wedding bed of Odysseus are purple. In the poems of Sappho (6th century BC) she celebrates the skill of the dyers of the Greek kingdom of Lydia who made purple footwear, and in the play of Aeschylus (525–456 BC), Queen Clytemnestra welcomes back her husband Agamemnon by decorating the palace with purple carpets. In 950 BC, King Solomon was reported to have brought artisans from Tyre to provide purple fabrics to decorate the Temple of Jerusalem.


title: Purple

text: Alexander the Great (when giving imperial audiences as the basileus of the Macedonian Empire), the basileus of the Seleucid Empire, and the kings of Ptolemaic Egypt all wore Tyrian purple.


title: Purple

text: The Roman custom of wearing purple togas may have come from the Etruscans; an Etruscan tomb painting from the 4th century BC shows a nobleman wearing a deep purple and embroidered toga.


title: Purple

text: In Ancient Rome, the "Toga praetexta" was an ordinary white toga with a broad purple stripe on its border. It was worn by freeborn Roman boys who had not yet come of age, curule magistrates,


title: Purple

text: The "Toga picta" was solid purple, embroidered with gold. During the Roman Republic, it was worn by generals in their triumphs, and by the Praetor Urbanus when he rode in the chariot of the gods into the circus at the Ludi Apollinares. During the Empire, the "toga picta" was worn by magistrates giving public gladiatorial games, and by the consuls, as well as by the emperor on special occasions.


title: Purple

text: During the Roman Republic, when a triumph was held, the general being honored wore an entirely purple toga bordered in gold, and Roman Senators wore a toga with a purple stripe. However, during the Roman Empire, purple was more and more associated exclusively with the emperors and their officers. Suetonius claims that the early emperor Caligula had the King of Mauretania murdered for the splendour of his purple cloak, and that Nero forbade the use of certain purple dyes. In the late empire the sale of purple cloth became a state monopoly protected by the death penalty.


title: Purple

text: According to the New Testament, Jesus Christ, in the hours leading up to his crucifixion, was dressed in purple (πορφύρα: "porphura") by the Roman garrison to mock his claim to be 'King of the Jews'.


title: Purple

text: The actual color of Tyrian purple seems to have varied from a reddish to a bluish purple. According to the Roman writer Vitruvius, (1st century BC), the murex shells coming from northern waters, probably "Bolinus brandaris", produced a more bluish color than those of the south, probably "Hexaplex trunculus". The most valued shades were said to be those closer to the color of dried blood, as seen in the mosaics of the robes of the Emperor Justinian in Ravenna. The chemical composition of the dye from the murex is close to that of the dye from indigo, and indigo was sometimes used to make a counterfeit Tyrian purple, a crime which was severely punished. What seems to have mattered about Tyrian purple was not its color, but its luster, richness, its resistance to weather and light, and its high price.


title: Purple

text: In modern times, Tyrian purple has been recreated, at great expense. When the German chemist Paul Friedander tried to recreate Tyrian purple in 2008, he needed twelve thousand mollusks to create 1.4 ounces of dye, enough to color a handkerchief. In the year 2000, a gram of Tyrian purple made from ten thousand mollusks according to the original formula cost two thousand euros.


title: Purple

text: In ancient China, purple was obtained not through the Mediterranean mollusc, but purple gromwell. The dye obtained did not easily adhere to fabrics, making purple fabrics expensive. Purple became a fashionable color in the state of Qi (齊, 1046 BC–221 BC) because its ruler, Qin Shi Huang, developed a preference for it. As a result, the price of purple fabric was over five times that of plain fabric. His minister, Guan Zhong (管仲), eventually convinced him to relinquish this preference.


title: Purple

text: An old hypothesis suggested links between the Chinese purple and blue and Egyptian blue, however, molecular structure analysis and evidence such as the absence of lead in Egyptian blue and the lack of examples of Egyptian blue in China, argued against the hypothesis. The use of quartz, barium, and lead components in ancient Chinese glass and Han purple and Han blue has been used to suggest a connection between glassmaking and the manufacture of pigments, and to prove the independence of the Chinese invention. Taoist alchemists may have developed Han purple from their knowledge of glassmaking.


title: Purple

text: Purple was regarded as a secondary color in ancient China. In classical times, secondary colors were not as highly prized as the five primary colors of the Chinese spectrum, and purple was used to allude to impropriety, in contrast to crimson, which was deemed a primary color and symbolized legitimacy. Nevertheless, by the 6th century CE, purple was ranked above crimson. Several changes to the ranks of colors occurred after that time.


title: Purple

text: Through the early Christian era, the rulers of the Byzantine Empire continued the use of purple as the imperial color, for diplomatic gifts, and even for imperial documents and the pages of the Bible. Gospel manuscripts were written in gold lettering on parchment that was colored Tyrian purple.


title: Purple

text: Empresses gave birth in the Purple Chamber, and the emperors born there were known as "born to the purple," to separate them from emperors who won or seized the title through political intrigue or military force. Bishops of the Byzantine church wore white robes with stripes of purple, while government officials wore squares of purple fabric to show their rank.


title: Purple

text: In western Europe, the Emperor Charlemagne was crowned in 800 wearing a mantle of Tyrian purple, and was buried in 814 in a shroud of the same color, which still exists (see below). However, after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the color lost its imperial status. The great dye works of Constantinople were destroyed, and gradually scarlet, made with dye from the cochineal insect, became the royal color in Europe.


title: Purple

text: In 1464, Pope Paul II decreed that cardinals should no longer wear Tyrian purple, and instead wear scarlet, from kermes and alum, since the dye from Byzantium was no longer available. Bishops and archbishops, of a lower status than cardinals, were assigned the color purple, but not the rich Tyrian purple. They wore cloth dyed first with the less expensive indigo blue, then overlaid with red made from kermes dye.


title: Purple

text: While purple was worn less frequently by Medieval and Renaissance kings and princes, it was worn by the professors of many of Europe's new universities. Their robes were modeled after those of the clergy, and they often wore square/violet or purple/violet caps and robes, or black robes with purple/violet trim. Purple/violet robes were particularly worn by students of divinity.


title: Purple

text: Purple and/or violet also played an important part in the religious paintings of the Renaissance. Angels and the Virgin Mary were often portrayed wearing purple or violet robes.


title: Purple

text: In the 18th century, purple was still worn on occasion by Catherine the Great and other rulers, by bishops and, in lighter shades, by members of the aristocracy, but rarely by ordinary people, because of its high cost. But in the 19th century, that changed.


title: Purple

text: In 1856, an eighteen-year-old British chemistry student named William Henry Perkin was trying to make a synthetic quinine. His experiments produced instead the first synthetic aniline dye, a purple shade called mauveine, shortened simply to mauve. It took its name from the mallow flower, which is the same color. The new color quickly became fashionable, particularly after Queen Victoria wore a silk gown dyed with mauveine to the Royal Exhibition of 1862. Prior to Perkin's discovery, mauve was a color which only the aristocracy and rich could afford to wear. Perkin developed an industrial process, built a factory, and produced the dye by the ton, so almost anyone could wear mauve. It was the first of a series of modern industrial dyes which completely transformed both the chemical industry and fashion.


title: Purple

text: Purple was popular with the pre-Raphaelite painters in Britain, including Arthur Hughes, who loved bright colors and romantic scenes.


title: Purple

text: At the turn of the century, purple was a favorite color of the Austrian painter Gustav Klimt, who flooded his pictures with sensual purples and violets.


title: Purple

text: In the 20th century, purple retained its historic connection with royalty; George VI (1896–1952), wore purple in his official portrait, and it was prominent in every feature of the coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953, from the invitations to the stage design inside Westminster Abbey. But at the same time, it was becoming associated with social change; with the Women's Suffrage movement for the right to vote for women in the early decades of the century, with Feminism in the 1970s, and with the psychedelic drug culture of the 1960s.


title: Purple

text: In the early 20th century, purple, green, and white were the colors of the Women's Suffrage movement, which fought to win the right to vote for women, finally succeeding with the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920. Later, in the 1970s, in a tribute to the Suffragettes, it became the color of the women's liberation movement.


title: Purple

text: In the concentration camps of Nazi Germany, prisoners who were members of non-conformist religious groups, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, were required to wear a purple triangle.


title: Purple

text: During the 1960s and early 1970s, it was also associated with counterculture, psychedelics, and musicians like Jimi Hendrix with his 1967 song "Purple Haze", or the English rock band of Deep Purple which formed in 1968. Later, in the 1980s, it was featured in the song and album "Purple Rain" (1984) by the American musician Prince.


title: Purple

text: The Purple Rain Protest was a protest against apartheid that took place in Cape Town, South Africa on 2 September 1989, in which a police water cannon with purple dye sprayed thousands of demonstrators. This led to the slogan "The Purple Shall Govern".


title: Purple

text: The violet or purple necktie became very popular at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, particularly among political and business leaders. It combined the assertiveness and confidence of a red necktie with the sense of peace and cooperation of a blue necktie, and it went well with the blue business suit worn by most national and corporate leaders.


title: Purple

text: The meanings of the color terms violet and purple varies even among native speakers of English, for example between United Kingdom and United States Since this Wikipedia page contains contributions from authors from different countries and different native languages, it is likely to be not consistent in the use of the color terms violet and purple.


title: Purple

text: According to some speakers/authors of English, purple, unlike violet, is not one of the colors of the visible spectrum. It was not one of the colors of the rainbow identified by Isaac Newton, although in earlier versions of Newton's work the word purple was used where violet was used in the final version. According to some authors, purple does not have its own wavelength of light. For this reason, it is sometimes called a "non-spectral color". It exists in culture and art, but not, in the same way that violet does, in optics. According to some speakers of English, purple is simply a combination, in various proportions, of two primary colors, red and blue. According to other speakers of English, the same range of colors is called violet.


title: Purple

text: In some textbooks of color theory, and depending on the geographical-cultural origin of the author, a "purple" is defined as any non-spectral color between violet and red (excluding violet and red themselves). The spectral colors violet and indigo would in that case not be purples. For other speakers of English, these colors are purples.


title: Purple

text: In the traditional color wheel long used by painters, purple is placed between crimson and violet. However, also here there is much variation in color terminology depending on cultural background of the painters and authors, and sometimes the term violet is used and placed in between red and blue on the traditional color wheel. In a slightly different variation, on the color wheel, purple is placed between magenta and violet. This shade is sometimes called electric purple (See shades of purple).


title: Purple

text: In the RGB color model, named for the colors red, green, and blue, used to create all the colors on a computer screen or television, the range of purples is created by mixing red and blue light of different intensities on a black screen. The standard HTML color purple is created by red and blue light of equal intensity, at a brightness that is halfway between full power and darkness.


title: Purple

text: In color printing, purple is sometimes represented by the color magenta, or sometimes by mixing magenta with red or blue. It can also be created by mixing just red and blue alone, but in that case the purple is less bright, with lower


title: Purple

text: saturation or intensity. A less bright purple can also be created with light or paint by adding a certain quantity of the third primary color (green for light or yellow for pigment).


title: Purple

text: On a chromaticity diagram, the straight line connecting the extreme spectral colors (red and violet) is known as the line of purples (or 'purple boundary'); it represents one limit of human color perception. The color magenta used in the CMYK printing process is near the center of the line of purples, but most people associate the term "purple" with a somewhat bluer tone, such as is displayed by the color "electric purple" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below.


title: Purple

text: On the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, violet is on the curved edge in the lower left, while purples are on the straight line connecting the extreme colors red and violet; this line is known as the line of purples, or the purple line.


title: Purple

text: During the Middle Ages, artists usually made purple by combining red and blue pigments; most often blue azurite or lapis-lazuli with red ochre, cinnabar, or minium. They also combined lake colors made by mixing dye with powder; using woad or indigo dye for the blue, and dye made from cochineal for the red.


title: Purple

text: The most famous purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea snail called the murex, found around the Mediterranean. (See history section above).


title: Purple

text: In western Polynesia, residents of the islands made a purple dye similar to Tyrian purple from the sea urchin. In Central America, the inhabitants made a dye from a different sea snail, the purpura, found on the coasts of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The Mayans used this color to dye fabric for religious ceremonies, while the Aztecs used it for paintings of ideograms, where it symbolized royalty.


title: Purple

text: In the Middle Ages, those who worked with blue and black dyes belonged to separate guilds from those who worked with red and yellow dyes, and were often forbidden to dye any other colors than those of their own guild. Most purple fabric was made by the dyers who worked with red, and who used dye from madder or cochineal, so Medieval violet colors were inclined toward red.


title: Purple

text: Orcein, or "purple moss", was another common purple dye. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Hebrews, and was made from a Mediterranean lichen called archil or dyer's moss (Roccella tinctoria), combined with an ammoniac, usually urine. Orcein began to achieve popularity again in the 19th century, when violet and purple became the color of demi-mourning, worn after a widow or widower had worn black for a certain time, before he or she returned to wearing ordinary colors.


title: Purple

text: From the Middle Ages onward, purple dyes for the clothing of common people were often made from the blackberry or other red fruit of the genus rubus, or from the mulberry. All of these dyes were more reddish than bluish, and faded easily with washing and exposure to sunlight.


title: Purple

text: A popular new dye which arrived in Europe from the New World during the Renaissance was made from the wood of the logwood tree (H"aematoxylum campechianum"), which grew in Spanish Mexico. Depending on the different minerals added to the dye, it produced a blue, red, black or, with the addition of alum, a purple color, It made a good color, but, like earlier dyes, it did not resist sunlight or washing.


title: Purple

text: In the 18th century, chemists in England, France and Germany began to create the first synthetic dyes. Two synthetic purple dyes were invented at about the same time. Cudbear is a dye extracted from orchil lichens that can be used to dye wool and silk, without the use of mordant. Cudbear was developed by Dr Cuthbert Gordon of Scotland: production began in 1758, The lichen is first boiled in a solution of ammonium carbonate. The mixture is then cooled and ammonia is added and the mixture is kept damp for 3–4 weeks. Then the lichen is dried and ground to powder. The manufacture details were carefully protected, with a ten-feet high wall being built around the manufacturing facility, and staff consisting of Highlanders sworn to secrecy.


title: Purple

text: French purple was developed in France at about the same time. The lichen is extracted by urine or ammonia. Then the extract is acidified, the dissolved dye precipitates and is washed. Then it is dissolved in ammonia again, the solution is heated in air until it becomes purple, then it is precipitated with calcium chloride; the resulting dye was more solid and stable than other purples.


title: Purple

text: Cobalt violet is a synthetic pigment that was invented in the second half of the 19th century, and is made by a similar process as cobalt blue, cerulean blue and cobalt green. It is the violet pigment most commonly used today by artists. In spite of its name, this pigment produces a purple rather than violet color


title: Purple

text: Mauveine, also known as aniline purple and Perkin's mauve, was the first synthetic organic chemical dye, discovered serendipitously in 1856.


title: Purple

text: Fuchsine was another synthetic dye made shortly after mauveine. It produced a brilliant fuchsia color.


title: Purple

text: In the 1950s, a new family of purple and violet synthetic organic pigments called quinacridone came onto the market. It had originally been discovered in 1896, but were not synthetized until 1936, and not manufactured until the 1950s. The colors in the group range from deep red to bluish purple in color, and have the molecular formula CHNO. They have strong resistance to sunlight and washing, and are widely used today in oil paints, water colors, and acrylics, as well as in automobile coatings and other industrial coatings.


title: Purple

text: Certain grapes, eggplants, pansies and other fruits, vegetables and flowers may appear purple due to the presence of natural pigments called anthocyanins. These pigments are found in the leaves, roots, stems, vegetables, fruits and flowers of all plants. They aid photosynthesis by blocking harmful wavelengths of light that would damage the leaves. In flowers, the purple anthocyanins help attract insects who pollinate the flowers. Not all anthocyanins are purple; they vary in color from red to purple to blue, green, or yellow, depending upon the level of their pH.


title: Purple

text: It has been observed that the greater the distance between a viewers eyes and mountains, the lighter and more blue or purple they will appear. This phenomenon, long recognized by Leonardo da Vinci and other painters, is called aerial perspective or atmospheric perspective. The more distant the mountains are, the less contrast the eye sees between the mountains and the sky.


title: Purple

text: The bluish color is caused by an optical effect called Rayleigh scattering. The sunlit sky is blue because air scatters short-wavelength light more than longer wavelengths. Since blue light is at the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum, it is more strongly scattered in the atmosphere than long wavelength red light. The result is that the human eye perceives blue when looking toward parts of the sky other than the sun.


title: Purple

text: At sunrise and sunset, the light is passing through the atmosphere at a lower angle, and traveling a greater distance through a larger volume of air. Much of the green and blue is scattered away, and more red light comes to the eye, creating the colors of the sunrise and sunset and making the mountains look purple.


title: Purple

text: The phenomenon is referenced in the song "America the Beautiful", where the lyrics refer to "purple mountains' majesty" among other features of the United States landscape. A Crayola crayon called Purple Mountain Majesty in reference to the lyric was first formulated in 1993.


title: Purple

text: Julius Pollux, a Greek grammarian who lived in the second century AD, attributed the discovery of purple to the Phoenician god and guardian of the city of Tyre, Heracles. According to his account, while walking along the shore with the nymph Tyrus, the god's dog bit into a murex shell, causing his mouth to turn purple. The nymph subsequently requested that Heracles create a garment for her of that same color, with Heracles obliging her demands giving birth to Tyrian purple.


title: Purple

text: In Europe, since the time that the Roman emperors wore a Tyrian purple ("purpura") toga praetexta, purple has been the color most associated with power and royalty. The British Royal Family and other European royalty still use it as a ceremonial color on special occasions. In Japan, purple is associated with the emperor and Japanese aristocracy.


title: Purple

text: In the West, purple or violet is the color most associated with piety and religious faith. In AD 1464, shortly after the Muslim conquest of Constantinople, which terminated the supply of Tyrian purple to Roman Catholic Europe, Pope Paul II decreed that cardinals should henceforth wear scarlet instead of purple, the scarlet being dyed with expensive cochineal. Bishops were assigned the color amaranth, being a pale and pinkish purple made then from a less-expensive mixture of indigo and cochineal.


title: Purple

text: In the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic liturgy, purple symbolizes penitence; Anglican and Catholic priests wear a purple stole when they hear confession and a purple stole and chasuble during Advent and Lent. Since the Second Vatican Council of 1962–5, priests may wear purple vestments, but may still wear black ones, when officiating at funerals. The "Roman Missal" permits black, purple (violet), or white vestments for the funeral Mass. White is worn when a child dies before the age of reason. Students and faculty of theology also wear purple academic dress for graduations and other university ceremonies.


title: Purple

text: Purple is also often worn by senior pastors of Protestant churches and bishops of the Anglican Communion.


title: Purple

text: The color purple is also associated with royalty in Christianity, being one of the three traditional offices of Jesus Christ, i. e. king, although such a symbolism was assumed from the earlier Roman association or at least also employed by the ancient Romans.


title: Purple

text: In Europe and America, purple is the color most associated with vanity, extravagance, and individualism. Among the seven deadly sins, it represents pride. It is a color which is used to attract attention.


title: Purple

text: Purple is the color most often associated with the artificial and the unconventional. It is the major color that occurs the least frequently in nature, and was the first color to be synthesized.


title: Purple

text: Purple is the color most associated with ambiguity. Like other colors made by combining two primary colors, it is seen as uncertain and equivocal.


title: Purple

text: In Britain, purple is sometimes associated with mourning. In Victorian times, close relatives wore black for the first year following a death ("deep mourning"), and then replaced it with purple or dark green trimmed with black. This is rarely practised today.


title: Purple

text: The color purple plays a significant role in the traditions of engineering schools across Canada. Purple is also the color of the Engineering Corp in the British Military.


title: Purple

text: Purple is sometimes associated with the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community. It is the symbolic color worn on Spirit Day, a commemoration that began in 2010 to show support for young people who are bullied because of their sexual orientation. Purple is closely associated with bisexuality, largely in part to the bisexual pride flag which combines pink – representing homosexuality – and blue – representing heterosexuality – to create the bisexual purple. The purple hand is another symbol sometimes used by the LGBT community during parades and demonstrations.


title: Purple

text: The British chocolate company Cadbury chose purple as it was Queen Victoria's favourite color. The company trademarked the color purple for chocolates with registrations in 1995 and 2004. However, the validity of these trademarks is the matter of an ongoing legal dispute following objections by Nestlé.


title: TOS-1

text: TOS-1 (, Heavy Flamethrower System) is a Soviet 220 mm 30-barrel (original system, Object 634 or TOS-1M) or 24-barrel (Object 634B or TOS-1A) multiple rocket launcher capable of using thermobaric warheads, mounted on a T-72 tank chassis. TOS-1 was designed to attack enemy fortified positions and lightly armoured vehicles and transports, in open terrain in particular. First combat tests took place in 1988 and 1989 in the Panjshir Valley during the Soviet–Afghan War. The TOS-1 was shown for the first time in public in 1999 in Omsk.


title: TOS-1

text: TOS-1 is not assigned to the artillery units of the Russian Armed Forces but is found in Russian NBC Protection Troops.


title: TOS-1

text: The idea of a heavy short-range MLRS to launch rockets equipped with incendiary and thermobaric warheads arose in the late 1970s. The combat system consisting of the combat vehicle, rockets, and loading vehicle was developed in early 1980s at KBTM in Omsk and was named TOS-1, remaining a secret development for a long time.


title: TOS-1

text: The TOS-1 Buratino is intended to engage military personnel, equipment, and buildings, including fortified constructions. The nickname "Buratino" originates with the name of the hero of a Russian retelling of the Pinocchio tale (by Alexey Tolstoy), given the perception of the big "nose" of the launcher (in the original Italian text of Pinocchio, the protagonist is a "burattino", the Italian word for "puppet"). The combat vehicle acts within the combat order of infantry and tanks.The large mass of the launcher, combined with the short range of rockets launches (), forced an increase in the level of armor and use the chassis of the T-72 main battle tank. The TZM reloading vehicle was built on the chassis of a KrAZ-255B cross-country truck and equipped with a crane for loading/unloading of the launcher. Production of KrAZ-255B has officially stopped in 1994. Therefore, TZM-T for later Soltsepyok was created based on the chassis of a T-72 variation T-72A.


title: TOS-1

text: In 2003, the improved TOS-1A Solntsepyok ("Scorching sunlight") system entered service with the range extended to 6 kilometers and a better ballistic computer.


title: TOS-1

text: In March 2020, Russia introduced a new rocket for the TOS-1A with a range of 10 km, achieved in part by weight and size reductions of a new fuel air explosive mixture in the warhead, while also increasing its power. Minimum range is extended from 400 m to 1.6 km, so the shorter-range M0.1.01.04M rocket will be retained for close combat environments. In 2018, Russian NBC Protection Troops received 30 TOS-1A Solntsepyok (Sunburn) 220 mm multiple rocket launchers.


title: TOS-1

text: Saudi Arabian Military Industries signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Rosoboronexport for the local production of the TOS-1A.


title: TOS-1

text: On 12 January 2018, it was announced that was working on a prototype of a next generation TOS system for preliminary tests. The system with improved tactical and technical characteristics will be made on a wheeled chassis.


title: TOS-1

text: The new TOS-2 ("Tosochka") system was first unveiled during the 2020 Moscow Victory Day Parade, and further showcased during the Kavkaz-2020 drills in September 2020. It is equipped with a more powerful TBS-M3 rocket and its own crane. It has also an increased range and is protected from precision weapons. The system uses the 6x6 Ural-63706-0120 all-terrain vehicle instead of the tracked armored chassis of the TOS-1A.


title: TOS-1

text: In late May 2022, TASS reported that the system was deployed in Ukraine during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: TOS-1

text: TOS-1s were first used in combat in Afghanistan's Panjshir valley by the Soviet Union during the Soviet–Afghan War. Later, they were used during the Second Chechen War.


title: TOS-1

text: TOS-1As were first used in combat in Iraq by the Iraqi Army in the recapture of Jurf Al Sakhar on October 24, 2014, from ISIL forces. The Iraqi Army launched at least three TOS-1 rockets on 18 June 2017 during the first day of an offensive to recapture the Old City of Mosul, Iraq, from the Islamic State, targeting school buildings held by Islamic State forces and known to be devoid of civilians.


title: TOS-1

text: The OSCE reported in September 2015 that the TOS-1 was sighted in a rebel training area in eastern Ukraine.


title: TOS-1

text: In 2016, it was used against rebel forces in the Latakia mountains, with at least one being destroyed by a rebel Kornet ATGM near Northern Aleppo. It was used again by the Syrian Arab Army in April 2017 in the area of Palmyra, and later in the same month to destroy an ISIS camp. In November 2018, the system was deployed by the SAA against ISIS in Al-Safa region.


title: TOS-1

text: Azerbaijan used the TOS-1A against the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army on 4 April 2016 and 28 September 2020.


title: TOS-1

text: TOS-1A units were being deployed during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Several sightings of the system were reported during the invasion. A verified image of a TOS-1A claimed to have been captured by the Ukrainian Army has been widely shared across social media. On 9 March 2022, the UK Ministry of Defence said on Twitter that the Russian Ministry of Defence had confirmed the use of the weapon system in the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Ukrainian forces went on to capture several units which were left abandoned by the Russians, and have used a captured unit against the Russians. The TOS-1A was reportedly used by Russian forces during the battle of Pisky.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup will be the 19th tournament of the FIBA Basketball World Cup for men's national basketball teams. The tournament will be the second to feature 32 teams. For the first time in its history, the World Cup will be hosted by multiple nations, the Philippines, Japan, and Indonesia, from 25 August to 10 September 2023.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: It is the first World Cup to be hosted in Indonesia, and the second to be hosted in both the Philippines and Japan since they first hosted the tournament in 1978 and 2006, respectively. The tournament will also be the second straight to be held in Asia after China's hosting of the 2019 edition. The tournament will also mark the first time in the history of the FIBA Basketball World Cup that a host nation has not qualified.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The tournament will serve as qualification for the 2024 Summer Olympics, where the top two teams from each of the Americas and Europe, and the top team from each of Africa, Asia and Oceania, will qualify alongside the tournament's host France.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 7 June 2016, FIBA approved the bidding process for the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup. On 1 June 2017, FIBA confirmed the list of candidates for the hosting of the World Cup.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Solo bidders Russia and Turkey ended their bids, leaving joint bids of Philippines–Japan–Indonesia and Argentina–Uruguay left in the race. On 9 December 2017, it was announced that the Philippines, Japan, and Indonesia won the bid against Argentina and Uruguay and will host the upcoming World Cup.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: During the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup in China, the three host countries for the 2023 World Cup sent representatives to observe the tournament. Representatives from the Philippines, Japan, and Indonesia, as well as from the playing venues had a full-scale briefing from 10 to 15 September 2019 and observed the tournament's final phase. The delegations also observed the FIBA Congress and the Opening Ceremonies.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: In May 2019, Representatives from the Philippines visited China to check and inspect on the venues to be used for the 2019 World Cup, to learn on how preparations are being done, that can be utilized for the 2023 edition. Among these venues were the Wukesong Arena in Beijing, the Foshan International Sports and Cultural Center in Foshan, and the Wuhan Gymnasium in Wuhan.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: During a visit to Switzerland, FIBA Central board member Erick Thohir and Indonesian vice president Jusuf Kalla, along with other officials, met with FIBA Secretary-General Andreas Zagklis and other officials, to show Indonesia's readiness to host the World Cup, as well as the support provided by the Indonesian government. Prior to the meeting with FIBA, Vice President Kalla, Mr. Thohir, and other officials, visited the International Olympic Committee headquarters, and met with IOC President Thomas Bach, expressing their seriousness to host the 2032 Summer Olympics.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: A turnover ceremony was held at halftime of the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup Final between Argentina and Spain at the Wukesong Arena in Beijing, to officially hand over the hosting rights of the FIBA Basketball World Cup from China to the Philippines, Japan, and Indonesia. FIBA Central Board members Manuel V. Pangilinan from the Philippines, Yuko Mitsuya from Japan, and Erick Thohir from Indonesia, received the FIBA Flag from Yao Ming, chairman of the Chinese Basketball Association. Also present at the turnover ceremony were then-FIBA President Horacio Muratore and FIBA Basketball World Cup 2019 Global Ambassador Kobe Bryant.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: During FIBA Executive Committee's meeting on 31 January 2020, International Olympic Committee and FIBA Executive Committee member Richard Carrión was appointed as the Chairman of the Joint Management Committee for the FIBA Basketball World Cup 2023. FIBA Oceania Executive Director David Crocker will also be the tournament's Executive Director.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Indonesian Youth and Sports Minister revealed plans for a new arena to be built in Jakarta for the tournament, with a capacity of between 15,000 and 20,000. According to Danny Kosasih, president of the Indonesian Basketball Association (PERBASI), President Joko Widodo has granted a permit for its construction. The arena will reportedly be similar to that of the Crypto.com Arena in Los Angeles.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The schedule of the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup was announced on 11 May 2020. The tournament will be held from 25 August to 10 September 2023.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 25 August 2020, three years before the start of the tournament, Okinawa City officials conducted a symposium on the construction of an acceptable system for the World Cup. The local organizing committee for the city's hosting was also formed during the same event. In attendance were Okinawa City Mayor Sachio Kuwae, Okinawa Chamber of Commerce President Toshiyuki Miyazato, and Ryukyu Golden Kings President Tatsuro Kimura.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 16 October 2020, during a visit to Switzerland, Indonesian Minister of State-Owned Enterprises and FIBA Central board member Erick Thohir visited the FIBA Headquarters in Mies, Switzerland to convey the progress of Indonesia's preparations for the World Cup, as well as the development of the country's national team. Thohir mentioned that the Istora Gelora Bung Karno was only approved for the 2021 FIBA Asia Cup (moved to 2022), which will be hosted by the country, but not for the World Cup. There are two options for the venue – to build a new arena or use an existing facility.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The Okinawa Arena hosted a "pre-opening event" from April to May 2021, which consisted of home games of the Ryukyu Golden Kings. Full operations of the arena began in June 2021.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 31 August 2021, the draw for the FIBA Basketball World Cup 2023 Qualifiers was held in Mies, Switzerland. In attendance were FIBA Secretary General Andreas Zagklis, Spanish Basketball Federation President Jorge Garbajosa, and 2006 and 2019 World Cup champion Rudy Fernández. Representatives from the Philippines attended the event virtually from Manila, which included FIBA Central Board member Manuel V. Pangilinan and 2020 Summer Olympics gold medalist Hidilyn Diaz.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: According to Nirmala Dewi, Secretary-General of the Indonesian Basketball Association (PERBASI), the groundbreaking for the new arena to be built at the Gelora Bung Karno Sports Complex in Jakarta is planned for December 2021. The new venue, then known as the Gelora Bung Karno Indoor Multifunction Stadium (IMS), was originally scheduled to open by July 2023, based on initial assessments. Construction of the venue began in December 2021.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: In May 2022, officials from FIBA and its various departments visited the Philippines and held week-long events alongside the Philippines' Local Organizing Committee. Among the events were the ocular inspections of the three venues to be used in the country for the World Cup, namely the Smart Araneta Coliseum in Quezon City, the Mall of Asia Arena in Pasay, and the Philippine Arena in Bocaue. A debriefing was also held in Pasay City to conclude the events, which tackled important facets regarding the country's readiness to host the tournament.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 14 July 2022, FIBA Secretary-General Andreas Zagklis and other FIBA officials, during their visit to Indonesia for the 2022 FIBA Asia Cup, conducted an ocular inspection on the new Indonesia Arena at the Gelora Bung Karno Sports Complex in Jakarta, the venue to be used in the country's hosting of the World Cup. They were accompanied by select officials from the Indonesian Basketball Association. Additionally, the Indonesian Ministry of Public Works and Housing noted that the arena's progress as of the said month is at 32 percent, with a target opening date of December 2022.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: From 25 to 28 August 2022, countdown clocks were unveiled in various locations in the three countries to mark one year before the World Cup, attended by various officials from FIBA and the local organizing committees. Additionally, the second phase of ticket sales also began with packages for the Final Phase being made available. During this span, Indonesian actor Raffi Ahmad and Miss Universe 2018 Catriona Gray were announced as local ambassadors for the tournament in Indonesia and the Philippines, respectively. Former Philippine national team members LA Tenorio, Jeff Chan, Larry Fonacier, and Gary David were also named local ambassadors.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Five venues from five host cities will host matches for the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup. Three cities in the Greater Manila Area will host four Preliminary Round Groups, two Second Round Groups, and the Final tournament phase from the Quarterfinals onwards. On the other hand, Okinawa and Jakarta will each be host to two Preliminary Round Groups and one Second Round Group. The Philippines will host 16 teams while Japan and Indonesia will host 8 teams each.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: In the Philippines, there will be three venues that will be used for the World Cup: The Mall of Asia Arena in Pasay, Smart Araneta Coliseum in Quezon City, and the Philippine Arena in Bocaue, Bulacan. The Mall of Asia Arena hosted the 2013 FIBA Asia Championship, the 2016 FIBA World Olympic Qualifying Tournament in Manila, and the 5v5 basketball events of the 2019 Southeast Asian Games. The arena also hosted various 2019 and 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup Asian Qualifiers games of the Philippines. The Smart Araneta Coliseum hosted the 1978 FIBA World Championship, as well as World Cup qualifiers games. both for the 2019 and 2023 editions. The Philippine Arena has a 55,000 seating capacity and is poised to host the tournament's final phase and the World Cup Final. The arena also hosted the 2018 FIBA 3x3 World Cup and the opening ceremony of the 2019 Southeast Asian Games.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: There will be one venue each in Japan and Indonesia. The Okinawa Arena in Okinawa has a 10,000 seating capacity and is the new home arena of the Ryukyu Golden Kings of the Japanese B.League. The arena also hosted exhibition games involving the Japanese men's basketball team in preparation for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and various 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup Asian Qualifiers games of Japan. Initially, the Istora Gelora Bung Karno in Jakarta was the venue to be used for the tournament. However, FIBA Central Board member Erick Thohir mentioned that the said venue was only approved for the 2021 FIBA Asia Cup (postponed to 2022) to be hosted by the city, but not for the World Cup. During the draw for the FIBA Basketball World Cup 2023 Qualifiers on 31 August 2021, it was revealed that a new venue located at the Gelora Bung Karno Sports Complex will be used for the tournament. Known as Indonesia Arena, it will have a seating capacity of 16,500 spectators.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: As co-hosts, the Philippines and Japan each got an automatic qualification for the tournament when they were awarded the joint hosting rights along with co-host Indonesia. However, Indonesia's host qualification slot was conditional as FIBA wanted the Indonesian national team to be competitive by 2021 and thus required Indonesia to qualify for and finish in the top-eight (advance to the quarter-finals) of the 2022 FIBA Asia Cup (postponed from 2021). Indonesia officially qualified for the Asia Cup as host and advanced from the preliminary round-robin round, but lost to China in the playoff round (round of 16) and were therefore unable to secure qualification for their hoped-for FIBA Basketball World Cup debut. This is the first time in the history of the FIBA Basketball World Cup that a host nation has not qualified.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: 80 teams from four FIBA zones qualified for the World Cup qualifiers through qualification for the FIBA Continental Cups (AfroBasket 2021, 2022 FIBA AmeriCup, 2022 FIBA Asia Cup, and EuroBasket 2022). For Europe and the Americas, additional teams qualified through the pre-qualifiers of the said regions. The participants of both the AfroBasket and the Asia Cup comprise the teams that will also take part in the qualifiers for their respective regions. The first game of the qualifiers took place in Minsk on 25 November 2021 between Belarus and Turkey, as part of the European Qualifiers. The draw for the World Cup qualifiers was held at the Patrick Baumann House of Basketball in Mies, Switzerland, on 31 August 2021.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The first round of the Americas, Asia/Oceania, and Africa qualifiers will feature 16 teams each, whereas Europe will have 32 teams. Division A teams were split into groups of four, to be held in a home-and-away round-robin. The top three teams in each group advanced to the second round. In round two of the World Cup qualifiers, teams will be split into six groups, totaling four groups in Europe and two in the other qualifiers. Teams will carry over the points from round one, and face the other three teams again in a home-and-away round-robin. The best teams in each group will qualify for the World Cup. Since 2019, no wild card selection will be held, and the Olympic champions were not guaranteed a spot in the tournament.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 28 August 2022, Finland and the Ivory Coast became the first teams to qualify from Europe and Africa, respectively. The following day, New Zealand became the first Asian team outside of hosts Japan and the Philippines to qualify for the tournament. Finland will be making their second World Cup appearance after their debut at the 2014 edition in Spain. On 10 November 2022, Canada became the first team from the Americas to qualify.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Alongside Finland, Slovenia will be returning to the World Cup since the 2014 edition after notably missing the 2019 tournament in China.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Lebanon will be returning to the World Cup after participating in the 2010 edition, while Latvia will be making their FIBA Basketball World Cup debut.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Days before the second window of the Asian Qualifiers, South Korea withdrew from the tournament due to one of its players, scheduled to join the team in its second window campaign, testing positive for COVID-19. The Korea Basketball Association made an appeal to FIBA to justify its non-appearance in the qualifiers but was rejected. As a result, South Korea failed to qualify for the World Cup after qualifying for two straight tournaments (2014 and 2019). Russia, who also participated in the 2019 World Cup, were banned from FIBA tournaments, including the World Cup and its qualifiers due to the country's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Belarus was also banned from FIBA tournaments and the past results of the games they played in the European Qualifiers were annulled.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Each team will have a final roster of 12 players; a team can opt to have one naturalized player as per FIBA eligibility rules from its roster.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The draw will take place on 29 April 2023 in Manila, Philippines. Full details regarding the pot allocation has not been announced yet, although host Philippines and the highest ranked teams after the February 2023 qualifying window will be allocated to Pot 1. Furthermore the three host countries are given the privilege to select a team each to host in the group stage. The United States were selected to play in the Philippines, Slovenia in Japan, and Canada in Indonesia. FIBA cites "commercial reasons" for the selection which it says would not affect the draw process.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Similar to the 2019 edition, the tournament will be played in three stages. In the first stage, the 32 qualified teams will be sorted into eight groups of four (A–H), each team in a group will play each other once. The top two teams from each group will then advance to the second group stage. In the second group stage there will be four groups (I–L) of four made up of the teams that advanced from the first round, again playing each other once. The top two teams from groups I to L will qualify for the final knockout phase.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The official logo for the FIBA Basketball World Cup 2023 was unveiled on 4 December 2020. The logo's concept consist of three main elements. The heart symbolizes the passion for the game, the Naismith Trophy represents the prize given to the winner of the World Cup, and the "23" represents the year of the World Cup. The logo for the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup has already been agreed upon as early as July 2019 and only needed to be approved by FIBA as of that time. The logo was designed by VMLY&R. On 28 November 2020, FIBA launched the "Don't Miss A Beat" campaign leading up to the logo launch. The launch was also the most impactful logo launch in FIBA's history.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: There are also host city logos for Manila, Jakarta, and Okinawa. The Manila logo features a Jeepney, the most popular mean of transportation in the Philippines. Logos for Jakarta and Okinawa feature several landmarks – the Shuri Castle in Shuri, Okinawa and the "Monas", the national monument of Indonesia, located in Jakarta.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 31 August 2021, during the qualifiers draw, FIBA released the slogan for the World Cup, ""Win For All"".


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 9 June 2022, FIBA unveiled the official mascot for the FIBA Basketball World Cup 2023. According to its fictional biography, the mascot, initially unnamed, was created through the idea of three fans from the three host countries (Philippines, Japan, and Indonesia), to create "something amazing that could unite people and represent them all." The mascot is a basketball robot with an LED face which allows it to connect and interact with people through its various expressions. In addition, the mascot also has a basketball hoop attached to its back as an advocacy for the importance of recycling. The red, blue, and yellow colors of the mascot represent the three colors of the national flags of the host nations. An online naming competition was held, and on 28 July 2022, it was announced the mascot's name is "JIP," which is the first letter of each of the three host countries - the Philippines, Japan, and Indonesia.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: The first variety of ticket package sales started on 1 March 2022. ""Follow My Team"" passes for the Philippines and Japan consist of all five Group Phase games of the two host countries. For Indonesia, a ""Venue Pass"" covers all 12 games of the same phase at the Indonesia Arena.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: On 25 August 2022, the second variety of ticket package sales commenced one year before the tournament. Packages for the Final Phase at the Philippine Arena were released, as well as two-day passes for Group Phase and Second Round games to be held at the Okinawa Arena. Two packages are available for the Final Phase, namely the ""Finals Ultimate Fan Pass"", consisting of all final phase games, and the ""Finals Superfan Pass"" for games starting from the semifinals until the World Cup Final.


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup

text: Three countdown clocks were unveiled from 25 to 28 August 2022 to mark one year before the tournament. These clocks are situated at the Tenbusu Naha Plaza in Naha, Okinawa, the Bundaran HI in Jakarta, and the SM Mall of Asia in Pasay.


title: Inhumans

text: The Inhumans are a fictional superhuman race of superheroes appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The comic book series has usually focused more specifically on the adventures of the Inhuman Royal Family, and many people associate the name "Inhumans" with this particular team of superpowered characters.


title: Inhumans

text: The Inhumans first appeared in "Fantastic Four" #45 (December 1965), though members Medusa and Gorgon appeared in earlier issues of that series (#36 and #44, respectively). Their home, the city of Attilan, was first mentioned years earlier, in a "Tuk the Caveboy" story written and drawn by Jack Kirby that appeared in "Captain America Comics" #1 (March 1941). The city was described as the home of a race that was evolutionarily advanced when human beings were still in the Stone Age.


title: Inhumans

text: The Inhuman Royal Family has been adapted to numerous Marvel animated series and video games over the years.


title: Inhumans

text: Inhuman characters were introduced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) in live action in the second season of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", while the Inhuman Royal Family is featured in the television series "Inhumans", which premiered in 2017; the latter show was critically panned and lasted only one season. Earlier, a proposed film adaptation of the Inhumans was announced in 2014 by Marvel Studios but was later removed from its slate and never came to fruition. The Inhumans did make it to the big screen in the 2022 feature film "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness".


title: Inhumans

text: In a 1967 interview, Stan Lee discussed the creation of the Inhumans: "The first Inhuman that we brought in was Gorgon... And he was a fella who looked a little like a centaur or something. He could kick his foot very hard and he had great power. He could shatter a mountain by kicking his foot. He started out as a villain. We liked him so much, I should say Jack liked him so much, that he kept using him. We figured he has to come from somewhere. We decided, let him come from some strange land over in Europe, where there are a whole group of people like him. And well, what else could you call them except the Inhumans. Then Jack had to create a whole bunch of Inhumans and I think he did a great job. When it came to doing the leader, we decided, well, there was no need for them all to be villainous. I think we did have in mind that Black Bolt would eventually be a heroic type. And again, we always try to give a character a hangup so his hangup is he doesn’t speak."


title: Inhumans

text: The Inhumans first appeared in "Fantastic Four" #45 (December 1965). The Inhumans appeared as a back-up feature in "Thor" #146 (Nov. 1967) to #152 (May 1968) which contained their first extensive origin story. They fight the Silver Surfer in "Silver Surfer" #18 (September 1970). The Inhumans' first ongoing feature, the first six issues of which were written and pencilled by their co-creator Jack Kirby, appeared in "Amazing Adventures" #1 (Aug. 1970) to #10 (Jan. 1972). The characters received their own self-titled series in October 1975, which ran for 12 issues and ended in August 1977. All but issue #9 were written by Doug Moench, who has said he was fascinated with the shaggy God story aspect of the Inhumans. A follow-up to the series's ending appeared in "Captain Marvel" #53 (November 1977).


title: Inhumans

text: The Inhumans were largely absent from publications for much of the 1980s, but appeared in their own graphic novel in 1988, written by Ann Nocenti and illustrated by Bret Blevins. Nocenti followed up by making the Inhumans Karnak and Gorgon supporting cast members in "Daredevil" from issue #272 (November 1989) through #283 (August 1990).


title: Inhumans

text: An "Inhumans" limited series by Paul Jenkins and Jae Lee ran for 12 issues from November 1998-October 1999. The series, which used the Inhumans as a social allegory for the U.S., won an Eisner Award for Best New Series and established the Inhumans as viable comics-selling characters. A four-issue limited series by writers Carlos Pacheco and Rafael Marín and artist José Ladrönn was published in 2000. The fourth volume (2003-2004, 12 issues) concentrated largely on new characters within the Inhumans' society.


title: Inhumans

text: In 2007, the Inhumans featured in the "Silent War" limited series by writer David Hine, and artist Frazer Irving.


title: Inhumans

text: Following events in the "Secret Invasion", the Inhumans appeared on one side of the "War of Kings" storyline, with Black Bolt being made king of the Kree, facing off against Vulcan, who is leading the Shi'ar.


title: Inhumans

text: The 2013 event, "Infinity", led to major changes in status quo for the group, with many new Inhumans, or "NuHumans", appearing as a result of the detonation of the Terrigen Bomb. Writer Charles Soule became the lead writer of the Inhuman franchise, starting with the "Inhuman" series, which ran for 14 issues from April 2014–June 2015. The NuHuman Kamala Khan also becomes the lead of her own title, "Ms. Marvel" vol. 3. Following the "Secret Wars" event, the franchise expanded to two ongoing titles, "Uncanny Inhumans", which ran for 20 issues from 2015–2017, and "All-New Inhumans", which ran for 11 issues. There have been two spin-off titles with "Karnak" running in 2015 for six issues penned by Warren Ellis and drawn by Gerardo Zaffino and Roland Boschi and "Black Bolt" running for 12 issues from 2017-2018 penned by Saladin Ahmed and drawn by Christian Ward. In 2017, Marvel has announced two series involving the Inhuman royal family, "Royals" written by Al Ewing drawn by Kevin Libranda, but was cancelled after 10 issues, and a five issue miniseries titled "Inhumans: Once & Future Kings" written by Christopher Priest and drawn by Phil Noto that explored the royal family's origins.


title: Inhumans

text: In July 2018, Marvel launched a new five-issue miniseries titled "Death of the Inhumans" written by Donny Cates and drawn by Ariel Olivetti.