title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Shaw qualified for the finals at the 2010 World's Strongest Man in Sun City, South Africa in September 2010. He was tied for the lead at the end of the finals with Zydrunas Savickas and lost by countback, a system of scoring based on how the athletes placed in each event throughout the finals. Savickas had higher overall placings (2 first places and 1 second place out of 6 events) than Shaw (2 first places and 1 fourth place out of 6 events) and won the 2010 title.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Shaw competed against Savickas again in October 2010 at the Giants Live Istanbul contest. Shaw again finished second behind Savickas.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Shaw won the Strongman Super Series Swedish Grand Prix and became the 2010 overall Super Series champion on December 18, 2010. This was Shaw's second consecutive overall Super Series championship.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: In 2011, Shaw once again participated in the World's Strongest man competition. Going into the final event, the Atlas Stones, Shaw was tied with two-time champion Zydrunas Savickas. Shaw beat Savickas taking 1st place. In the 2013 competition, Shaw led Savickas into the final event (again the Atlas Stones) and again beat Savickas to win the competition. He broke Savickas' record in the deadlift lifting 442.5 kg (975.5 lbs).


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: In 2017, Shaw competed in both the World's Strongest Man and the Arnold Strongman Classic competitions. Shaw won the Arnold Strongman Classic, but later in the year, he finished 3rd at the World's Strongest Man with Eddie Hall defeating him by coming in at 1st place.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Brian secured another podium finish after emerging 3rd behind the winner Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson and runner up Mateusz Kieliszkowski.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: In March 2018, Shaw competed in the 2018 Arnold Strongman Classic. Shaw placed 2nd in Event One: The Bag Over Bar, 4th in Event Two: The Stone Shoulder, 2nd in Event Three: The Timber Carry, 3rd in Event Four: The Rogue Elephant Bar Deadlift, and 2nd in Event Five: Apollon's Wheel leaving him in 2nd place overall with 41.5 points to winner Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson's 46.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: In October 2018, Shaw competed in the World's Ultimate Strongman competition in Dubai. Shaw struggled with some of the events including the deadlift where he had trained with a different bar height and the yoke walk where the stage cracked under the combined weight of Shaw and the yoke, causing Shaw to briefly drop the yoke and increase his time. Shaw still performed well, lifting all the objects in the overhead medley and was separated from Hafthor Bjornsson by 5.5 points going into the sixth and final event. In the sixth and final event, the Atlas Stones, Shaw lifted all five stones but this was not enough to surpass Bjornsson in the final points tally, leaving Shaw in second place.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Brian secured 6th place at the World's strongest man, 8th place at the Arnold Strongman Classic and 4th place at the World's Ultimate Strongman.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: On November 15, 2020, Shaw placed fifth overall at the 2020 World's Strongest Man competition, failing to make the podium. Shaw placed seventh in the Giant's Medley, fifth in the partial deadlift, sixth in the Hercules Hold, and seventh in the Log Ladder.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: On December 11, 2020, Shaw hosted the first Shaw Classic competition. Shaw hosted, organized, and paid out the purses for the competition. Rogue provided equipment for the competition with Trifecta announced as a sponsor. Shaw invited an All-Star cast of ten Strongmen to compete including the reigning Worlds Strongest Man Oleksii Novikov (who finished third.) Shaw would end up winning the competition and forfeiting his winning purse giving the winners share to the rest of the athletes. All ten competitors walked away with a share of the winning pool which included money Shaw invested, GoFundMe donations, and pay per view earnings.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: In the 2021 World's Strongest Man Competition Shaw placed 2nd behind Scottish Strongman Tom Stoltman, his first podium finish since 2018. In the event he qualified for his record 13th WSM final, breaking a tie held by him and Zydrunas Savickas. All 13 of these finals were consecutive, another record. He also extended his own record by appearing in his 14th consecutive WSM contest, and equaled the record 10 podium finishes of Savickas. Shaw also set a new world record in the keg toss for height, crossing a height of 7.75 meters (his previous record of 7.25m was broken by 4 other men in the competition). Brian also won 7th place at the Rogue Invitational.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: In the 2022 World's Strongest Man Competition, he secured the 4th position and emerged runner up at the 2022 Shaw Classic Strongman Championship.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Following the death of fellow American strongman Mike Jenkins in 2013, Shaw dated his widow Keri. They were engaged in 2014 and married in 2015. The couple has two sons, Braxton and Kellen, and they live in Brighton, Colorado.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Shaw has a YouTube channel, "SHAWSTRENGTH", which has videos of training footage, fitness and strength challenges, and eating challenges. Eddie Hall is also seen occasionally on his videos.


title: Brian Shaw (strongman)

text: Shaw also was one of four strongmen to be featured in the History Channel series, "The Strongest Man in History", which premiered on July 10, 2019. On the first episode of the show, he pulled a viking ship on a incline course in 44.05 seconds.


title: Operational amplifier

text: An operational amplifier (often op amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op amp produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically 100,000 times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used to perform mathematical operations in linear, non-linear, and frequency-dependent circuits.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The popularity of the op amp as a building block in analog circuits is due to its versatility. By using negative feedback, the characteristics of an op-amp circuit, its gain, input and output impedance, bandwidth etc. are determined by external components and have little dependence on temperature coefficients or engineering tolerance in the op amp itself.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Op amps are used widely in electronic devices today, including a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op amps cost only a few cents; however, some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over in small quantities. Op amps may be packaged as components or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The op amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op amp, but with two outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op amp), and negative-feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op amps and a resistive feedback network).


title: Operational amplifier

text: The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+) with voltage "V" and an inverting input (−) with voltage "V"; ideally the op amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the "differential input voltage". The output voltage of the op amp "V" is given by the equation


title: Operational amplifier

text: where "A" is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the term "open-loop" refers to the absence of an external feedback loop from the output to the input).


title: Operational amplifier

text: The magnitude of "A" is typically very large (100,000 or more for integrated circuit op amps), and therefore even a quite small difference between "V" and "V" drives the amplifier into clipping or saturation. The magnitude of "A" is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an open-loop amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Without negative feedback, and optionally positive feedback for regeneration, an op amp acts as a comparator. If the inverting input is held at ground (0 V), and the input voltage "V" applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum positive; if "V" is negative, the output will be maximum negative. Because there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an "open-loop" circuit acting as a comparator.


title: Operational amplifier

text: If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the output voltage to the inverting input. The "closed-loop" feedback greatly reduces the gain of the circuit. When negative feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and response is determined primarily by the feedback network, rather than by the op-amp characteristics. If the feedback network is made of components with values small relative to the op amp's input impedance, the value of the op amp's open-loop response "A" does not seriously affect the circuit's performance. In this context, high input impedance at the input terminals and low output impedance at the output terminal(s) are particularly useful features of an op amp.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The response of the op-amp circuit with its input, output, and feedback circuits to an input is characterized mathematically by a transfer function; designing an op-amp circuit to have a desired transfer function is in the realm of electrical engineering. The transfer functions are important in most applications of op amps, such as in analog computers.


title: Operational amplifier

text: In the non-inverting amplifier on the right, the presence of negative feedback via the voltage divider "R", "R" determines the "closed-loop gain" "A" = . Equilibrium will be established when "V" is just sufficient to pull the inverting input to the same voltage as "V". The voltage gain of the entire circuit is thus . As a simple example, if "V" = 1 V and R = "R", "V" will be 2 V, exactly the amount required to keep "V" at 1 V. Because of the feedback provided by the "R", "R" network, this is a "closed-loop" circuit.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The input signal "V" appears at both (+) and (−) pins per assumption 1, resulting in a current "i" through "R" equal to :


title: Operational amplifier

text: Since Kirchhoff's current law states that the same current must leave a node as enter it, and since the impedance into the (−) pin is near infinity per assumption 2, we can assume practically all of the same current "i" flows through "R", creating an output voltage


title: Operational amplifier

text: The first rule only applies in the usual case where the op amp is used in a closed-loop design (negative feedback, where there is a signal path of some sort feeding back from the output to the inverting input). These rules are commonly used as a good first approximation for analyzing or designing op-amp circuits.


title: Operational amplifier

text: None of these ideals can be perfectly realized. A real op amp may be modeled with non-infinite or non-zero parameters using equivalent resistors and capacitors in the op-amp model. The designer can then include these effects into the overall performance of the final circuit. Some parameters may turn out to have negligible effect on the final design while others represent actual limitations of the final performance that must be evaluated.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Modern integrated FET or MOSFET op amps approximate more closely the ideal op amp than bipolar ICs when it comes to input impedance and input bias currents. Bipolars are generally better when it comes to input "voltage" offset, and often have lower noise. Generally, at room temperature, with a fairly large signal, and limited bandwidth, FET and MOSFET op amps now offer better performance.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Sourced by many manufacturers, and in multiple similar products, an example of a bipolar transistor operational amplifier is the 741 integrated circuit designed in 1968 by David Fullagar at Fairchild Semiconductor after Bob Widlar's LM301 integrated circuit design.


title: Operational amplifier

text: In this discussion, we use the parameters of the hybrid-pi model to characterize the small-signal, grounded emitter characteristics of a transistor. In this model, the current gain of a transistor is denoted "h", more commonly called the β.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A small-scale integrated circuit, the 741 op amp shares with most op amps an internal structure consisting of three gain stages:


title: Operational amplifier

text: Additionally, it contains current mirror (outlined red) bias circuitry and compensation capacitor (30 pF).


title: Operational amplifier

text: The input stage consists of a cascaded differential amplifier (outlined in blue) followed by a current-mirror active load. This constitutes a transconductance amplifier, turning a differential voltage signal at the bases of Q1, Q2 into a current signal into the base of Q15.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The first stage consists of the matched NPN emitter follower pair Q1, Q2 that provide high input impedance. The second is the matched PNP common-base pair Q3, Q4 that eliminates the undesirable Miller effect; it drives an active load Q7 plus matched pair Q5, Q6.


title: Operational amplifier

text: That active load is implemented as a modified Wilson current mirror; its role is to convert the (differential) input current signal to a single-ended signal without the attendant 50% losses (increasing the op amp's open-loop gain by 3 dB).


title: Operational amplifier

text: Thus, a small-signal differential current in Q3 versus Q4 appears summed (doubled) at the base of Q15, the input of the voltage gain stage.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The (class-A) voltage gain stage (outlined in magenta) consists of the two NPN transistors Q15/Q19 connected in a Darlington configuration and uses the output side of current mirror Q12/Q13 as its collector (dynamic) load to achieve its high voltage gain. The output sink transistor Q20 receives its base drive from the common collectors of Q15 and Q19; the level-shifter Q16 provides base drive for the output source transistor Q14.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The transistor Q22 prevents this stage from delivering excessive current to Q20 and thus limits the output sink current.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The output stage (Q14, Q20, outlined in cyan) is a Class AB complementary-symmetry amplifier. It provides an output drive with impedance of ~50Ω, in essence, current gain.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Transistor Q16 (outlined in green) provides the quiescent current for the output transistors, and Q17 limits output source current.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The resistor (39 kΩ) connecting the (diode-connected) Q11 and Q12, and the given supply voltage ("V" − "V"), determine the current in the current mirrors, (matched pairs) Q10/Q11 and Q12/Q13. The collector current of Q11, "i" × 39 kΩ = "V" − "V" − 2 "V". For the typical "V" = ±20 V, the standing current in Q11/Q12 (as well as in Q13) would be ~1 mA. A supply current for a typical 741 of about 2 mA agrees with the notion that these two bias currents dominate the quiescent supply current.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Transistors Q11 and Q10 form a Widlar current mirror, with quiescent current in Q10 "i" such that ln("i" / "i") = "i" × 5 kΩ / 28 mV, where 5 kΩ represents the emitter resistor of Q10, and 28 mV is "V", the thermal voltage at room temperature. In this case "i" ≈ 20 μA.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The biasing circuit of this stage is set by a feedback loop that forces the collector currents of Q10 and Q9 to (nearly) match. The small difference in these currents provides the drive for the common base of Q3/Q4 (note that the base drive for input transistors Q1/Q2 is the input bias current and must be sourced externally). The summed quiescent currents of Q1/Q3 plus Q2/Q4 is mirrored from Q8 into Q9, where it is summed with the collector current in Q10, the result being applied to the bases of Q3/Q4.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The quiescent currents of Q1/Q3 (resp., Q2/Q4) "i" will thus be half of "i", of order ~10 μA. Input bias current for the base of Q1 (resp. Q2) will amount to "i" / β; typically ~50 nA, implying a current gain "h" ≈ 200 for Q1(Q2).


title: Operational amplifier

text: This feedback circuit tends to draw the common base node of Q3/Q4 to a voltage "V" − 2 "V", where "V" is the input common-mode voltage. At the same time, the magnitude of the quiescent current is relatively insensitive to the characteristics of the components Q1–Q4, such as "h", that would otherwise cause temperature dependence or part-to-part variations.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Transistor Q7 drives Q5 and Q6 into conduction until their (equal) collector currents match that of Q1/Q3 and Q2/Q4. The quiescent current in Q7 is "V" / 50 kΩ, about 35 μA, as is the quiescent current in Q15, with its matching operating point. Thus, the quiescent currents are pairwise matched in Q1/Q2, Q3/Q4, Q5/Q6, and Q7/Q15.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Quiescent currents in Q16 and Q19 are set by the current mirror Q12/Q13, which is running at ~1 mA. Through some mechanism, the collector current in Q19 tracks that standing current.


title: Operational amplifier

text: In the circuit involving Q16 (variously named rubber diode or "V" multiplier), the 4.5 kΩ resistor must be conducting about 100 μA, with the Q16 "V" roughly 700 mV. Then the "V" must be about 0.45 V and "V" at about 1.0 V. Because the Q16 collector is driven by a current source and the Q16 emitter drives into the Q19 collector current sink, the Q16 transistor establishes a voltage difference between Q14 base and Q20 base of ~1 V, regardless of the common-mode voltage of Q14/Q20 base. The standing current in Q14/Q20 will be a factor exp(100 mV / "V") ≈ 36 smaller than the 1 mA quiescent current in the class A portion of the op amp. This (small) standing current in the output transistors establishes the output stage in class AB operation and reduces the crossover distortion of this stage.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A small differential input voltage signal gives rise, through multiple stages of current amplification, to a much larger voltage signal on output.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The input stage with Q1 and Q3 is similar to an emitter-coupled pair (long-tailed pair), with Q2 and Q4 adding some degenerating impedance. The input impedance is relatively high because of the small current through Q1-Q4. A typical 741 op amp has a differential input impedance of about 2 MΩ. The common mode input impedance is even higher, as the input stage works at an essentially constant current.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A differential voltage "V" at the op amp inputs (pins 3 and 2, respectively) gives rise to a small differential current in the bases of Q1 and Q2 "i" ≈ "V" / (2"h""h"). This differential base current causes a change in the differential collector current in each leg by "i""h". Introducing the transconductance of Q1, "g" = "h" / "h", the (small-signal) current at the base of Q15 (the input of the voltage gain stage) is "V""g" / 2.


title: Operational amplifier

text: This portion of the op amp cleverly changes a differential signal at the op amp inputs to a single-ended signal at the base of Q15, and in a way that avoids wastefully discarding the signal in either leg. To see how, notice that a small negative change in voltage at the inverting input (Q2 base) drives it out of conduction, and this incremental decrease in current passes directly from Q4 collector to its emitter, resulting in a decrease in base drive for Q15. On the other hand, a small positive change in voltage at the non-inverting input (Q1 base) drives this transistor into conduction, reflected in an increase in current at the collector of Q3. This current drives Q7 further into conduction, which turns on current mirror Q5/Q6. Thus, the increase in Q3 emitter current is mirrored in an increase in Q6 collector current; the increased collector currents shunts more from the collector node and results in a decrease in base drive current for Q15. Besides avoiding wasting 3 dB of gain here, this technique decreases common-mode gain and feedthrough of power supply noise.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A current signal "i" at Q15's base gives rise to a current in Q19 of order "i"β (the product of the "h" of each of Q15 and Q19, which are connected in a Darlington pair). This current signal develops a voltage at the bases of output transistors Q14/Q20 proportional to the "h" of the respective transistor.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Output transistors Q14 and Q20 are each configured as an emitter follower, so no voltage gain occurs there; instead, this stage provides current gain, equal to the "h" of Q14 (resp. Q20).


title: Operational amplifier

text: The output impedance is not zero, as it would be in an ideal op amp, but with negative feedback it approaches zero at low frequencies.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The net open-loop small-signal voltage gain of the op amp involves the product of the current gain "h" of some 4 transistors. In practice, the voltage gain for a typical 741-style op amp is of order 200,000, and the current gain, the ratio of input impedance (~2−6 MΩ) to output impedance (~50Ω) provides yet more (power) gain.


title: Operational amplifier

text: In the present circuit, if the input voltages change in the same direction, the negative feedback makes Q3/Q4 base voltage follow (with 2 "V" below) the input voltage variations. Now the output part (Q10) of Q10-Q11 current mirror keeps up the common current through Q9/Q8 constant in spite of varying voltage. Q3/Q4 collector currents, and accordingly the output current at the base of Q15, remain unchanged.


title: Operational amplifier

text: In the typical 741 op amp, the common-mode rejection ratio is 90 dB, implying an open-loop common-mode voltage gain of about 6.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The innovation of the Fairchild μA741 was the introduction of frequency compensation via an on-chip (monolithic) capacitor, simplifying application of the op amp by eliminating the need for external components for this function.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The 30 pF capacitor stabilizes the amplifier via Miller compensation and functions in a manner similar to an op-amp integrator circuit. Also known as 'dominant pole compensation' because it introduces a pole that masks (dominates) the effects of other poles into the open loop frequency response; in a 741 op amp this pole can be as low as 10 Hz (where it causes a −3 dB loss of open loop voltage gain).


title: Operational amplifier

text: This internal compensation is provided to achieve unconditional stability of the amplifier in negative feedback configurations where the feedback network is non-reactive and the closed loop gain is unity or higher.


title: Operational amplifier

text: By contrast, amplifiers requiring external compensation, such as the μA748, may require external compensation or closed-loop gains significantly higher than unity.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The "offset null" pins may be used to place external resistors (typically in the form of the two ends of a potentiometer, with the slider connected to "V") in parallel with the emitter resistors of Q5 and Q6, to adjust the balance of the Q5/Q6 current mirror. The potentiometer is adjusted such that the output is null (midrange) when the inputs are shorted together.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The transistors Q3, Q4 help to increase the reverse "V" rating: the base-emitter junctions of the NPN transistors Q1 and Q2 break down at around 7V, but the PNP transistors Q3 and Q4 have "V" breakdown voltages around 50V.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Variations in the quiescent current with temperature, or between parts with the same type number, are common, so crossover distortion and quiescent current may be subject to significant variation.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The output range of the amplifier is about one volt less than the supply voltage, owing in part to "V" of the output transistors Q14 and Q20.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The 25 Ω resistor at the Q14 emitter, along with Q17, acts to limit Q14 current to about 25 mA; otherwise, Q17 conducts no current.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Current limiting for Q20 is performed in the voltage gain stage: Q22 senses the voltage across Q19's emitter resistor (50Ω); as it turns on, it diminishes the drive current to Q15 base.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Later versions of this amplifier schematic may show a somewhat different method of output current limiting.


title: Operational amplifier

text: While the 741 was historically used in audio and other sensitive equipment, such use is now rare because of the improved noise performance of more modern op amps. Apart from generating noticeable hiss, 741s and other older op amps may have poor common-mode rejection ratios and so will often introduce cable-borne mains hum and other common-mode interference, such as switch 'clicks', into sensitive equipment.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The "741" has come to often mean a generic op-amp IC (such as μA741, LM301, 558, LM324, TBA221 — or a more modern replacement such as the TL071). The description of the 741 output stage is qualitatively similar for many other designs (that may have quite different input stages), except:


title: Operational amplifier

text: The use of op amps as circuit blocks is much easier and clearer than specifying all their individual circuit elements (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers used are integrated or discrete circuits. In the first approximation op amps can be used as if they were ideal differential gain blocks; at a later stage limits can be placed on the acceptable range of parameters for each op amp.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic circuits. A specification is drawn up governing what the circuit is required to do, with allowable limits. For example, the gain may be required to be 100 times, with a tolerance of 5% but drift of less than 1% in a specified temperature range; the input impedance not less than one megohm; etc.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit modeling (on a computer). Specific commercially available op amps and other components are then chosen that meet the design criteria within the specified tolerances at acceptable cost. If not all criteria can be met, the specification may need to be modified.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A prototype is then built and tested; changes to meet or improve the specification, alter functionality, or reduce the cost, may be made.


title: Operational amplifier

text: That is, the op amp is being used as a voltage comparator. Note that a device designed primarily as a comparator may be better if, for instance, speed is important or a wide range of input voltages may be found, since such devices can quickly recover from full on or full off ("saturated") states.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A "voltage level detector" can be obtained if a reference voltage "V" is applied to one of the op amp's inputs. This means that the op amp is set up as a comparator to detect a positive voltage. If the voltage to be sensed, "E", is applied to op amp's (+) input, the result is a noninverting positive-level detector: when "E" is above "V", "V" equals +"V"; when "E" is below "V", "V" equals −"V". If "E" is applied to the inverting input, the circuit is an inverting positive-level detector: When "E" is above "V", "V" equals −"V".


title: Operational amplifier

text: A "zero voltage level detector" ("E" = 0) can convert, for example, the output of a sine-wave from a function generator into a variable-frequency square wave. If "E" is a sine wave, triangular wave, or wave of any other shape that is symmetrical around zero, the zero-crossing detector's output will be square. Zero-crossing detection may also be useful in triggering TRIACs at the best time to reduce mains interference and current spikes.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Another typical configuration of op-amps is with positive feedback, which takes a fraction of the output signal back to the non-inverting input. An important application of it is the comparator with hysteresis, the Schmitt trigger. Some circuits may use "positive" feedback and "negative" feedback around the same amplifier, for example triangle-wave oscillators and active filters.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Because of the wide slew range and lack of positive feedback, the response of all the open-loop level detectors described above will be relatively slow. External overall positive feedback may be applied, but (unlike internal positive feedback that may be applied within the latter stages of a purpose-designed comparator) this markedly affects the accuracy of the zero-crossing detection point. Using a general-purpose op amp, for example, the frequency of "E" for the sine to square wave converter should probably be below 100 Hz.


title: Operational amplifier

text: However, in this circuit "V" is a function of "V" because of the negative feedback through the "R" "R" network. "R" and "R" form a voltage divider, and as "V" is a high-impedance input, it does not load it appreciably. Consequently


title: Operational amplifier

text: The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier needs a path for DC to ground; if the signal source does not supply a DC path, or if that source requires a given load impedance, then the circuit will require another resistor from the non-inverting input to ground. When the operational amplifier's input bias currents are significant, then the DC source resistances driving the inputs should be balanced. The ideal value for the feedback resistors (to give minimal offset voltage) will be such that the two resistances in parallel roughly equal the resistance to ground at the non-inverting input pin. That ideal value assumes the bias currents are well matched, which may not be true for all op amps.


title: Operational amplifier

text: This time, "V" is a function of both "V" and "V" due to the voltage divider formed by "R" and "R". Again, the op-amp input does not apply an appreciable load, so


title: Operational amplifier

text: A resistor is often inserted between the non-inverting input and ground (so both inputs "see" similar resistances), reducing the input offset voltage due to different voltage drops due to bias current, and may reduce distortion in some op amps.


title: Operational amplifier

text: A DC-blocking capacitor may be inserted in series with the input resistor when a frequency response down to DC is not needed and any DC voltage on the input is unwanted. That is, the capacitive component of the input impedance inserts a DC zero and a low-frequency pole that gives the circuit a bandpass or high-pass characteristic.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The potentials at the operational amplifier inputs remain virtually constant (near ground) in the inverting configuration. The constant operating potential typically results in distortion levels that are lower than those attainable with the non-inverting topology.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Most single, dual and quad op amps available have a standardized pin-out which permits one type to be substituted for another without wiring changes. A specific op amp may be chosen for its open loop gain, bandwidth, noise performance, input impedance, power consumption, or a compromise between any of these factors.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1941: A vacuum tube op amp. An op amp, defined as a general-purpose, DC-coupled, high gain, inverting feedback amplifier, is first found in "Summing Amplifier" filed by Karl D. Swartzel Jr. of Bell Labs in 1941. This design used three vacuum tubes to achieve a gain of and operated on voltage rails of . It had a single inverting input rather than differential inverting and non-inverting inputs, as are common in today's op amps. Throughout World War II, Swartzel's design proved its value by being liberally used in the M9 artillery director designed at Bell Labs. This artillery director worked with the SCR584 radar system to achieve extraordinary hit rates (near 90%) that would not have been possible otherwise.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1947: An op amp with an explicit non-inverting input. In 1947, the operational amplifier was first formally defined and named in a paper by John R. Ragazzini of Columbia University. In this same paper a footnote mentioned an op-amp design by a student that would turn out to be quite significant. This op amp, designed by Loebe Julie, was superior in a variety of ways. It had two major innovations. Its input stage used a long-tailed triode pair with loads matched to reduce drift in the output and, far more importantly, it was the first op-amp design to have two inputs (one inverting, the other non-inverting). The differential input made a whole range of new functionality possible, but it would not be used for a long time due to the rise of the chopper-stabilized amplifier.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1949: A chopper-stabilized op amp. In 1949, Edwin A. Goldberg designed a chopper-stabilized op amp. This set-up uses a normal op amp with an additional AC amplifier that goes alongside the op amp. The chopper gets an AC signal from DC by switching between the DC voltage and ground at a fast rate (60 Hz or 400 Hz). This signal is then amplified, rectified, filtered and fed into the op amp's non-inverting input. This vastly improved the gain of the op amp while significantly reducing the output drift and DC offset. Unfortunately, any design that used a chopper couldn't use their non-inverting input for any other purpose. Nevertheless, the much improved characteristics of the chopper-stabilized op amp made it the dominant way to use op amps. Techniques that used the non-inverting input regularly would not be very popular until the 1960s when op-amp ICs started to show up in the field.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1953: A commercially available op amp. In 1953, vacuum tube op amps became commercially available with the release of the model K2-W from George A. Philbrick Researches, Incorporated. The designation on the devices shown, GAP/R, is an acronym for the complete company name. Two nine-pin 12AX7 vacuum tubes were mounted in an octal package and had a model K2-P chopper add-on available that would effectively "use up" the non-inverting input. This op amp was based on a descendant of Loebe Julie's 1947 design and, along with its successors, would start the widespread use of op amps in industry.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1961: A discrete IC op amp. With the birth of the transistor in 1947, and the silicon transistor in 1954, the concept of ICs became a reality. The introduction of the planar process in 1959 made transistors and ICs stable enough to be commercially useful. By 1961, solid-state, discrete op amps were being produced. These op amps were effectively small circuit boards with packages such as edge connectors. They usually had hand-selected resistors in order to improve things such as voltage offset and drift. The P45 (1961) had a gain of 94 dB and ran on ±15 V rails. It was intended to deal with signals in the range of .


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1961: A varactor bridge op amp. There have been many different directions taken in op-amp design. Varactor bridge op amps started to be produced in the early 1960s. They were designed to have extremely small input current and are still amongst the best op amps available in terms of common-mode rejection with the ability to correctly deal with hundreds of volts at their inputs.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1962: An op amp in a potted module. By 1962, several companies were producing modular potted packages that could be plugged into printed circuit boards. These packages were crucially important as they made the operational amplifier into a single black box which could be easily treated as a component in a larger circuit.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1963: A monolithic IC op amp. In 1963, the first monolithic IC op amp, the μA702 designed by Bob Widlar at Fairchild Semiconductor, was released. Monolithic ICs consist of a single chip as opposed to a chip and discrete parts (a discrete IC) or multiple chips bonded and connected on a circuit board (a hybrid IC). Almost all modern op amps are monolithic ICs; however, this first IC did not meet with much success. Issues such as an uneven supply voltage, low gain and a small dynamic range held off the dominance of monolithic op amps until 1965 when the μA709 (also designed by Bob Widlar) was released.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1968: Release of the μA741. The popularity of monolithic op amps was further improved upon the release of the LM101 in 1967, which solved a variety of issues, and the subsequent release of the μA741 in 1968. The μA741 was extremely similar to the LM101 except that Fairchild's facilities allowed them to include a 30 pF compensation capacitor inside the chip instead of requiring external compensation. This simple difference has made the 741 "the" canonical op amp and many modern amps base their pinout on the 741s. The μA741 is still in production, and has become ubiquitous in electronics—many manufacturers produce a version of this classic chip, recognizable by part numbers containing "741". The same part is manufactured by several companies.


title: Operational amplifier

text: In the 1970s high speed, low-input current designs started to be made by using FETs. These would be largely replaced by op amps made with MOSFETs in the 1980s.


title: Operational amplifier

text: 1972: Single sided supply op amps being produced. A single sided supply op amp is one where the input and output voltages can be as low as the negative power supply voltage instead of needing to be at least two volts above it. The result is that it can operate in many applications with the negative supply pin on the op amp being connected to the signal ground, thus eliminating the need for a separate negative power supply.


title: Operational amplifier

text: The LM324 (released in 1972) was one such op amp that came in a quad package (four separate op amps in one package) and became an industry standard. In addition to packaging multiple op amps in a single package, the 1970s also saw the birth of op amps in hybrid packages. These op amps were generally improved versions of existing monolithic op amps. As the properties of monolithic op amps improved, the more complex hybrid ICs were quickly relegated to systems that are required to have extremely long service lives or other specialty systems.


title: Operational amplifier

text: Recent trends. Recently supply voltages in analog circuits have decreased (as they have in digital logic) and low-voltage op amps have been introduced reflecting this. Supplies of 5 V and increasingly 3.3 V (sometimes as low as 1.8 V) are common. To maximize the signal range modern op amps commonly have rail-to-rail output (the output signal can range from the lowest supply voltage to the highest) and sometimes rail-to-rail inputs.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Toyota Highlander, also known as the , is a mid-size crossover SUV with three-row seating produced by Toyota since 2000.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: Announced in April 2000 at the New York International Auto Show and arriving in late 2000 in Japan and January 2001 in North America, the Highlander became one of the first car-based mid-size SUV or mid-size crossovers. The Highlander is the crossover counterpart to the more rugged, truck-based mid-size 4Runner and became Toyota's best-selling SUV before being surpassed by the smaller RAV4 in 2006.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The first-generation model was sold in Japan as the Kluger, which was exclusive to dealership network called "Toyota Netz" as a larger alternative to the RAV4. The Kluger nameplate is also used in Australia because "Highlander" is a trademarked trim line name owned by Hyundai. The name is derived from the German word klug, which means smart or clever ("Kluger", written in German with an Ü instead of a U, means "someone who is smarter than another").


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Highlander (or Kluger in Japan and Australia) shared a platform with its XU30 series Lexus RX/Toyota Harrier cousin. It came in five (2001–2007) and seven-seat (2004–2007) configurations and became a sales success for Toyota in a number of markets across the world. The Highlander came standard with front-wheel drive and offered all-wheel drive (50:50 front:rear fixed torque split). Unlike Toyota's own 4Runner and other mid-sized competitors such as the Jeep Grand Cherokee, or Chevrolet TrailBlazer, the Highlander aimed for on-road comfort with its unibody construction and independent rear suspension. Although it was longer than the 1996–2002 4Runner available at the time it was launched, the Highlander was surpassed in length by the redesigned 4Runner in August 2002.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Highlander was available in three trim lines in the United States: the base model, the Sport model, and the Limited model. The base and Limited models were present when the Highlander was initially introduced, while the Sport model was introduced in March 2006.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In 2004, the wheels on the Limited trim changed from a six-spoke to a five-spoke alloy. The base-model Highlander wheels also changed from steel-rims to the alloy wheels that were on the 2001–2003 model year Highlander Limited and B-Package. The Sport models had a distinctive grille design, differentiating themselves from the non-Sport models. Wheel styling also serves to differentiate the various models—the hybrid sports a unique twin-spoke design.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Kluger was introduced to Australia in October 2003. It was available in three guises: CV, CVX, and Grande. A limited edition CV Sport model was also released in 2006. There was no hybrid model available in Australia. The only engine offered was the 3.3-liter "3MZ-FE" V6. Typical fuel economy using the Australian standard testing regime is .


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The 3.0-liter engine was able to propel the Kluger from in approximately 8.8 seconds. In 2004 the Kluger was given a new 3.3-liter V6 engine to compete with the more powerful V6 offerings from its competitors, mainly the Nissan Murano and the Honda Pilot. The larger engine made it possible for the Kluger to reach in 7.8 seconds.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Japanese and Australian Kluger was released with a center console integrated with the dashboard, while the North American Highlander initially lacked this integrated center console. The integrated center console was introduced in all US Highlanders and in Canadian Limited Highlanders in 2001, for the 2002 model year, and in all Canadian Highlanders in 2003, for the 2004 model year. However, for these early Highlanders without the integrated center console, a smaller non-integrated stand-alone center console was available as an option, either factory or dealer installed.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In 2003, for the 2004 model year, in addition to the 3.3-liter engine, V6-powered models were equipped with a new five-speed automatic transmission, replacing the four-speed automatic transmission, while the inline-four models continued to use the old four-speed. This year also saw the introduction of the optional third row seat allowing for two additional passengers. The center console, which was previously exclusive to the Limited trim level, was now standard across all trims. A DVD-based navigation system was introduced to the Highlander for the first time as an option on the Limited trim. The unibody was slightly modified behind the second row seats to include a depression in the hatch floor able to accommodate the optional third row seating. On models without third row seating, this depression was turned into a storage compartment (prior to 2004 the spare tire was accessible from inside the vehicle where the third row seating would subsequently be located; beginning in 2004 the spare tire is accessible from underneath the vehicle). Subtle changes to the front grille, front and rear bumpers, headlights and tail lights (LED tail lights on later hybrid models) round-out the major changes for the 2003 mid-cycle refresh.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In 2005, for the 2006 model year, Highlanders sold in Canada were offered only in a V6 all-wheel drive configuration. Hybrid models were available with part-time four-wheel drive, which Toyota refers to as 4WD-i whereby the rear wheels are powered by a separate electric motor. This system is intended for use on snow and ice and is prone to overheating the rear electric motor off-road.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: Anti-lock brakes, brake assist and electronic brakeforce distribution were standard, Vehicle Stability Control w/traction control optional on 2001–03 models became standard for 2004 models (Hybrids come standard with VDIM). Also standard for 2004 was a tire pressure monitor. Front seat-mounted side torso airbags were optional on 2001–06 models, while front and second row side curtain airbags were optional on 2004–06 models. Side airbags became standard on 2007 models and the curtain airbags gained a rollover sensor that year as well.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) crash tests the Highlander was rated "Good" overall in the frontal offset crash test. The IIHS reported the Highlander had one of the lowest driver fatality rates among all vehicles, and amongst SUVs, only the Toyota 4Runner had a lower driver fatality rate. This report looked at 2001–2005 model year vehicles in the US.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: Initially, the Kluger was a regular, non-hybrid SUV driven by an internal combustion engine, but later Toyota introduced a hybrid version, the Kluger Hybrid that utilizes the company's Hybrid Synergy Drive technology combined with the company's "3MZ-FE" 3.3-liter V6 engine offered in either FWD or AWD trim. The hybrid drivetrain was unveiled at the 2004 North American International Auto Show, and was offered to the public in July 2005 as a 2006 model. The power steering pump, water pump and AC compressor were changed from belt-drive to electrically powered versions. A modified alternator was incorporated into the hybrid system.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In North America, the hybrid version was called the Highlander Hybrid. It was also the first seven-seat hybrid vehicle. With the electric motors providing power, overall acceleration improved, particularly at passing speeds. Other additions include Toyota's Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) system and Electronically Controlled Brake (ECB). The California Air Resources Board gave it a SULEV emission rating. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (revised standards) rated it at City/ Highway for FWD models and / for AWD models. This system is near identical to that of the Lexus RX 400h. All-wheel drive models were rated to tow .


title: Toyota Highlander

text: Toyota revealed the second generation Highlander and Highlander Hybrid at the 2007 Chicago Auto Show, with American sales beginning in July and hybrids in late September. The second generation Highlander and Highlander Hybrid were not sold in Japan. The five-seat Highlander for the United States and Canada was dropped as the Venza replaced it.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: Initially the sole powertrain for the 2008 Highlander was a 3.5-liter "2GR-FE" V6 mated to a five-speed automatic. The four-cylinder model had been discontinued but added again in 2009. While the 3.5-liter engine has more than the previous 3.3-liter V6 and dimensional increases along with increased sound proofing added nearly to the vehicle's curb weight of approximately , fuel economy is slightly improved. The EPA estimated fuel economy for front-wheel drive models is at


title: Toyota Highlander

text: For 2009, Toyota again offered a 4-cylinder for 5-passenger front-wheel drive models with the all-new ULEV-II certified 2.7-liter "1AR-FE" I4 paired to a six-speed automatic. It generates at 5,800 rpm and of peak torque at 4,100 rpm on regular 87 octane fuel. The four-cylinder delivers an EPA estimated fuel economy of city and highway. This is better than the previous model's four-cylinder with /.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The same three trim levels were offered (Base, Sport and Limited) until early 2010 when the SE model replaced the Sport model, buyers are still able to choose between front-wheel drive or all-wheel drive on V6 platforms. Also new is an Electric Power Steering (EPS) system. Sport and Limited models get a standard backup camera using a 3.5-inch LCD display. Major options include leather seats, heated seats, a touchscreen DVD based navigation system, a new Smart Key System, an upgraded JBL Synthesis stereo, a rear-seat DVD entertainment system with 9-inch screen, and a towing package that increases towing capacity to 5000 pounds.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The XU40 was initially produced exclusively at Toyota Motor Kyushu's Miyata plant for all global markets beginning in May 2007. Production in China for local sales was started on 25 May 2009 by GAC Toyota in Nansha District, Guangzhou, Guangdong. Toyota had intended on building the Highlander in Blue Springs, Mississippi for the North American market in the 2011 model year. However, the Corolla was built there instead, and the Highlander is being built at Toyota Motor Manufacturing Indiana in Princeton, Indiana, from the 2010 model year onward for a majority of North America, replacing Tundra production. TMMI Highlander production began in October 2009 for gasoline engine models only; hybrids continued to be imported from Japan until the release of the third generation XU50, where all production except for China was consolidated at TMMI.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In Australia, the new generation Kluger was launched in August 2007. There are three trims available, KX-R, KX-S and Grande. All trims are available with either 2WD or AWD. The base model KX-R is also available with either five or seven seats, whilst the latter trims are seven seaters only. Specifications are mostly similar to the US Highlander, sharing the same 3.5-litre V6 "2GR-FE" engine and five-speed automatic transmission. However, there are no plans at present to introduce a hybrid version of the Kluger into the Australian market.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In 2010, for the 2011 model year, Toyota made some changes to the Highlander and Highlander Hybrid. While the general design remains similar to the 2010 model, the Highlander's front end has been significantly revised, now featuring new headlights, a new black with chrome accent rocker panel, and new front grille. The non-hybrid engines for 2011 remain the same, although now the 2.7-liter four-cylinder engine may be had on the SE trim level, previously only available on the base model. More standard features are now equipped on all trim levels, with the base model receiving front and rear air conditioning, power locks/windows, cruise control, and a multi-function keyless entry control. The facelifted model was also sold in Russia from 2010-2013.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: All models come standard with enhanced Vehicle Stability Control which immediately alters electric powering steering assist w/traction control (hybrids come standard with VDIM), anti-lock brakes, brake assist and electronic brakeforce distribution. Also standard is a tire pressure monitor, a driver's knee airbag, front seat-mounted side torso airbags, side curtain airbags for all three rows which includes a rollover sensor and active front headrests. Hill Start Assist Control (HAC) is also standard which prevents rolling backwards on slopes, and Downhill Assist Control (DAC) is standard on AWD trims.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The IIHS rates the Highlander "Good" overall in their frontal offset crash test, and good in all subcategories except for "Head/neck," which is rated as "Acceptable." And "Good" overall in the side impact crash test, with "Good" rating in all nine measured categories. The Highlander is also rated "Good" in the roof strength test, giving it a "top safety pick" rating.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) testing the Kluger is given a rating but only a rating for pedestrian protection.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The safety and effectiveness of the Highlander/Kluger's Vehicle Stability Control system has been questioned by some motoring journalists. During testing for "Wheels" magazine Car of the Year in 2007, the magazine's editor rolled the vehicle during high-speed gravel road testing. Noting that it was the first such event in the magazine's 45-year history, he criticised the vehicle's stability system stating that "Deficiencies in the Kluger's ESP contributed to the crash". Six of the seven other judges also stated that they felt ""the vehicle's ESP performance was sub-standard"", and remarked that the vehicle was ""almost dangerous on dirt [roads]"". In a written response, Toyota disputed the circumstances of the accident and criticised the testing procedures as "unscientific".


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Hybrid features Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive which continues to allow an electric only powered mode for short distances and speeds. Weight and cost have been improved over the previous hybrid.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The expanded size and new features have led to an increase of 500 pounds to its curb weight. All Highlander Hybrids are all-wheel drive, and the EPA has rated the hybrid at for the city and for the highway, same as the previous model. The Highlander's fuel economy, while better than the Lexus RX 400h's, lags behind the compact 4cyl Ford Escape Hybrid, which ceased production in 2012, and the latest RX 450h, but still produces significantly fewer emissions than the non-hybrid version with a CARB SULEV rating.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Highlander Hybrid continues to use the same 3.3-liter "3MZ-FE" V6 () offered in AWD from the prior model, net power is . VDIM and Electronically Controlled Brake remain new features include a driver selectable electric only EV mode (when possible) and another ECON mode which restricts acceleration and minimizes air conditioning during acceleration. The Highlander Hybrid Hybrid uses a 1.9 kWh sealed nickel-metal hydride traction battery.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: For the 2011 model year the Highlander Hybrid received styling changes and was upgraded with the 3.5-liter "2GR-FXE" V6 (), increasing net power by , and a powertrain similar to the RX450h. The vehicle is now rated at for the city, highway and combined cycles.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Highland FCHV was a test vehicle using compressed hydrogen gas, with average fuel economy of (approximate mpg equivalent).


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Chinese version of the Highlander (ASU40/GSU45) was unveiled in 2009 at the 13th Shanghai International Automobile Industry Exhibition.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: On 27 March 2013, Toyota unveiled the third generation XU50 series Highlander at the New York International Auto Show, with plans to have the vehicle reach dealerships in early 2014. Production began on 5 December. The XU50 version is longer and wider than the outgoing generation and its design has changed from its boxy look to one that is similar to other mid-size crossover SUVs.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In addition to the changes, the XU50 featured seating for eight people with a sliding second-row point of entry that gives it of added width space, soft-touch materials on the instrument panel, lane-departure warning, pre-collision warning and blind spot monitoring systems. HD Radio and Bluetooth was standard on all trims for the US version, which will also come equipped with Toyota's Entune multimedia system along with a 6.1-inch touchscreen display audio system. An eight-inch touchscreen system and Toyota's Entune app suite with 12 JBL speakers were offered as an optional feature. The three powertrain trims that were offered include a 2.7-liter, six-speed automatic, front-wheel drive base model, a 3.5-liter, six-speed automatic model in both front- or all-wheel drive, and the AWD-only Hybrid trim with a 3.5-liter V6 mated to an eCVT.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: For the third-generation model, Toyota Motor Sales USA took the role of producing the Kluger for Australia and New Zealand after Japanese production of the second-generation model ended in 2013. When the model was replaced with the succeeding XU70 model in 2019, production in the US continued for exports to both countries until 2021.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: A refreshed 2017 model year Highlander appeared at the New York International Auto Show in March 2016 with sales starting in the fourth quarter of 2016. In V6 powered models, an eight-speed automatic replaced the six-speeder and the revised V6 engine (now designated "2GR-FKS") added Toyota's D4-S direct injection fuel system. The facelifted Highlander has an updated fascia with restyled headlights and tail lights, addition of SE trim, XLE and LE Hybrid trims, and updated exterior and interior colors.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The fourth-generation Highlander was unveiled at the New York International Auto Show on 17 April 2019. It is built on GA-K platform. In the United States, the fourth-generation Highlander gasoline model went on sale on 18 December 2019 for the 2020 model year. Compared to the previous generation, there is increased cargo room behind the third row and support was added for both Apple CarPlay and Android Auto. The hybrid model became available in North America in February 2020. The fourth-generation Highlander offers five trim levels, three of which are carried over from the previous generation: LE, XLE, and Limited, as well the base L, and the top-of-the-line Platinum.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In Europe, the Highlander Hybrid went on sale in January 2021, solely with a hybrid powertrain. The Highlander for the UK market has been available since March 2021, a year later than the US models due to the extensive engineering work for right-hand-drive models, while the Kluger for the Australian market became available on 1 June 2021.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: In China, the fourth-generation Highlander was launched on 19 April 2021 at the Auto Shanghai. The Highlander continued to be built and sold by GAC Toyota joint venture. A twin model manufactured by FAW Toyota was launched simultaneously as the Crown Kluger (). The Crown Kluger is based on the Highlander XSE sold in North America, with the Toyota badge on the front grille and steering wheel swapped for the Crown badge. Both are powered by a 2.5-liter engine with hybrid powertrain as an option.


title: Toyota Highlander

text: The Grand Highlander is a planned extended variant of the standard Highlander to debut on 8 February 2023 at the Chicago Auto Show.


title: RAID

text: RAID (; "redundant array of inexpensive disks" or "redundant array of independent disks") is a data storage virtualization technology that combines multiple physical disk drive components into one or more logical units for the purposes of data redundancy, performance improvement, or both. This is in contrast to the previous concept of highly reliable mainframe disk drives referred to as "single large expensive disk" (SLED).


title: RAID

text: Data is distributed across the drives in one of several ways, referred to as RAID levels, depending on the required level of redundancy and performance. The different schemes, or data distribution layouts, are named by the word "RAID" followed by a number, for example RAID 0 or RAID 1. Each scheme, or RAID level, provides a different balance among the key goals: reliability, availability, performance, and capacity. RAID levels greater than RAID 0 provide protection against unrecoverable sector read errors, as well as against failures of whole physical drives.


title: RAID

text: The term "RAID" was invented by David Patterson, Garth A. Gibson, and Randy Katz at the University of California, Berkeley in 1987. In their June 1988 paper "A Case for Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)", presented at the SIGMOD Conference, they argued that the top-performing mainframe disk drives of the time could be beaten on performance by an array of the inexpensive drives that had been developed for the growing personal computer market. Although failures would rise in proportion to the number of drives, by configuring for redundancy, the reliability of an array could far exceed that of any large single drive.


title: RAID

text: Although not yet using that terminology, the technologies of the five levels of RAID named in the June 1988 paper were used in various products prior to the paper's publication, including the following:


title: RAID

text: Industry manufacturers later redefined the RAID acronym to stand for "redundant array of "independent" disks".


title: RAID

text: Many RAID levels employ an error protection scheme called "parity", a widely used method in information technology to provide fault tolerance in a given set of data. Most use simple XOR, but RAID 6 uses two separate parities based respectively on addition and multiplication in a particular Galois field or Reed–Solomon error correction.


title: RAID

text: RAID can also provide data security with solid-state drives (SSDs) without the expense of an all-SSD system. For example, a fast SSD can be mirrored with a mechanical drive. For this configuration to provide a significant speed advantage, an appropriate controller is needed that uses the fast SSD for all read operations. Adaptec calls this "hybrid RAID".


title: RAID

text: Originally, there were five standard levels of RAID, but many variations have evolved, including several nested levels and many non-standard levels (mostly proprietary). RAID levels and their associated data formats are standardized by the Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) in the Common RAID Disk Drive Format (DDF) standard:


title: RAID

text: In what was originally termed "hybrid RAID", many storage controllers allow RAID levels to be nested. The elements of a "RAID" may be either individual drives or arrays themselves. Arrays are rarely nested more than one level deep.


title: RAID

text: The final array is known as the top array. When the top array is RAID 0 (such as in RAID 1+0 and RAID 5+0), most vendors omit the "+" (yielding RAID 10 and RAID 50, respectively).


title: RAID

text: Many configurations other than the basic numbered RAID levels are possible, and many companies, organizations, and groups have created their own non-standard configurations, in many cases designed to meet the specialized needs of a small niche group. Such configurations include the following:


title: RAID

text: The distribution of data across multiple drives can be managed either by dedicated computer hardware or by software. A software solution may be part of the operating system, part of the firmware and drivers supplied with a standard drive controller (so-called "hardware-assisted software RAID"), or it may reside entirely within the hardware RAID controller.


title: RAID

text: Hardware RAID controllers can be configured through card BIOS or Option ROM before an operating system is booted, and after the operating system is booted, proprietary configuration utilities are available from the manufacturer of each controller.


title: RAID

text: Unlike the network interface controllers for Ethernet, which can usually be configured and serviced entirely through the common operating system paradigms like ifconfig in Unix, without a need for any third-party tools, each manufacturer of each RAID controller usually provides their own proprietary software tooling for each operating system that they deem to support, ensuring a vendor lock-in, and contributing to reliability issues.


title: RAID

text: For example, in FreeBSD, in order to access the configuration of Adaptec RAID controllers, users are required to enable Linux compatibility layer, and use the Linux tooling from Adaptec, potentially compromising the stability, reliability and security of their setup, especially when taking the long-term view.


title: RAID

text: Some other operating systems have implemented their own generic frameworks for interfacing with any RAID controller, and provide tools for monitoring RAID volume status, as well as facilitation of drive identification through LED blinking, alarm management and hot spare disk designations from within the operating system without having to reboot into card BIOS. For example, this was the approach taken by OpenBSD in 2005 with its bio(4) pseudo-device and the bioctl utility, which provide volume status, and allow LED/alarm/hotspare control, as well as the sensors (including the drive sensor) for health monitoring; this approach has subsequently been adopted and extended by NetBSD in 2007 as well.


title: RAID

text: Software RAID implementations are provided by many modern operating systems. Software RAID can be implemented as:


title: RAID

text: Some advanced file systems are designed to organize data across multiple storage devices directly, without needing the help of a third-party logical volume manager:


title: RAID

text: If a boot drive fails, the system has to be sophisticated enough to be able to boot from the remaining drive or drives. For instance, consider a computer whose disk is configured as RAID 1 (mirrored drives); if the first drive in the array fails, then a first-stage boot loader might not be sophisticated enough to attempt loading the second-stage boot loader from the second drive as a fallback. The second-stage boot loader for FreeBSD is capable of loading a kernel from such an array.


title: RAID

text: Software-implemented RAID is not always compatible with the system's boot process, and it is generally impractical for desktop versions of Windows. However, hardware RAID controllers are expensive and proprietary. To fill this gap, inexpensive "RAID controllers" were introduced that do not contain a dedicated RAID controller chip, but simply a standard drive controller chip with proprietary firmware and drivers. During early bootup, the RAID is implemented by the firmware and, once the operating system has been more completely loaded, the drivers take over control. Consequently, such controllers may not work when driver support is not available for the host operating system. An example is Intel Rapid Storage Technology, implemented on many consumer-level motherboards.


title: RAID

text: Because some minimal hardware support is involved, this implementation is also called "hardware-assisted software RAID", "hybrid model" RAID, or even "fake RAID". If RAID 5 is supported, the hardware may provide a hardware XOR accelerator. An advantage of this model over the pure software RAID is that—if using a redundancy mode—the boot drive is protected from failure (due to the firmware) during the boot process even before the operating system's drivers take over.


title: RAID

text: Data scrubbing (referred to in some environments as "patrol read") involves periodic reading and checking by the RAID controller of all the blocks in an array, including those not otherwise accessed. This detects bad blocks before use. Data scrubbing checks for bad blocks on each storage device in an array, but also uses the redundancy of the array to recover bad blocks on a single drive and to reassign the recovered data to spare blocks elsewhere on the drive.


title: RAID

text: Frequently, a RAID controller is configured to "drop" a component drive (that is, to assume a component drive has failed) if the drive has been unresponsive for eight seconds or so; this might cause the array controller to drop a good drive because that drive has not been given enough time to complete its internal error recovery procedure. Consequently, using consumer-marketed drives with RAID can be risky, and so-called "enterprise class" drives limit this error recovery time to reduce risk. Western Digital's desktop drives used to have a specific fix. A utility called WDTLER.exe limited a drive's error recovery time. The utility enabled TLER (time limited error recovery), which limits the error recovery time to seven seconds. Around September 2009, Western Digital disabled this feature in their desktop drives (such as the Caviar Black line), making such drives unsuitable for use in RAID configurations. However, Western Digital enterprise class drives are shipped from the factory with TLER enabled. Similar technologies are used by Seagate, Samsung, and Hitachi. For non-RAID usage, an enterprise class drive with a short error recovery timeout that cannot be changed is therefore less suitable than a desktop drive. In late 2010, the Smartmontools program began supporting the configuration of ATA Error Recovery Control, allowing the tool to configure many desktop class hard drives for use in RAID setups.


title: RAID

text: While RAID may protect against physical drive failure, the data is still exposed to operator, software, hardware, and virus destruction. Many studies cite operator fault as a common source of malfunction, such as a server operator replacing the incorrect drive in a faulty RAID, and disabling the system (even temporarily) in the process.


title: RAID

text: An array can be overwhelmed by catastrophic failure that exceeds its recovery capacity and the entire array is at risk of physical damage by fire, natural disaster, and human forces, however backups can be stored off site. An array is also vulnerable to controller failure because it is not always possible to migrate it to a new, different controller without data loss.


title: RAID

text: In practice, the drives are often the same age (with similar wear) and subject to the same environment. Since many drive failures are due to mechanical issues (which are more likely on older drives), this violates the assumptions of independent, identical rate of failure amongst drives; failures are in fact statistically correlated. In practice, the chances for a second failure before the first has been recovered (causing data loss) are higher than the chances for random failures. In a study of about 100,000 drives, the probability of two drives in the same cluster failing within one hour was four times larger than predicted by the exponential statistical distribution—which characterizes processes in which events occur continuously and independently at a constant average rate. The probability of two failures in the same 10-hour period was twice as large as predicted by an exponential distribution.


title: RAID

text: Unrecoverable read errors (URE) present as sector read failures, also known as latent sector errors (LSE). The associated media assessment measure, unrecoverable bit error (UBE) rate, is typically guaranteed to be less than one bit in 10 for enterprise-class drives (SCSI, FC, SAS or SATA), and less than one bit in 10 for desktop-class drives (IDE/ATA/PATA or SATA). Increasing drive capacities and large RAID 5 instances have led to the maximum error rates being insufficient to guarantee a successful recovery, due to the high likelihood of such an error occurring on one or more remaining drives during a RAID set rebuild. When rebuilding, parity-based schemes such as RAID 5 are particularly prone to the effects of UREs as they affect not only the sector where they occur, but also reconstructed blocks using that sector for parity computation.


title: RAID

text: Double-protection parity-based schemes, such as RAID 6, attempt to address this issue by providing redundancy that allows double-drive failures; as a downside, such schemes suffer from elevated write penalty—the number of times the storage medium must be accessed during a single write operation. Schemes that duplicate (mirror) data in a drive-to-drive manner, such as RAID 1 and RAID 10, have a lower risk from UREs than those using parity computation or mirroring between striped sets. Data scrubbing, as a background process, can be used to detect and recover from UREs, effectively reducing the risk of them happening during RAID rebuilds and causing double-drive failures. The recovery of UREs involves remapping of affected underlying disk sectors, utilizing the drive's sector remapping pool; in case of UREs detected during background scrubbing, data redundancy provided by a fully operational RAID set allows the missing data to be reconstructed and rewritten to a remapped sector.


title: RAID

text: Drive capacity has grown at a much faster rate than transfer speed, and error rates have only fallen a little in comparison. Therefore, larger-capacity drives may take hours if not days to rebuild, during which time other drives may fail or yet undetected read errors may surface. The rebuild time is also limited if the entire array is still in operation at reduced capacity. Given an array with only one redundant drive (which applies to RAID levels 3, 4 and 5, and to "classic" two-drive RAID 1), a second drive failure would cause complete failure of the array. Even though individual drives' mean time between failure (MTBF) have increased over time, this increase has not kept pace with the increased storage capacity of the drives. The time to rebuild the array after a single drive failure, as well as the chance of a second failure during a rebuild, have increased over time.


title: RAID

text: Some commentators have declared that RAID 6 is only a "band aid" in this respect, because it only kicks the problem a little further down the road. However, according to the 2006 NetApp study of Berriman et al., the chance of failure decreases by a factor of about 3,800 (relative to RAID 5) for a proper implementation of RAID 6, even when using commodity drives. Nevertheless, if the currently observed technology trends remain unchanged, in 2019 a RAID 6 array will have the same chance of failure as its RAID 5 counterpart had in 2010.


title: RAID

text: Mirroring schemes such as RAID 10 have a bounded recovery time as they require the copy of a single failed drive, compared with parity schemes such as RAID 6, which require the copy of all blocks of the drives in an array set. Triple parity schemes, or triple mirroring, have been suggested as one approach to improve resilience to an additional drive failure during this large rebuild time.


title: RAID

text: A system crash or other interruption of a write operation can result in states where the parity is inconsistent with the data due to non-atomicity of the write process, such that the parity cannot be used for recovery in the case of a disk failure. This is commonly termed the RAID 5 write hole. The RAID write hole is a known data corruption issue in older and low-end RAIDs, caused by interrupted destaging of writes to disk. The write hole can be addressed with write-ahead logging. This was fixed in mdadm by introducing a dedicated journaling device (to avoid performance penalty, typically, SSDs and NVMs are preferred) for that purpose.


title: RAID

text: This is a little understood and rarely mentioned failure mode for redundant storage systems that do not utilize transactional features. Database researcher Jim Gray wrote "Update in Place is a Poison Apple" during the early days of relational database commercialization.


title: RAID

text: There are concerns about write-cache reliability, specifically regarding devices equipped with a write-back cache, which is a caching system that reports the data as written as soon as it is written to cache, as opposed to when it is written to the non-volatile medium. If the system experiences a power loss or other major failure, the data may be irrevocably lost from the cache before reaching the non-volatile storage. For this reason good write-back cache implementations include mechanisms, such as redundant battery power, to preserve cache contents across system failures (including power failures) and to flush the cache at system restart time.


title: Knight Bachelor

text: The title of Knight Bachelor is the basic rank granted to a man who has been knighted by the monarch but not inducted as a member of one of the organised orders of chivalry; it is a part of the British honours system. Knights Bachelor are the most ancient sort of British knight (the rank existed during the 13th-century reign of King Henry III), but Knights Bachelor rank below knights of chivalric orders. A man who is knighted is formally addressed as "Sir [First Name] [Surname]" or "Sir [First Name]" and his wife as "Lady [Surname]".


title: Knight Bachelor

text: Knighthood is usually conferred for public service; amongst its recipients are all male judges of His Majesty's High Court of Justice in England. It is possible to be a Knight Bachelor and a junior member of an order of chivalry without being a knight of that order; this situation has become rather common, especially among those recognized for achievements in entertainment. For instance, Sir Michael Gambon, Sir Derek Jacobi, Sir Anthony Hopkins, Sir Elton John, Sir Michael Caine, Sir Barry Gibb and Sir Ian McKellen are Commanders of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBEs); Sir Patrick Stewart, Sir Tom Jones and Sir Van Morrison are Officers of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBEs); while Sir Paul McCartney and Sir Richard Starkey (Ringo Starr) are Members of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE). None of them would be entitled to use the honorific "Sir" by virtue of their membership of the order alone, but as they are all also Knights Bachelor, they are entitled to preface their names with that title.


title: Knight Bachelor

text: Knights Bachelor may prefix "Sir" to their forenames and wives of Knights may prefix "Lady" to their surnames. Since recipients are not knights of an order of chivalry there are no post-nominal letters associated with the honour.


title: Knight Bachelor

text: Until 1926 Knights Bachelor had no insignia which they could wear, but in that year King George V issued a warrant authorising the wearing of a badge on all appropriate occasions by Knights Bachelor; this badge is worn on the left side of the coat or outer garment. Measuring in length and in width, it is described in heraldic terms as follows:


title: Knight Bachelor

text: Upon an oval medallion of vermilion, enclosed by a scroll a cross-hilted sword belted and sheathed, pommel upwards, between two spurs, rowels upwards, the whole set about with the sword belt, all gilt.


title: Knight Bachelor

text: In 1974, Queen Elizabeth II issued a further warrant authorising the wearing on appropriate occasions of a neck badge, slightly smaller in size, and in miniature. In 1988 a new certificate of authentication, a knight's only personal documentation, was designed by the College of Arms.


title: Knight Bachelor

text: The Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor was founded for the maintenance and consolidation of the Dignity of Knights Bachelor in 1908, and obtained official recognition from the Sovereign in 1912. The Society keeps records of all Knights Bachelor, in their interest.


title: Knight Bachelor

text: There is no female counterpart to Knight Bachelor. The lowest knightly honour that can be conferred upon a woman is Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (DBE), which is one rank higher than Knight Bachelor (being the female equivalent of KBE or Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, which is the next male knightly rank above Knight Bachelor).


title: Knight Bachelor

text: Only citizens of Commonwealth realms can be created Knights Bachelor; people of other nationalities are generally made honorary KBEs.


title: Lisa Marie (actress)

text: Lisa Marie was born in Piscataway, New Jersey, where she was raised by her father and grandparents. She studied ballet for eight years at the New Jersey Ballet and learned classical piano. She moved to New York City at age 15 to study theater, dance and music.


title: Lisa Marie (actress)

text: She was a model for Robert Mapplethorpe and was featured in photographer Bruce Weber's ad campaign for designer Calvin Klein's Obsession perfume.


title: Lisa Marie (actress)

text: Marie went on to appear briefly in "Let's Get Lost", Weber's documentary on the life of jazz trumpeter Chet Baker, and had a small role in Woody Allen's film "Alice". In 1989 she appeared on Malcolm McLaren's song "Something's Jumpin' in Your Shirt" from his 1989 album "Waltz Darling". From 2000–2002 she hosted the short film series "Exposure" on the Sci-Fi Channel.


title: Lisa Marie (actress)

text: Marie has appeared in magazines including "Maxim", "Playboy", and "Esquire". She has also had her own photographs exhibited and published in magazines; "Vanity Fair" ran side-by-side photos taken by her and her partner film director Tim Burton. Marie appeared in several of Burton's films including portraying actress/1950s television horror movie hostess Vampira in the 1994 biopic "Ed Wood".


title: Lisa Marie (actress)

text: In 2015, Marie starred in the horror film "We Are Still Here" with Barbara Crampton, Andrew Sensenig, Larry Fessenden, Monte Markham, and Susan Gibney.


title: Lisa Marie (actress)

text: Marie met film director Tim Burton at Starbucks in New York on New Year's Eve in 1992, when she had just quit modeling for Calvin Klein, and Burton had been having difficulty in his four-year marriage. According to a "Boston Herald" article, they claimed to have bonded over mutually witnessing two UFO sightings in California. She was engaged to him from Valentine's Day 1993 to 2001 and appeared in small roles in most of his productions made during this time.


title: Lisa Marie (actress)

text: Burton abruptly ended their relationship following the premiere of 2001's "Planet of the Apes", which he directed. Marie had a small role in the film, while Burton's new girlfriend Helena Bonham Carter was one of its lead actresses. Marie responded in 2005 by holding an auction of personal belongings that Burton had left behind, much to his dismay.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: A — also known as , , with a boss called or – is a reptiloid "kami" with similarities to "yōkai" found in traditional Japanese folklore. "Kappa" can become harmful when they are not respected as gods. They are typically depicted as green, human-like beings with webbed hands and feet and a turtle-like carapace on their back.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: The "kappa" are known to favor cucumbers and love to engage in sumo wrestling. They are often accused of assaulting humans in water and removing a mythical organ called the "shirikodama" from their victim's anus.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: The name "kappa" is a contraction of the words "kawa" (river) and "wappa", a variant form of 童 "warawa" (also "warabe") "child". Another translation of kappa is "water sprites". The "kappa" are also known regionally by at least eighty other names such as "kawappa", "kawako", "kawatarō", "gawappa", "kōgo", "suitengu".


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: It is also called "kawauso" 'otter', "dangame" 'soft-shelled turtle', and "enkō" 'monkey', suggesting it outwardly resembles these animals. The name "komahiki" or "steed-puller" alludes to its reputed penchant to drag away horses.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: The kappa has been known as "kawako" in Izumo (Shimane Prefecture) where Lafcadio Hearn was based, and "gatarō" was the familiar name of it to folklorist Kunio Yanagita from Hyōgo Prefecture.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: "Kappa" are said to be roughly humanoid in form and about the size of a child, inhabiting the ponds and rivers of Japan. Clumsy on land, they are at home in the water, and thrive during the warm months. They are typically greenish in color (or yellow-blue), and either scaly or slimy skinned, with webbed hands and feet, and a turtle-like carapace on their back. Inhuman traits include three anuses that allow them to pass three times as much gas as humans. Despite their small stature they are physically stronger than a grown man.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: According to some accounts, a "kappa's" arms are connected to each other through the torso and can slide from one side to the other. While they are primarily water creatures, they do on occasion venture onto land. When they do, the "dish" on their head can be covered with a metal cap for protection.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: "Kappa" are usually seen as kami of the water. Their actions range from comparatively minor misdemeanors, such as looking up women's kimono if they venture too near to water, to outright malevolence, such as drowning people and animals, kidnapping children, raping women and at times eating human flesh. Though sometimes menacing, they may also behave amicably towards humans. While younger kappa are frequently found in family groups, adult kappa live solitary lives. However, it is common for kappa to befriend other yōkai and sometimes even people.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Folk beliefs claim the cucumber as their traditional favorite meal. At festivals, offerings of cucumber are frequently made to the kappa. Sometimes the kappa is said to have other favorite foods, such as the Japanese eggplant, "soba" (buckwheat noodles), "nattō" (fermented soybeans), or "kabocha"(Japanese pumpkin).


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: In Edo (old Tokyo), there used to be a tradition where people would write the names of their family members on cucumbers and send them afloat into the streams to mollify the "kappa" and prevent the family from coming to harm in the streams. In some regions, it was customary to eat cucumbers before swimming as protection, but in others it was believed that this act would guarantee an attack.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: As water monsters, "kappa" have been blamed for drownings, and are often said to try to lure people into water and pull them in with their great skill at wrestling. They are sometimes said to take their victims for the purpose of drinking their blood, eating their livers, or gaining power by taking their , a mythical ball said to contain the soul, which is located inside the anus.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: "Kappa" have been used to warn children of the dangers lurking in rivers and lakes, as "kappa" have been often said to try to lure people to water and pull them in. Even today, signs warning about "kappa" appear by bodies of water in some Japanese towns and villages.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: "Kappa" are also said to victimize animals, especially horses and cows. The motif of the "kappa" trying to drown a horse is found all over Japan.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Lafcadio Hearn wrote of a story in Kawachimura near Matsue where a horse-stealing kappa was captured and made to write a sworn statement vowing never to harm people again.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: In many versions the "kappa" is dragged by the horse to the stable where it is most vulnerable, and it is there it is forced to submit a writ of promise not to misbehave.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: It was believed that there were a few means of escape if one was confronted with a "kappa". "Kappa" are obsessed with politeness, so if a person makes a deep bow, it will return the gesture. This results in the kappa spilling the water held in the "dish" ("sara") on its head, rendering it unable to leave the bowing position until the plate is refilled with water from the river in which it lives. If a person refills it, the "kappa" will serve that person for all eternity. A similar weakness of the "kappa" involves its arms, which can easily be pulled from its body. If an arm is detached, the "kappa" will perform favors or share knowledge in exchange for its return.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Another method of defeat involves "shogi" or "sumo" wrestling: a "kappa" sometimes challenges a human being to wrestle or engage in other tests of skill. This tendency is easily used to encourage the "kappa" to spill the water from its "sara". One notable example of this method is the folktale of a farmer who promises his daughter's hand in marriage to a "kappa" in return for the creature irrigating his land. The farmer's daughter challenges the "kappa" to submerge several gourds in water. When the "kappa" fails in its task, it retreats, saving the farmer's daughter from the marriage. "Kappa" have also been driven away by their aversion to iron, sesame, or ginger.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Once befriended, "kappa" may perform any number of tasks for human beings, such as helping farmers irrigate their land. Sometimes, they bring fresh fish, which is regarded as a mark of good fortune for the family receiving it. They are also highly knowledgeable about medicine, and legend states that they taught the art of bone setting to human beings. There are also legends that Kappa will save a friendly human from drowning.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: The kappa is known by various names of the creature vary by region and local folklore. In Shintō, they are often considered to be an avatar ("keshin") of the Water Deity or "suijin".


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Shrines are dedicated to the worship of "kappa" as water deity in such places as Aomori Prefecture or Miyagi Prefecture. There were also festivals meant to placate the "kappa" in order to obtain a good harvest, some of which still take place today. These festivals generally took place during the two equinoxes of the year, when the "kappa" are said to travel from the rivers to the mountains and vice versa.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: The best known place where it has been claimed Kappa reside is in the waters of "Tōno " in the Iwate Prefecture. The nearby In Tōno, there is a Buddhist temple that has komainu dog statues with depressions on their heads reminiscent of the water-retaining dish on the kappa's heads, said to be dedicated to the "kappa" which according to legend helped extinguish a fire at the temple. The Kappa is also venerated at the "Sogenji" Buddhist temple in the Asakusa district of Tokyo where according to tradition, a mummified arm of a Kappa is enshrined within the chapel hall since 1818.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: In his "Tōno Monogatari", Kunio Yanagita records a number of beliefs from the Tōno area about women being accosted and even impregnated by "kappa". Their offspring were said to be repulsive to behold, and were generally buried.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Similar folklore can be found in Asia and Europe. The Japanese folklore creature "Kappa" is known in Chinese folklore as 神水 "shuǐguǐ" "water-ghost", or water monkey and may also be related to the kelpie of Scotland and the nixie of Scandinavia. Like the Japanese description of the beast, in Chinese and in Scandinavian lore this beast is infamous for kidnapping and drowning people as well as horses.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: A frog-face "vodyanoy" is known in Slavic mythology. A green human-like being named a "vodník" is widely known in western Slavic folklore and tales, especially in the Czech Republic or Slovakia.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: In German mythology, a similar creature is known as "", "Nix", or "Nickel". They have been mentioned in connection with the larger rivers Elbe and Saale in the eastern part of Germany, but they are most widely connected to Lusatia in South-Est Germany. This is not entirely surprising, as the area is not only close to Poland and Czech Republic, but also home to the Slavic minority of the Sorbs.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: The "kappa" is a popular creature of the Japanese folk imagination; its manifestations cut across genre lines, appearing in folk religion, beliefs, legends, folktales and folk metaphors.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: In Japan, the character Sagojō (Sha Wujing) is conventionally depicted as a "kappa": he being a comrade of the magic monkey Sun Wukong in the Chinese story "Journey to the West".


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Ryūnosuke Akutagawa's 1927 novella "Kappa" centers on a man who got lost and ended up in the land of the "kappa" near Mount Hotakadake. The story heavily focuses on the subject of suicide and Akutagawa took his own life the year the work was published. Kappas are a recurring image in David Peace's novel "Patient X", itself about the life and work of Akutagawa.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: In anime show "Inuyasha", a kappa, Sha Gojyo's descendant said to be a descendant of the legendary character from "Journey of the West" and together with Son Goku's descendant, the servant of Chokyūkai to find a bride. Later, since Hakudoshi collecting the heads of other yōkai, they tracked down Hakudoshi and Kagura, that he didn't they're Naraku's incarnations, and watching as Hakudoshi to peer into the yōkai heads to catch a glimpse of the Border of the Afterlife.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: Kagome's grandfather gave her an alleged mummified foot a kappa for her early 15th birthday, but she doesn't accept and gives to Buyo.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: In episode 4 of "", Grandpa Higurashi gifted to his great-granddaughter, Moroha a mummified kappa's foot as a gift in which she accepts and kept since then.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: "Kappa", and creatures based on them, are recurring characters in Japanese "tokusatsu" films and television shows. Examples include the kappas in the Daiei/Kadokawa series "Yokai Monsters", the 2010 "kaiju" film "Death Kappa", and "King Kappa", a "kaiju" from the 1972 Tsuburaya Productions series "Ultraman Ace".


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: These "yōkai"like "kami" also represent Japan as a nation, featuring in advertisements for a range of products from a major brand of sake to Tokyo-Mitsubishi Bank's DC Card (a credit card). In their explicitly commercial conceptions, "yōkai" are no longer frightening or mysterious — the DC Card Kappa, for example, is not a slimy water creature threatening to kill unsuspecting children but a cute and (almost) cuddly cartoon character.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: "Summer Days with Coo" is a 2007 Japanese animated film about a "kappa" and its impact on an ordinary family, written for the screen and directed by Keiichi Hara based on two novels by Masao Kogure.


title: Kappa (folklore)

text: It is said that the company president of Calbee liked "kappa", so he wanted the name "Kappa" to be included in one of his products. That brought about Kappa Ebisen, a popular shrimp-flavored snack in Japan.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: The 2018 FIFA World Cup was an international football tournament held in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018. The 32 national teams involved in the tournament were required to register a squad of 23 players, including three goalkeepers. Only players in these squads were eligible to take part in the tournament.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: A provisional list of 35 players per national team was submitted to FIFA by 14 May 2018, one month prior to the opening match of the tournament. From the preliminary squad, the final list of 23 players per national team was submitted to FIFA by 4 June, 10 days prior to the opening match of the tournament. FIFA published the final lists with squad numbers on their website the same day. Teams were permitted to make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their first match, where the replacement players did not need to be in the preliminary squad.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: For players named in the 35-player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May. Initially the preliminary squads were to have 30 players but, in February 2018, it was announced that the number of players to be named in the provisional squads was increased to 35.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: The position listed for each player is per the official squad list published by FIFA. The age listed for each player is on 14 June 2018, the first day of the tournament. The numbers of caps and goals listed for each player do not include any matches played after the start of the tournament. The club listed is the club for which the player last played a competitive match prior to the tournament. The nationality for each club reflects the national association (not the league) to which the club is affiliated. A flag is included for coaches who are of a different nationality than their own national team.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Egypt's 29-man preliminary squad was announced on 13 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Russia's 28-man preliminary squad was announced on 11 May 2018. Ruslan Kambolov withdrew injured and was replaced by Sergei Ignashevich on 14 May. The final squad was announced on 3 June.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Saudi Arabia's 28-man preliminary squad was announced on 17 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Uruguay's 26-man preliminary squad was announced on 15 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 2 June.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Iran's 35-man preliminary squad was announced on 13 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 24 players on 20 May. The final squad was announced on 4 June.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Morocco's 26-man preliminary squad was announced on 17 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Portugal's 35-man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 17 May.