title: Lindsey Vonn

text: At the 2018 Winter Olympics, Vonn tied for 6th in Women's Super-G. She won the bronze medal in women's downhill. Vonn dedicated her Olympic races to her grandfather, a Korean War veteran who died the previous November, competing with his initials on her helmet. In a tearful interview following the woman's downhill race, Vonn stated: "Our family never gives up and I never gave up. I kept working hard and I'm really proud of this medal and I know he [her grandfather] is too." She later scattered some of her grandfather's ashes near the men's downhill racing course, stating: "I know that it would mean a lot to him to be back here, a part of him is in South Korea always."


title: Lindsey Vonn

text: In October 2018, ahead of the start of the 2018–19 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup, Vonn announced that she would retire from competition at the end of the season. Having previously suggested that she would continue until she had broken Stenmark's record for World Cup race victories, she confirmed that she would retire in 2019 regardless of whether she managed to surpass Stenmark's tally, explaining that "physically, I've gotten to the point where it doesn't make sense... I really would like to be active when I'm older, so I have to look to the future and not just be so focused on what's in front of me". She also said that she aimed to compete in all downhills and super-Gs in the World Cup season, planning to make her debut at Lake Louise at the end of November. However the following month she injured her knee whilst training at Copper Mountain, forcing her to pull out of the Lake Louise races. Subsequently, she announced that she would delay her retirement so she could compete at Lake Louise the following season. Vonn finally made her season debut at Cortina d'Ampezzo in January, finishing 15th and 9th in the two downhills there before failing to finish the super-G: after the latter race she told reporters that she was considering retiring immediately, stating that she would "give it a couple of days and make some decisions". On February 1, 2019, Vonn announced that she would retire after the 2019 World Championships taking place in Sweden. On February 10, 2019, after she won a bronze medal in women's downhill, she finally retired from the race circuit, with her wish to get flowers from Ingemar Stenmark as a goodbye being fulfilled. With the clinching of the bronze she became the oldest woman to win a medal at a world championship (at age 34) and the first female racer to receive six world championship medals.


title: Lindsey Vonn

text: Lindsey Kildow married fellow 2002 Olympian and former U.S. Ski Team athlete Thomas Vonn on September 29, 2007, at the Silver Lake Lodge in Deer Valley, Utah. In November 2011, after four years of marriage, the couple announced they would divorce. The divorce was finalized on January 9, 2013.


title: Lindsey Vonn

text: Kildow, still using her married name Vonn, met golfer Tiger Woods at a charity event in 2012. They began dating in March 2013, before splitting up in May 2015. In late 2016, she began dating NFL assistant coach Kenan Smith, before splitting in November 2017. In June 2018, she began dating P. K. Subban, a defenseman in the NHL. Subban traveled to Åre, Sweden, to watch her win a bronze medal in the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships Downhill on February 10, 2019. On August 23, 2019, Vonn and Subban announced their engagement. In December 2019, Vonn announced she proposed to Subban. In May 2020, Vonn and Subban purchased a villa in Beverly Hills for $6.75 Million. In July 2020, she asked her followers on Twitter for their opinions regarding interracial relationships. On October 21, 2020, Vonn and Subban were announced as members of the ownership group of Angel City FC, a Los Angeles-based team set to start play in the National Women's Soccer League in 2022. On December 29, 2020, they both announced their break-up on Instagram. Vonn announced that the two had parted ways, but remained friends.


title: Lindsey Vonn

text: Vonn appeared in the 2010 "Sports Illustrated" Swimsuit Edition, which featured Olympians from the 2010 Winter Games. She came 59th in "Maxim"'s Hot 100 list that year. She appeared in the "Sports Illustrated" Swimsuit Edition again in 2016, wearing only bodypaint, and posed for the magazine once more in 2019.


title: Lindsey Vonn

text: In 2005, as the winner of the downhill at Val d'Isère, Vonn was offered a pregnant Tarine cow, a locally popular dairy breed. As most skiers do not want to keep livestock, she was offered the option to sell the animal immediately back to the organizers for EUR 5,000. However, Vonn decided to keep it, as she knew a farmer in Austria who would be willing to take care of the cow, who she named Olympe. In 2009, she won a goat, which she gave to a different farmer in Austria. In 2014, she won a calf in Val d'Isère, which she kept as well. As of 2014, she owned a small herd of cows on the farm.


title: Lindsey Vonn

text: In 2019, HBO released a documentary about Vonn entitled "Lindsey Vonn: The Final Season". The documentary covers her final World Championship season and her rise to fame from child prodigy to three-time Olympic medalist (one gold).


title: Lindsey Vonn

text: Vonn hosted the single season canine reality competition series "The Pack", which premiered on Amazon Prime Video on November 20, 2020. Her own dog, Lucy, accompanied her on the show.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Cenk Kadir Uygur ( ; ; born March 21, 1970) is a Turkish-American progressive political commentator, media host, attorney, journalist, and politician. Uygur is the creator of "The Young Turks", an American left-wing, sociopolitical, progressive news and commentary program. Before beginning his career as a political commentator, he worked briefly as an associate attorney in Washington, D.C. and New York City. As a young man, Uygur supported social conservative positions but as his views evolved he began to identify as a progressive. Uygur also co-founded the progressive political action committee Justice Democrats along with Zack Exley, Saikat Chakrabarti, and Kyle Kulinski.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In addition to hosting "The Young Turks", Uygur appeared on MSNBC as a political commentator. From January to June 2011, he hosted a weeknight commentary show on the network; he was replaced by Al Sharpton. After leaving MSNBC, Uygur secured another weeknight commentary show on Current TV, which aired from December 5, 2011, to August 15, 2013. From 2012 to 2013, he was the chief news officer at Current TV, succeeding Keith Olbermann.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In 2020, Uygur was a candidate in both the special election as well as the regularly scheduled election for California's 25th congressional district to succeed former Representative Katie Hill, who resigned in 2019. His campaign was controversial due to Uygur having made numerous derogatory and vulgar comments about women, Jews and Muslims in the past. He lost both elections, coming in fourth place in both contests with 5.9% of the vote in first race and 6.6% in the other.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur was born in Istanbul, Turkey, and immigrated with his family to the United States when he was eight years old. He spent the remainder of his upbringing in East Brunswick, New Jersey, and graduated from East Brunswick High School. Uygur was raised in a secular Muslim household, but became more religious during college before becoming agnostic although he still identifies as a Muslim. He graduated from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1992, where he majored in management, and was on the Student Activities Council representing the Turkish Students Association. While a student he wrote several articles that he has since disavowed, including a denial of the Armenian genocide and disparaging comments about women. He has received a Juris Doctor degree from Columbia Law School.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: After graduating from law school, Uygur worked as an associate attorney at the law firms of Drinker Biddle & Reath in Washington, D.C. and Hayes & Liebman in New York City. He began his broadcasting career by buying time on a local access channel in Washington, D.C., where he made regular political commentary on his show called "The Young Turk". He first worked as a talk show host on a weekend radio show on WWRC in Washington, D.C., and on WRKO in Boston, Massachusetts. He later wrote for, produced, and appeared on the WAMI-TV news show, "The Times" in Miami, Florida, then started "The Young Turks" on Sirius Satellite Radio. In the 2000s, Uygur maintained a weekly blog on "The Huffington Post" and wrote entries that were critical of the 2003 Iraq war.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur created the talk show "The Young Turks" with the goal of starting a liberal-leaning political and entertainment show. It launched on the Sirius Satellite Radio network on February 14, 2002 and was also on the Air America radio network between 2006 and 2008. Uygur and his co-host Ana Kasparian applied a populist left branding and programming strategy that made TYT a successful global online organization, with larger numbers of YouTube subscribers than several other notable news networks like CNN. The show's name "Young Turks" has been criticized and called for change due to the original Young Turks political movement in the Ottoman Empire being responsible for committing the Armenian genocide, the Assyrian genocide, and the Greek genocide.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: "The Young Turks" began a daily news video show on YouTube in 2015, and claims to have been the first on the streaming service. Uygur regularly states that "The Young Turks" is the largest online news show in the world, and has claimed so since at least 2011. It has amassed over 7.5 billion views on YouTube, and over 5 million subscribers. Leveraging the strength of "The Young Turks" talk show, Uygur expanded it into a network of channels and shows, beginning with Pop Trigger on July 5, 2007. As a network, "The Young Turks" has amassed over 8 billion views and over 13 million subscribers across all the platforms which they stream. Video of the show is streamed daily on its website, as well as on YouTube, YouTubeTV, via various streaming platforms, broadcast on a handful of local television channels throughout the US, and is available as a podcast.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In September 2011, a weeknight TV edition of the show was announced at 7 p.m. EST (M–F) on the network beginning sometime in the fourth quarter of 2011. The show on Current TV ended on August 15, 2013, with the end of all live programming on Current TV. In May 2018, "The Young Turks" launched its own TV format 24 hour channel on YouTube TV which includes both live and prerecorded programming.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: As a result of exposure on the Air America radio network, MSNBC hired Uygur as a contributor and substitute anchor for the network on October 21, 2010. On January 21, 2011, Uygur was appointed as the host of the 6 p.m. Eastern slot on MSNBC as the anchor of a new prime time edition of "MSNBC Live", after the network parted ways with Keith Olbermann, resulting in a rearrangement of the time slots of MSNBC's other prime time shows. Uygur filled the time slot vacated by Ed Schultz, from late January through June 2011, earning first among people 18–34 in the second quarter.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Management saw the style of several hosts, including Uygur, as off-base from MSNBC's branding objectives that resulted in their demotion. According to Uygur, Phil Griffin, the President of MSNBC disliked his "aggressive style" and told him the network's audience "require different manners of speaking". MSNBC denied Uygur's statements that the network desired censorship of his anti-corporate stances and both sides agreed that their main differences of opinion were about the style of communication. His contract was ended when he was offered to move to weekend slot, but declined. After leaving cable news, Uygur devoted his attention to TYT. Uygur over time became disillusioned with traditional media establishments.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Over the years, Uygur has supported the removal of corporate donations from the political system and he states that "Campaign finance reform" is the "only one issue" in the US. Several Supreme Court rulings (1976, 1978, 2010) on campaign finance motivated Uygur in the midst of the Occupy Wall Street movement to launch a long-term project, a political action committee named Wolf-PAC on October 19, 2011, in New York City. Wolf-PAC aims to lobby state legislators to pass resolutions calling for a Convention of the States under Article V of the US Constitution. Its slogan is "A super-PAC to end all super-PACs". The aim of the convention would be to pass an amendment to the United States Constitution that would end corporate personhood and publicly finance all elections in the United States. , five states have passed the resolution thus calling for such a convention, though not all states have used identical language in their convention call.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur is critical of the New Democrats wing of the Democratic party, which he regards as the incumbent political establishment. He has called for the Democratic Party to undergo a revitalization process. On January 23, 2017, three days after the inauguration of President Donald Trump, Uygur co-founded the Justice Democrats along with Kyle Kulinski, a political commentator who had been affiliated with Uygur's "Young Turks" network. The group seeks to steer the Democratic Party in the strongly progressive, social democratic or democratic socialist direction espoused by U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders. They do this by running progressive candidates in primaries against those whom they consider moderate and conservative Democrats such as Joe Manchin, Joe Crowley, and Dianne Feinstein.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur resigned from his position in Justice Democrats on December 22, 2017, after the discovery of blog posts he had written in the early 2000s, in which he made statements that were described by Justice Democrat leadership as "sexist and racist". The next day, Uygur apologized and denounced his past statements in a video on The Young Turks channel on YouTube, and in an interview with TheWrap said he deleted the "ugly" posts a decade ago because "I don’t stand by them." "The stuff I wrote back then was really insensitive and ignorant," Uygur said. "If you read that today, what I wrote 18 years ago, and you’re offended by it, you’re 100 percent right. And anyone who is subjected to that material, I apologize to. And I deeply regret having written that stuff when I was a different guy." Uygur said he wrote the posts while he was still a conservative, before he underwent a political transformation into a liberal, "I had not yet matured and I was still a conservative who thought that stuff was politically incorrect and edgy." His news organization, The Young Turks, now offers left-leaning stories and commentary. “If someone said that today, I would heavily criticize them on the show and rightfully so, and I have. I’ve criticized myself over the years,” he added.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In mid-November 2019, Uygur filed to run for Congress in California's 25th district, a seat recently vacated by the resignation of Katie Hill, an office also being pursued by Democratic Assemblywoman Christy Smith and former Trump campaign aide George Papadopoulos. Uygur ran in two primary elections on March 3: the special election primary to fill the vacant seat through January 2021 and the Democratic primary for the next full term (decided in the 2020 November election). Uygur raised over $100,000 in small donations in the first three hours since announcing his candidacy. That figure rose to $796,000 in the remainder of the quarter.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur has positioned himself as left-wing, supporting single-payer healthcare, raising the minimum wage to $15 an hour, and overturning "Citizens United v. FEC". In the wake of the Saugus High School shooting, he supported strict gun control laws. He criticized his Democratic opponent, Christy Smith, for her opposition to Medicare for All. Uygur's primary issue was to get money out of politics. He also opposes war with Iran and supports passing the Green New Deal. Uygur's candidacy was initially endorsed by U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders who had to retract his support after crude and degrading comments Uygur had made in recent years about women and provocative statements about Jews, Muslims and other groups were discovered.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur came in fourth place out of 12 candidates with a 6.6% share of the vote. As no candidate earned 50 percent of the vote or more, the top two vote-earners, California Assembly member Christy Smith and navy officer Mike Garcia, advanced to the runoff.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In 2020 he co-founded Rebellion PAC, a political action committee with a focus on running advertisements in support of progressive electoral candidates, alongside Brianna Wu.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: While a student at the University of Pennsylvania, Uygur wrote several articles including a denial of the Armenian genocide and disparaging comments about women. He disavowed these comments in 2019.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In the early 2000s Uygur posted a series of blog posts which were described as sexist. one the posts said “I had one of the best nights of my life at Mardi Gras. I kissed over 23 different women, saw and felt countless breasts, and was in a wonderful drunken stupor thanks to my friend John Daniels". Another post said “It seems like there is a sea of tits here, and I am drinking in tiny droplets. I want to dive into the whole god damn ocean". Uygur would delete and later apologize for his comments.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In a 2011 episode of "The Young Turks", Uygur and his co host Ana Kasparian dismissed actress Olivia Munn's sexual harassment allegations against director Brett Ratner and Uygur defended Ratner bragging about having sex with Munn saying that she likely “drove him crazy”. Uygur would later apologize for his comments.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In 2013 Uygur made lewd remarks about women's physical appearance in Miami. In 2016 Uygur defended Harvard men soccer team rating female students and sex acts they wanted to enact on them. In 2017 a TYT employee told TheWrap that Uygur made female employees feel uncomfortable when inappropriately discussing women.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: On January 23, 2018, BuzzFeed reported that Andrew Jerell Jones, a former reporter for The Young Turks, filed a racial discrimination lawsuit against the news outlet. Jones claimed that when he complained about racial biases at the company, Uygur allegedly told Jones that it was a fireable offence and attempted to make Jones be quiet about it. Uygur released a statement to Buzzfeed saying, “The quotes attributed to me in the workplace are completely false."


title: Cenk Uygur

text: In February 2020, when the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees sought to unionize The Young Turks, Uygur controversially urged his employees not to. Uygur allegedly fired employee Jacorey Palmer for his pro union activities, and according to an anonymous TYT employee, Uygur withheld bonuses and increases from employees who were involved in the union drive. Uygur denied the charges. Uygur's position towards unions was considered hypocritical due to him being supportive of progressive causes.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur was born and raised in a Muslim family. In 2010, along with Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Uygur accepted the "Emperor Has No Clothes Award" from the Freedom From Religion Foundation and later the Humanist Media Award from the American Humanist Association. He identifies as an atheist.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur is the uncle of political commentator and Twitch streamer Hasan Piker, one of the most watched Twitch streamers in the world.


title: Cenk Uygur

text: Uygur, once a Republican, slowly transitioned away from the Republican Party and conservative politics, citing the decision to invade Iraq as a "seminal moment" in that transition. He is now a progressive. Uygur is a supporter of Bernie Sanders.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Thalassophobia (from Greek , "sea", and , "fear") is the persistent and intense fear of deep bodies of water such as the sea, oceans, pools, or lakes. Though very closely related, thalassophobia should not be confused with aquaphobia which is classified as the fear of water itself. Thalassophobia can include fear of being in deep bodies of water, fear of the vast emptiness of the sea, of sea waves, aquatic creatures, and fear of distance from land.


title: Thalassophobia

text: The causes of thalassophobia are not clear and are a subject of research by medical professionals as they can vary greatly between individuals. Researchers have proposed that the fear of large bodies of water is partly a human evolutionary response, and may also be related to popular culture influences which induce fright and distress. It is also theorized that the underlying psychology of the phobia stems from the symbolic nature of water. Specifically, the vastness of the sea is often connected to one's deep unconscious.


title: Thalassophobia

text: The severity of thalassophobia and the signs and symptoms associated with it are quite fluid and complex. People with thalassophobia go through numerous episodes of emotional and physical anguish caused by a variety of triggers. Treatment may comprise a combination of therapy and anxiolytics, and is most effective when administered to patients during childhood, when thalassophobia is generally at its peak.


title: Thalassophobia

text: It is thought that the fear of large bodies of water is an evolutionary and ancestral trait passed on from generation to generation. Humans prefer certainty to risk and adapt based on learning history and situational variables. A 2016 study by Nicholas Carleton establishes that the ‘Fear of Unknown’ is an evolutionary mechanism that has driven the survival of the human race since the beginning. Showing fear toward deep bodies of water is in effect justified since ancestors to the human race understood that their survival was reliant on remaining in territorial land and not aquatic environments. This in return developed into a fundamental fear passing down from generation to generation in order to ensure the survival of human kind.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Martin Antony, Professor of Psychology at Toronto Metropolitan University and co-author of "The Anti-Anxiety Workbook", states that: "[f]rom an evolutionary perspective, it makes sense that humans would develop a tendency to fear and avoid deep water because of all the associated risks". He continues by commenting on the genetic aspect of fears, saying: "[w]e are essentially 'programmed' through evolution to fear some situations (e.g., heights, deep water, snakes) more easily than others (e.g., flowers, teddy bears)"


title: Thalassophobia

text: In Judeo-Christian belief systems, the sea is often depicted as a space of disaster and punishment. This is evident in the first book of the Bible (Genesis), through stories such as those of Noah's Ark. Texts like William Shakespeare's "The Tempest" featured a shipwreck as the driving force behind its narrative and gave the sea an "otherworldly" and "evil" personification. Authors of "Beasts of the Deep: Sea Creatures and Popular Culture" Sean Harrington and Jon Hackett believe that these narratives are a driving force for the widespread fear of oceans. Literature of the gothic and supernatural have gravitated toward the sea as a fertile environment, and as a result create an unpleasant and fearful image in the minds of audiences. This is thought to be true for both ancient and contemporary societies. The 1975 blockbuster film "Jaws" is often referenced as being an influential motion picture which drove the modern movement of thalassophobia. The mainstream media also affects the collective emotions of the public. News reports of great white sharks, electric eels, or other dangerous sea predators attacking swimmers in the ocean induce fear in viewers and are thought to have great influence. Similarly, real cases of ships like the "Titanic" sinking with their passengers drowning have been made terrifyingly realistic through their movie versions. People who are very afraid of violent death or particularly of drowning are also more likely to develop thalassophobia. These cultural influences (both ancient and modern) are thought to have added to the prevalence of the fear of deep bodies of water throughout time.


title: Thalassophobia

text: A negative or past traumatic event can also trigger a deep fear of oceans. Traumatic experiences of being frightened while swimming, or almost drowning are also leading causes of thalassophobia. In addition to this, observing others, particularly parental figures and other influential adults, who also had a fear of deep water are considered contributing factors for developing thalassophobia later in life. Scientists also believe that genetics and biological heredity play a major role in attaining a fear of seas, oceans, and lakes. Such genetic factors include having a family member with thalassophobia, personal mental state such as being negative, sensitive, or anxious, and even hearing terrifying stories on water accidents. Personal experiences and one's upbringing are all factors that could potentially be the cause of thalassophobia.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Thalassophobia is often explained as a primal fear. Considering that humans are land mammals and we rely on our eyesight to collect food, it is evolutionarily coded into our lives that the deep sea opposes that environment. Marc Carlin explains the phobia as, “We all have this fear of darkness because we can’t see and we rely on our vision to protect us. If you shut your eyes and you can’t see, now you have to rely on senses that you don’t normally rely upon.” He goes on to explain that without using the senses that we normally use, it puts us at a deficit, causing a fear of the dark and deepness.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, studied the archetypes in the collective unconscious. Archetypes are hidden meanings in symbols and messages in society. The collective unconscious are a society's unconscious thinking that is universal for everyone. Jung mentions in his study that water is a popular archetype in the collective unconscious as a reflection of one's darkest thoughts and desires.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Harrington argues that in Freudian terms, one's ego, or one's true identity is not completely aligned with their complete reality. It is theorized that all of one's darkest and repressed thoughts and desires are reflected in the water causing a feeling of dread and fear. Harrington hypothesizes that in the same way, how the ocean is perceived, or what we have been able to discover, may not completely align with the uncharted possibilities that the ocean could actually hold, resulting in a fear of what the ocean could hold, such as sea monsters. The reflection and comparison of one's mind to the ocean can be a signal of the unfamiliarity of one's own mind and identity, resulting in thalassophobia.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Thalassophobia is characterized by certain physical and emotional traits exhibited by an individual. The reaction that those with thalassophobia show toward large bodies of water (beaches, oceans, lakes) does not match the level of danger that the water poses to them. Hence, they illustrate abnormal behavior under situations or environments which trigger their fear. Anxiety-induced phobia such as thalassophobia presents itself through specific signs and symptoms. Individuals with a moderate fear of deep bodies of water may experience agitation and restlessness on a day-to-day basis.


title: Thalassophobia

text: According to the 'Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fifth edition)' (DSM-5) which is a manual for assessment and diagnosis of mental disorders developed by the American Psychiatric Association; in order to be diagnosed with a phobia of deep bodies of water:


title: Thalassophobia

text: The prevalence and frequency of thalassophobia or any phobia is unknown for the most part. Researchers have concluded that the severity and prevalence of thalassophobia is in a constant state of change amongst different demographics and many may not be aware that they have mild thalassophobia.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Thalassophobia differs from Aquaphobia, or the fear of water. Aquaphobia is characterized by a general feeling of panic due to water, while Thalassophobia deals more with the vastness of that water as well as what that depth could hold. While both phobias deal with the water, Aquaphobia can be triggered by a single event while Thalassophobia draws from an element of one's own subconscious as to what is in the water.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Individuals with thalassophobia often improve their symptoms from specific strategies and procedures employed by therapists and medical professionals. It is extremely important to note that if left untreated, thalassophobia could lead to other mental disorders such as post-traumatic stress-disorder, anxiety, depression, and/or panic-attacks.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Thalassophobia can be managed through a psychological tool known as Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT is a type of psychotherapeutic treatment that helps patients learn how to identify and manipulate disturbing thought patterns into positive and realistic behaviors. Psychologists and therapists employ CBT to inflict a negative influence on certain behavior and emotions so that they will be replaced by more appropriate and realistic reactions. A meta-analysis study in 2013 found that CBT has a positive effect in changing the neural pathways and activation of the brain on patients with phobias, resulting in more controlled behavior when exposed to the fear.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Systematic desensitization is a treatment in which patients with certain phobias are exposed to increasingly more anxiety-provoking stimuli and taught relaxation techniques simultaneously. Majority of individuals who have thalassophobia actively avoid the situation they are afraid of, which in return creates a false and even more frightening fake reality. Systematic desensitization techniques allow patients to confront their fear with controlled emotions and realistic views. It involves three steps, the first involves learning muscle relaxation techniques followed by patients being asked to create a list of fearful scenarios, ranking them in terms of their intensity. Finally, the patients are instructed to face their fear on a gradual spectrum. The focus of this technique is to focus on relaxation as they put themselves through stressful situations until the environment/event no longer causes discomfort. The underlying theory behind systemic desensitization is classical conditioning which aims to replace feelings of fear and anxiety with a state of calm. Relaxation techniques taught for dealing with thalassophobia through systemic desensitization include diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation, and mindfulness.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Exposure therapy is the act of an individual coming into close contact with the situation or environment that triggers their phobia in a safe way. The overall goal of exposure therapy is to prove to the patient that a situation, object, or environment is not as dangerous or worrisome as they might believe. This treatment also allows patients to feel more confident in their ability to cope with the situation that frightens them; should they face the situation they are afraid of. In the case of thalassophobia, exposure therapy is employed to lessen the fear and anxiety associated with large bodies of water. There are several variations of exposure therapy and psychologists may use different techniques to achieve optimal results. These variations include:


title: Thalassophobia

text: In vivo exposure: This is a technique whereby patients are instructed to directly face a feared object, situation, or activity in real life. Those with thalassophobia are often instructed to enter the water at beaches, lakes, or ponds. The downside of in vivo exposure is that participants have high dropout rates and poor treatment acceptance compared to other therapy options.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Interoceptive exposure: Deliberately inducing physical sensations that are harmless, yet feared. For instance, individuals with thalassophobia are often shown images of the sea, oceans, lakes, or video footage of people in water. This induces a reaction which can then be changed or manipulated by the therapist.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Virtual reality exposure: In certain circumstances, virtual reality technology can be employed when in vivo exposure is not practical. This could include when an individual doesn't reside near beaches, oceans, or lakes. It can also include when some other factor inhibits the patient from entering such environments (including health, personal, or religious factors).


title: Thalassophobia

text: Imaginal exposure: Vividly imagining the feared situation, object, or environment. This technique is commonly used for those who have had a past traumatic experience or witnessed an event leading to their diagnosis of thalassophobia. It allows individuals to reduce their feelings of fear in regards to certain triggers.


title: Thalassophobia

text: Most patients improve or eliminate all their symptoms of thalassophobia through therapy; however, some might require a combination of therapy and medication to accurately treat their symptoms. Medication cannot cure phobias such as thalassophobia however, it can help reduce symptoms of anxiety and fear. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (commonly known as SSRIs) are a type of antidepressants which can be prescribed by a qualified physician. Other common medication used for treating thalassophobia include beta blockers (which assist by blocking the flow of adrenaline that occurs when one is anxious) and benzodiazepines (fast-acting anti-anxiety medication). Benzodiazepines should be prescribed only when other therapeutic or medicinal options have not worked as they are sedative and addicting.


title: Anfield

text: Anfield is a football stadium in Anfield, Liverpool, Merseyside, England, which has a seating capacity of 53,394, making it the seventh largest football stadium in England. It has been the home of Liverpool F.C. since their formation in 1892. It was originally the home of Everton from 1884 to 1891, before they moved to Goodison Park after a dispute with the club president.


title: Anfield

text: The stadium has four stands: the Spion Kop, the Main Stand, the Sir Kenny Dalglish Stand and the Anfield Road End. The record attendance of 61,905 was set at a match between Liverpool and Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1952. The ground converted to an all-seater stadium in 1994 as a result of the Taylor Report, which reduced its capacity.


title: Anfield

text: Two gates at the stadium are named after former Liverpool managers: Bill Shankly and Bob Paisley. Both managers have been honoured with statues outside the stadium: Shankly's unveiled in 1997 by the Kop Stand and Paisley's in 2020 by the Main Stand. The ground is from Liverpool Lime Street railway station. It was proposed in 2002 to replace the stadium with a new one in the adjacent Stanley Park, but after the acquisition of Liverpool F.C. by Fenway Sports Group in 2010 it was made clear this would not happen.


title: Anfield

text: Construction for an extension to the main stand began on 8 December 2014. This extension, one of the largest all-seater single stands in European football, opened to the public on 9 September 2016, increasing the stadium capacity to 53,394.


title: Anfield

text: The Anfield Road Stand is currently being redeveloped to bring the stadium capacity to around 61,000. It is due to be completed in time for the 2023–24 season.


title: Anfield

text: The stadium is named after the surrounding area, Anfield. The word originated in the combination of Old and Middle English words, which mean "a field on a slope". Anfield, and its deviations, has been associated with the area since at least 1642. It has been suggested that the name is linked to the influx of Irish people into the spreading city in the 1850s, and was associated with Annefield, outside New Ross, County Wexford, Ireland. Opened in 1884, Anfield was originally owned by John Orrell, a minor land owner who was a friend of Everton F.C. member John Houlding. Everton, who previously played at Priory Road, were in need of a new venue owing to the noise produced by the crowd on match days. Orrell lent the pitch to the club in exchange for a small rent. The first match at the ground was between Everton and Earlestown on 28 September 1884, which Everton won 5–0. During Everton's tenure at the stadium, stands were erected for some of the 8,000-plus spectators regularly attending matches, although the ground was capable of holding around 20,000 spectators and occasionally did. The ground was considered of international standard at the time, playing host to the British Home Championship match between England and Ireland in 1889. Anfield's first league match was played on 8 September 1888, between Everton and Accrington F.C. Everton quickly improved as a team, and became Anfield's first league champions in the 1890–91 season.


title: Anfield

text: In 1892, negotiations to purchase the land at Anfield from Orrell escalated into a dispute between Houlding and the Everton F.C. committee over how the club was run. Events culminated in Everton's move to Goodison Park. Houlding was left with an empty stadium, and decided to form a new club to occupy it. The new team was called Liverpool F.C. and Athletic Grounds Ltd, and the club's first match at Anfield was a friendly played in front of 200 people on 1 September 1892, against Rotherham Town. Liverpool won 7–1.


title: Anfield

text: Liverpool's first Football League match at Anfield was played on 9 September 1893, against Lincoln City. Liverpool won 4–0 in front of 5,000 spectators. A new stand capable of holding 3,000 spectators was constructed in 1895 on the site of the present Main Stand. Designed by architect Archibald Leitch, the stand had a distinctive red and white gable, and was similar to the main stand at Newcastle United's ground St James' Park. Another stand was constructed at the Anfield Road end in 1903, built from timber and corrugated iron. After Liverpool had won their second League championship in 1906, a new stand was built along the Walton Breck Road. Local journalist Ernest Edwards, who was the sports editor of newspapers the "Liverpool Daily Post" and "Echo", named it the Spion Kop; it was named after a famous hill in South Africa where a local regiment had suffered heavy losses during the Boer War in 1900. More than 300 men had died, many of them from Liverpool, as the British army attempted to capture the strategic hilltop. Around the same period a stand was also built along Kemlyn Road.


title: Anfield

text: The ground remained much the same until 1928, when the Kop was redesigned and extended to hold 30,000 spectators, all standing. A roof was erected as well. Many stadia in England had stands named after the Spion Kop. Anfield's was the largest Kop in the country at the time—it was able to hold more supporters than some entire football grounds. In the same year the topmast of the , one of the first iron ships, was rescued from the ship breaking yard at nearby Rock Ferry, and was hauled up Everton Valley by a team of horses, to be erected alongside the new Kop. It still stands there, serving as a flag pole.


title: Anfield

text: Floodlights were installed at a cost of £12,000 in 1957. On 30 October they were switched on for the first time for a match against Everton to commemorate the 75-year anniversary of the Liverpool County Football Association. In 1963 the old Kemlyn Road stand was replaced by a cantilevered stand, built at a cost of £350,000, accommodating 6,700 spectators. Two years later alterations were made at the Anfield Road end, turning it into a larger covered standing area with refreshments under the structure. The biggest redevelopment came in 1973, when the old Main Stand was partially demolished and extended backwards with new roof. Simultaneously the concrete pylon floodlights were demolished with new lights installed along the rooflines of the Kemlyn Road and Main Stands. The new stand was officially opened by the Duke of Kent on 10 March 1973. In the 1980s the paddock in front of the Main Stand was turned into seating, and in 1982 seats were introduced at the Anfield Road end. The Shankly Gates were erected in 1982, a tribute to former manager Bill Shankly; his widow Nessie unlocked them for the first time on 26 August 1982. Across the Shankly Gates are the words "You'll Never Walk Alone", the title of the hit song by Gerry and the Pacemakers adopted by Liverpool fans as the club's anthem during Shankly's time as manager.


title: Anfield

text: Coloured seats and a police room were added to the Kemlyn Road stand in 1987. After the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 when Police mismanagement led to overcrowding and the deaths of 97 Liverpool fans, the Taylor Report recommended that all grounds in the country should be converted into all-seater grounds by May 1994. A second tier was added to the Kemlyn Road stand in 1992, turning it into a double-decker layout. It included executive boxes and function suites as well as 11,000 seating spaces. Plans to expand the stand had been made earlier, with the club buying up houses on Kemlyn Road during the 1970s, and 1980s, but had to be put on hold until 1990 because two sisters, Joan and Nora Mason, refused to sell their house. When the club reached an agreement with the sisters in 1990, the expansion plans were put into action. The stand—renamed the Centenary Stand—was officially opened on 1 September 1992 by UEFA president Lennart Johansson. The Kop was rebuilt in 1994 after the recommendations of the Taylor Report and became all seated; it is still a single tier, and the capacity was significantly reduced to 12,390.


title: Anfield

text: On 4 December 1997, a bronze statue of Bill Shankly was unveiled at the visitors' centre in front of the Kop. Standing at over tall, the statue depicts Shankly with a fan's scarf around his neck, in a familiar pose he adopted when receiving applause from fans. Inscribed on the statue are the words "Bill Shankly – He Made The People Happy". The Hillsborough memorial was situated alongside the Shankly Gates before it was moved next to 96 Avenue in front of the redeveloped main stand in 2016. The memorial is always decorated with flowers and tributes to the 96 people who died in 1989 as a result of the disaster. At the centre of the memorial is an eternal flame, signifying that those who died will never be forgotten.


title: Anfield

text: In 1998 a new two-tier Anfield Road end was opened. The stand has encountered a number of problems since its redevelopment; at the beginning of the 1999–2000 season, a series of support poles and stanchions had to be brought in to give extra stability to the top tier of the stand. During Ronnie Moran's testimonial match against Celtic, many fans complained of movement of the top tier. At the same time that the stanchions were inserted, the executive seating area was expanded by two rows in the main stand, lowering the seating capacity in the paddock.


title: Anfield

text: On 30 January 2020, a bronze statue of Bob Paisley was unveiled outside the Main Stand in Paisley Square. The statue was commissioned and donated by the club's main sponsor, Standard Chartered, to celebrate the 10 year anniversary of the relationship with the club. The statue is tall and depicts an iconic image of the club's history, Paisley carrying future club captain Emlyn Hughes off the field during a match against Tottenham Hotspur at Anfield in April 1968.


title: Anfield

text: Anfield comprises 53,394 seats split between four stands: the Anfield Road end, the Sir Kenny Dalglish Stand, the Kop, and the Main Stand. The Anfield Road end and Sir Kenny Dalglish Stand are two-tiered, while the Kop is single-tiered and the Main Stand three-tiered. Entry to the stadium is gained by radio-frequency identification (RFID) smart cards rather than the traditional staffed turnstile. This system, used in all 80 turnstiles around Anfield, was introduced in 2005.


title: Anfield

text: Plans to replace Anfield with a new 60,000-capacity stadium in adjacent Stanley Park were initiated in 2002. The plans were revisited under the ownership of Tom Hicks and George Gillett. Following the acquisition of Liverpool F.C. by Fenway Sports Group in 2010, the owners have abandoned the proposed new stadium in Stanley Park, preferring instead to redevelop and expand Anfield, thus echoing their decision to renovate Fenway Park.


title: Anfield

text: The Kop is a large single-tiered stand. Originally a large terraced banking providing accommodation for more than 30,000 spectators, the current incarnation was constructed in 1994–95 and is single-tiered with no executive boxes. The Kop houses the club's museum, the Reducate centre and the official club shop. The Kop is the most-renowned stand at Anfield among home and away supporters, with the people who occupy the stand referred to as "kopites". Such is the reputation of the stand that it was claimed that the crowd in the Kop could suck the ball into the goal. Traditionally, Liverpool's most vocal supporters congregate in this stand.


title: Anfield

text: The oldest stand at Anfield is the Main Stand, taking 76 years to complete. The stand was completed in 2016, however, the lower section dates from 1906. The bottom tier of the stand houses the directors' box. The directors' VIP box is located at the rear of the lower tier of the stand. The old large roof was supported by two thin central uprights, with a large suspended television camera gantry which has moved to the front of the third tier. The players' tunnel and the technical area where the managers and substitutes sit during the match are in the middle of the stand at pitch level. Above the stairs leading down to the pitch hung a sign stating "THIS IS ANFIELD". Its purpose was to both intimidate the opposition and to bring the Liverpool players who touch it good luck. Accordingly, Liverpool players and coaching staff traditionally reached up and placed one or both hands on it as they passed underneath.


title: Anfield

text: The sign was temporarily removed during the most recent reconstruction of the Main Stand; it was placed at the exit from the new Main Stand tunnel to the pitch in advance of Liverpool's 2016–17 home opener. Current Liverpool manager Jürgen Klopp had banned players from touching the restored sign until the team had won at least one major trophy. After winning the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final players are now allowed to do so again. Praising the impact the Anfield atmosphere has on the home team and the effect it has on the away team, opposition manager Pep Guardiola states, “The motto ‘This is Anfield’ is no marketing spin. There's something about it that you will find in no other stadium in the world.” Following the 2005 Champions League semi-final second leg at Anfield which Liverpool won 1–0, defeated Chelsea manager José Mourinho recognised the role Liverpool fans played on the match: "I felt the power of Anfield, it was magnificent."


title: Anfield

text: The Sir Kenny Dalglish Stand is a two-tiered stand. Originally a single-tiered stand called the Kemlyn Road Stand, the second tier was added in 1992 to coincide with the club's centenary. It is located opposite the Main Stand and houses directors' boxes, which are between the two tiers. The stand also houses the ground's police station. On 3 May 2017, Liverpool announced the Centenary Stand would be renamed the Kenny Dalglish Stand in honour of the club's greatest servant, former player and manager Kenny Dalglish.


title: Anfield

text: The Anfield Road stand, on the left side of the Main Stand, houses the away fans during matches. The Anfield Road End was rebuilt in 1965, and multi-coloured seats were added in 1982. Originally a single-tier stand, a further revamp, which was completed in 1998, gave the stand a second-tier providing additional seating.


title: Anfield

text: There are 59 spaces available in the stadium to accommodate wheelchair users who have season tickets; a further 33 spaces are available for general sale and 8 are allocated to away supporters. These spaces are located in the Main Stand, Anfield Road Stand and The Kop. There are 38 spaces available for the visually impaired, which are situated in the old paddock area of the Main Stand, with space for one personal assistant each. A headset with full commentary is provided.


title: Anfield

text: The stadium features tributes to two of the club's most successful managers. The Paisley Gateway is a tribute to Bob Paisley, who guided Liverpool to three European Cups and six League Championships in the 1970s, and 1980s. The gates were erected at the Kop; their design includes representations of the three European Cups Paisley won during his tenure, the crest of his birthplace in Hetton-le-Hole, and the crest of Liverpool F.C. The Shankly Gates, in tribute of Bill Shankly, Paisley's predecessor between 1959 and 1974, are at the Anfield Road end. Their design includes a Scottish flag, a Scottish thistle, the Liverpool badge, and the words "You'll Never Walk Alone".


title: Anfield

text: Plans to replace Anfield were originally started by Liverpool F.C. in May 2002. The proposed capacity was 55,000, but it was later changed to 61,000, with 1,000 seats given for segregation between home and away fans. Several attempts were made between 2003 and 2007 by the Liverpool City Council to instigate a groundshare of the proposed stadium with local rivals Everton, but this move was rejected, as neither club favoured it. On 30 July 2004 Liverpool was granted planning permission to build a new stadium away from Anfield at Stanley Park. On 8 September 2006 Liverpool City Council agreed to grant Liverpool F.C. a 999-year lease of the land on the proposed site.


title: Anfield

text: Following the takeover of Liverpool F.C. on 6 February 2007 by George Gillett and Tom Hicks, the proposed stadium was redesigned. In November 2007 the redesigned layout was approved by the council, and construction was due to start in early 2008. The new stadium, provisionally called Stanley Park Stadium, was to be built by HKS, Inc. It was scheduled to open in August 2011 with a capacity of 60,000. If the new stadium had been built, Anfield would have been demolished. The land would have become home to the centrepiece for the Anfield Plaza development, which would have included a hotel, restaurants, and offices. However, the construction of Stanley Park was delayed following the economic crisis of 2008 and the subsequent recession, which directly affected the then American owners. The situation was worsened because the club was bought with borrowed money, not the owners' capital, and interest rates were higher than expected. Hicks and Gillett promised to begin work on the stadium within 60 days of acquisition of the club, but had trouble financing the estimated £500 million needed for the Stanley Park development. The deadline passed and the plan was eventually cancelled by the Fenway Sports Group, as their preference was to re-develop Anfield.


title: Anfield

text: The acquisition of Liverpool F.C. by Fenway Sports Group in October 2010 put into question whether Liverpool would leave Anfield. In February 2011 the new club owner, John W. Henry, stated he had a preference for staying at Anfield and expanding the capacity. After attending a number of games at Anfield, Henry stated that "the Kop is unrivalled", adding "it would be hard to replicate that feeling anywhere else".


title: Anfield

text: On 15 October 2012, Liverpool City Council announced plans to regenerate the Anfield area after securing a £25m grant, with a housing association also set to invest.


title: Anfield

text: On 23 August 2013 Anfield was listed as an Asset of Community Value by Liverpool City Council. On 11 September, current owner, John W. Henry announced that they had the funds to afford the expansion but they are waiting for the City Council to finalise the purchase of houses in the area before they commit to plans to expand the Main Stand and the Anfield Road end of the ground.


title: Anfield

text: In April 2014 Liverpool F.C. signed a legal agreement with Liverpool City Council and Your Housing Group to redevelop the surrounding Anfield area. This was seen as a significant step towards the renovation of the stadium. The redevelopment was worth around £260 million.


title: Anfield

text: In April 2014, Liverpool F.C. revealed plans for an expansion of the Main Stand, which involved adding a new third tier, new matchday facilities and enhanced corporate facilities. The new stand would add 8,500 seats and take the capacity of the stadium to 54,742. Construction of the new Main Stand was made possible by the complete demolition of all the houses in Lothair Road as well as some of those on neighbouring Alroy Road and Anfield Road. Liverpool F.C. had started to purchase housing immediately surrounding Anfield in 2000. The houses were left empty, including at least 22 in the roads backing onto the main stand, and Liverpool were accused of deliberately allowing the area to become blighted, thus depressing the property prices.


title: Anfield

text: Work began on 8 December 2014, with the club aiming for the new stand to be match-ready and operational for the start of the 2016–17 season. The work was undertaken by Carillion. The structure of new stand was uniquely constructed around the existing main stand to enable the existing stand to continue to be used at full operational capacity during the 2015–16 season. Demolition of the existing stand took place in summer 2016, allowing for the construction of the lower tiers of the new stand during the off-season. Consisting of 1.8 million bricks and blocks and over 5000 tonnes of steel, the stand was opened on schedule on 9 September 2016 for the first home game of the 2016–17 season, a 4–1 victory over Leicester City. Further internal construction work including new changing rooms and media facilities continued until April 2017.


title: Anfield

text: In May 2016, outline planning permission was granted by Liverpool council for the construction of a new 1,800 sq m club superstore development, situated on Walton Breck Road on the corner of the Kop and the new Main Stand. Construction began in December 2016, with the store opening early in the 2017–18 season. The space between the new store and the stadium was developed into a "fan zone", with new catering outlets and pre-match entertainment.


title: Anfield

text: The second phase of Anfield's redevelopment is to redevelop the Anfield Road stand. The club received initial outline planning permission in 2014 for the redevelopment, with seating to be increased by 4,825, giving Anfield a total capacity of 58,000. However, in August 2019, Liverpool allowed the planning permission associated with the original 2014 designs to lapse, confirming their intention to submit "ambitious new plans" for the Anfield Road End redevelopment which are believed to increase the capacity further to take the overall capacity of Anfield to comfortably above 60,000. The redevelopment will focus on the upper tier of the stand, with the lower tier remaining unchanged. Construction work will be completed behind the existing stand and, according to current plans, will be connected to the lower tier in the off-season in 2022. Therefore, Anfield's capacity is not expected to be affected throughout the duration of the works.


title: Anfield

text: The club spent the second half of 2019 finalising plans and consulting local residents, planning officials and other stakeholders with a view to submitting the new plans for approval in early 2020. However, in March 2020 Liverpool delayed submitting a planning application for the project in light of financial uncertainty caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. In December 2020, Liverpool announced that they would be moving forward with the project by submitting final planning application for the redevelopment, with the delay pushing back the initial completion date for Phase Two redevelopment from summer 2022 to summer 2023 at the earliest. The plans were approved by the Liverpool City Council in June 2021. The expansion is expected to cost £60 million and will allow Anfield Road stand to seat 7,000 more people, giving the stadium a total capacity of 61,000.


title: Anfield

text: Work officially commenced on 30 September 2021, with the first sod being turned by manager Jürgen Klopp. The stand is expected to be ready for the 2023–24 season and will also see the relocation of the Family Park to a covered position.


title: Anfield

text: Anfield has hosted numerous international matches, and was one of the venues used during UEFA Euro 1996; the ground hosted three group games and a quarter-final. The first international match hosted at Anfield was between England and Ireland, in 1889. England won the match 6–1. Anfield was also the home venue for several of England's international football matches in the early 1900s, and for the Welsh national team in the later part of that century. Anfield has also played host to five FA Cup semi-finals, the last of which was in 1929. The most recent international to be hosted at Anfield was England's 2–1 victory over Uruguay on 1 March 2006. England has played two testimonial matches against Liverpool at Anfield. The first was in 1983, when England faced Liverpool for Phil Thompson's testimonial. Then, in 1988, England visited again for Alan Hansen's testimonial. Liverpool's arch rival Manchester United played their first home game of the 1971–72 season at Anfield as they were banned from playing their first two home league matches at Old Trafford after an incident of hooliganism. United beat Arsenal 3–1.


title: Anfield

text: In November 2019, Anfield hosted a Women's Super League fixture for the first time, with the 6th matchday of the 2019–20 season featuring a derby between Liverpool FC Women and local rivals Everton FC Women.


title: Anfield

text: The stadium has hosted five rugby league matches: the 1989 Charity Shield between Widnes and Wigan; the 1991 World Club Challenge between Wigan, winners of the RFL Championship, and Penrith Panthers, winners of the Australian NSWRL Premiership, with an attendance of 20,152; a 1997 St. Helens Super League home game against Castleford Tigers, with an attendance of 12,329; and the 2016 Rugby League Four Nations Final, in front of 40,042 people.


title: Anfield

text: Anfield was chosen as the venue for the after two test matches were played there in 2016 and 2018. After previously choosing games that were local derbies or competitive games, in 2019 the fixtures were determined by the previous seasons league position. Robert Elstone, Super League Chief Executive, said “On behalf of the Super League clubs, we’re delighted to be taking the Dacia Magic Weekend to one of the most famous stadiums in the world.


title: Anfield

text: Anfield has been the venue for many other events. During the mid-twenties, Anfield was the finishing line for the city marathon. Liverpool held an annual race which started from St George's plateau in the city centre and finished with a lap of Anfield. Boxing matches were regularly held at Anfield during the inter-war years, including a number of British boxing championships; on 12 June 1934 Nel Tarleton beat Freddie Miller for the World Featherweight title. Professional tennis was played at Anfield on boards on the pitch. US Open champion, Bill Tilden, and Wimbledon champion, Fred Perry, entertained the crowds in an exhibition match. In 1958, an exhibition basketball match featuring the Harlem Globetrotters was held at the ground.


title: Anfield

text: Aside from sporting uses, Anfield has been a venue for musicians of different genres as well as evangelical preachers. One week in July 1984, the American evangelist Billy Graham preached at Anfield, attracting crowds of over 30,000 each night. Anfield was featured in Liverpool's 2008 European Capital of Culture celebrations: 36,000 people attended a concert on 1 June 2008, featuring The Zutons, Kaiser Chiefs, and Paul McCartney. Live concerts made a return to Anfield in the Summer of 2019, with Take That, Bon Jovi and Pink performing. Take That lead singer Gary Barlow, a Liverpool fan, brought out a guest vocalist, Gerry Marsden, and they sang the club's anthem “You'll Never Walk Alone”. Artists who played at the stadium in Summer 2022 include Elton John, The Rolling Stones, and The Eagles.


title: Anfield

text: The highest attendance recorded at Anfield is 61,905, for Liverpool's match against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the FA Cup fifth round, on 2 February 1952. The lowest attendance recorded at Anfield was 1,000 for a match against Loughborough on 7 December 1895. The highest average attendance of 53,112 was set for the 2016–17 season.


title: Anfield

text: Liverpool did not lose a league match at Anfield during the 1893–94, 1970–71, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1987–88, 2008–09, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20 and 2021–22 seasons. Liverpool's longest unbeaten streak at home extended from January 1978 to January 1981, a period encompassing 85 games, in which Liverpool scored 212 goals and conceded 35. The club's longest unbeaten home run in the league is 68 games, which occurred from April 2017 to January 2021. Liverpool's worst losing streak at Anfield is six games in 2020–2021 with games played behind closed doors during the COVID-19 pandemic. The most consecutive league wins at Anfield is 24, this is the longest run in English top-flight history. It was accomplished across the 2018–19 and 2019–20 seasons.


title: Anfield

text: The stadium is about from Lime Street Station, which lies on a branch of the West Coast Main Line from London Euston. Kirkdale Station, about from the stadium, is the nearest station to Anfield. Fans travelling by train for matches may book direct to Anfield or Goodison Park, changing to the Peoplesbus Soccerbus service at Sandhills Station on the Merseyrail Northern Line. The stadium has no parking facilities for supporters, and the streets around the ground allow parking only for residents with permits, although there are a small number of passes that can be allocated to over-65s. There are proposals under consideration for reinstating passenger traffic on the Bootle Branch, which would cut the distance from the nearest railway station to about .


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: The Attack of the Dead Men, or the Battle of Osowiec Fortress was a battle of World War I that took place at Osowiec Fortress (now northeastern Poland), on August 6, 1915. The incident got its name from the bloodied, zombie-like appearance of the Russian combatants after they were bombarded with a mixture of poison gases, chlorine and bromine, by the Germans.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: The Germans launched a full-frontal offensive on Osowiec Fortress at the beginning of July; the attack included 14 battalions of infantry, one battalion of sappers, 24–30 heavy siege guns, and 30 batteries of artillery equipped with poison gases led by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg. Russian defenses were manned by 500 soldiers of the 226th Zemlyansky Infantry Regiment, and 400 militia.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: The 11th Landwehr Division under the command of Infantry General Rudolph of Freudenberg was singled out for the new general attack. The 18th Regiment was deployed in the main direction along the highway and railway. The 76th Landwehr Regiment was to attack the south. To aid the success of the operation on the front of both regiments, it was decided to use a massive gas-balloon attack with chlorine. Other parts of the division to the north and northeast were to support the attack with demonstrative action.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: At dawn, at 4:00 a.m. on August 6, 1915, with a tailwind on the entire front of the attack, chlorine was released from 30 gas-balloon batteries. It is estimated that the gas eventually penetrated to a total depth of 20 km, maintaining the striking effect to a depth of 12 km and up to 12 meters in height.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: In the absence of any effective means of protection for the defenders, the result of the gas attack was devastating: the 9th, 10th and 11th companies of the Zemlyansky Regiment were completely out of action, from the 12th company in the central redoubt in the ranks remained about 40 people; Byalogrond had about 60 people from three companies. Almost all the first and second lines of defence of the Sosna position were left without defenders. Following the gas release, German artillery opened fire on the fortress and barraged fire for their units moving in the attack. The fortress's artillery was initially unable to fire effectively, as it in turn was hit by a gas wave. This was compounded by the simultaneous shelling of the fortress by both conventional shells and chloropicrin shells. More than 1,600 people were killed in the fortress, and the entire garrison was poisoned with varying degrees of severity.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: Over twelve battalions of the 11th Landwehr Division, making up more than 7000 men, advanced after the bombardment expecting little resistance. They were met at the first defense line by a counter-charge made up of the surviving soldiers of the 13th Company of the 226th Infantry Regiment. The Germans became panicked by the appearance of the Russians, who were coughing up blood and bits of their own lungs, as the hydrochloric acid formed by the mix of the chlorine gas and the moisture in their lungs had begun to dissolve their flesh. The Germans retreated, running so fast they were caught up in their own concertina wire traps. The five remaining Russian guns subsequently opened fire on the fleeing Germans.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: Suppressing the solitary resistance, the units of the 18th Regiment quickly overcame the first and second line of barbed wire, occupied the tactically important fortified point "Leonov's court" and began to advance along the railway line to the Rudsky Bridge. The only reserve in the Position of Sosna remained a company of militias with up to 50% of the personnel poisoned; the demoralized remnants of the company could not carry out an effective counterattack.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: To the south, the 76th Landwehr Regiment quickly occupied the depopulated Sosna, but had proceeded too swiftly and fell under its own gases, suffered significant losses, and was temporarily stopped by the fire of the remnants of the 12th Company at the central redoubt.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: There was a real threat of the Germans seizing the Rudsky Bridge, which would mean dissecting the entire defence west of the fortress and the loss of the Sosna position. In this situation, the commandant of the fortress Lieutenant General N.A. Brzozovsky ordered artillery fire on the already occupied areas of the enemy Sosna position and a bayonet counterattack using "all that is possible." The remnants of the 8th and 13th company (about half of the original composition) counterattacked, along with the 14th company which sallied from the fortress.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: The 13th company under the command of Lieutenant Kotlinsky counterattacked parts of the 18th regiment along the railway and forced them into flight. During the attack, Lieutenant Kotlinsky was mortally wounded and handed over command of the compound to the 2nd Osovetska Sap Company V. M. Strzeminsky, who, despite severe gas poisoning, with the remnants of the company entrusted to him, carried the attack to the end, using bayonet tactics to take possession of the 1st and 2nd sections of the Sosnya position. Kotlinsky died later that evening.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: The Russians did not hold the area for much longer. The Germans threatened to encircle the fortress with the capture of Kaunas and Novogeorgievsk. The Russians demolished much of the fortress and withdrew on August 18.


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: Russian metal band Aria released a song inspired by the battle, titled "Атака Мертвецов" ("Attack of the Dead"), on their 2014 album "Через все времена" ("Through All Times").


title: Attack of the Dead Men

text: Swedish metal band Sabaton released a song about the battle, titled "The Attack of the Dead Men", on their 2019 album "The Great War".


title: Peter Berg

text: Peter Berg (born March 11, 1964) is an American director, producer, writer, and actor. His directorial film works include the black comedy "Very Bad Things" (1998), the action comedy "The Rundown" (2003), the sports drama "Friday Night Lights" (2004), the action thriller "The Kingdom" (2007), the superhero comedy-drama "Hancock" (2008), the military science fiction war film "Battleship" (2012), the war film "Lone Survivor" (2013), the disaster drama "Deepwater Horizon" (2016), the Boston Marathon bombing drama "Patriots Day" (2016), the action thriller "Mile 22" (2018), and the action comedy "Spenser Confidential" (2020) the latter five all starring Mark Wahlberg. In addition to cameo appearances in the last six of these titles, he has had prominent acting roles in films including "Never on Tuesday" (1989), "Shocker" (1989), "The Last Seduction" (1994), "The Great White Hype" (1996), "Cop Land" (1997), "Corky Romano" (2001), "Collateral" (2004), "Smokin' Aces" (2006), and "Lions for Lambs" (2007).


title: Peter Berg

text: In television, Berg developed "Friday Night Lights" (2006–2011), adapted from his film, earning two Primetime Emmy Award nominations. As an actor, he is best known for his role as Dr. Billy Kronk on the CBS medical drama "Chicago Hope" (1995–1999).


title: Peter Berg

text: Berg was born in 1964 in New York City, the son of Laurence "Larry" Berg, a US Marine, and Sally (née Winkler) Berg. Berg's father was Jewish, as was his maternal grandfather. His mother was Christian.


title: Peter Berg

text: Through his mother, Berg is a second cousin of writer H. G. Bissinger, whose book "Friday Night Lights" provided the basis for Berg's film and TV series of the same name. His mother co-founded a youth group named Catalog for Giving and worked at a psychiatric hospital when Berg was growing up. He has a younger sister, Mary.


title: Peter Berg

text: Peter was a student in the Chappaqua School System. After graduating from The Taft School in 1980, Berg attended Macalester College in Saint Paul, Minnesota, where he majored in theater arts and theater history. He graduated in 1984, and in 1985 moved to Los Angeles to pursue his film career.


title: Peter Berg

text: Berg put his acting aspirations on hold when he first arrived in Los Angeles, choosing instead to learn about the film business as a production assistant. He acted in "21 Jump Street" and "Quiet Victory: The Charlie Wedemeyer Story" (both in 1988). He acted in "Never on Tuesday", "Miracle Mile", "Race For Glory", "Shocker", "Heart of Dixie", "Tale of Two Sisters" and "Going Overboard" in 1989. He acted in "Genuine Risk" and "Forradalom után" in 1990. He appeared in "Late for Dinner" and "Crooked Hearts" in 1991. In the early 1990s, he appeared in "A Midnight Clear", "A Case for Murder", "Fire in the Sky", "Aspen Extreme", "Across the Moon", "Uneviled" and "F.T.W."


title: Peter Berg

text: In 1992, Berg gained recognition for playing a World War II soldier in the film "A Midnight Clear". In 1998, Berg made his feature directorial debut with "Very Bad Things", a black comedy starring Jon Favreau, Christian Slater, Jeremy Piven, Daniel Stern, and Leland Orser. The film, which was shown at the Toronto and San Sebastian Film Festivals, received mixed critical reception. In 2000, he created "Wonderland", an edgy dramatic television series set in an asylum. While the ABC show received rave reviews and garnered a cult following, it failed to deliver ratings and was quickly canceled.


title: Peter Berg

text: In 2003, Berg directed the action comedy "The Rundown". Starring Dwayne Johnson and Seann William Scott, the film received mixed reviews from critics and disappointed at the box office, only grossing $80 million of its reported $85 million budget. In 2004, Berg began work on his third directorial effort, "Friday Night Lights", a football film based on the New York Times bestseller written by Buzz Bissinger. In 2006, Berg developed and became executive producer of NBC’s Peabody and Emmy Award-winning drama "Friday Night Lights", which takes inspiration from the book and Berg's film of the same name, but features an original storyline and new characters.


title: Peter Berg

text: He appeared in the war film "Lions for Lambs" (2007) as Lt. Colonel Falco. Berg followed up in 2007 with "The Kingdom", a Michael Mann-produced action-political thriller set in Saudi Arabia, starring Academy Award winners Jamie Foxx and Chris Cooper, also with Jennifer Garner whom Berg met when he appeared in a two-part episode of "Alias" where he played Garner's ex-boyfriend. Berg’s film "Hancock", starring Will Smith, Charlize Theron and Jason Bateman, was one of the highest grossing films of 2008.


title: Peter Berg

text: Berg directed the Hulu.com commercial featuring Alec Baldwin, which both The New York Times and Time magazine named best spot of Super Bowl XLIII. In 2009, Berg directed a two-hour pilot movie for a Fox television series "Virtuality". Even though the show was not picked up for a full season, the pilot was released on DVD exclusively through Best Buy. Berg also directed the ESPN documentary "Kings Ransom" in 2009. Berg also wrote the film "The Losers" (2010).


title: Peter Berg

text: Berg also directed the science-fiction/action film "Battleship" (2012) and the war film "Lone Survivor" (2013), an adaptation of Marcus Lutrell's book of the same name. "Variety" writer Justin Chang said Berg delivered "his most serious-minded work to date with "Lone Survivor"." The following year, Berg acted as producer on the 2014 film "Hercules", which he was originally slated to direct before being replaced by Brett Ratner.


title: Peter Berg

text: In 2013, Berg created the opening animation sequence for ESPN's "Monday Night Football". The 80-second graphic featured Darth Vader, Pac-Man, President Ronald Reagan and some highlights of "MNF" games from 1970–2012. In 2014, he directed the first two episodes of HBO's "The Leftovers".


title: Peter Berg

text: In 2016, Berg directed the film "Deepwater Horizon", based on the Deepwater Horizon explosion. Berg replaced director J. C. Chandor, who had exited the film due to creative differences. That same year, he directed CBS Films' "Patriots Day", about the Boston Marathon bombing, and the following year directed the action thriller "Mile 22". All three films starred Mark Wahlberg.


title: Peter Berg

text: In 2017, Berg directed an ambitious commercial for "Hyundai", which was recorded after the kickoff of Super Bowl LI and aired right after the game. His Film 44 company was recently signed to a first look deal with Netflix, which saw the release of his most recent film "Spenser Confidential", the director's fifth collaboration with Wahlberg.


title: Peter Berg

text: In 2019, Berg directed a historic commercial for the National Football League, ""...football fans witnessed another milestone moment with the premiere of the NFL's Super Bowl commercial entitled 'The 100-Year Game'. The two minute ad, which kicked off the celebration of the NFL's 100th season garnered the No. 1 spot in USA Today's Ad Meter with the publication describing it as "a tour de force starring an assemblage of many of the greats of NFL history.""


title: Peter Berg

text: On July 15, 2015, Berg criticized ESPN's decision to honor Caitlyn Jenner with the Arthur Ashe Courage Award with an Instagram post in which he shared a Facebook photo of Army veteran Gregory D. Gadson (a double amputee who played a role in Berg’s "Battleship" film) alongside one of Jenner. It said: ""One Man traded 2 legs for the freedom of the other to trade 2 balls for 2 boobs. Guess which Man made the cover of Vanity Fair, was praised for his courage by President Obama and is to be honored with the 'Arthur Ashe Courage Award' by ESPN?"" Along with the shared post, Berg commented, "Yup."


title: Peter Berg

text: Berg received both praise and condemnation for the post. He later said he had the utmost respect for Jenner and transgender individuals but


title: Peter Berg

text: released another photo with statistics on veterans suicides, stating, "I also believe that we don't give enough attention to our courageous returning war veterans, many of whom have sacrificed their bodies and mental health for our country and our principals [sic] – principals that include the freedom to live the life you want to live without persecution or abuse."


title: Human eye

text: The human eye is a sensory organ, part of the sensory nervous system, that reacts to visible light and allows humans to use visual information for various purposes including seeing things, keeping balance, and maintaining circadian rhythm.


title: Human eye

text: The eye can be considered as a living optical device. It is approximately spherical in shape, with its outer layers, such as the outermost, white part of the eye (the sclera) and one of its inner layers (the pigmented choroid) keeping the eye essentially light tight except on the eye's optic axis. In order, along the optic axis, the optical components consist of a first lens (the cornea—the clear part of the eye) that accomplishes most of the focussing of light from the outside world; then an aperture (the pupil) in a diaphragm (the iris—the coloured part of the eye) that controls the amount of light entering the interior of the eye; then another lens (the crystalline lens) that accomplishes the remaining focussing of light into images; then a light-sensitive part of the eye (the retina) where the images fall and are processed. The retina makes a connection to the brain via the optic nerve. The remaining components of the eye keep it in its required shape, nourish and maintain it, and protect it.


title: Human eye

text: Three types of cells in the retina convert light energy into electrical energy used by the nervous system: rods respond to low intensity light and contribute to perception of low-resolution, black-and-white images; cones respond to high intensity light and contribute to perception of high-resolution, coloured images; and the recently discovered photosensitive ganglion cells respond to a full range of light intensities and contribute to adjusting the amount of light reaching the retina, to regulating and suppressing the hormone melatonin, and to entraining circadian rhythm.


title: Human eye

text: Humans have two eyes, situated on the left and the right of the face. The eyes sit in bony cavities called the orbits, in the skull. There are six extraocular muscles that control eye movements. The front visible part of the eye is made up of the whitish sclera, a coloured iris, and the pupil. A thin layer called the conjunctiva sits on top of this. The front part is also called the anterior segment of the eye.


title: Human eye

text: The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece unit, composed of an anterior (front) segment and the posterior (back) segment. The anterior segment is made up of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is transparent and more curved and is linked to the larger posterior segment, composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white shell called the sclera. The cornea is typically about in diameter, and 0.5 mm (500 μm) in thickness near its centre. The posterior chamber constitutes the remaining five-sixths; its diameter is typically about . An area termed the limbus connects the cornea and sclera. The iris is the pigmented circular structure concentrically surrounding the centre of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be black. The size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator and sphincter muscles.


title: Human eye

text: Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the pupil and then through the lens. The lens shape is changed for near focus (accommodation) and is controlled by the ciliary muscle. Photons of light falling on the light-sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor cones and rods) are converted into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve and interpreted as sight and vision.


title: Human eye

text: The size of the eye differs among adults by only one or 2 millimetres. The eyeball is generally less tall than it is wide. The sagittal vertical (height) of a human adult eye is approximately , the transverse horizontal diameter (width) is and the axial anteroposterior size (depth) averages with no significant difference between sexes and age groups. Strong correlation has been found between the transverse diameter and the width of the orbit (r = 0.88). The typical adult eye has an anterior to posterior diameter of , and a volume of .


title: Human eye

text: The eyeball grows rapidly, increasing from about diameter at birth to by three years of age. By age 12, the eye attains its full size.


title: Human eye

text: The eye is made up of three coats, or layers, enclosing various anatomical structures. The outermost layer, known as the fibrous tunic, is composed of the cornea and sclera, which provide shape to the eye and support the deeper structures. The middle layer, known as the vascular tunic or uvea, consists of the choroid, ciliary body, pigmented epithelium and iris. The innermost is the retina, which gets its oxygenation from the blood vessels of the choroid (posteriorly) as well as the retinal vessels (anteriorly).


title: Human eye

text: The spaces of the eye are filled with the aqueous humour anteriorly, between the cornea and lens, and the vitreous body, a jelly-like substance, behind the lens, filling the entire posterior cavity. The aqueous humour is a clear watery fluid that is contained in two areas: the anterior chamber between the cornea and the iris, and the posterior chamber between the iris and the lens. The lens is suspended to the ciliary body by the suspensory ligament (Zonule of Zinn), made up of hundreds of fine transparent fibers which transmit muscular forces to change the shape of the lens for accommodation (focusing). The vitreous body is a clear substance composed of water and proteins, which give it a jelly-like and sticky composition.


title: Human eye

text: Each eye has seven extraocular muscles located in its orbit. Six of these muscles control the eye movements, the seventh controls the movement of the upper eyelid. The six muscles are four recti muscles – the lateral rectus, the medial rectus, the inferior rectus, and the superior rectus, and two oblique muscles the inferior oblique, and the superior oblique. The seventh muscle is the levator palpebrae superioris muscle. When the muscles exert different tensions, a torque is exerted on the globe that causes it to turn, in almost pure rotation, with only about one millimeter of translation. Thus, the eye can be considered as undergoing rotations about a single point in the centre of the eye.


title: Human eye

text: The approximate field of view of an individual human eye (measured from the fixation point, i.e., the point at which one's gaze is directed) varies by facial anatomy, but is typically 30° superior (up, limited by the brow), 45° nasal (limited by the nose), 70° inferior (down), and 100° temporal (towards the temple). For both eyes combined (Binocular vision) visual field is approximately 100° vertical and a maximum 190° horizontal, approximately 120° of which makes up the binocular field of view (seen by both eyes) flanked by two uniocular fields (seen by only one eye) of approximately 40 degrees. It is an area of 4.17 steradians or 13700 square degrees for binocular vision. When viewed at large angles from the side, the iris and pupil may still be visible by the viewer, indicating the person has peripheral vision possible at that angle.


title: Human eye

text: About 15° temporal and 1.5° below the horizontal is the blind spot created by the optic nerve nasally, which is roughly 7.5° high and 5.5° wide.


title: Human eye

text: The retina has a static contrast ratio of around 100:1 (about 6.5 f-stops). As soon as the eye moves rapidly to acquire a target (saccades), it re-adjusts its exposure by adjusting the iris, which adjusts the size of the pupil. Initial dark adaptation takes place in approximately four seconds of profound, uninterrupted darkness; full adaptation through adjustments in retinal rod photoreceptors is 80% complete in thirty minutes. The process is nonlinear and multifaceted, so an interruption by light exposure requires restarting the dark adaptation process over again.


title: Human eye

text: The human eye can detect a luminance from 10 cd/m, or one millionth (0.000001) of a candela per square meter to 10 cd/m or one hundred million (100,000,000) candelas per square meter. (that is it has a range of 10 cd/m, or one hundred trillion 100,000,000,000,000, about 46.5 f-stops). This range does not include looking at the midday sun (10 cd/m) or lightning discharge.


title: Human eye

text: At the low end of the range is the absolute threshold of vision for a steady light across a wide field of view, about 10 cd/m (0.000001 candela per square meter). The upper end of the range is given in terms of normal visual performance as 10 cd/m (100,000,000 or one hundred million candelas per square meter).


title: Human eye

text: The eye includes a lens similar to lenses found in optical instruments such as cameras and the same physics principles can be applied. The pupil of the human eye is its aperture; the iris is the diaphragm that serves as the aperture stop. Refraction in the cornea causes the effective aperture (the entrance pupil) to differ slightly from the physical pupil diameter. The entrance pupil is typically about 4 mm in diameter, although it can range from 2 mm () in a brightly lit place to 8 mm () in the dark. The latter value decreases slowly with age; older people's eyes sometimes dilate to not more than 5–6mm in the dark, and may be as small as 1mm in the light.


title: Human eye

text: The visual system in the human brain is too slow to process information if images are slipping across the retina at more than a few degrees per second. Thus, to be able to see while moving, the brain must compensate for the motion of the head by turning the eyes. Frontal-eyed animals have a small area of the retina with very high visual acuity, the fovea centralis. It covers about 2 degrees of visual angle in people. To get a clear view of the world, the brain must turn the eyes so that the image of the object of regard falls on the fovea. Any failure to make eye movements correctly can lead to serious visual degradation.


title: Human eye

text: Having two eyes allows the brain to determine the depth and distance of an object, called stereovision, and gives the sense of three-dimensionality to the vision. Both eyes must point accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to stimulate stereovision; otherwise, double vision might occur. Some persons with congenitally crossed eyes tend to ignore one eye's vision, thus do not suffer double vision, and do not have stereovision. The movements of the eye are controlled by six muscles attached to each eye, and allow the eye to elevate, depress, converge, diverge and roll. These muscles are both controlled voluntarily and involuntarily to track objects and correct for simultaneous head movements.


title: Human eye

text: Rapid eye movement, REM, typically refers to the sleep stage during which the most vivid dreams occur. During this stage, the eyes move rapidly.


title: Human eye

text: Saccades are quick, simultaneous movements of both eyes in the same direction controlled by the frontal lobe of the brain.


title: Human eye

text: Even when looking intently at a single spot, the eyes drift around. This ensures that individual photosensitive cells are continually stimulated in different degrees. Without changing input, these cells would otherwise stop generating output.


title: Human eye

text: Eye movements include drift, ocular tremor, and microsaccades. Some irregular drifts, movements smaller than a saccade and larger than a microsaccade, subtend up to one tenth of a degree. Researchers vary in their definition of microsaccades by amplitude. Martin Rolfs states that 'the majority of microsaccades observed in a variety of tasks have amplitudes smaller than 30 min-arc'. However, others state that the "current consensus has largely consolidated around a definition of microsaccades that includes magnitudes up to 1°."


title: Human eye

text: The vestibulo-ocular reflex is a reflex eye movement that stabilizes images on the retina during head movement by producing an eye movement in the direction opposite to head movement in response to neural input from the vestibular system of the inner ear, thus maintaining the image in the centre of the visual field. For example, when the head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left. This applies for head movements up and down, left and right, and tilt to the right and left, all of which give input to the ocular muscles to maintain visual stability.


title: Human eye

text: Eyes can also follow a moving object around. This tracking is less accurate than the vestibulo-ocular reflex, as it requires the brain to process incoming visual information and supply feedback. Following an object moving at constant speed is relatively easy, though the eyes will often make saccades to keep up. The smooth pursuit movement can move the eye at up to 100°/s in adult humans.


title: Human eye

text: It is more difficult to visually estimate speed in low light conditions or while moving, unless there is another point of reference for determining speed.


title: Human eye

text: The Optokinetic reflex (or optokinetic nystagmus) stabilizes the image on the retina through visual feedback. It is induced when the entire visual scene drifts across the retina, eliciting eye rotation in the same direction and at a velocity that minimizes the motion of the image on the retina. When the gaze direction deviates too far from the forward heading, a compensatory saccade is induced to reset the gaze to the centre of the visual field.


title: Human eye

text: For example, when looking out of the window at a moving train, the eyes can focus on a moving train for a short moment (by stabilizing it on the retina), until the train moves out of the field of vision. At this point, the eye is moved back to the point where it first saw the train (through a saccade).


title: Human eye

text: When a creature with binocular vision looks at an object, the eyes must rotate around a vertical axis so that the projection of the image is in the centre of the retina in both eyes. To look at a nearby object, the eyes rotate 'towards each other' (convergence), while for an object farther away they rotate 'away from each other' (divergence).


title: Human eye

text: Lenses cannot refract light rays at their edges as well as closer to the centre. The image produced by any lens is therefore somewhat blurry around the edges (spherical aberration). It can be minimized by screening out peripheral light rays and looking only at the better-focused centre. In the eye, the pupil serves this purpose by constricting while the eye is focused on nearby objects. Small apertures also give an increase in depth of field, allowing a broader range of "in focus" vision. In this way the pupil has a dual purpose for near vision: to reduce spherical aberration and increase depth of field.


title: Human eye

text: Changing the curvature of the lens is carried out by the ciliary muscles surrounding the lens; this process is known as "accommodation". Accommodation narrows the inner diameter of the ciliary body, which actually relaxes the fibers of the suspensory ligament attached to the periphery of the lens, and also allows the lens to relax into a more convex, or globular, shape. A more convex lens refracts light more strongly and focuses divergent light rays from near objects onto the retina, allowing closer objects to be brought into better focus.


title: Human eye

text: The human eye contains enough complexity to warrant specialized attention and care beyond the duties of a general practitioner. These specialists, or eye care professionals, serve different functions in different countries. Eye care professionals can have overlap in their patient care privileges. For example, both an ophthalmologist (M.D.) and optometrist (O.D.) are professionals who diagnoses eye disease and can prescribe lenses to correct vision. However, typically only ophthalmologists are licensed to perform surgical procedures. Ophthalmologists may also specialize within a surgical area, such as cornea, cataracts, laser, retina, or oculoplastics.


title: Human eye

text: Eye irritation has been defined as "the magnitude of any stinging, scratching, burning, or other irritating sensation from the eye". It is a common problem experienced by people of all ages. Related eye symptoms and signs of irritation are discomfort, dryness, excess tearing, itchiness, grating, foreign body sensation, ocular fatigue, pain, soreness, redness, swollen eyelids, and tiredness, etc. These eye symptoms are reported with intensities from mild to severe. It has been suggested that these eye symptoms are related to different causal mechanisms, and symptoms are related to the particular ocular anatomy involved.


title: Human eye

text: Several suspected causal factors in our environment have been studied so far. One hypothesis is that indoor air pollution may cause eye and airway irritation. Eye irritation depends somewhat on destabilization of the outer-eye tear film, i.e. the formation of dry spots on the cornea, resulting in ocular discomfort. Occupational factors are also likely to influence the perception of eye irritation. Some of these are lighting (glare and poor contrast), gaze position, reduced blink rate, limited number of breaks from visual tasking, and a constant combination of accommodation, musculoskeletal burden, and impairment of the visual nervous system. Another factor that may be related is work stress. In addition, psychological factors have been found in multivariate analyses to be associated with an increase in eye irritation among VDU users. Other risk factors, such as chemical toxins/irritants (e.g. amines, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein, N-decane, VOCs, ozone, pesticides and preservatives, allergens, etc.) might cause eye irritation as well.


title: Human eye

text: Certain volatile organic compounds that are both chemically reactive and airway irritants may cause eye irritation. Personal factors (e.g. use of contact lenses, eye make-up, and certain medications) may also affect destabilization of the tear film and possibly result in more eye symptoms. Nevertheless, if airborne particles alone should destabilize the tear film and cause eye irritation, their content of surface-active compounds must be high. An integrated physiological risk model with blink frequency, destabilization, and break-up of the eye tear film as inseparable phenomena may explain eye irritation among office workers in terms of occupational, climate, and eye-related physiological risk factors.


title: Human eye

text: There are two major measures of eye irritation. One is blink frequency which can be observed by human behavior. The other measures are break up time, tear flow, hyperemia (redness, swelling), tear fluid cytology, and epithelial damage (vital stains) etc., which are human beings' physiological reactions. Blink frequency is defined as the number of blinks per minute and it is associated with eye irritation. Blink frequencies are individual with mean frequencies of < 2–3 to 20–30 blinks/minute, and they depend on environmental factors including the use of contact lenses. Dehydration, mental activities, work conditions, room temperature, relative humidity, and illumination all influence blink frequency. Break-up time (BUT) is another major measure of eye irritation and tear film stability. It is defined as the time interval (in seconds) between blinking and rupture. BUT is considered to reflect the stability of the tear film as well. In normal persons, the break-up time exceeds the interval between blinks, and, therefore, the tear film is maintained. Studies have shown that blink frequency is correlated negatively with break-up time. This phenomenon indicates that perceived eye irritation is associated with an increase in blink frequency since the cornea and conjunctiva both have sensitive nerve endings that belong to the first trigeminal branch. Other evaluating methods, such as hyperemia, cytology etc. have increasingly been used to assess eye irritation.