title: Web colors

text: Web colors have an unambiguous colorimetric definition, sRGB, which relates the chromaticities of a particular phosphor set, a given transfer curve, adaptive whitepoint, and viewing conditions. These have been chosen to be similar to many real-world monitors and viewing conditions, to allow rendering to be fairly close to the specified values even without color management. User agents vary in the fidelity with which they represent the specified colors. More advanced user agents use color management to provide better color fidelity; this is particularly important for Web-to-print applications.


title: Web colors

text: A hex triplet is a six-digit, three-byte hexadecimal number used in HTML, CSS, SVG, and other computing applications to represent colors. The bytes represent the red, green, and blue components of the color. One byte represents a number in the range 00 to FF (in hexadecimal notation), or 0 to 255 in decimal notation. This represents the least (0) to the most (255) intensity of each of the color components. Thus web colors specify colors in the 24-bit RGB color scheme. The hex triplet is formed by concatenating three bytes in hexadecimal notation, in the following order:


title: Web colors

text: For example, consider the color where the red/green/blue values are decimal numbers: red=36, green=104, blue=160 (a grayish-blue color). The decimal numbers 36, 104, and 160 are equivalent to the hexadecimal numbers 24, 68, and A0 respectively. The hex triplet is obtained by concatenating the six hexadecimal digits together, 2468A0 in this example.


title: Web colors

text: If any one of the three color values is less than 10 hex (16 decimal), it must be represented with a leading zero so that the triplet always has exactly six digits. For example, the decimal triplet 4, 8, 16 would be represented by the hex digits 04, 08, 10, forming the hex triplet 040810.


title: Web colors

text: An abbreviated, three (hexadecimal)-digit form is used. Expanding this form to the six-digit form is as simple as repeating each digit: 09C becomes 0099CC as presented on the following CSS example:


title: Web colors

text: This shorthand form reduces the palette to 4,096 colors, equivalent of 12-bit color as opposed to 24-bit color using the whole six-digit form (16,777,216 colors). This limitation is sufficient for many text-based documents.


title: Web colors

text: RGB values are usually given in the 0–255 range; if they are in the 0–1 range, the values are multiplied by 255 before conversion. This number divided by sixteen (integer division; ignoring any remainder) gives the first hexadecimal digit (between 0 and F, where the letters A to F represent the numbers 10 to 15. See hexadecimal for more details). The remainder gives the second hexadecimal digit. For instance, the RGB value 201 divides into 12 groups of 16, thus the first digit is C. A remainder of nine gives the hexadecimal number C9. This process is repeated for each of the three color values.


title: Web colors

text: Conversion between number bases is a common feature of calculators, including both hand-held models and the software calculators bundled with most modern operating systems. Web-based tools specifically for converting color values are also available.


title: Web colors

text: Recent W3C specifications of color names distinguishes between "basic" and "extended" colors. In HTML and XHTML, colors can be used for text, background color, frame borders, tables, and individual table cells.


title: Web colors

text: The basic colors are 16 colors defined in the HTML 4.01 specification, ratified in 1999, as follows (names are defined in this context to be case-insensitive):


title: Web colors

text: These 16 were labelled as sRGB and included in the HTML 3.0 specification, which noted they were "the standard 16 colors supported with the Windows VGA palette."


title: Web colors

text: Extended colors are the result of merging specifications from HTML 4.01, CSS 2.0, SVG 1.0 and CSS3 User Interfaces (CSS3 UI).


title: Web colors

text: Several colors are defined by web browsers. A particular browser may not recognize all of these colors, but as of 2005, all modern, general-use, graphical browsers support the full list of colors. Many of these colors are from the list of X11 color names distributed with the X Window System. These colors were standardized by SVG 1.0, and are accepted by SVG Full user agents. They are not part of SVG Tiny.


title: Web colors

text: The list of colors shipped with the X11 product varies between implementations and clashes with certain of the HTML names such as green. X11 colors are defined as simple RGB (hence, no particular color space), rather than sRGB. This means that the list of colors found in X11 (e.g., in /usr/lib/X11/rgb.txt) should not directly be used to choose colors for the web.


title: Web colors

text: The list of web "X11 colors" from the CSS3 specification, along with their hexadecimal and decimal equivalents, is shown below. Compare the alphabetical lists in the W3C standards. This includes the common synonyms: aqua (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name) and cyan (common sRGB name), magenta (common sRGB name) and fuchsia (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name), gray (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name) and grey.


title: Web colors

text: The Cascading Style Sheets specification defines the same number of named colors as the HTML 4 spec, namely the 16 html colors, and 124 colors from the Netscape X11 color list for a total of 140 names that were recognized by Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and Netscape Navigator 3.0. Blooberry.com notes that Opera 2.1 and Safari 1 also included Netscape's expanded list of 140 color names, but later discovered 14 names not included with Opera 3.5 on Windows 98.


title: Web colors

text: In CSS 2.1, the color 'orange' (one of the 140) was added to the section with the 16 HTML4 colors as a 17th color. The CSS3.0 specification did not include "orange" in the "HTML4 color keywords" section, which was renamed as "Basic color keywords". In the same reference, the "SVG color keywords" section, was renamed "Extended color keywords", after starting out as "X11 color keywords" in an earlier working draft. The working draft for the level 4 color module combines the Basic and Extended sections together in a simple "Named Colors" section.


title: Web colors

text: CSS 2, SVG and CSS 2.1 allow web authors to use "system colors", which are color names whose values are taken from the operating system, picking the operating system's highlighted text color, or the background color for tooltip controls. This enables web authors to style their content in line with the operating system of the user agent. The CSS3 color module has deprecated the use of system colors in favor of CSS3 UI System Appearance property, which itself was subsequently dropped from CSS3.


title: Web colors

text: CSS also supports the special color codice_2, which represents an alpha value of zero; by default, codice_2 is rendered as an invisible nominal black: codice_4. It was introduced in CSS1 but its scope of use has expanded over the versions.


title: Web colors

text: Besides new ways to write colors, it also introduces the concept of mixing colors in a non-sRGB color space, a first step towards fixing a well-known issue in color gradients. Some sections explaining color theory and common operations like gamut mapping are also added to aid implementation.


title: Web colors

text: CSS Color 4 introduces several different formats for device independent color that can display the entirety of visible color (in a capable screen), including:


title: Web colors

text: A number of RGB spaces with gamuts that are wider than sRGB are also introduced through the new codice_5 function:


title: Web colors

text: On 21 June 2014, the CSS WG added the color RebeccaPurple to the Editor's Draft of the Colors module level 4, to commemorate Eric Meyer's daughter Rebecca, who died on 7 June 2014, her sixth birthday.


title: Web colors

text: The draft CSS Color 5 specification introduces syntax for mixing and manipulating existing colors, including:


title: Web colors

text: In the mid-1990s, many displays were only capable of displaying 256 colors. These may be dictated by the hardware or changeable by a "color table". When a color is found (e.g., in an image) that is not available, a different one had to be used. This can be done by either using the closest color or by using dithering.


title: Web colors

text: There were various attempts to make a "standard" color palette. A set of colors was needed that could be shown without dithering on 256-color displays; the number 216 was chosen partly because computer operating systems customarily reserved sixteen to twenty colors for their own use; it was also selected because it allows exactly six equally spaced shades of red, green, and blue (6 × 6 × 6 = 216), each from 00 to FF (including both limits).


title: Web colors

text: The list of colors is presented as if it had special properties that render them immune to dithering, but on 256-color displays applications can actually set a palette of any selection of colors that they choose, dithering the rest. These colors were chosen specifically because they matched the palettes selected by various browser applications. There were not very different palettes in use in different browsers.


title: Web colors

text: "Web-safe" colors had a flaw in that, on systems such as X11 where the palette is shared between applications, smaller color cubes (5×5×5 or 4×4×4) were allocated by browsers—the "web-safe" colors would dither on such systems. Different results were obtained by providing an image with a larger range of colors and allowing the browser to quantize the color space if needed, rather than suffer the quality loss of a double quantization.


title: Web colors

text: Through the 2000s, use of 256-color displays in personal computers dropped sharply in favour of 24-bit (TrueColor) displays, and the use of "web-safe" colors has fallen into practical disuse.


title: Web colors

text: The "web-safe" colors do not all have standard names, but each can be specified by an RGB triplet: each component (red, green, and blue) takes one of the six values from the following table (out of the 256 possible values available for each component in full 24-bit color).


title: Web colors

text: The following table shows all of the "web-safe" colors. One shortcoming of the web-safe palette is its small range of light colors for webpage backgrounds, whereas the intensities at the low end of the range, such as the two darkest, are similar to each other, making them hard to distinguish. Values flanked by "*" (asterisk) are part of the "really safe palette;" see Safest web colors, below.


title: Web colors

text: Designers were encouraged to stick to these 216 "web-safe" colors in their websites because there were a lot of 8-bit color displays when the 216-color palette was developed. David Lehn and Hadley Stern discovered that only 22 of the 216 colors in the web-safe palette are reliably displayed without inconsistent remapping on 16-bit computer displays. They called these 22 colors "the really safe palette"; it consists largely of shades of green, yellow, and blue.


title: Web colors

text: Some browsers and devices do not support colors. For these displays or blind and colorblind users, Web content depending on colors can be unusable or difficult to use.


title: Web colors

text: Either no colors should be specified (to invoke the browser's default colors), or both the background and all foreground colors (such as the colors of plain text, unvisited links, hovered links, active links, and visited links) should be specified to avoid black on black or white on white effects.


title: Web colors

text: The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines recommend a contrast ratio of at least 4.5:1 between the relative luminance of text and its background color or at least 3:1 for large text. Enhanced accessibility requires contrast ratios greater than 7:1.


title: Web colors

text: However, addressing accessibility concerns is not simply a matter of increasing the contrast ratio. As a report to the Web Accessibility Initiative indicates, dyslexic readers are better served by contrast ratios below the maximum. The recommendations they refer to of off-black (#0A0A0A) on off-white (#FFFFE5) and black (#000000) on creme (#FAFAC8) have contrast ratios of 11.7:1 and 20.3:1 respectively. Among their other color pairs, brown (#282800) on dark green (#A0A000) has a contrast ratio of 3.24:1, which is less than the WCAG recommendation, dark brown (#1E1E00) on light green (#B9B900) has a contrast ratio of 4.54:1 and blue (#00007D) on yellow (#FFFF00) has a contrast ratio of 11.4:1. Notice that the colors named in the report use different color values than the web colors of the same name.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Gestalt-psychology, gestaltism, or configurationism is a school of psychology that emerged in the early twentieth century in Austria and Germany as a theory of perception that was a rejection of basic principles of Wilhelm Wundt's and Edward Titchener's elementalist and structuralist psychology.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: As used in Gestalt psychology, the German word "Gestalt" ( , ; meaning "form") is interpreted as "pattern" or "configuration". Gestalt psychologists emphasize that organisms perceive entire patterns or configurations, not merely individual components. The view is sometimes summarized using the adage, "the whole is more than the sum of its parts."


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) founded Gestalt psychology in the early 20th century. The dominant view in psychology at the time was structuralism, exemplified by the work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), and Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927). Structuralism was rooted firmly in British empiricism and was based on three closely interrelated theories:


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Together, these three theories give rise to the view that the mind constructs all perceptions and even abstract thoughts strictly from lower-level sensations that are related solely by being associated closely in space and time. The Gestaltists took issue with this widespread "atomistic" view that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: In contrast, the Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking psychological phenomena down into smaller parts would not lead to understanding psychology. The Gestalt psychologists believed, instead, that the most fruitful way to view psychological phenomena is as organized, structured wholes. They argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. One could say that the approach was based on a macroscopic view of psychology rather than a microscopic approach. Gestalt theories of perception are based on human nature being inclined to understand objects as an entire structure rather than the sum of its parts.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), a member of the School of Brentano. Von Ehrenfels introduced the concept of "Gestalt" to philosophy and psychology in 1890, before the advent of Gestalt psychology as such. Von Ehrenfels observed that a perceptual experience, such as perceiving a melody or a shape, is more than the sum of its sensory components. He claimed that, in addition to the sensory elements of the perception, there is something extra. Although in some sense derived from the organization of the component sensory elements, this further quality is an element in its own right. He called it "Gestalt-qualität" or "form-quality."


title: Gestalt psychology

text: For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them that binds them together into a tune – the "Gestalt-qualität". It is this "Gestalt-qualität" that, according to von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, while still retaining its identity. The idea of a "Gestalt-qualität" has roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work "Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen" (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of "gestalt" and "figural moment", respectively.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: By 1914, the first published references to Gestalt theory could be found in a footnote of Gabriele von Wartensleben's application of Gestalt theory to personality. She was a student at Frankfurt Academy for Social Sciences, who interacted deeply with Wertheimer and Köhler.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Through a series of experiments, Wertheimer discovered that a person observing a pair of alternating bars of light can, under the right conditions, experience the illusion of movement between one location and the other. He noted that this was a perception of motion absent any moving object. That is, it was pure phenomenal motion. He dubbed it phi ("phenomenal") motion. Wertheimer's publication of these results in 1912 marks the beginning of Gestalt psychology. In comparison to von Ehrenfels and others who had used the term "gestalt" earlier in various ways, Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary. The gestalt defines the parts from which it is composed, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts. Wertheimer took the more radical position that "what is given me by the melody does not arise ... as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the whole is", (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly, in vision, one sees the form of the circle first—it is given "im-mediately" (i.e., its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation). Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiments were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist Max Planck (1858–1947), but had taken his degree in psychology under Carl Stumpf (1848–1936). Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917, Köhler (1917/1925) published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by "sudden insight" into the "structure" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) and Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The terms "structure" and "organization" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were said to have a certain structure, to be organized in a certain way, and that it is to this structural organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Köhler's, if conditioned to respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: In 1921, Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, "Growth of the Mind". With the help of American psychologist Robert Ogden, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in "Psychological Bulletin". It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at Smith College in 1927. In 1935, Koffka published his "Principles of Gestalt Psychology". This textbook laid out the "Gestalt" vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the "Gestaltists" was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have to accommodate not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other "scientific categories": questions of order and questions of "Sinn", a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Having survived the Nazis up to the mid-1930s, all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935. Köhler published another book, "Dynamics in Psychology", in 1940 but thereafter the "Gestalt" movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, "Productive Thinking," was published posthumously in 1945, but Köhler was left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case, it is not identical to Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the Gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand, Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most Gestalt psychologists emphasize that Gestalt therapy is not a form of Gestalt psychology.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is "not" Gestalt psychology" With her analysis, however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general as a psychotherapy method.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: There have been clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the psychotherapeutic field long before Perls'ian Gestalt therapy, in group psychoanalysis (Foulkes), Adlerian individual psychology, by Gestalt psychologists in psychotherapy like Erwin Levy, Abraham S. Luchins, by Gestalt psychologically oriented psychoanalysts in Italy (Canestrari and others), and there have been newer developments foremost in Europe. For example, a strictly Gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German Gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter and his colleagues in Germany, Austria (Gerhard Stemberger and colleagues) and Switzerland. Other countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Gestalt psychology made many contributions to the body of psychology. The Gestaltists were the first to demonstrate empirically and document many facts about perception—including facts about the perception of movement, the perception of contour, perceptual constancy, and perceptual illusions. Wertheimer's discovery of the phi phenomenon is one example of such a contribution. In addition to discovering perceptual phenomena, the contributions of Gestalt psychology include: (a) a unique theoretical framework and methodology, (b) a set of perceptual principles, (c) a well-known set of perceptual grouping laws, (d) a theory of problem solving based on insight, and (e) a theory of memory. The following subsections discuss these contributions in turn.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The Gestalt psychologists practiced a set of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Reification is the "constructive" or "generative" aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as "real" contours.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube and Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, Gestalt psychology does not explain "how" images appear multistable, only that they "do".


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which is immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The perceptual field (what an organism perceives) is organized. Figure-ground organization is one form of perceptual organization. Figure-ground organization is the interpretation of perceptual elements in terms of their shapes and relative locations in the layout of surfaces in the 3-D world. Figure-ground organization structures the perceptual field into a figure (standing out at the front of the perceptual field) and a background (receding behind the figure). Pioneering work on figure-ground organization was carried out by the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin. The Gestalt psychologists demonstrated that we tend to perceive as figures those parts of our perceptual fields that are convex, symmetric, small, and enclosed.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Like figure-ground organization, perceptual grouping (sometimes called perceptual segregation) is a form of perceptual organization. Organisms perceive some parts of their perceptual fields as "hanging together" more tightly than others. They use this information for object detection. Perceptual grouping is the process that determines what these "pieces" of the perceptual field are.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The Gestaltists were the first psychologists to systematically study perceptual grouping. According to Gestalt psychologists, the fundamental principle of perceptual grouping is the law of Prägnanz. (The law of Prägnanz is also known as the law of good Gestalt.) "Prägnanz" is a German word that directly translates to "pithiness" and implies salience, conciseness, and orderliness. The law of Prägnanz says that we tend to experience things as regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. As Koffka put it, "Of several geometrically possible organizations that one will actually occur which possesses the best, simplest and most stable shape."


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The law of Prägnanz implies that, as individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe reality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This meaning created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The law of good Gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of Gestalt theory is based on.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as wholes rather than as the sums of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Gestalt psychologists attempted to discover refinements of the law of "Prägnanz", and this involved writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what is often called "gestalt laws". Wertheimer defined a few principles that explain the ways humans perceive objects. Those principles were based on similarity, proximity, continuity. The Gestalt concept is based on perceiving reality in its simplest form. The various laws are called "laws" or "principles", depending on the paper where they appear—but for simplicity's sake, this article uses the term "laws". These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory (Bregman – GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and 1940s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects, they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure illustrating the law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark, and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together and the light circles as grouped together, forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Gestalt psychologists believed that humans tend to perceive objects as complete rather than focusing on the gaps that the object might contain. For example, a circle has good Gestalt in terms of completeness. However, we will also perceive an incomplete circle as a complete circle. That tendency to complete shapes and figures is called closure. The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that the movement of elements of an object produces paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The law of continuity (also known as the law of good continuation) states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object. For example, the figure depicting the law of continuity shows a configuration of two crossed keys. When the image is perceived, we tend to perceive the key in the background as a single uninterrupted key instead of two separate halves of a key.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: An example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different tuning or key.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Gestalt psychology contributed to the scientific study of problem solving. In fact, the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany marks the beginning of the scientific study of problem solving. Later this experimental work continued through the 1960s and early 1970s with research conducted on relatively simple (but novel for participants) laboratory tasks of problem solving.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Given Gestalt psychology's focus on the whole, it was natural for Gestalt psychologists to study problem-solving from the perspective of insight, seeking to understand the process by which organisms sometimes suddenly transition from having no idea how to solve a problem to instantly understanding the whole problem and its solution. In a famous set of experiments, Köhler gave chimpanzees some boxes and placed food high off the ground; after some time, the chimpanzees appeared to suddenly realize that they could stack the boxes on top of each other to reach the food.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Max Wertheimer distinguished two kinds of thinking: productive thinking and reproductive thinking. "Productive thinking" is solving a problem based on insight—a quick, creative, unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction. "Reproductive thinking" is solving a problem deliberately based on previous experience and knowledge. Reproductive thinking proceeds algorithmically—a problem solver reproduces a series of steps from memory, knowing that they will lead to a solution—or by trial and error.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Karl Duncker, another Gestalt psychologist who studied problem solving, coined the term functional fixedness for describing the difficulties in both visual perception and problem solving that arise from the fact that one element of a whole situation already has a (fixed) function that has to be changed in order to perceive something or find the solution to a problem.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Abraham Luchins also studied problem solving from the perspective of Gestalt psychology. He is well known for his research on the role of "mental set" (Einstellung effect), which he demonstrated using a series of problems having to do with refilling water jars.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Fuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychology. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Gestalt psychology struggled to precisely define terms like Prägnanz, to make specific behavioral predictions, and to articulate testable models of underlying neural mechanisms. It was criticized as being merely descriptive. These shortcomings led, by the mid-20th century, to growing dissatisfaction with Gestaltism and a subsequent decline in its impact on psychology. Despite this decline, Gestalt psychology has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts "in motion") is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such:


title: Gestalt psychology

text: In the 1990s, Andranik Tangian developed a model of artificial perception that implemented a principle of correlativity, which operationalized the Gestalt psychology laws in their interaction. The model finds structures in data without knowing the structures, similarly to segregating elements in abstract painting—like curves, contours and spots—without identifying them with known objects. The approach is based on the least complex data representations in the sense of Kolmogorov, i.e. requiring the least memory storage, which is regarded as saving the brain energy. The least complexity criterion leads to multi-level data representations in terms of generative patterns and their transformations, using proximities, similarities, symmetries, common fate grouping, continuities, etc. The idea that perception is data representation rather than "physical" recognition is illustrated by the effect of several voices produced by a single physical body—a loudspeaker membrane, whereas the effect of a single tone is produced by several physical bodies—organ pipes tuned as a chord and activated by a single key. It is shown that the physical causality in certain observations can be revealed through optimal data representations, and this nature–information duality is explained by the fact that both nature and information are subordinated to the same principle of efficiency. In some situations, the least complex data representations use the patterns already stored in the memory, demonstrating the dependence of perception on previous knowledge—in line with the Gestalt psychology law of past experience. Such an "intelligent" perception is opposed to the "naïve" perception that is based exclusively on direct percepts and is therefore context-dependent. The model is applied to automatic notation of music—recognition of interval structures in chords and polyphonic voices (with no reference to pitch, thereby relying on interval hearing instead of absolute hearing) as well as rhythms under variable tempo, approaching the capabilities of trained musicians. The model is also relevant to visual scene analysis and explains some modes of abstract thinking.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that "similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an "implicate order". The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed—a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The halo effect can be explained through the application of Gestalt theories to social information processing. The constructive theories of social cognition are applied to the expectations of individuals. They have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this positive manner. Gestalt's theories of perception enforces that individual's tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts, therefore humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. The halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals, the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation. The halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics. As well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to self-fulfilling prophesies, stereotyping, or even discrimination.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception. Researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying Gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being "descriptive" rather than "explanatory" in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, a textbook on visual perception states that, "The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their 'laws' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a 'good' or 'simple' shape, for example?"


title: Gestalt psychology

text: One historian of psychology, David J. Murray, has argued that Gestalt psychologists first discovered many principles later championed by cognitive psychology, including schemas and prototypes. Another psychologist has argued that the Gestalt psychologists made a lasting contribution by showing how the study of illusions can help scientists understand essential aspects of how the visual system "normally" functions, not merely how it breaks down.


title: Gestalt psychology

text: The gestalt laws are used in several visual design fields, such as user interface design and cartography. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns.


title: Robert Reed

text: Robert Reed (born John Robert Rietz Jr.; October 19, 1932 – May 12, 1992) was an American actor. He played Kenneth Preston on the legal drama "The Defenders" from 1961 to 1965 alongside E. G. Marshall, and is best known for his role as the father Mike Brady, opposite Florence Henderson's role as Carol Brady, on the ABC sitcom "The Brady Bunch", which aired from 1969 to 1974. He later reprised his role of Mike Brady on several of the reunion programs. In 1976, he earned two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for his guest-starring role in a two-part episode of "Medical Center" and for his work on the miniseries "Rich Man, Poor Man". The following year, Reed earned a third Emmy nomination for his role in the miniseries "Roots".


title: Robert Reed

text: Reed was born John Robert Rietz Jr. in the northern Chicago suburb of Highland Park, Illinois, the only child of Helen (née Teaverbaugh) and John Robert Rietz, who were high-school sweethearts and married at 18. Reed attended the West Division School in Community Consolidated School District 62 until 1939. His father worked for the government, and his mother was a homemaker. Reed spent his early childhood years in Navasota, Texas and Shawnee, Oklahoma, attending Woodrow Wilson Grade School before the family moved to Muskogee, Oklahoma. In Oklahoma, his father, John Sr., worked as a turkey/cattle farmer.


title: Robert Reed

text: In his youth, Reed joined the 4-H agricultural club and showed calves, but was more interested in acting and music. While attending Central High School in Muskogee, he participated in both activities. Reed also took to the stage, where he performed and sang. He also worked as a radio announcer at local radio stations and wrote and produced radio dramas. Reed graduated from Muskogee Central in 1950, and enrolled at Northwestern University to study drama. During his years at Northwestern, Reed appeared in several plays under the direction of Alvina Krause, a celebrated Northwestern drama coach. Reed performed in more than eight plays in college, all with leading roles.


title: Robert Reed

text: He later studied for one term at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London. Upon returning to the United States, Reed appeared in summer stock in Eagles Mere, Pennsylvania. He later joined the off-Broadway theatre group "The Shakespearewrights", and played Romeo in "Romeo and Juliet" and had a lead role in "A Midsummer Night's Dream". After leaving the Shakespearewrights, Reed joined the Studebaker Theatre company in Chicago. He eventually adopted the stage name Robert Reed and moved to Los Angeles in the late 1950s to further pursue his acting career.


title: Robert Reed

text: Reed made his first guest-starring appearance in an episode of "Father Knows Best" in 1959. This led to guest roles on "Men into Space" and "Lawman", as well as his first credited film appearance in "Bloodlust!". In 1961, Reed landed his first television starring role in "The Defenders" alongside fellow Studebaker Theater performer E. G. Marshall, with the two playing a father-and-son team of defense attorneys. Marshall was also one of the founding members of the Actors Studio in New York; around this time, Reed himself became a member of the Studio, of which he would remain a member for the next 30 years. "The Defenders" was a hit with audiences and earned a total of 22 Primetime Emmy Award nominations (E.G. Marshall won two Emmys for his performance while the show won twice for Outstanding Drama Series). Ratings for the series were high during its first three seasons, but fell when CBS moved the series from Saturday nights to Thursday nights. CBS canceled "The Defenders" in 1965.


title: Robert Reed

text: While appearing on "The Defenders" in 1964, Reed made his Broadway stage debut as Paul Bratter in Neil Simon's "Barefoot in the Park", replacing Robert Redford. For the remainder of the decade, Reed appeared primarily in television guest spots, including roles in "Family Affair", "Ironside", "The Mod Squad", and "Bob Hope Presents The Chrysler Theatre". He also appeared in the 1968 film "Star!" and in the Broadway production of "Avanti!".


title: Robert Reed

text: Appearing in the Neil Simon play "Barefoot in the Park" led to two new contracts at Paramount Pictures and ABC, both in 1968. When Paramount had decided to turn the television version of "Barefoot in the Park" into a predominantly African-American show, they planned for Reed to star in something else. The new series was entitled "The Brady Bunch" and featured a widowed man with three boys marrying a divorced woman, with three girls. The series' creator, Sherwood Schwartz, said he was inspired to create the series after reading a news item in the "Los Angeles Times" stating that "more than 29 percent of all marriages included a child or children from a previous marriage". Schwartz thought the idea was "... the key to a new and unusual TV series. It was a revelation! The first blended family! His kids and her kids! Together!"


title: Robert Reed

text: Reed was the producers' second choice for the role of Mike Brady after Gene Hackman was rejected because he was largely unknown at the time. Also starring on "The Brady Bunch" was actress Florence Henderson, who played the role of Mike's wife Carol Brady after her best friend Shirley Jones turned down the role in favor of "The Partridge Family". Also cast on the series was Ann B. Davis as the Bradys' maid Alice Nelson. Despite earning poor reviews from critics and never cracking the Top 30 during its five-season run, "The Brady Bunch" remained an audience favorite of the 1970s. Since its cancellation in 1974, the series had a healthy afterlife in syndication and spawned several spin-off series and two television reunion films, along with two parody films.


title: Robert Reed

text: From the very beginning of the sitcom's debut in September 1969, Reed was unhappy with his role as Mike Brady. He felt that acting in the often silly program was beneath his training as a serious Shakespearean actor. Producers and directors found Reed difficult to work with both on and off the set. However, all of the cast got along well with him. In his efforts to bring more realism to the sitcom, Reed often locked horns with the program's creator and executive producer Schwartz. Reed regularly presented Schwartz with hand-written memoranda detailing why a certain motivation did not make sense or why it was wrong to combine elements of farce and satire. Schwartz generally ignored Reed's suggestions, although in an attempt to alleviate tension, Schwartz occasionally allowed Reed to direct some episodes. In a 1983 interview, Reed admitted that he often butted heads with Schwartz, stating, "We fought over the scripts. Always over the scripts. The producer, Sherwood Schwartz, had done "Gilligan's Island"...Just gag lines. That would have been what "The Brady Bunch" would have been if I hadn't protested."


title: Robert Reed

text: Reed was particularly appalled by what would turn out to be the show's final episode "The Hair-Brained Scheme". He sent Schwartz a memo, picking apart his problems with the episode, but Schwartz did not receive the memo promptly enough to alter the script as Reed wanted. As a result, Reed refused to appear in the episode altogether. By this time, Schwartz was tired of Reed's antagonistic behavior and decided to replace him for the show's sixth season; however, the series was cancelled by ABC shortly thereafter. Reed later claimed that he originally accepted the role for financial reasons, but tried to remain positive despite his creative differences with Schwartz by reminding himself the series was primarily about the children. Reed masked his dissatisfaction in front of the camera, always performing professionally without any indication of his unhappiness. Despite his discontentment with the show, Reed genuinely liked all of his co-stars and was a father figure to the younger cast members. Co-star Susan Olsen became friends with Reed's daughter Karen, who made a guest appearance in the episode "The Slumber Caper". Reed's final appearance in the series was in the penultimate episode "The Hustler". His final line in that episode was "Now I can get my car in the garage."


title: Robert Reed

text: During the run of "The Brady Bunch", Reed also had a recurring role as Lieutenant Adam Tobias on "Mannix", from 1969 to 1975, and typically appeared in three to five "Mannix" episodes each season. He also directed several episodes of "The Brady Bunch" during its run. After Reed's agents overbooked him for a film in England with Anglia Television, his cancellation led to the 1972 court case of "Anglia Television Ltd v Reed".


title: Robert Reed

text: After "The Brady Bunch" series ended in 1974, Reed acted on stage and made guest star appearances on other television series and television movies, including "Pray for the Wildcats" and "". He won critical acclaim for his portrayal of Pat Caddison, a doctor who comes out as transgender, in a two-part episode of "Medical Center" in 1975. The episode also earned him a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. Also that year he appeared in the TV-movie "The Secret Night Caller", as a respectably married man with a compulsion to make obscene phone calls to women he barely knows. Reed appeared in the television film "The Boy in the Plastic Bubble" (1976), the miniseries "Rich Man, Poor Man" (1976), and the miniseries "Roots" (1977). Reed was again nominated for an Emmy Award for his work in "Rich Man, Poor Man" and "Roots". He also guest-starred on "Wonder Woman", "Hawaii Five-O", "Charlie's Angels", "Galactica 1980" and "Vega$".


title: Robert Reed

text: In 1981, Reed won the lead role of Dr. Adam Rose on the medical drama "Nurse". Despite critical acclaim, the series was canceled the following year. In 1986, he played the role of Lloyd Kendall on the daytime soap opera "Search for Tomorrow". He also made multiple appearances on "Fantasy Island", "Hunter", "The Love Boat" and "Murder, She Wrote".


title: Robert Reed

text: Despite his dislike of "The Brady Bunch" and the character of Mike Brady, Reed continued to appear in "Brady Bunch" spinoffs and sequels for the remainder of his career. In 1976, Reed reprised the role of Mike Brady in the variety show "The Brady Bunch Hour", a role he openly embraced because it afforded him the opportunity to sing and dance. He would later appear in the television film "The Brady Girls Get Married" (1981) and the television film "A Very Brady Christmas" (1988). In 1989, he guest-starred as Mike Brady in "A Very Brady Episode" of the NBC sitcom "Day by Day". Also in 1989, Reed reteamed with his "Brady Bunch" co-star Henderson in a guest-starring role on the sitcom "Free Spirit". In 1990, he reprised the role of Mike Brady for the final time in the drama series, "The Bradys". The series was canceled after six episodes. Reed made his last onscreen appearance in an April 1992 episode of "Jake and the Fatman", "Ain't Misbehavin'".


title: Robert Reed

text: Shortly before his death, Reed appeared in the touring production of "Love Letters", opposite Betsy Palmer, and taught classes on Shakespeare at UCLA.


title: Robert Reed

text: Reed and fellow Northwestern student Marilyn Rosenberger married in July 1954. They had a daughter, Karen Rietz, before divorcing in 1959.


title: Robert Reed

text: Reed kept the fact that he was actually gay a close secret, since public knowledge of his sexual orientation would have damaged his career during that era.


title: Robert Reed

text: Several years after his death, Reed's "Brady Bunch" co-stars – notably Barry Williams and Florence Henderson – publicly acknowledged his sexual orientation, and revealed that the cast and crew of "The Brady Bunch" knew.


title: Robert Reed

text: Henderson spoke about Reed being in the closet during a 2000 interview with ABC News: "Here he was, the perfect father of this wonderful little family, a perfect husband. Off camera, he was an unhappy person – I think had Bob not been forced to live this double life, I think it would have dissipated a lot of that anger and frustration. I never asked him. I never challenged him. I had a lot of compassion for him because I knew how he was suffering with keeping this secret."


title: Robert Reed

text: Regarding Reed's unwillingness to discuss his sexuality, even off-camera and in private, Williams told ABC News during a 2000 interview that "Robert didn't want to go there. I don't think he talked about it with anyone. I just don't think it was open for discussion–period. Had it ever come out that Robert Reed was gay, it probably would have caused the demise of the show. I think it would have hurt his career tremendously."


title: Robert Reed

text: In November 1991, Reed was diagnosed with colon cancer. When he became ill, he allowed only his daughter Karen and actress Anne Haney, a close friend, to visit him. Haney later said of Reed, "He came from the old school, where people had a sense of decorum. He went the way he wanted to, without publicity." Weeks before his death, Reed called Henderson and asked her to inform the rest of "The Brady Bunch" cast that he was terminally ill. He died on May 12, 1992, at Huntington Memorial Hospital in Pasadena, California, at age 59.


title: Robert Reed

text: Reed's death was initially attributed solely to cancer, but details from his death certificate were made public revealing that Reed was HIV positive. It remains unknown how and when Reed contracted HIV because he kept his medical condition and private life a secret from the public until the day he died, telling only a few close friends. While Reed did not have AIDS at the time of his death, his doctor listed his HIV-positive status among "significant conditions that contributed to death" on the death certificate. He is buried at Memorial Park Cemetery in Skokie, Illinois.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: Barbara Palvin (; born 8 October 1993) is a Hungarian model. She first appeared in the "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue" in 2016. In 2019, she became a Victoria's Secret Angel. She is also an Armani Beauty ambassador.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: Palvin was born on 8 October 1993 and raised in Budapest, and often travelled to the countryside to visit her grandmother and great-grandmother.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: When she was 13, she was discovered on the streets of Budapest by a modelling scout while walking with her mother. She shot her first editorial in 2006 for "Spur Magazine", and subsequently moved to Asia where she maintained a steady stream of bookings. Since then, Palvin has been on the cover of "L'Officiel" (France, Italy, Russia, Turkey, Thailand, Singapore), "Vogue" (Portugal), "Marie Claire" (Italy, Hungary), "Glamour" (Hungary, Spain), "Elle" (Great Britain, Italy, Korea, Brazil, Argentina, Sweden, Serbia, Hungary, Spain, Belgium), "Allure", "GQ" (Portugal), "Harper's Bazaar" (Australia, Greece, Singapore, South Korea), "Jealouse Magazine" and "Numéro" (Netherlands, Russia). Palvin has appeared in campaigns for Armani Exchange, H&M, Victoria's Secret, and Pull & Bear. In February 2012, she became an ambassador for L'Oréal Paris. In 2016, Palvin was revealed to be a part of the "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit" Rookie Class. She also became the new face of Armani's signature scent "Acqua di Gioia". Palvin is the face of Amazon Fashion and appeared on Express and Chaos advertising campaigns.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: Her runway debut was for Prada during Milan Fashion Week in February 2010. Palvin has also walked for Louis Vuitton, Miu Miu, Nina Ricci, Emanuel Ungaro, Christopher Kane, Julien MacDonald, Jeremy Scott, Giles Deacon, Vivienne Westwood, and opened the pre-Fall 2011 Chanel show. In 2012, she walked in the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: Palvin began branching out into acting, after she appeared in the 2014 film "Hercules" as mythological queen Antimache.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: In 2016, she was ranked 4th in "Maxim" Hot 100. Tumblr's 2017 list of most popular models reported Palvin to be the second most popular model on the social media site.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: Palvin returned to the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show in 2018. The next year, she became the first Hungarian Victoria's Secret Angel. Palvin's curves and non-standard runway measurements have been considered by the media to be the brand's direction toward "body positivity".


title: Barbara Palvin

text: Palvin is often compared to Russian model Natalia Vodianova; "British Vogue" editor Miranda Almond said, "We chose Barbara because she is absolutely exquisite looking, a cross between a young Brooke Shields and Natalia Vodianova". Palvin credits Vodianova and Kate Moss as her favorite models.


title: Barbara Palvin

text: Since 2018, Palvin has been in a relationship with American actor Dylan Sprouse. They resided in Brooklyn until 2021, when they moved to Los Angeles.


title: John Francis Daley

text: John Francis Daley (born July 20, 1985) is an American actor, film director, producer, screenwriter, and musician. He is known for playing high school freshman Sam Weir on the NBC comedy-drama "Freaks and Geeks" and FBI criminal profiler Dr. Lance Sweets on the crime drama series "Bones", for which he was nominated for a 2014 PRISM Award. He plays keyboards and sings for the band Dayplayer.


title: John Francis Daley

text: In cinema, Daley is known for his collaborative work with Jonathan Goldstein as a film-making duo. The pair have worked on various projects together. Daley and Goldstein's first work together was initially based in comedy where they were co-screenwriters for "Horrible Bosses" (2011), co-writers for "The Incredible Burt Wonderstone" (2013), co-story writers for "Horrible Bosses 2" (2014), and co-wrote/co-directed the fifth film in the "National Lampoon's Vacation" film series, "Vacation" (2015). The duo were co-story writers for "" (2017) with Jon Watts, Christopher Ford, Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, and they co-directed the 2018 comedy "Game Night".


title: John Francis Daley

text: Daley was born in the Chicago suburb of Wheeling, Illinois, to R.F. Daley, an actor, and Nancy Daley, a piano teacher. His father is of Irish Catholic background, while his mother is Jewish. He grew up in Nyack, New York, where he played Danny in Nyack Middle School's production of "Grease."


title: John Francis Daley

text: Daley began acting when he was cast as "Young Tommy" in the U.S. and international tours of the Broadway hit "The Who's Tommy". He played Sam Weir, protagonist of the "Geeks", in the television series "Freaks and Geeks", and since then he has worked continuously in television, including series such as "The Geena Davis Show", "Boston Public", "Regular Joe", "Kitchen Confidential", "Judging Amy", and "Spin City". He was #94 on VH1's 100 Greatest Teen Stars.


title: John Francis Daley

text: In 2001, he co-directed a short film titled "What Babies Do." He also wrote and starred in the comedy short "Friday Night." In 2005, he appeared in the film "Waiting..." and in the Fox sitcom "Kitchen Confidential". In 2007, Daley joined the cast of the Fox drama series "Bones", portraying psychologist Lance Sweets. He co-wrote the season six episode "The Truth in the Myth" with his writing partner Jonathan Goldstein. Sweets was ultimately killed in the season 10 premiere; "Bones" executive producer Stephen Nathan said Sweets was killed because Daley wanted time off to direct a movie, and he was concerned that Daley's absence would be too long, especially if the directing job led to other jobs.


title: John Francis Daley

text: In 2011, Daley and his writing partner Jonathan M. Goldstein wrote the black comedy "Horrible Bosses". In 2013, Daley co-wrote "The Incredible Burt Wonderstone" with Goldstein; Daley also has a cameo in the film as a paramedic. In 2013, the two were hired to write "Call of the Wild" for DreamWorks Studios. John plays Ben House in "Rapture-Palooza". Daley went on to write the story for the sequel to "Horrible Bosses".


title: John Francis Daley

text: Daley and Goldstein co-wrote and co-directed the 2015 film "Vacation", the latest installment of the "National Lampoon's Vacation" film series, starring Ed Helms and Christina Applegate.


title: John Francis Daley

text: Daley and Goldstein wrote the screenplay for the 2017 film "" with four other screenwriters, and were both considered to direct before Jon Watts was hired.


title: John Francis Daley

text: Daley and Goldstein directed the 2018 black comedy "Game Night", based on a screenplay by Mark Perez. The film, starring Jason Bateman and Rachel McAdams, "earned a raft of glowing reviews for its whip-smart script, energetic performances, and deliberate avoidance of modern comedy's ubiquitous tropes," and grossed $117 million at the worldwide box office, versus a $37 million budget. While Daley and Goldstein did not receive screenwriter credit, they later said they rewrote "almost all of the original script's dialogue, totally overhauled the characters — most notably a creepy cop portrayed by Jesse Plemons — and comprehensively reworked the original script's third act."


title: John Francis Daley

text: In 2018, it was announced that the duo were set to direct a film adaptation of DC Comics' "The Flash" for their DC Extended Universe, but it was announced in July that they have left the project. Despite this, both Daley and Goldstein received story by credit alongside the film's screenwriter, Christina Hodson.


title: John Francis Daley

text: In July 2019, it was announced that Goldstein and Daley were entering early negotiations to direct the reboot of "" (2023). In January 2020, it was announced that, in addition to directing the film, Goldstein and Daley were also writing a new draft of the screenplay.


title: John Slattery

text: John M. Slattery Jr. (born August 13, 1962) is an American actor and director widely known for his role as Roger Sterling Jr. in the AMC drama series "Mad Men" (2007–15), for which he was nominated four times for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.


title: John Slattery

text: Slattery's other acting credits include a starring role as Ben Bradlee, Jr., in the Best Picture-winning film "Spotlight" (2015), and the role of Howard Stark in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films "Iron Man 2" (2010), "Ant-Man" (2015), "" (2016), and "" (2019). He won two Critics' Choice Television Awards for "Mad Men" and was part of the "Mad Men" ensemble cast that won two Screen Actors Guild Awards.


title: John Slattery

text: In 2013, Slattery directed his first feature film, "God's Pocket" (2014), which he co-wrote with Alex Metcalf. The film, based on a 1983 novel of the same name by Pete Dexter, premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival and was picked up for distribution by IFC Films.


title: John Slattery

text: Slattery was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Joan (née Mulhern), a retired accountant, and John "Jack" Slattery, a leather merchant. He is one of six children. As a young boy, he dreamed of being a baseball player.


title: John Slattery

text: Slattery is of Irish descent and was raised Catholic. He attended high school at Saint Sebastian's School in Newton, Massachusetts (since relocated to Needham, Massachusetts), and received a Bachelor of Fine Arts from The Catholic University of America in 1984.


title: John Slattery

text: Apart from his role on "Mad Men", Slattery has had roles such as union organizer Al Kahn on "Homefront"; Senator Walter Mondale in the HBO miniseries "From the Earth to the Moon"; as political adviser Tommy Flannigan in the HBO series "K Street"; guest appearances as Will Truman's brother Sam on "Will & Grace"; as Michael Cassidy, Amy's estranged husband, on "Judging Amy"; politician Bill Kelley on "Sex and the City"; principal Dennis Martino on "Ed"; and college president Peter Benedict on "Jack and Bobby". In March 2007, he began a series of appearances on "Desperate Housewives" portraying Victor Lang, Gabrielle Solis's (Eva Longoria) second husband, until his character's death in Season 4. In December 2009, Slattery appeared on "The Colbert Report" in a faux commercial advertising gold.


title: John Slattery

text: Slattery played Paul Moore, boyfriend of Katherine Watson (portrayed by Julia Roberts) in the film "Mona Lisa Smile", and he portrayed Howie in David Lindsay-Abaire's play, "Rabbit Hole". He had a small part as a teacher in the film "Sleepers". He also appeared as a government promoter in the Clint Eastwood feature "Flags of our Fathers" and as CIA official Henry Cravely in "Charlie Wilson's War". He was cast as Bert Miller, father of the leading female character, in "", and in "The Adjustment Bureau" played Richardson, a mid-level agent in the mysterious paranormal agency called the Bureau. Slattery narrates the audiobook versions of Don DeLillo's 2007 novel "Falling Man", Stephen King's 2008 psychological horror novel "Duma Key", and Ernest Hemingway's 1929 novel "A Farewell to Arms".


title: John Slattery

text: In 2015, Slattery portrayed journalist Ben Bradlee Jr. in the Academy Award-winning, Golden Globe-nominated drama film "Spotlight", and also appeared in the Netflix comedy series "", for which he earned a nomination for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Guest Performer in a Comedy Series.


title: John Slattery

text: Slattery married actress Talia Balsam in 1998 (who also played his on-screen wife, Mona, in "Mad Men"); they have one son together. They live in SoHo, Manhattan.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The 2008 UEFA European Football Championship, commonly referred to as UEFA Euro 2008 or simply Euro 2008, was the 13th UEFA European Championship, a quadrennial football tournament contested by the member nations of UEFA (the Union of European Football Associations). It took place in Austria and Switzerland (both hosting the tournament for the first time) from 7 to 29 June 2008.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The tournament was won by Spain, who defeated Germany 1–0 in the final. Spain were only the second nation to win all their group stage fixtures and then the European Championship itself, matching France's achievement from 1984. Spain were also the first team since Germany in 1996 to win the tournament undefeated.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Greece were the defending champions going into the tournament, having won UEFA Euro 2004. They recorded the worst finish in Euro 2008, losing their three group fixtures and collecting the least prize money. Throughout 31 matches, the participating nations totalled 77 goals, the same as the previous tournament.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Austria and Switzerland automatically qualified as hosts; the remaining 14 teams were determined through a qualifying tournament, played between August 2006 and November 2007. As European champions, Spain earned the right to compete in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup in South Africa.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Austria and Switzerland jointly bid to host the games, and facing competition from six other bids: Bosnia and Herzegovina–Croatia, Greece–Turkey, a 4-way Nordic bid (from Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden), Hungary, Russia and Scotland–Republic of Ireland. Austria and Hungary had previously bid together to host Euro 2004, losing out to Portugal, while Sweden had hosted Euro 1992.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Austria–Switzerland, Hungary, Greece–Turkey and the Nordic bid were recommended, in that order, before the final vote by UEFA's National Teams Committee.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The Austria–Switzerland bid became the second successful joint bid in the competition's history, following the UEFA Euro 2000 hosted by Belgium and the Netherlands. The following tournament, held in Poland and Ukraine, became the third jointly hosted tournament.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Qualification for Euro 2008 started in August 2006, just over a month after the end of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The qualifying tournament was contested by national teams from each of UEFA's member associations except Austria and Switzerland, who had automatically qualified for the final tournament as hosts, and Montenegro, who came into existence too late to be admitted to UEFA. England was the only seeded team not to qualify for the tournament proper, whereas Russia was the only unseeded one to qualify. The tournament also marked the debuts of Austria and Poland.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The draw for the final tournament took place on 2 December 2007, and saw Group C immediately labelled as the "group of death", with Italy, France, Romania and the Netherlands competing for the two qualifying places. In contrast, Germany and Portugal were deemed to have an easy draw, as the tournament structure meant they could not meet Italy, France, the Netherlands or Spain until the final.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: In the group stage, Croatia, Spain and the Netherlands all qualified with maximum points. Austria and Switzerland were not expected to progress, despite the advantage of being the hosts. In Group A, the Swiss lost their captain, Alexander Frei, to injury in their first game and became the first team to be eliminated from the tournament, after losing their first two matches. Switzerland managed to beat the group winner Portugal in their last game.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: In Group B, Austria managed to set up a decisive final game against Germany, dubbed "Austria's final". However, they lost by one goal, making Euro 2008 the first European Championship not to have one of the host nations present in the knockout phase. In an exciting final game in Group A, an injury- and suspension-hit Turkey came back from 2–0 down to beat the Czech Republic 3–2, after an uncharacteristic handling mistake by Petr Čech, in the last few minutes, left Nihat Kahveci with the simplest of finishes.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: In the same game, goalkeeper Volkan Demirel was shown a red card for pushing Czech striker Jan Koller to the ground. The Turks joined Portugal as the qualifiers from Group A. France were the high-profile victims of Group C, recording just one point from a goalless draw against Romania in their opening game. Italy beat the French, on the final day, to finish on four points and join the Netherlands in the quarter-finals. Finally, in Group D, Greece failed to reproduce the form of their shock 2004 win, and ended the tournament with no points. Russia qualified at the expense of Sweden, after beating them in a final game decider, joining Spain in the knockout phase.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Torrential rain during the Group A match between Switzerland and Turkey on 11 June resulted in the pitch at St. Jakob-Park in Basel requiring to be re-laid. The new pitch was installed in advance of the quarter-final match between Portugal and Germany on 19 June. In the quarter-finals, the Portuguese team was unable to give their coach, Luiz Felipe Scolari, a fitting send-off – following the mid-tournament announcement that Scolari would be leaving to join English club Chelsea – losing in an exciting game against Germany. Turkey continued their streak of last-gasp wins, equalising at the end of extra-time against Croatia and advancing on penalties. Coached by Dutchman Guus Hiddink, Russia eliminated the Netherlands with two extra-time goals. The last quarter-final match saw Spain defeat Italy on penalties, after a goalless draw in regular time.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Turkey's progress was halted by Germany in the semi-finals. Turkey entered the game with nine of their squad members missing due to injury or suspension, but still scored the first goal. Later, they levelled the score at 2–2, before Germany scored the winning goal in the final minute. The world television feed of the match was intermittently lost during the match, which prevented the broadcast of Germany's second goal.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: This was due to a thunderstorm at the broadcasting relay station in Austria, despite the game being played in Switzerland. Swiss Television SRG SSR still had a feed, because of their own broadcasting facilities at the venue. During the lost world feed, German and Austrian television ZDF and ORF started to broadcast the feed of German-speaking Swiss channel SF 1.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: This act ensured that the German goal was actually broadcast in Germany although not in Turkey. Spain won the second semi-final against Russia by three goals to nil, through second-half goals from Xavi, Daniel Güiza and David Silva, earning Spain their first appearance in a major final for 24 years.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: In the final, held at Vienna's Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Spain became European champions for the second time after Fernando Torres' first-half goal proved enough to defeat Germany. Though Germany had a strong start, Spain started to look more dangerous after they had settled.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: After half an hour, Xavi played a pass in behind the Germany back line towards Torres, who outmuscled a hesitant Philipp Lahm and clipped the ball over the diving Jens Lehmann and just inside the far post. That goal proved to be the only goal of the game, which Spain dominated despite Germany having the majority of the possession, and Spain were crowned UEFA Euro 2008 champions.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The draw for the qualifying round took place in Montreux, Switzerland on 27 January 2006 at 12:00 CET.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The qualifying process commenced a month after the 2006 World Cup. Austria and Switzerland automatically qualified for the tournament finals as host nations.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The qualifying format was changed compared to previous tournaments. The winners and runners-up from seven groups automatically qualified for the Championship, with the hosts filling the other two slots in the 16-team tournament. The change means there were no play-offs between teams finishing in second place in the groups – they qualified directly for the finals. Teams that finished outside the top two positions in their groups failed to qualify. Group A contained eight teams, and the others contained seven.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: As of 2020, this was the last time that England and Ukraine failed to qualify for the European Championship finals.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The draw for the final tournament took place on 2 December 2007 at the Lucerne Culture and Congress Centre in Switzerland.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: As was the case at the 2000 and 2004 finals, the finalists were divided into four seeding pots, based on the 2007 edition of the UEFA national team coefficient ranking, which measured performance of teams in the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying and Euro 2008 qualifying, with each group having one team drawn from each pot. In a return to the format used at Euro 1992 and Euro 1996 the games in each group were held at just two stadia, with the seeded team playing all three matches in the same city. Switzerland and Austria, as co-hosts, were automatically assigned to positions A1 and B1, respectively. The remaining 14 teams were split into four pots, with title-holders Greece seeded alongside the Netherlands in Pot 1.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: UEFA came under heavy criticism from Raymond Domenech, manager of France, who was not satisfied with his team's position in the draw, and was also in favour of having 2006 FIFA World Cup winners Italy as top seed. On 22 November 2007, Giorgio Marchetti, UEFA's professional football director, announced that a review of the coefficient ranking system was under way for future European Championships.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: All teams from each pot, were drawn consecutively into Group A to D. From Pot 1, the remaining two teams for Group C and Group D were first drawn. All Pot 1 teams automatically occupy the first positions of their groups. Next step was to draw all teams in the order from Pot 4, Pot 3 and Pot 2; and for these teams the next group positions 2/3/4 were drawn separately from an extra glass bowl, for the purposes of determining the match schedules in each group. Coincidentally, all teams from Pots 2, 3, and 4 drew the exact same group position number as their pot number.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The tournament was played at eight venues throughout the two host nations; four in Austria and four in Switzerland. Each venue had a capacity of at least 30,000 for the tournament; the largest stadium was Ernst-Happel-Stadion in Vienna with a capacity of 53,295. It was for this reason that Ernst-Happel-Stadion hosted the final. Switzerland played all three group stage matches at St. Jakob Park in Basel, which also hosted the opening match of the tournament as a compromise for the final being held in Vienna. Austria played all of their group stage matches at Ernst-Happel-Stadion.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: In 2004, the Zürich venue became a problem for the organisers. Originally, the Hardturm stadium was to be renovated and used as the city's venue, but legal challenges delayed the plan to a point that would not have allowed the ground to be used in 2008. This created a problem, as the agreement between UEFA and the organisers stipulated that four venues would be used in each country. The problem was solved when the organisers proposed renovating Letzigrund instead; UEFA approved the revised plan in January 2005. The Letzigrund stadium hosted its first football match on 23 September 2007.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Each team had access to a "team base camp" for its stay between the matches. The teams trained and resided in these locations during the tournament, and travelled to games that took place away from their bases. The 16 teams validated their option with UEFA on 18 December 2007.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Teams were required to select a squad of 23 players, three of whom had to be goalkeepers, with the final squad to be submitted to UEFA by 28 May 2008. If a member of the final squad suffered an injury prior to his team's first game that would keep him out of the entire tournament, another player could be called up to replace him.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: On 19 December 2007, UEFA announced twelve referees and twenty-four assistants were selected for the tournament. In April 2008, after failing a physical fitness test, Norwegian assistant referee Erik Ræstad was replaced by fellow countryman Jan Petter Randen. Italian referee Roberto Rosetti was selected to officiate both the opening match between Switzerland and the Czech Republic and the final between Germany and Spain.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The teams finishing in the top two positions in each of the four groups progressed to the quarter-finals, while the bottom two teams were eliminated from the tournament.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: For the three-game group stage of this tournament, where two or more teams in a group tied on an equal number of points, the finishing positions were determined by the following tie-breaking criteria in the following order:


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: However, these criteria would not apply if two teams tied on points and goals scored played against each other in their final group match and no other team in group finishes with same points; in that case, the tie would be broken by a penalty shootout.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The knockout phase was different from that of past tournaments. Teams in groups A and B were separated from teams in groups C and D until the final. This meant that two teams who meet in the same group would meet again in the semi finals instead of the final if they got this far. Also, in another major change, for the first time in a European Championship, only two venues (St. Jakob-Park, Basel and Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna—the two largest of the eight stadiums used) were used for the seven matches in the knockout phase of the tournament.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The UEFA Technical Team was charged with naming a squad composed of the 23 best players over the course of the tournament. The group of nine analysts watched every game at the tournament before making their decision after the final. Nine players from the winning Spanish team were named in the team of the tournament, while no players knocked out in the group stage were included. Four players from semi-finalists Russia were also included, the first-time ever there were Russian players in the Team of the Tournament following the fall of the Soviet Union.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The UEFA Technical Team also had to pick a Player of the Tournament, taking fans' votes into account. The player chosen was Spain midfielder Xavi.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The Golden Boot was awarded to yet another Spaniard, David Villa, who scored four goals, three of which came in his side's 4–1 win over Russia (the only hat-trick scored in the tournament).


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: UEFA announced that total of €184 million has been offered to the 16 teams competing in this tournament, increasing from €129 million in the previous tournament. The distributions as below:


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Spain, as winners of the tournament and winners of all three of their group stage matches, received a total prize of €23 million, the maximum possible prize money. Greece on the other hand, being the only team to lose all three of their group matches, were the only team to receive nothing more than the €7.5 million participation prize.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: At UEFA Euro 2008, players may be suspended from playing in subsequent matches upon the collection of a certain number of yellow or red cards. If a player is shown a red card – whether as a result of two bookable offences or a straight red – that player is suspended from playing in his team's next match. If his team is eliminated from the competition before the end of his suspension, the games carry over to the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification matches. A player is also suspended for one match for picking up two yellow cards in separate matches. However, any yellow cards accumulated are annulled once a team is eliminated from the tournament or reaches the semi-finals.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: In extreme cases of ill-discipline, UEFA may choose to have a disciplinary panel examine the incident in order to determine whether or not further suspension is required. One case of this at Euro 2008 was the suspension of Turkey goalkeeper Volkan Demirel for two matches for pushing Czech striker Jan Koller.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The following players were suspended for one or more games as a result of red cards or yellow card accumulation:


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Three times in the second half of the semi-final between Germany and Turkey, nearly the entire global television coverage of the game was interrupted. A thunderstorm over Vienna caused technical difficulties in the International Broadcast Centre (IBC), which relayed the television feed from the match in Basel, Switzerland, resulting in one or more goals being missed by various audiences. Various national broadcasters took emergency contingency measures such as reverting to radio broadcasting (for example, the BBC used coverage from Radio 5 Live, Ireland circumvented the problem by having RTÉ Two's studio presenter Bill O'Herlihy and panellists Eamon Dunphy, Johnny Giles and Liam Brady provide emergency discussion on what had happened in the match, and Øyvind Alsaker, commentator from Norwegian TV2 picked up his mobile and filmed it over a 3G connection). Only the Swiss public broadcaster SRG maintained full coverage since it used a direct signal other than the IBC's.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: A new trophy was awarded to the winners of the Euro 2008 tournament. The new version of the Henri Delaunay Trophy, created by Asprey London, is almost an exact replica of the original designed by Arthus-Bertrand. A small figure juggling a ball on the back of the original has been removed, as has the marble plinth. The silver base of the trophy also had to be enlarged to make it stable. The names of the winning countries that had appeared on the plinth have now been engraved on the back of the trophy, which is made of sterling silver, weighs and is tall.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The match ball for the finals was unveiled at the draw ceremony. Produced by Adidas and named the "Europass", it is a 14-panel ball in the same construction as the Teamgeist, but with a modified surface design. A version named the "Europass Gloria" was used in the final.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: There were concerns raised about the match ball, which was claimed to deviate unpredictably in flight, making it difficult to judge for goalkeepers. Notable players to criticise were Germany's Jens Lehmann and the Czech Republic's Petr Čech. These claims were disputed by the ball's designer, Oliver Kahn.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The official melody was composed by Rollo Armstrong of Faithless on behalf of UEFA. The official Euro 2008 song was "Can You Hear Me" by Enrique Iglesias, which was performed live during the official closing ceremony prior to the final in Ernst Happel Stadion in Vienna on 29 June.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: Two soundtracks, "Like a Superstar" and "Feel the Rush," were recorded by Jamaican reggae artist Shaggy as mascot songs for Euro 2008. They formed a musical background to video clips featuring the twin mascots Trix and Flix.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The official Swiss song for the tournament was a new version of "Bring en hei" ("Bring him Home") by Baschi. Christina Stürmer sang the official tournament song of Austrian ÖFB, "Fieber" ("Fever"). Croatia manager Slaven Bilić recorded his country's official Euro 2008 song, "Vatreno ludilo" ("Fiery Madness"), with his rock group, Rawbau.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: "Seven Nation Army" by The White Stripes was played when players walked out before kick-off, and a remix of "Samba de Janeiro" by German dance group Bellini was played after each goal scored in the competition.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The two official mascots for UEFA Euro 2008, were named after a vote from the public of the two host nations from the following options:


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: In April 2007, after receiving 36.3% of the vote, Trix and Flix were chosen. "I am sure the mascots and their names will become a vital part of the understanding of the whole event," said Christian Mutschler, the tournament director for Switzerland. The mascots were unveiled on 27 September 2006, in Vienna, Austria. Their official début was on 11 October 2006, at the Austria vs. Switzerland friendly, which ended 2–1.


title: UEFA Euro 2008

text: The slogan for UEFA Euro 2008 was chosen on 24 January 2007: "Expect Emotions". UEFA President Michel Platini stated, "It describes in a nutshell what the UEFA Euro 2008 has to offer: all kinds of emotions – joy, disappointment, relief or high tension – right up to the final whistle."


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: AFC Wimbledon is an English professional football club, based in Merton, London, that plays in the EFL League Two, after being relegated from the EFL League One following the 2021–22 season. The club's home stadium is Plough Lane.


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: The club was founded in 2002 by former supporters of Wimbledon F.C. after the Football Association allowed that club to relocate to Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire, about north of Wimbledon. Most of the Wimbledon F.C. supporters were very strongly opposed to moving the club so far away from Wimbledon, feeling that a club transplanted to a distant location would no longer represent Wimbledon or the club's historic legacy and tradition. Wimbledon F.C. moved in 2003 and formally changed the name of the club to Milton Keynes Dons in 2004.


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: When AFC Wimbledon was formed, it affiliated to both the London and Surrey Football Associations, and entered the Premier Division of the Combined Counties League, the ninth tier of English football. The club has since been promoted six times in 13 seasons, going from the ninth tier (Combined Counties Premier) to the third (League One).


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: AFC Wimbledon currently hold the record for the longest unbeaten run of league matches in English senior football, having played 78 consecutive league games without a defeat between February 2003 and December 2004. They are the first club formed in the 21st century to make it into the Football League.


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: The club was initially based at Kingsmeadow, a ground bought from and then shared with Isthmian League club Kingstonian F.C. until 2017, and with Chelsea F.C. Women from 2017. In November 2020, the club moved to Plough Lane, a new stadium on the site of the defunct Wimbledon Greyhound Stadium, only 250 yards away from the original Plough Lane, Wimbledon F.C.'s home until 1991. The new stadium has an initial capacity of 9,215, with the option of expansion to a maximum 20,000 at a later date.


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: On 28 May 2002, the Football Association approved a decision by a three-person arbitration commission they had appointed to allow Wimbledon F.C. to relocate north to the new town of Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire; a decision influenced, among other factors, by claims from Wimbledon chairman Charles Koppel that such a move was necessary in order to prevent the club from going bankrupt.


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: Although the absence of a ground in Milton Keynes meeting Football League criteria meant that the club were unable to physically move for over a year, major organised protests at the decision continued to be held by Wimbledon's traditional local support and a boycott of the club's home matches at Selhurst Park meant attendances dwindled immediately.


title: AFC Wimbledon

text: Following the F.A.'s announcement of their decision, a group of Wimbledon supporters led by Kris Stewart and fellow founding members Marc Jones and Trevor Williams met in The Fox and Grapes pub on Wimbledon Common to plan what was to be done next as part of the protest. It was agreed that as there was no right of appeal, the only option was to start the club again from scratch. On 30 May 2002 the idea was put forward in a Wimbledon Independent Supporters' Association meeting to create a new community-based club named AFC Wimbledon and an appeal for funds was launched.