title: Brooklyn Nine-Nine (season 8)

text: The eighth season was confirmed by NBC on November 14, 2019. On February 11, 2021, it was announced that the season would be series' last and would comprise ten episodes. In June 2020, actor Terry Crews said four planned episodes for Season 8 had been aborted following the George Floyd protests, as Floyd's murder prompted the producers to reassess the direction of the season's storyline. On December 31, 2020, it was announced that production had ceased on the series due to a surge in COVID-19 cases in Los Angeles, California, where the series is filmed. Production on the season began in April 2021. Filming concluded in June 2021.


title: Brooklyn Nine-Nine (season 8)

text: In June 2020, it was announced that the season would premiere in 2020 as part NBC's fall schedule. However, NBC later delayed the premiere until mid-season 2020–21. On February 11, 2021, it was announced that the season had been pushed back until the 2021–22 television season. However, on May 14, 2021, it was announced that the season would air during the 2020–21 television season after the 2020 Summer Olympics. On May 20, 2021, it was announced that the season would premiere on August 12, 2021 and would consist of back-to-back episodes on Thursdays at 8 p.m. ET.


title: Rayon

text: Rayon is a semi-synthetic fiber, made from natural sources of regenerated cellulose, such as wood and related agricultural products. It has the same molecular structure as cellulose. It is also called viscose. Many types and grades of viscose fibers and films exist. Some imitate the feel and texture of natural fibers such as silk, wool, cotton, and linen. The types that resemble silk are often called artificial silk.


title: Rayon

text: The fibre is used to make textiles for clothing and other purposes. Rayon production involves solubilizing cellulose to allow turning the fibers into required form. Three common ways to solubilize are the cuprammonium process, not in use today, using ammoniacal solutions of copper salts; the viscose process, the most common today, using alkali and carbon sulfide; and the Lyocell process, using amine oxide. The last avoids the neurotoxic carbon sulfide of the viscose process but is also more expensive.


title: Rayon

text: Rayon is produced by dissolving cellulose, then converting this solution back to insoluble fibrous cellulose. Various processes have been developed for this regeneration. The most common methods for creating rayon are the cuprammonium method, the viscose method, and the lyocell process. The first two methods have been practiced for more than a century.


title: Rayon

text: Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer (1818–1860) discovered that cellulose dissolves in tetraaminecopper dihydroxide. Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897. Production of cuprammonium rayon for textiles started in 1899 in the Vereinigte Glanzstoff Fabriken AG in Oberbruch near Aachen. Improvement by J. P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk.


title: Rayon

text: Cuprammonium rayon has properties similar to viscose; however, during its production, the cellulose is combined with copper and ammonia (Schweizer's reagent). Due to the detrimental environmental effects of this production method, cuprammonium rayon is no longer being produced in the United States. The process has been described as historic, but cuprammonium rayon is still made by one company in Japan.


title: Rayon

text: English chemist Charles Frederick Cross and his collaborators, Edward John Bevan and Clayton Beadle, patented their artificial silk in 1894. They named their material "viscose" because its production involved the intermediacy of a highly viscous solution. The process built on the reaction of cellulose with a strong base, followed by treatment of that solution with carbon disulfide to give a xanthate derivative. The xanthate is then converted back to a cellulose fiber in a subsequent step.


title: Rayon

text: The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibres in November 1905. Courtaulds formed an American division, American Viscose (later known as Avtex Fibers), to produce their formulation in the United States in 1910. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924, with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as "viscose", which has been ruled an acceptable alternative term for rayon by the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC).


title: Rayon

text: The viscose method can use wood as a source of cellulose, whereas other routes to rayon require lignin-free cellulose as a starting material. The use of woody sources of cellulose makes viscose cheaper, so it was traditionally used on a larger scale than the other methods. On the other hand, the original viscose process generates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. Newer technologies use less water and have improved the quality of the wastewater. Rayon was produced only as a filament fiber until the 1930s when methods were developed to utilize "broken waste rayon" as staple fiber.


title: Rayon

text: The physical properties of rayon remained unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in the 1940s. Further research and development led to high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s. Research in the UK was centred on the government-funded British Rayon Research Association.


title: Rayon

text: "High-tenacity rayon" is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice the strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord.


title: Rayon

text: Industrial applications of rayon emerged around 1935. Substituting cotton fiber in tires and belts, industrial types of rayon developed a totally different set of properties, amongst which tensile strength and elastic modulus were paramount.


title: Rayon

text: Modal is a genericized trademark of Lenzing AG, used for (viscose) rayon which is stretched as it is made, aligning the molecules along the fibers. Two forms are available: "polynosics" and "high wet modulus" (HWM). "High-wet-modulus rayon" is a modified version of viscose that is stronger when wet. It can be mercerized like cotton. HWM rayons are also known as "polynosic". Polynosic fibers are dimensionally stable and do not shrink or get pulled out of shape when wet like many rayons. They are also wear-resistant and strong while maintaining a soft, silky feel. They are sometimes identified by the trade name Modal.


title: Rayon

text: Modal is used alone or with other fibers (often cotton or spandex) in clothing and household items like pajamas, underwear, bathrobes, towels, and bedsheets. Modal can be tumble-dried without damage. The fabric has been known to pill less than cotton due to fiber properties and lower surface friction. Modal is made by spinning beech-tree cellulose and is considered a more eco-friendly alternative to cotton, as the production process uses on average 10–20 times less water.


title: Rayon

text: The lyocell process relies on dissolution of cellulose products in a solvent, N-methyl morpholine N-oxide (NMMO). The lyocell process is not widely used because it is more expensive than the viscose process.


title: Rayon

text: The process starts with cellulose and involves dry jet-wet spinning. It was developed at the now defunct American Enka Company and Courtaulds Fibres. Lenzing's Tencel is an example of a lyocell fiber. Unlike the viscose process, the lycocell process does not use highly toxic carbon sulfide. "Lyocell" has become a genericized trademark, used to refer to the lyocell process for making cellulose fibers.


title: Rayon

text: Nitrocellulose is a derivative of cellulose that is soluble in organic solvents. It is mainly used as an explosive or as a lacquer. Many early plastics, including celluloid, were made from nitrocellulose.


title: Rayon

text: Cellulose acetate shares many similarities with viscose rayon and was formerly considered as the same textile. However, rayon resists heat, while acetate is prone to melting. Acetate must be laundered with care either by hand-washing or dry cleaning, and acetate garments disintegrate when heated in a tumble dryer. The two fabrics are now required to be listed distinctly on garment labels.


title: Rayon

text: Rayon is a versatile fiber and is widely claimed to have the same comfort properties as natural fibers, although the drape and slipperiness of rayon textiles are often more like nylon. It can imitate the feel and texture of silk, wool, cotton and linen. The fibers are easily dyed in a wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not always insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates, although also making their "hand" (feel) cool and sometimes almost slimy to the touch.


title: Rayon

text: The durability and appearance retention of regular viscose rayons are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. However, HWM rayon (high-wet-modulus rayon) is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance retention. Recommended care for regular viscose rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine-washed.


title: Rayon

text: Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called striations and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM and cupra rayon are rounder. Filament rayon yarns vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to 5000 denier. Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very bright, but the addition of delustering pigments cuts down on this natural brightness.


title: Rayon

text: The raw material for viscose is primarily wood pulp (sometimes bamboo pulp), which is chemically converted into a soluble compound. It is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments, which are chemically solidified, resulting in fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Unless the chemicals are handled carefully, workers can be seriously harmed by the carbon disulfide used to manufacture most rayon.


title: Rayon

text: To prepare viscose, pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16–19% by mass) to form "alkali cellulose", which has the approximate formula [CHO−ONa]. This material is allowed to depolymerize to an extent. The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the ripening process, since oxygen causes depolymerization. The alkali cellulose is then treated with carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose xanthate:


title: Rayon

text: Rayon fiber is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid. In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and carbon disulfide:


title: Rayon

text: Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide (HS), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution, and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution or hydrogen peroxide solution.


title: Rayon

text: Production begins with processed cellulose obtained from wood pulp and plant fibers. The cellulose content in the pulp should be around 87–97%.


title: Rayon

text: Carbon disulfide is highly toxic. It is well-documented to have seriously harmed the health of rayon workers in developed countries (see history section), and emissions may also harm the health of people living near rayon plants and their livestock. Rates of disability in modern factories (mainly in China, Indonesia, and India) are unknown. This has raised ethical concerns over viscose rayon production. , production facilities located in developing countries generally do not provide environmental or worker safety data.


title: Rayon

text: Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008. , about 250 g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced.


title: Rayon

text: Control technologies have enabled improved collection of carbon disulfide and reuse of it, resulting in a lower emissions of carbon disulfide. These have not always been implemented in places where it was not legally required and profitable.


title: Rayon

text: Carbon disulfide is volatile and is lost before the rayon gets to the consumer; the rayon itself is basically pure cellulose.


title: Rayon

text: French scientist and industrialist Hilaire de Chardonnet (1838–1924), inventor of the first artificial textile fiber, "artificial silk", created viscose. British scientists Charles Frederick Cross and Edward John Bevan took out British Patent No. 8,700, "Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds" in May, 1892. In 1893, they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences and, in 1896, formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd. to exploit the process.


title: Rayon

text: Studies from the 1930s show that 30% of American rayon workers suffered severe health effects from carbon disulfide exposure. Courtaulds worked hard to prevent this information being published in Britain.


title: Rayon

text: During the Second World War, political prisoners in Nazi Germany were made to work in appalling conditions at the Phrix rayon factory in Krefeld. Nazis used forced labour to produce rayon across occupied Europe.


title: Rayon

text: In the 1990s, viscose rayon producers faced lawsuits for negligent environmental pollution. Emissions abatement technologies had been consistently used. Carbon-bed recovery, for instance, which reduces emissions by about 90%, was used in Europe, but not in the US, by Courtaulds. Pollution control and worker safety started to become cost-limiting factors in production.


title: Rayon

text: Japan has reduced carbon disulfide emissions per kilogram of viscose rayon produced (by about 16% per year), but in other rayon-producing countries, including China, emissions are uncontrolled. Rayon production is steady or decreasing except in China, where it is increasing, .


title: Rayon

text: Rayon production has largely moved to the developing world, especially China, Indonesia and India. Rates of disability in these factories are unknown, , and concerns for worker safety continue.


title: Rayon

text: The development of lyocell was motivated by environmental concerns; researchers sought to manufacture rayon by means less harmful than the viscose method.


title: Rayon

text: The lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct American Enka fibers facility at Enka, North Carolina. In 2003, the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) awarded Neal E. Franks their Henry E. Millson Award for Invention for lyocell. In 1966–1968, D. L. Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc. studied NMMO solutions. In the decade 1969 to 1979, American Enka tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process. The operating name for the fibre inside the Enka organization was "Newcell", and the development was carried through pilot plant scale before the work was stopped.


title: Rayon

text: The basic process of dissolving cellulose in NMMO was first described in a 1981 patent by Mcorsley for Akzona Incorporated (the holding company of Akzo). In the 1980s the patent was licensed by Akzo to Courtaulds and Lenzing.


title: Rayon

text: The fibre was developed by Courtaulds Fibres under the brand name "Tencel" in the 1980s. In 1982, a 100kg/week pilot plant was built in Coventry, UK, and production was increased tenfold (to a ton/week) in 1984. In 1988, a 25 ton/week semi-commercial production line opened at the Grimsby, UK, pilot plant.


title: Rayon

text: The process was first commercialised at Courtaulds' rayon factories at Mobile, Alabama (1990), and at the Grimsby plant (1998). In January 1993, the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. A second plant in Mobile was planned. By 2004, production had quadrupled to 80,000 tons.


title: Rayon

text: Lenzing began a pilot plant in 1990, and commercial production in 1997, with 12 metric tonnes/year made in a plant in Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal, Austria. When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20,000 tonnes/year, and planning to double capacity by the end of the year. In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40,000 tons [sic, probably metric tonnes]. In 1998, Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement.


title: Rayon

text: In 1998 Courtaulds was acquired by competitor Akzo Nobel, which combined the Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them to private equity firm CVC Partners. In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG, which combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. It took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby, and by 2015 were the largest lyocell producer at 130,000 tonnes/year.


title: Rayon

text: , the lyocell process is not widely used, because it is still more expensive than the viscose process.


title: Rayon

text: The biodegradability of various fibers in soil burial and sewage sludge was evaluated by Korean researchers. Rayon was found to be more biodegradable than cotton, and cotton more than acetate. The more water-repellent the rayon-based fabric, the more slowly it will decompose. Silverfish—like the firebrat—can eat rayon, but damage was found to be minor, potentially due to the heavy, slick texture of the tested rayon. Another study states that "artificial silk [...] [was] readily eaten" by the grey silverfish.


title: Rayon

text: A 2014 ocean survey found that rayon contributed to 56.9% of the total fibers found in deep ocean areas, the rest being polyester, polyamides, acetate and acrylic. A 2016 study found a discrepancy in the ability to identify natural fibers in a marine environment via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Later research of oceanic microfibers instead found cotton being the most frequent match (50% of all fibers), followed by other cellulosic fibers at 29.5% (e.g., rayon/viscose, linen, jute, kenaf, hemp, etc.). Further analysis of the specific contribution of rayon to ocean fibers was not performed due to the difficulty in distinguishing between natural and man-made cellulosic fibers using FTIR spectra.


title: Rayon

text: For several years, there have been concerns about links between rayon manufacturers and deforestation. As a result of these concerns, FSC and PEFC came on the same platform with CanopyPlanet to focus on these issues. CanopyPlanet subsequently started publishing a yearly Hot Button report, which puts all the man-made cellulosics manufacturers globally on the same scoring platform. The scoring from the 2020 report scores all such manufacturers on a scale of 35, the highest scores having been achieved by Birla Cellulose (33) and Lenzing (30.5).


title: Rayon

text: In 2018, viscose fiber production in the world was approximately 5.8 million tons, and China was the largest producer with about 65% of total global production. Trade names are used within the rayon industry to label the type of rayon in the product. Viscose Rayon was first produced in Coventry England in 1905 by Courtaulds.


title: Rayon

text: "Bemberg" is a trade name for cupramonium rayon developed by J. P. Bemberg. Bemberg performs much like viscose but has a smaller diameter and comes closest to silk in feel. Bemberg is now only produced in Japan. The fibers are finer than viscose rayon.


title: Rayon

text: "Modal" and "Tencel" are widely used forms of rayon produced by Lenzing AG. Tencel, generic name "lyocell", is made by a slightly different solvent recovery process, and is considered a different fiber by the US FTC. Tencel lyocell was first produced commercially by Courtaulds' Grimsby plant in England. The process, which dissolves cellulose without a chemical reaction, was developed by Courtaulds Research.


title: Rayon

text: Birla Cellulose is also a volume manufacturer of rayon. They have plants located in India, Indonesia and China.


title: Rayon

text: Accordis was a major manufacturer of cellulose-based fibers and yarns. Production facilities can be found throughout Europe, the U.S. and Brazil.


title: Rayon

text: "Visil rayon" and HOPE FR are flame retardant forms of viscose that have silica embedded in the fiber during manufacturing.


title: Rayon

text: North American Rayon Corporation of Tennessee produced viscose rayon until its closure in the year 2000.


title: Rayon

text: Indonesia is one of the largest producers of rayon in the world, and Asia Pacific Rayon (APR) of the country has an annual production capacity of 0.24 million tons.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Jameis Lanaed Winston ( ; born January 6, 1994) is an American football quarterback for the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Florida State, where he became the youngest player to win the Heisman Trophy and led his team to victory in the 2014 BCS National Championship Game during his freshman year. Declaring for the NFL after his sophomore season, Winston was selected first overall by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the 2015 NFL Draft.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston set several franchise rookie records for the Buccaneers, earning him Pro Bowl honors, and led the league in passing yards during the 2019 season. However, he was unable to reach the playoffs with the Buccaneers and his 2019 campaign was also marked by him leading the league in interceptions, including setting the NFL season record for interceptions returned for touchdowns. Not re-signed to Tampa Bay after his rookie contract expired, Winston joined the Saints as a backup to Drew Brees. He became the team's primary starter in 2021 following Brees' retirement.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston was born in Bessemer, Alabama on January 6, 1994. He attended Hueytown High School, where he played both football and baseball. Winston was considered the best dual-threat quarterback recruit in the nation by Rivals.com, and the best overall quarterback recruit by ESPN. Winston was also named the MVP of the ESPN RISE Elite 11 quarterback camp. Additionally, Winston earned the Gatorade Player of the Year recognition for the state of Alabama.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston committed to attend Florida State University on February 3, 2012. The Texas Rangers selected Winston in the 15th round of the 2012 Major League Baseball Draft out of high school. Though the Rangers proposed allowing him to play for the Florida State Seminoles football team while working out with their baseball organization, Winston decided not to sign.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Prior to the 2013 season, Winston was named Florida State's starting quarterback. In his college debut, he completed 25 of 27 passes with four passing touchdowns along with a rushing touchdown in a 41–17 victory over the University of Pittsburgh.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston helped lead the team to an undefeated 13–0 regular season record, including a 45–7 victory in the ACC Championship against Duke.


title: Jameis Winston

text: For his successes in 2013, Winston earned numerous accolades. He was named the 2013 ACC Offensive Player of the Year and ACC Player of the Year to go along with winning the AP Player of the Year Award, Davey O'Brien Award, Manning Award, Walter Camp Player of the Year Award, as well as the nickname "Famous Jameis". In addition, he was named as a Consensus All-American. Most notably, he won the Heisman Trophy on December 14, 2013, beating out quarterbacks A. J. McCarron, Jordan Lynch, and Johnny Manziel, the previous winner, as well as running backs Tre Mason and Andre Williams. He became the second freshman to win the award, after Manziel won the previous year. He also became the youngest to win the award, at 19 years and 342 days.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On January 6, 2014, Winston's 20th birthday, Florida State defeated Auburn 34–31 in the 2014 BCS National Championship Game. Winston was named the Offensive MVP of the game after passing for 235 yards with two touchdowns, including the game-winning touchdown pass to Kelvin Benjamin with 13 seconds left. Winston finished his freshman season with a conference-leading 4,057 passing yards and 40 passing touchdowns, which set an ACC record and a Division I Football Bowl Subdivision freshman record.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston started 13 games his redshirt sophomore season. He did not play in one game due to suspension. After a 13–0 regular season, the Seminoles were selected to play in the 2015 Rose Bowl, a semifinal game in the College Football Playoff, against Oregon. Oregon would win the game by a score of 59–20, giving Winston his only loss as a starter during his college career. Winston finished the season with a conference-leading 3,907 passing yards and 25 touchdowns. He finished in sixth place in the Heisman Trophy voting in 2014.


title: Jameis Winston

text: After the season, Winston decided to forgo the remaining two years of eligibility and enter the 2015 NFL Draft. He finished his career 26–1 as a starter and completed 562 of 851 passes for 7,964 yards, 65 touchdowns, and 28 interceptions.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston chose Florida State in part because he was allowed to play for the Florida State Seminoles baseball team in addition to football. A switch-hitting batter and a right-handed thrower, he played as an outfielder and a pitcher as a freshman in 2013. He batted .235 with a .723 on-base plus slugging in 119 at-bats and had a 3.00 earned run average in 27 innings pitched. Prior to the 2014 season, Winston was named a preseason All-American by "Baseball America" as a 3rd-team utility player.


title: Jameis Winston

text: The Tampa Bay Buccaneers took Winston first overall in the 2015 NFL Draft. On May 1, 2015, Winston signed a four-year, $23.35 million contract with the Buccaneers, with a $16.7 million signing bonus. The contract prevents him from playing any other sport than football.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston played his first regular season game against the Tennessee Titans that featured fellow first rounder, Marcus Mariota. In the 42–14 loss, his first pass was intercepted and returned for a touchdown by Coty Sensabaugh. Winston's interception was the first time a rookie's first pass was returned for a touchdown since Brett Favre in 1991.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On November 22, 2015, against the Philadelphia Eagles, Winston tied an NFL rookie, and Buccaneers franchise, record with five touchdown passes.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston set franchise rookie records in pass attempts, pass completions, passing yards, and passing touchdowns. Winston finished his rookie season with 4,042 passing yards, finishing 23 yards short of the franchise record set by Josh Freeman in 2012. Winston also became the third rookie quarterback to pass over 4,000 yards in a season. He was named to the NFL All-Rookie Team for his 2015 season, becoming the fourth Buccaneers quarterback to receive this award, joining Tom Owen (1974), Doug Williams (1978), and Mike Glennon (2013).


title: Jameis Winston

text: Following his team's loss in the AFC Championship game, New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady elected not to participate in the 2016 Pro Bowl; as a result, Winston was selected to his first Pro Bowl game making him the first rookie quarterback in Buccaneers' history to be selected.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston's second season in the NFL began with an impressive performance against the Atlanta Falcons at the Georgia Dome, in which he completed over 70% of his throws for 281 yards and four touchdown passes in a 31–24 victory. He earned NFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance against the Falcons. Following Week 1, the Buccaneers began to struggle through injuries, inconsistent play, and offensive turnovers till mid-season, at which point the team was 3–5 and had experienced blowout losses to the Arizona Cardinals, Denver Broncos, and Atlanta Falcons - a three-game losing streak. Following the loss to the Falcons, the Winston-led Buccaneers began playing efficient offense as well as exceptional defense and special teams play, resulting in the Buccaneers' first five-game winning streak since their Super Bowl-winning season. The win streak gave the Buccaneers possession of the 6th seed in the NFC playoff race, which they quickly lost after back-to-back losses to the Dallas Cowboys and New Orleans Saints. Winston led the Buccaneers to their first winning season in six years after defeating the Carolina Panthers in the regular-season finale, during which he broke the franchise records for passing yards and passing touchdowns in a season and became the first quarterback in NFL history to start his career with consecutive seasons of 4,000 yards passing. However, the Buccaneers were eliminated from playoff contention via a tiebreaker with the Detroit Lions. He was ranked 57th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017.


title: Jameis Winston

text: During Week 6 against the Arizona Cardinals, Winston left the game with an apparent right shoulder injury. The next day, October 16, Winston suffered a sprained AC joint in his right shoulder, but he stated that he could play through it. During Week 9's loss to the New Orleans Saints, Winston was taken out of the game with the same shoulder injury. Head coach Dirk Koetter announced the next day that he would miss at least two weeks to rest his shoulder. While on the sideline, Winston initiated an altercation with Saints rookie Marshon Lattimore, while being assisted by teammate Mike Evans, for which Winston was fined $12,154. In the game, Winston became the second-youngest player in NFL history to reach 10,000 career passing yards, four days older than record holder Drew Bledsoe. He missed the next three games due to injury and returned in Week 13. Overall, Winston and Buccaneers struggled to a 5–11 record. Winston finished the 2017 season with 3,504 passing yards, 19 touchdowns, and 11 interceptions.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On April 17, 2018, the Buccaneers picked up the fifth-year option on Winston's contract. On June 21, the NFL announced that he would be suspended for violating the league's personal conduct policy, regarding his latest incident where he allegedly groped a female Uber driver. On June 28, the announcement was made official, giving Winston a three-game suspension to begin the 2018 season.


title: Jameis Winston

text: After missing the first three games due to the suspension, Winston returned in Week 4 against the Chicago Bears, but did not start. He replaced Ryan Fitzpatrick in the third quarter, finishing with 145 passing yards, a touchdown, and two interceptions as the Buccaneers lost 10–48. In Week 6, against the Atlanta Falcons, he had 395 passing yards, four touchdowns, and two interceptions in the 34–29 loss. In Week 8 against the Cincinnati Bengals, Winston threw for 276 yards, one touchdown, and four interceptions and he was benched in the third quarter for Fitzpatrick. During Week 11 against the New York Giants, Fitzpatrick threw three interceptions and was benched for Winston in the second half. Winston threw for 199 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception as the Buccaneers lost 38–35. Two weeks later, in a 24–17 win over the Carolina Panthers, Winston completed 20 of 30 passing attempts for 249 yards and two touchdowns, breaking the franchise record for passing touchdowns in a career with 81. Three weeks later, in a 27–20 loss to the Dallas Cowboys, Winston completed 34 of 48 passing attempts for 336 yards and one touchdown, breaking the franchise record for completions in a career previously held by Josh Freeman. Overall, he finished the 2018 season with 2,992 passing yards, 19 touchdowns, and 14 interceptions.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Prior to the start of the season, head coach Dirk Koetter was fired and replaced by former Arizona Cardinals head coach Bruce Arians. In Week 1, during a 31–17 loss to the San Francisco 49ers, Winston broke the Buccaneers franchise record for passing yards in a career previously held by Vinny Testaverde but finished with 194 passing yards, one touchdown, and three interceptions, two of which were returned for touchdowns. Following a lackluster first two weeks of the 2019 season, during a 32–31 loss to the New York Giants in Week 3, Winston passed for 380 yards, three touchdowns, and one interception. The following week, Winston passed for 385 yards, four touchdowns, and an interception in a 55–40 win over the Los Angeles Rams. As a result of his performance, Winston was named NFC Offensive Player of the Week.


title: Jameis Winston

text: During Week 6 against the Carolina Panthers at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, Winston became the first quarterback in Buccaneers franchise history to pass for 100 touchdowns in a career, but finished with 400 passing yards, one touchdown, a lost fumble, and a career-high five interceptions as the Buccaneers lost 37–26. Two weeks later, in a 27–23 loss to the Tennessee Titans, Winston broke another Buccaneers franchise record, previously held by Testaverde, for career passing attempts, but finished with 301 yards, two touchdowns, two interceptions, and two lost fumbles. The following week, in a 40–34 overtime loss to the Seattle Seahawks, Winston passed for 335 yards, two touchdowns, and lost a fumble. In Week 10, during a 30–27 victory over the Arizona Cardinals, he had 358 passing yards, one touchdown, and two interceptions. In the next against the New Orleans Saints, Winston threw for 313 yards, two touchdowns, and four interceptions, one of which was returned for a touchdown, as the Buccaneers lost 34–17. In Week 12, during a 35–22 win against the Atlanta Falcons, Winston passed for 313 yards, three touchdowns, and two interceptions. During Week 14 against the Indianapolis Colts, Winston finished with a then career-best 456 passing yards, five rushing yards, five total touchdowns, and three interceptions as the Buccaneers won 38–35. As a result of his performance, Winston broke the Buccaneers' single-season franchise record for passing yards that he set in 2016, becoming the first quarterback in franchise history to pass for over 4,100 yards in a season.


title: Jameis Winston

text: In Week 15, during a 38–17 win over the Detroit Lions, Winston finished with a career-best 458 passing yards, four rushing yards, four touchdowns, and one interception as he both became the first quarterback in NFL history to have consecutive games of 450 passing yards and broke the franchise record for passing touchdowns in a single season that he set in 2016, becoming the first quarterback in franchise history to throw 30 passing touchdowns in a single season. In Week 16, during a 23–20 loss to the Houston Texans, Winston threw for 335 yards, one touchdown, and four interceptions with one returned for a touchdown. In Week 17, during a 28–22 overtime loss to the Atlanta Falcons, Winston threw for 201 yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions including a game-ending one that was returned for a touchdown by linebacker Deion Jones. As a result, Winston became the eighth quarterback in NFL history to throw for 5,000 yards in a single season, the first Buccaneers quarterback to throw for 5,000 yards in a single season, and the first quarterback in NFL history to throw at least 30 touchdowns and 30 interceptions in a single season.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston finished his fifth year setting new career highs, leading the league in passing yards, completions, and attempts to go along with new career highs in passing touchdowns but also leading the league in interceptions and total turnovers. He finished with 5,109 passing yards, 33 passing touchdowns, one rushing touchdown, 30 interceptions, and five lost fumbles. Winston's seven interceptions returned for touchdowns set an NFL record, and his 84.3 passer rating ranked 27th among starters. Winston was also recognized for having his first and last pass as a Buccaneer returned for touchdowns.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On February 28, 2020, it was revealed that Winston underwent surgery to repair a torn meniscus. It was also revealed that Winston had LASIK surgery. Furthermore, he was dealing with the knee injury and a broken thumb for the entire 2019 season. Winston was not re-signed by the Buccaneers in the offseason, as they opted to replace him with longtime New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On April 28, 2020, Winston signed a one-year contract with the New Orleans Saints. His contract had a value of $1.1 million including his base salary of $952,000 and a signing bonus of $148,000 with a possible $3.4 million in incentives.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston made his first appearance of the 2020 season in Week 9 against his former team the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on "Sunday Night Football" in relief of Brees. Winston passed for 12 yards as the Saints beat the Bucs 38–3. In Week 10 against the San Francisco 49ers, Winston came in the second half after Brees left the game with a rib injury. Winston completed 6 of 10 passes for 63 yards as the Saints won 27–13. He was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list by the team on December 20, 2020, and activated four days later.


title: Jameis Winston

text: In the of the playoffs against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Winston went into the lineup on a trick play and threw a 56-yard touchdown pass to Tre'Quan Smith during the 30–20 loss.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On March 15, 2021, Winston re-signed with the Saints on a one-year deal worth $12 million. On August 27, 2021, Winston was named the starting quarterback for the Saints over Taysom Hill. Making his first start for the Saints against the Green Bay Packers, Winston threw for 147 yards and five touchdowns as the Saints won 38–3. The following week against the Carolina Panthers with multiple starters injured and seven coaches sidelined due to COVID-19 Winston threw for 111 yards and 2 interceptions with no touchdowns in the 26–7 loss. During week 5 against the Washington Football Team Winston and the Saints overcame two early turnovers to beat Washington 33–22 while throwing for 279 yards, four touchdowns, and one interception, along with a fumble.


title: Jameis Winston

text: In Week 8 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Winston had to leave the game in the second quarter due to a knee injury after being horse-collar tackled by Tampa Bay linebacker Devin White. He would be replaced by Trevor Siemian, who went on to win the game, 36–27. The next day, it was revealed that Winston had suffered a torn ACL and had MCL damage, ending his season.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On March 21, 2022, Winston signed a two-year, $28 million contract extension with the Saints. On September 18, it was reported that Winston suffered four fractures in his back.


title: Jameis Winston

text: Winston married his wife, Breion Allen, in a private ceremony held at their home on March 27, 2020. They have two sons together.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On November 14, 2013, the State Attorney of the Second Judicial Circuit announced they were opening an investigation into a sexual assault allegation involving Winston that was originally filed with the Tallahassee Police Department (TPD) on December 7, 2012. The complaint was originally investigated by the police and classified as open/inactive in February 2013 with no charges being filed. The police report, containing the complainant's original statement, has been posted by the Tallahassee Police Department. Tallahassee police stated that the complaint was made inactive "when the victim in the case broke off contact with TPD, and her attorney indicated she did not want to move forward at that time" and then re-examined after media requests for information started coming in early November. On December 5, 2013, State Attorney Willie Meggs announced the completion of the investigation and that no charges would be filed against anyone in this case, citing "major issues" with the woman's testimony. Meggs stated that "As prosecutors, we only bring charges for cases where the evidence will result in a likely conviction at trial. In this case, the evidence does not show that." Allegations of improper police conduct have been made by both parties, with the complainant claiming to have been pressured into dropping her claim and Winston's attorney alleging inappropriate leaks to the media. Florida State's policy is that athletes charged with a felony cannot play until their case is resolved, but Winston continued to play throughout the investigation because he was never charged.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On April 16, 2014, "The New York Times" reported irregularities in the rape investigation involving Winston. The complainant developed bruises and semen was found on her underwear. 34 days later, the complainant identified Winston by name as her attacker. Tallahassee police contacted Winston about 13 days later. No DNA sample was taken from Winston until the prosecutor took over the case, months later; once it was taken in November 2013, it was found to match DNA found in the complainant's underwear. The investigation was conducted by Officer Scott Angulo, who, the "Times" article notes, did private security work for the Seminole Boosters, the primary financier of Florida State athletics.


title: Jameis Winston

text: The official FSU hearing, presided over by retired Florida Supreme Court Justice Major B. Harding, on December 21, 2014, cleared Winston of violating the student conduct code in the sexual assault allegation. An extract from Harding's decision is below.


title: Jameis Winston

text: I do not find the credibility of one story substantially stronger than that of the other. Both have their own strengths and weaknesses. I cannot find with any confidence that the events as set forth by you, (accuser), or a particular combination thereof is more probable than not as required to find you responsible for a violation of the Code. Therein lies the determinative factor of my decision.


title: Jameis Winston

text: The accuser filed a civil suit against Winston in April 2014 and Winston countersued her for defamation and tortious interference in May 2014. In a September 2015 ruling, federal judge Anne C. Conway dismissed Winston's tortious interference claim, but declined a motion to dismiss his claim for defamation. These civil claims were settled out of court in December 2016, four months before the case was scheduled to go to trial.


title: Jameis Winston

text: In November 2015, Winston told CNN that he was prepared to file suit if the network aired "The Hunting Ground", a documentary about college campus rape which includes disputed allegations about Winston. CNN was undeterred and aired the documentary on November 22, 2015.<ref name="McCarthy_11/22/2015"></ref>


title: Jameis Winston

text: In 2016, the university paid $950,000 to settle a lawsuit brought by the same woman alleging a violation of Title IX by FSU in handling her complaint. The university also agreed to conduct five years of sexual awareness programs. It did not admit liability.


title: Jameis Winston

text: In July 2013, a Burger King employee called police in July to complain that Winston was stealing soda. According to the police report, Winston came into the restaurant with three men, but did not order any food. An employee, who recognized him, first saw him using ketchup cups to take some soda. He asked for a water cup after she told him to stop, but he said he would use it for soda and filled it repeatedly with soda over her objections, the report said. On April 29, 2014, Winston was issued an adult civil citation for shoplifting crab legs from a Tallahassee Publix store. Winston was ordered to undergo 20 hours of community service, and was suspended from any college baseball activity until he completed his community service.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On September 17, 2014, Winston was suspended for the first half of Florida State's upcoming game against Clemson. "The Guardian" reported that "several students tweeted" that Winston shouted, "Fuck her right in the pussy!" an Internet meme, while standing atop a table in Florida State University's Student Union. Two days later, university president Garnett S. Stokes and athletic director Stan Wilcox, citing results of an "ongoing investigation", announced that Winston would be suspended for the whole game.


title: Jameis Winston

text: On November 17, 2017, it was reported that the NFL conducted an investigation, where Winston allegedly groped a female Uber driver in 2016. Two days later, it was revealed that Ronald Darby, who also attended Florida State, was also on board during the ride in which this incident supposedly occurred. Darby has defended Winston against the allegations. However, the investigation found evidence that Winston got into another Uber ride alone, which was consistent with the Uber driver's account, and concluded that Winston "violated the Personal Conduct Policy by touching the driver in an


title: Jameis Winston

text: inappropriate and sexual manner without her consent". The league announced on June 21 that it was suspending Winston for the first three games of the 2018 season as a result of his involvement in the incident, which it carried through on June 28.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium is a chemical element with the symbol Ga and atomic number 31. Discovered by French chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875, Gallium is in group 13 of the periodic table and is similar to the other metals of the group (aluminium, indium, and thallium).


title: Gallium

text: Elemental gallium is a soft, silvery metal in standard temperature and pressure. In its liquid state, it becomes silvery white. If too much force is applied, the gallium may fracture conchoidally. Since its discovery in 1875, gallium has widely been used to make alloys with low melting points. It is also used in semiconductors, as a dopant in semiconductor substrates.


title: Gallium

text: The melting point of gallium is used as a temperature reference point. Gallium alloys are used in thermometers as a non-toxic and environmentally friendly alternative to mercury, and can withstand higher temperatures than mercury. An even lower melting point of , well below the freezing point of water, is claimed for the alloy galinstan (62–95% gallium, 5–22% indium, and 0–16% tin by weight), but that may be the freezing point with the effect of supercooling.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium does not occur as a free element in nature, but as gallium(III) compounds in trace amounts in zinc ores (such as sphalerite) and in bauxite. Elemental gallium is a liquid at temperatures greater than , and will melt in a person's hands at normal human body temperature of .


title: Gallium

text: Gallium is predominantly used in electronics. Gallium arsenide, the primary chemical compound of gallium in electronics, is used in microwave circuits, high-speed switching circuits, and infrared circuits. Semiconducting gallium nitride and indium gallium nitride produce blue and violet light-emitting diodes and diode lasers. Gallium is also used in the production of artificial gadolinium gallium garnet for jewelry. Gallium is considered a technology-critical element by the United States National Library of Medicine and Frontiers Media.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium has no known natural role in biology. Gallium(III) behaves in a similar manner to ferric salts in biological systems and has been used in some medical applications, including pharmaceuticals and radiopharmaceuticals.


title: Gallium

text: Elemental gallium is not found in nature, but it is easily obtained by smelting. Very pure gallium is a silvery blue metal that fractures conchoidally like glass. Gallium liquid expands by 3.10% when it solidifies; therefore, it should not be stored in glass or metal containers because the container may rupture when the gallium changes state. Gallium shares the higher-density liquid state with a short list of other materials that includes water, silicon, germanium, bismuth, and plutonium.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium forms alloys with most metals. It readily diffuses into cracks or grain boundaries of some metals such as aluminium, aluminium–zinc alloys and steel, causing extreme loss of strength and ductility called liquid metal embrittlement.


title: Gallium

text: The melting point of gallium, at 302.9146 K (29.7646 °C, 85.5763 °F), is just above room temperature, and is approximately the same as the average summer daytime temperatures in Earth's mid-latitudes. This melting point (mp) is one of the formal temperature reference points in the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) established by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). The triple point of gallium, 302.9166 K (29.7666 °C, 85.5799 °F), is used by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in preference to the melting point.


title: Gallium

text: The melting point of gallium allows it to melt in the human hand, and then solidify if removed. The liquid metal has a strong tendency to supercool below its melting point/freezing point: Ga nanoparticles can be kept in the liquid state below 90 K. Seeding with a crystal helps to initiate freezing. Gallium is one of the four non-radioactive metals (with caesium, rubidium, and mercury) that are known to be liquid at, or near, normal room temperature. Of the four, gallium is the only one that is neither highly reactive (as are rubidium and caesium) nor highly toxic (as is mercury) and can, therefore, be used in metal-in-glass high-temperature thermometers. It is also notable for having one of the largest liquid ranges for a metal, and for having (unlike mercury) a low vapor pressure at high temperatures. Gallium's boiling point, 2673 K, is nearly nine times higher than its melting point on the absolute scale, the greatest ratio between melting point and boiling point of any element. Unlike mercury, liquid gallium metal wets glass and skin, along with most other materials (with the exceptions of quartz, graphite, gallium(III) oxide and PTFE), making it mechanically more difficult to handle even though it is substantially less toxic and requires far fewer precautions than mercury. Gallium painted onto glass is a brilliant mirror. For this reason as well as the metal contamination and freezing-expansion problems, samples of gallium metal are usually supplied in polyethylene packets within other containers.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium does not crystallize in any of the simple crystal structures. The stable phase under normal conditions is orthorhombic with 8 atoms in the conventional unit cell. Within a unit cell, each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance of 244 pm). The remaining six unit cell neighbors are spaced 27, 30 and 39 pm farther away, and they are grouped in pairs with the same distance. Many stable and metastable phases are found as function of temperature and pressure.


title: Gallium

text: The bonding between the two nearest neighbors is covalent; hence Ga dimers are seen as the fundamental building blocks of the crystal. This explains the low melting point relative to the neighbor elements, aluminium and indium. This structure is strikingly similar to that of iodine and may form because of interactions between the single 4p electrons of gallium atoms, further away from the nucleus than the 4s electrons and the [Ar]3d core. This phenomenon recurs with mercury with its "pseudo-noble-gas" [Xe]4f5d6s electron configuration, which is liquid at room temperature. The 3d electrons do not shield the outer electrons very well from the nucleus and hence the first ionisation energy of gallium is greater than that of aluminium. Ga dimers do not persist in the liquid state and liquid gallium exhibits a complex low-coordinated structure in which each gallium atom is surrounded by 10 others, rather than 11–12 neighbors typical of most liquid metals.


title: Gallium

text: The physical properties of gallium are highly anisotropic, i.e. have different values along the three major crystallographic axes "a", "b", and "c" (see table), producing a significant difference between the linear (α) and volume thermal expansion coefficients. The properties of gallium are strongly temperature-dependent, particularly near the melting point. For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion increases by several hundred percent upon melting.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium has 31 known isotopes, ranging in mass number from 56 to 86. Only two isotopes are stable and occur naturally, gallium-69 and gallium-71. Gallium-69 is more abundant: it makes up about 60.1% of natural gallium, while gallium-71 makes up the remaining 39.9%. All the other isotopes are radioactive, with gallium-67 being the longest-lived (half-life 3.261 days). Isotopes lighter than gallium-69 usually decay through beta plus decay (positron emission) or electron capture to isotopes of zinc, although the lightest few (mass numbers 56–59) decay through prompt proton emission. Isotopes heavier than gallium-71 decay through beta minus decay (electron emission), possibly with delayed neutron emission, to isotopes of germanium, while gallium-70 can decay through both beta minus decay and electron capture. Gallium-67 is unique among the light isotopes in having only electron capture as a decay mode, as its decay energy is not sufficient to allow positron emission. Gallium-67 and gallium-68 (half-life 67.7 min) are both used in nuclear medicine.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium is found primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The +1 oxidation state is also found in some compounds, although it is less common than it is for gallium's heavier congeners indium and thallium. For example, the very stable GaCl contains both gallium(I) and gallium(III) and can be formulated as GaGaCl; in contrast, the monochloride is unstable above 0 °C, disproportionating into elemental gallium and gallium(III) chloride. Compounds containing Ga–Ga bonds are true gallium(II) compounds, such as GaS (which can be formulated as Ga(S)) and the dioxan complex GaCl(CHO).


title: Gallium

text: Strong acids dissolve gallium, forming gallium(III) salts such as (gallium nitrate). Aqueous solutions of gallium(III) salts contain the hydrated gallium ion, . Gallium(III) hydroxide, , may be precipitated from gallium(III) solutions by adding ammonia. Dehydrating at 100 °C produces gallium oxide hydroxide, GaO(OH).


title: Gallium

text: Alkaline hydroxide solutions dissolve gallium, forming "gallate" salts (not to be confused with identically named gallic acid salts) containing the anion. Gallium hydroxide, which is amphoteric, also dissolves in alkali to form gallate salts. Although earlier work suggested as another possible gallate anion, it was not found in later work.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium reacts with the chalcogens only at relatively high temperatures. At room temperature, gallium metal is not reactive with air and water because it forms a passive, protective oxide layer. At higher temperatures, however, it reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form gallium(III) oxide, . Reducing with elemental gallium in vacuum at 500 °C to 700 °C yields the dark brown gallium(I) oxide, . is a very strong reducing agent, capable of reducing to . It disproportionates at 800 °C back to gallium and .


title: Gallium

text: Gallium(III) sulfide, , has 3 possible crystal modifications. It can be made by the reaction of gallium with hydrogen sulfide () at 950 °C. Alternatively, can be used at 747 °C:


title: Gallium

text: Reacting a mixture of alkali metal carbonates and with leads to the formation of "thiogallates" containing the anion. Strong acids decompose these salts, releasing in the process. The mercury salt, , can be used as a phosphor.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium also forms sulfides in lower oxidation states, such as gallium(II) sulfide and the green gallium(I) sulfide, the latter of which is produced from the former by heating to 1000 °C under a stream of nitrogen.


title: Gallium

text: The other binary chalcogenides, and , have the zincblende structure. They are all semiconductors but are easily hydrolysed and have limited utility.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium reacts with ammonia at 1050 °C to form gallium nitride, GaN. Gallium also forms binary compounds with phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony: gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and gallium antimonide (GaSb). These compounds have the same structure as ZnS, and have important semiconducting properties. GaP, GaAs, and GaSb can be synthesized by the direct reaction of gallium with elemental phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony. They exhibit higher electrical conductivity than GaN. GaP can also be synthesized by reacting with phosphorus at low temperatures.


title: Gallium

text: Similar compounds with phosphorus and arsenic are possible: and . These compounds are easily hydrolyzed by dilute acids and water.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium(III) oxide reacts with fluorinating agents such as HF or to form gallium(III) fluoride, . It is an ionic compound strongly insoluble in water. However, it dissolves in hydrofluoric acid, in which it forms an adduct with water, . Attempting to dehydrate this adduct forms . The adduct reacts with ammonia to form , which can then be heated to form anhydrous .


title: Gallium

text: Gallium trichloride is formed by the reaction of gallium metal with chlorine gas. Unlike the trifluoride, gallium(III) chloride exists as dimeric molecules, , with a melting point of 78 °C. Eqivalent compounds are formed with bromine and iodine, and .


title: Gallium

text: Like the other group 13 trihalides, gallium(III) halides are Lewis acids, reacting as halide acceptors with alkali metal halides to form salts containing anions, where X is a halogen. They also react with alkyl halides to form carbocations and .


title: Gallium

text: When heated to a high temperature, gallium(III) halides react with elemental gallium to form the respective gallium(I) halides. For example, reacts with Ga to form :


title: Gallium

text: At lower temperatures, the equilibrium shifts toward the left and GaCl disproportionates back to elemental gallium and . GaCl can also be produced by reacting Ga with HCl at 950 °C; the product can be condensed as a red solid.


title: Gallium

text: The so-called "gallium(II) halides", , are actually adducts of gallium(I) halides with the respective gallium(III) halides, having the structure . For example:


title: Gallium

text: Like aluminium, gallium also forms a hydride, , known as "gallane", which may be produced by reacting lithium gallanate () with gallium(III) chloride at −30 °C:


title: Gallium

text: In the presence of dimethyl ether as solvent, polymerizes to . If no solvent is used, the dimer ("digallane") is formed as a gas. Its structure is similar to diborane, having two hydrogen atoms bridging the two gallium centers, unlike α- in which aluminium has a coordination number of 6.


title: Gallium

text: Organogallium compounds are of similar reactivity to organoindium compounds, less reactive than organoaluminium compounds, but more reactive than organothallium compounds. Alkylgalliums are monomeric. Lewis acidity decreases in the order Al > Ga > In and as a result organogallium compounds do not form bridged dimers as organoaluminium compounds do. Organogallium compounds are also less reactive than organoaluminium compounds. They do form stable peroxides. These alkylgalliums are liquids at room temperature, having low melting points, and are quite mobile and flammable. Triphenylgallium is monomeric in solution, but its crystals form chain structures due to weak intermolecluar Ga···C interactions.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium trichloride is a common starting reagent for the formation of organogallium compounds, such as in carbogallation reactions. Gallium trichloride reacts with lithium cyclopentadienide in diethyl ether to form the trigonal planar gallium cyclopentadienyl complex GaCp. Gallium(I) forms complexes with arene ligands such as hexamethylbenzene. Because this ligand is quite bulky, the structure of the [Ga(η-CMe)] is that of a half-sandwich. Less bulky ligands such as mesitylene allow two ligands to be attached to the central gallium atom in a bent sandwich structure. Benzene is even less bulky and allows the formation of dimers: an example is [Ga(η-CH)] [GaCl]·3CH.


title: Gallium

text: In 1871, the existence of gallium was first predicted by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, who named it "eka-aluminium" from its position in his periodic table. He also predicted several properties of eka-aluminium that correspond closely to the real properties of gallium, such as its density, melting point, oxide character, and bonding in chloride.


title: Gallium

text: Mendeleev further predicted that eka-aluminium would be discovered by means of the spectroscope, and that metallic eka-aluminium would dissolve slowly in both acids and alkalis and would not react with air. He also predicted that MO would dissolve in acids to give MX salts, that eka-aluminium salts would form basic salts, that eka-aluminium sulfate should form alums, and that anhydrous MCl should have a greater volatility than ZnCl: all of these predictions turned out to be true.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium was discovered using spectroscopy by French chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 from its characteristic spectrum (two violet lines) in a sample of sphalerite. Later that year, Lecoq obtained the free metal by electrolysis of the hydroxide in potassium hydroxide solution.


title: Gallium

text: He named the element "gallia", from Latin "Gallia" meaning Gaul, after his native land of France. It was later claimed that, in a multilingual pun of a kind favoured by men of science in the 19th century, he had also named gallium after himself: "Le coq" is French for "the rooster" and the Latin word for "rooster" is ""gallus"". In an 1877 article, Lecoq denied this conjecture.


title: Gallium

text: Originally, de Boisbaudran determined the density of gallium as 4.7 g/cm, the only property that failed to match Mendeleev's predictions; Mendeleev then wrote to him and suggested that he should remeasure the density, and de Boisbaudran then obtained the correct value of 5.9 g/cm, that Mendeleev had predicted exactly.


title: Gallium

text: From its discovery in 1875 until the era of semiconductors, the primary uses of gallium were high-temperature thermometrics and metal alloys with unusual properties of stability or ease of melting (some such being liquid at room temperature).


title: Gallium

text: The development of gallium arsenide as a direct bandgap semiconductor in the 1960s ushered in the most important stage in the applications of gallium. In 1978, the electronics industry used gallium to fabricate light emitting diodes, photovoltaics and semiconductors, while the metals business used it to reduce the melting point of alloys.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium does not exist as a free element in the Earth's crust, and the few high-content minerals, such as gallite (CuGaS), are too rare to serve as a primary source. The abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 16.9 ppm. This is comparable to the crustal abundances of lead, cobalt, and niobium. Yet unlike these elements, gallium does not form its own ore deposits with concentrations of > 0.1 wt.% in ore. Rather it occurs at trace concentrations similar to the crustal value in zinc ores, and at somewhat higher values (~ 50 ppm) in aluminium ores, from both of which it is extracted as a by-product. This lack of independent deposits is due to gallium's geochemical behaviour, showing no strong enrichment in the processes relevant to the formation of most ore deposits.


title: Gallium

text: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that more than 1 million tons of gallium is contained in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores. Some coal flue dusts contain small quantities of gallium, typically less than 1% by weight. However, these amounts are not extractable without mining of the host materials (see below). Thus, the availability of gallium is fundamentally determined by the rate at which bauxite, zinc ores (and coal) are extracted.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium is produced exclusively as a by-product during the processing of the ores of other metals. Its main source material is bauxite, the chief ore of aluminium, but minor amounts are also extracted from sulfidic zinc ores (sphalerite being the main host mineral). In the past, certain coals were an important source.


title: Gallium

text: During the processing of bauxite to alumina in the Bayer process, gallium accumulates in the sodium hydroxide liquor. From this it can be extracted by a variety of methods. The most recent is the use of ion-exchange resin. Achievable extraction efficiencies critically depend on the original concentration in the feed bauxite. At a typical feed concentration of 50 ppm, about 15% of the contained gallium is extractable. The remainder reports to the red mud and aluminium hydroxide streams. Gallium is removed from the ion-exchange resin in solution. Electrolysis then gives gallium metal. For semiconductor use, it is further purified with zone melting or single-crystal extraction from a melt (Czochralski process). Purities of 99.9999% are routinely achieved and commercially available.


title: Gallium

text: Its by-product status means that gallium production is constrained by the amount of bauxite, sulfidic zinc ores (and coal) extracted per year. Therefore, its availability needs to be discussed in terms of supply potential. The supply potential of a by-product is defined as that amount which is economically extractable from its host materials "per year" under current market conditions (i.e. technology and price). Reserves and resources are not relevant for by-products, since they "cannot" be extracted independently from the main-products. Recent estimates put the supply potential of gallium at a minimum of 2,100 t/yr from bauxite, 85 t/yr from sulfidic zinc ores, and potentially 590 t/yr from coal. These figures are significantly greater than current production (375 t in 2016). Thus, major future increases in the by-product production of gallium will be possible without significant increases in production costs or price. The average price for low-grade gallium was $120 per kilogram in 2016 and $135–140 per kilogram in 2017.


title: Gallium

text: In 2017, the world's production of low-grade gallium was ca. 315 tons — an increase of 15% from 2016. China, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and Ukraine were the leading producers, while Germany ceased primary production of gallium in 2016. The yield of high-purity gallium was ca. 180 tons, mostly originating from China, Japan, Slovakia, UK and U.S. The 2017 world annual production capacity was estimated at 730 tons for low-grade and 320 tons for refined gallium.


title: Gallium

text: China produced ca. 250 tons of low-grade gallium in 2016 and ca. 300 tons in 2017. It also accounted for more than half of global LED production.


title: Gallium

text: Semiconductor applications dominate the commercial demand for gallium, accounting for 98% of the total. The next major application is for gadolinium gallium garnets.


title: Gallium

text: Extremely high-purity (>99.9999%) gallium is commercially available to serve the semiconductor industry. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium nitride (GaN) used in electronic components represented about 98% of the gallium consumption in the United States in 2007. About 66% of semiconductor gallium is used in the U.S. in integrated circuits (mostly gallium arsenide), such as the manufacture of ultra-high-speed logic chips and MESFETs for low-noise microwave preamplifiers in cell phones. About 20% of this gallium is used in optoelectronics.


title: Gallium

text: Worldwide, gallium arsenide makes up 95% of the annual global gallium consumption. It amounted to $7.5 billion in 2016, with 53% originating from cell phones, 27% from wireless communications, and the rest from automotive, consumer, fiber-optic, and military applications. The recent increase in GaAs consumption is mostly related to the emergence of 3G and 4G smartphones, which use 10 times more GaAs than older models.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium arsenide and gallium nitride can also be found in a variety of optoelectronic devices which had a market share of $15.3 billion in 2015 and $18.5 billion in 2016. Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) is used in high-power infrared laser diodes. The semiconductors gallium nitride and indium gallium nitride are used in blue and violet optoelectronic devices, mostly laser diodes and light-emitting diodes. For example, gallium nitride 405 nm diode lasers are used as a violet light source for higher-density Blu-ray Disc compact data disc drives.


title: Gallium

text: Other major application of gallium nitride are cable television transmission, commercial wireless infrastructure, power electronics, and satellites. The GaN radio frequency device market alone was estimated at $370 million in 2016 and $420 million in 2016.


title: Gallium

text: Multijunction photovoltaic cells, developed for satellite power applications, are made by molecular-beam epitaxy or metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy of thin films of gallium arsenide, indium gallium phosphide, or indium gallium arsenide. The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple-junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells. Gallium is also a component in photovoltaic compounds (such as copper indium gallium selenium sulfide ) used in solar panels as a cost-efficient alternative to crystalline silicon.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium readily alloys with most metals, and is used as an ingredient in low-melting alloys. The nearly eutectic alloy of gallium, indium, and tin is a room temperature liquid used in medical thermometers. This alloy, with the trade-name "Galinstan" (with the "-stan" referring to the tin, "stannum" in Latin), has a low melting point of −19 °C (−2.2 °F). It has been suggested that this family of alloys could also be used to cool computer chips in place of water, and is often used as a replacement for thermal paste in high-performance computing. Gallium alloys have been evaluated as substitutes for mercury dental amalgams, but these materials have yet to see wide acceptance. Liquid alloys containing mostly gallium and indium have been found to precipitate gaseous CO into solid carbon and are being researched as potential methodologies for carbon capture and possibly carbon removal.


title: Gallium

text: Because gallium wets glass or porcelain, gallium can be used to create brilliant mirrors. When the wetting action of gallium-alloys is not desired (as in Galinstan glass thermometers), the glass must be protected with a transparent layer of gallium(III) oxide.


title: Gallium

text: The plutonium used in nuclear weapon pits is stabilized in the δ phase and made machinable by alloying with gallium.


title: Gallium

text: Although gallium has no natural function in biology, gallium ions interact with processes in the body in a manner similar to iron(III). Because these processes include inflammation, a marker for many disease states, several gallium salts are used (or are in development) as pharmaceuticals and radiopharmaceuticals in medicine. Interest in the anticancer properties of gallium emerged when it was discovered that Ga(III) citrate injected in tumor-bearing animals localized to sites of tumor. Clinical trials have shown gallium nitrate to have antineoplastic activity against non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and urothelial cancers. A new generation of gallium-ligand complexes such as tris(8-quinolinolato)gallium(III) (KP46) and gallium maltolate has emerged. Gallium nitrate (brand name Ganite) has been used as an intravenous pharmaceutical to treat hypercalcemia associated with tumor metastasis to bones. Gallium is thought to interfere with osteoclast function, and the therapy may be effective when other treatments have failed. Gallium maltolate, an oral, highly absorbable form of gallium(III) ion, is an anti-proliferative to pathologically proliferating cells, particularly cancer cells and some bacteria that accept it in place of ferric iron (Fe). Researchers are conducting clinical and preclinical trials on this compound as a potential treatment for a number of cancers, infectious diseases, and inflammatory diseases.


title: Gallium

text: When gallium ions are mistakenly taken up in place of iron(III) by bacteria such as "Pseudomonas", the ions interfere with respiration, and the bacteria die. This happens because iron is redox-active, allowing the transfer of electrons during respiration, while gallium is redox-inactive.


title: Gallium

text: A complex amine-phenol Ga(III) compound MR045 is selectively toxic to parasites resistant to chloroquine, a common drug against malaria. Both the Ga(III) complex and chloroquine act by inhibiting crystallization of hemozoin, a disposal product formed from the digestion of blood by the parasites.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium-67 salts such as gallium citrate and gallium nitrate are used as radiopharmaceutical agents in the nuclear medicine imaging known as gallium scan. The radioactive isotope Ga is used, and the compound or salt of gallium is unimportant. The body handles Ga in many ways as though it were Fe, and the ion is bound (and concentrates) in areas of inflammation, such as infection, and in areas of rapid cell division. This allows such sites to be imaged by nuclear scan techniques.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium-68, a positron emitter with a half-life of 68 min, is now used as a diagnostic radionuclide in PET-CT when linked to pharmaceutical preparations such as DOTATOC, a somatostatin analogue used for neuroendocrine tumors investigation, and DOTA-TATE, a newer one, used for neuroendocrine metastasis and lung neuroendocrine cancer, such as certain types of "microcytoma". Gallium-68's preparation as a pharmaceutical is chemical, and the radionuclide is extracted by elution from germanium-68, a synthetic radioisotope of germanium, in gallium-68 generators.


title: Gallium

text: Neutrino detection: Gallium is used for neutrino detection. Possibly the largest amount of pure gallium ever collected in a single location is the Gallium-Germanium Neutrino Telescope used by the SAGE experiment at the Baksan Neutrino Observatory in Russia. This detector contains 55–57 tonnes (~9 cubic metres) of liquid gallium. Another experiment was the GALLEX neutrino detector operated in the early 1990s in an Italian mountain tunnel. The detector contained 12.2 tons of watered gallium-71. Solar neutrinos caused a few atoms of Ga to become radioactive Ge, which were detected. This experiment showed that the solar neutrino flux is 40% less than theory predicted. This deficit was not explained until better solar neutrino detectors and theories were constructed (see SNO).


title: Gallium

text: Ion source: Gallium is also used as a liquid metal ion source for a focused ion beam. For example, a focused gallium-ion beam was used to create the world's smallest book, "Teeny Ted from Turnip Town".


title: Gallium

text: Lubricants: Gallium serves as an additive in glide wax for skis and other low-friction surface materials.


title: Gallium

text: Flexible electronics: Materials scientists speculate that the properties of gallium could make it suitable for the development of flexible and wearable devices.


title: Gallium

text: Hydrogen generation: Gallium disrupts the protective oxide layer on aluminium, allowing water to react with the aluminium in AlGa to produce hydrogen gas.


title: Gallium

text: Humor: A well-known practical joke among chemists is to fashion gallium spoons and use them to serve tea to unsuspecting guests, since gallium has a similar appearance to its lighter homolog aluminium. The spoons then melt in the hot tea.


title: Gallium

text: Advances in trace element testing have allowed scientists to discover traces of dissolved gallium in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans In recent years, dissolved gallium concentrations have presented in the Beaufort Sea. These reports reflect the possible profiles of the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean waters. For the Pacific Oceans, typical dissolved gallium concentrations are between 4–6 pmol/kg at depths <~150 m. In comparison, for Atlantic waters 25–28 pmol/kg at depths >~350 m.


title: Gallium

text: Gallium has entered oceans mainly through aeolian input, but having gallium in our oceans can be used to resolve aluminium distribution in the oceans. The reason for this is that gallium is geochemically similar to aluminium, just less reactive. Gallium also has a slightly larger surface water residence time than aluminium. Gallium has a similar dissolved profile similar to that of aluminium, due to this gallium can be used as a tracer for aluminium. Gallium can also be used as a tracer of aeolian inputs of iron. Gallium is used as a tracer for iron in the northwest Pacific, south and central Atlantic Oceans. For example, in the northwest Pacific, low gallium surface waters, in the subpolar region suggest that there is low dust input, which can subsequently explain the following high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll environmental behavior.


title: Gallium

text: Metallic gallium is not toxic. However, exposure to gallium halide complexes can result in acute toxicity. The Ga ion of soluble gallium salts tends to form the insoluble hydroxide when injected in large doses; precipitation of this hydroxide resulted in nephrotoxicity in animals. In lower doses, soluble gallium is tolerated well and does not accumulate as a poison, instead being excreted mostly through urine. Excretion of gallium occurs in two phases: the first phase has a biological half-life of 1 hour, while the second has a biological half-life of 25 hours.


title: Amanda Righetti

text: Amanda Righetti (born April 4, 1983) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Grace Van Pelt on "The Mentalist", as well as her roles in "Friday the 13th", "The O.C." and "Colony".


title: Amanda Righetti

text: The youngest of eight children, Righetti was born on April 4, 1983, in St. George, Utah, and raised in Nevada, outside Las Vegas. Her father, Alexander Dominic Righetti, is of Italian descent, while her mother, Linda Carol Chisum, is of German, French and English descent.


title: Amanda Righetti

text: Righetti started modeling at age 14, then she moved to Los Angeles at age 18 to start her acting career. After securing a role in the pilot for a proposed series by the name of "No Place Like Home", she played a recurring character in the teen drama "The O.C.", was a regular in the primetime soap opera "North Shore" and in late 2005, Righetti starred in Fox's drama series "Reunion". Other credits include a recurring role on "K-Ville", guest roles on "" and "Entourage" and a role in the television film "".


title: Amanda Righetti

text: In 2006, Righetti signed on to star as the female lead in horror sequel "Return to House on Haunted Hill". The film was released direct-to-video in October 2007. In April 2008, she was cast as the female lead in the slasher film "Friday the 13th" (2009). Production ended in June 2008 and the film was released in theaters on February 13, 2009. Also that year, Righetti was signed to the CBS series "The Mentalist", in the role of Grace Van Pelt. Her 2012 to 2013 pregnancy was not reflected in her character's storyline, during which she was filmed using selective angles and largely limited to desk duty.


title: Amanda Righetti

text: Righetti starred as a divorced novelist in the Hallmark Channel television film "Love at the Shore" (2017).


title: Amanda Righetti

text: Righetti married director and writer Jordan Alan on April 29, 2006, on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. They have a son, born in 2013. Righetti filed for divorce in 2017.


title: Pop art

text: Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the United Kingdom and the United States during the mid- to late-1950s. The movement presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular and mass culture, such as advertising, comic books and mundane mass-produced objects. One of its aims is to use images of "popular" culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any culture, most often through the use of irony. It is also associated with the artists' use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. In pop art, material is sometimes visually removed from its known context, isolated, or combined with unrelated material.


title: Pop art

text: Amongst the early artists that shaped the pop art movement were Eduardo Paolozzi and Richard Hamilton in Britain, and Larry Rivers, Ray Johnson. Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns among others in the United States. Pop art is widely interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism, as well as an expansion of those ideas. Due to its utilization of found objects and images, it is similar to Dada. Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves.


title: Pop art

text: Pop art often takes imagery that is currently in use in advertising. Product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, seen in the labels of "Campbell's Soup Cans", by Andy Warhol. Even the labeling on the outside of a shipping box containing food items for retail has been used as subject matter in pop art, as demonstrated by Warhol's "Campbell's Tomato Juice Box", 1964 (pictured).


title: Pop art

text: The origins of pop art in North America developed differently from Great Britain. In the United States, pop art was a response by artists; it marked a return to hard-edged composition and representational art. They used impersonal, mundane reality, irony, and parody to "defuse" the personal symbolism and "painterly looseness" of abstract expressionism. In the U.S., some artwork by Larry Rivers, Alex Katz and Man Ray anticipated pop art.


title: Pop art

text: By contrast, the origins of pop art in post-War Britain, while employing irony and parody, were more academic. Britain focused on the dynamic and paradoxical imagery of American pop culture as powerful, manipulative symbolic devices that were affecting whole patterns of life, while simultaneously improving the prosperity of a society. Early pop art in Britain was a matter of ideas fueled by American popular culture "when viewed from afar". Similarly, pop art was both an extension and a repudiation of Dadaism. While pop art and Dadaism explored some of the same subjects, pop art replaced the destructive, satirical, and anarchic impulses of the Dada movement with a detached affirmation of the artifacts of mass culture. Among those artists in Europe seen as producing work leading up to pop art are: Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters.


title: Pop art

text: Although both British and American pop art began during the 1950s, Marcel Duchamp and others in Europe like Francis Picabia and Man Ray predate the movement; in addition there were some earlier American "proto-pop" origins which utilized "as found" cultural objects. During the 1920s, American artists Patrick Henry Bruce, Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth and Stuart Davis created paintings that contained pop culture imagery (mundane objects culled from American commercial products and advertising design), almost "prefiguring" the pop art movement.


title: Pop art

text: The Independent Group (IG), founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to the pop art movement. They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and critics who were challenging prevailing modernist approaches to culture as well as traditional views of fine art. Their group discussions centered on pop culture implications from elements such as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology. At the first Independent Group meeting in 1952, co-founding member, artist and sculptor Eduardo Paolozzi presented a lecture using a series of collages titled "Bunk!" that he had assembled during his time in Paris between 1947 and 1949. This material of "found objects" such as advertising, comic book characters, magazine covers and various mass-produced graphics mostly represented "American" popular culture. One of the collages in that presentation was Paolozzi's "I was a Rich Man's Plaything" (1947), which includes the first use of the word "pop", appearing in a cloud of smoke emerging from a revolver. Following Paolozzi's seminal presentation in 1952, the IG focused primarily on the imagery of American popular culture, particularly mass advertising.


title: Pop art

text: According to the son of John McHale, the term "pop art" was first coined by his father in 1954 in conversation with Frank Cordell, although other sources credit its origin to British critic Lawrence Alloway. (Both versions agree that the term was used in Independent Group discussions by mid-1955.)


title: Pop art

text: "Pop art" as a moniker was then used in discussions by IG members in the Second Session of the IG in 1955, and the specific term "pop art" first appeared in published print in the article "But Today We Collect Ads" by IG members Alison and Peter Smithson in Ark magazine in 1956. However, the term is often credited to British art critic/curator Lawrence Alloway for his 1958 essay titled "The Arts and the Mass Media", even though the precise language he uses is "popular mass culture". "Furthermore, what I meant by it then is not what it means now. I used the term, and also 'Pop Culture' to refer to the products of the mass media, not to works of art that draw upon popular culture. In any case, sometime between the winter of 1954–55 and 1957 the phrase acquired currency in conversation..." Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the leading critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery of mass culture in the fine arts. Alloway clarified these terms in 1966, at which time Pop Art had already transited from art schools and small galleries to a major force in the artworld. But its success had not been in England. Practically simultaneously, and independently, New York City had become the hotbed for Pop Art.


title: Pop art

text: In London, the annual Royal Society of British Artists (RBA) exhibition of young talent in 1960 first showed American pop influences. In January 1961, the most famous RBA-"Young Contemporaries" of all put David Hockney, the American R B Kitaj, New Zealander Billy Apple, Allen Jones, Derek Boshier, Joe Tilson, Patrick Caulfield, Peter Phillips, Pauline Boty and Peter Blake on the map; Apple designed the posters and invitations for both the 1961 and 1962 Young Contemporaries exhibitions. Hockney, Kitaj and Blake went on to win prizes at the John-Moores-Exhibition in Liverpool in the same year. Apple and Hockney traveled together to New York during the Royal College's 1961 summer break, which is when Apple first made contact with Andy Warhol – both later moved to the United States and Apple became involved with the New York pop art scene.


title: Pop art

text: Although pop art began in the early 1950s, in America it was given its greatest impetus during the 1960s. The term "pop art" was officially introduced in December 1962; the occasion was a "Symposium on Pop Art" organized by the Museum of Modern Art. By this time, American advertising had adopted many elements of modern art and functioned at a very sophisticated level. Consequently, American artists had to search deeper for dramatic styles that would distance art from the well-designed and clever commercial materials. As the British viewed American popular culture imagery from a somewhat removed perspective, their views were often instilled with romantic, sentimental and humorous overtones. By contrast, American artists, bombarded every day with the diversity of mass-produced imagery, produced work that was generally more bold and aggressive.


title: Pop art

text: According to historian, curator and critic Henry Geldzahler, "Ray Johnson's collages "Elvis Presley No. 1" and "James Dean" stand as the Plymouth Rock of the Pop movement." Author Lucy Lippard wrote that "The Elvis ... and Marilyn Monroe [collages] ... heralded Warholian Pop." Johnson worked as a graphic designer, met Andy Warhol by 1956 and both designed several book covers for New Directions and other publishers. Johnson began mailing out whimsical flyers advertising his design services printed via offset lithography. He later became known as the father of mail art as the founder of his "New York Correspondence School," working small by stuffing clippings and drawings into envelopes rather than working larger like his contemporaries. A note about the cover image in January 1958's "Art News" pointed out that "[Jasper] Johns' first one-man show ... places him with such better-known colleagues as Rauschenberg, Twombly, Kaprow and Ray Johnson".


title: Pop art

text: Indeed, two other important artists in the establishment of America's pop art vocabulary were the painters Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. Rauschenberg, who like Ray Johnson attended Black Mountain College in North Carolina after World War II, was influenced by the earlier work of Kurt Schwitters and other Dada artists, and his belief that "painting relates to both art and life" challenged the dominant modernist perspective of his time. His use of discarded readymade objects (in his Combines) and pop culture imagery (in his silkscreen paintings) connected his works to topical events in everyday America. The silkscreen paintings of 1962–64 combined expressive brushwork with silkscreened magazine clippings from "Life, Newsweek," and "National Geographic." Johns' paintings of flags, targets, numbers, and maps of the U.S. as well three-dimensional depictions of ale cans drew attention to questions of representation in art. Johns' and Rauschenberg's work of the 1950s is frequently referred to as Neo-Dada, and is visually distinct from the prototypical American pop art which exploded in the early 1960s.


title: Pop art

text: Roy Lichtenstein is of equal importance to American pop art. His work, and its use of parody, probably defines the basic premise of pop art better than any other. Selecting the old-fashioned comic strip as subject matter, Lichtenstein produces a hard-edged, precise composition that documents while also parodying in a soft manner. Lichtenstein used oil and Magna paint in his best known works, such as "Drowning Girl" (1963), which was appropriated from the lead story in DC Comics' "Secret Hearts" #83. ("Drowning Girl" is part of the collection of the Museum of Modern Art.) His work features thick outlines, bold colors and Ben-Day dots to represent certain colors, as if created by photographic reproduction. Lichtenstein said, "[abstract expressionists] put things down on the canvas and responded to what they had done, to the color positions and sizes. My style looks completely different, but the nature of putting down lines pretty much is the same; mine just don't come out looking calligraphic, like Pollock's or Kline's." Pop art merges popular and mass culture with fine art while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery/content into the mix.


title: Pop art

text: The paintings of Lichtenstein, like those of Andy Warhol, Tom Wesselmann and others, share a direct attachment to the commonplace image of American popular culture, but also treat the subject in an impersonal manner clearly illustrating the idealization of mass production.


title: Pop art

text: Andy Warhol is probably the most famous figure in pop art. In fact, art critic Arthur Danto once called Warhol "the nearest thing to a philosophical genius the history of art has produced". Warhol attempted to take pop beyond an artistic style to a life style, and his work often displays a lack of human affectation that dispenses with the irony and parody of many of his peers.


title: Pop art

text: Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine and Tom Wesselmann had their first shows in the Judson Gallery in 1959 and 1960 and later in 1960 through 1964 along with James Rosenquist, George Segal and others at the Green Gallery on 57th Street in Manhattan. In 1960, Martha Jackson showed installations and assemblages, "New Media – New Forms" featured Hans Arp, Kurt Schwitters, Jasper Johns, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Rauschenberg, Jim Dine and May Wilson. 1961 was the year of Martha Jackson's spring show, "Environments, Situations, Spaces". Andy Warhol held his first solo exhibition in Los Angeles in July 1962 at Irving Blum's Ferus Gallery, where he showed 32 paintings of Campell's soup cans, one for every flavor. Warhol sold the set of paintings to Blum for $1,000; in 1996, when the Museum of Modern Art acquired it, the set was valued at $15 million.


title: Pop art

text: Donald Factor, the son of Max Factor Jr., and an art collector and co-editor of avant-garde literary magazine "Nomad", wrote an essay in the magazine's last issue, "Nomad/New York". The essay was one of the first on what would become known as pop art, though Factor did not use the term. The essay, "Four Artists", focused on Roy Lichtenstein, James Rosenquist, Jim Dine, and Claes Oldenburg.


title: Pop art

text: In the 1960s, Oldenburg, who became associated with the pop art movement, created many "happenings", which were performance art-related productions of that time. The name he gave to his own productions was "Ray Gun Theater". The cast of colleagues in his performances included: artists Lucas Samaras, Tom Wesselmann, Carolee Schneemann, Öyvind Fahlström and Richard Artschwager; dealer Annina Nosei; art critic Barbara Rose; and screenwriter Rudy Wurlitzer. His first wife, Patty Mucha, who sewed many of his early soft sculptures, was a constant performer in his happenings. This brash, often humorous, approach to art was at great odds with the prevailing sensibility that, by its nature, art dealt with "profound" expressions or ideas. In December 1961, he rented a store on Manhattan's Lower East Side to house "The Store", a month-long installation he had first presented at the Martha Jackson Gallery in New York, stocked with sculptures roughly in the form of consumer goods.


title: Pop art

text: Opening in 1962, Willem de Kooning's New York art dealer, the Sidney Janis Gallery, organized the groundbreaking "International Exhibition of the New Realists", a survey of new-to-the-scene American, French, Swiss, Italian "New Realism", and British pop art. The fifty-four artists shown included Richard Lindner, Wayne Thiebaud, Roy Lichtenstein (and his painting Blam), Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, James Rosenquist, Jim Dine, Robert Indiana, Tom Wesselmann, George Segal, Peter Phillips, Peter Blake ("The Love Wall" from 1961), Öyvind Fahlström, Yves Klein, Arman, Daniel Spoerri, Christo and Mimmo Rotella. The show was seen by Europeans Martial Raysse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Jean Tinguely in New York, who were stunned by the size and look of the American artwork. Also shown were Marisol, Mario Schifano, Enrico Baj and Öyvind Fahlström. Janis lost some of his abstract expressionist artists when Mark Rothko, Robert Motherwell, Adolph Gottlieb and Philip Guston quit the gallery, but gained Dine, Oldenburg, Segal and Wesselmann. At an opening-night soiree thrown by collector Burton Tremaine, Willem de Kooning appeared and was turned away by Tremaine, who ironically owned a number of de Kooning's works. Rosenquist recalled: "at that moment I thought, something in the art world has definitely changed". Turning away a respected abstract artist proved that, as early as 1962, the pop art movement had begun to dominate art culture in New York.


title: Pop art

text: A bit earlier, on the West Coast, Roy Lichtenstein, Jim Dine and Andy Warhol from New York City; Phillip Hefferton and Robert Dowd from Detroit; Edward Ruscha and Joe Goode from Oklahoma City; and Wayne Thiebaud from California were included in the "New Painting of Common Objects" show. This first pop art museum exhibition in America was curated by Walter Hopps at the Pasadena Art Museum. Pop art was ready to change the art world. New York followed Pasadena in 1963, when the Guggenheim Museum exhibited "Six Painters and the Object", curated by Lawrence Alloway. The artists were Jim Dine, Jasper Johns, Roy Lichtenstein, Robert Rauschenberg, James Rosenquist, and Andy Warhol. Another pivotal early exhibition was "The American Supermarket" organised by the Bianchini Gallery in 1964. The show was presented as a typical small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by prominent pop artists of the time, including Apple, Warhol, Lichtenstein, Wesselmann, Oldenburg, and Johns. This project was recreated in 2002 as part of the Tate Gallery's "Shopping: A Century of Art and Consumer Culture".


title: Pop art

text: By 1962, pop artists started exhibiting in commercial galleries in New York and Los Angeles; for some, it was their first commercial one-man show. The Ferus Gallery presented Andy Warhol in Los Angeles (and Ed Ruscha in 1963). In New York, the Green Gallery showed Rosenquist, Segal, Oldenburg, and Wesselmann. The Stable Gallery showed R. Indiana and Warhol (in his first New York show). The Leo Castelli Gallery presented Rauschenberg, Johns, and Lichtenstein. Martha Jackson showed Jim Dine and Allen Stone showed Wayne Thiebaud. By 1966, after the Green Gallery and the Ferus Gallery closed, the Leo Castelli Gallery represented Rosenquist, Warhol, Rauschenberg, Johns, Lichtenstein and Ruscha. The Sidney Janis Gallery represented Oldenburg, Segal, Dine, Wesselmann and Marisol, while Allen Stone continued to represent Thiebaud, and Martha Jackson continued representing Robert Indiana.


title: Pop art

text: In 1968, the "São Paulo 9 Exhibition – Environment U.S.A.: 1957–1967" featured the "Who's Who" of pop art. Considered as a summation of the "classical phase" of the American pop art period, the exhibit was curated by William Seitz. The artists were Edward Hopper, James Gill, Robert Indiana, Jasper Johns, Roy Lichtenstein, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Rauschenberg, Andy Warhol and Tom Wesselmann.