title: Shark Tale

text: The film had promotional support from Burger King, Kellogg’s, General Mills, Coca-Cola and Hewlett-Packard.


title: Shark Tale

text: "Shark Tale" was originally scheduled for general release on November 5, 2004, but it was moved up to October 1 to avoid competition with Pixar's "The Incredibles" releasing on the same weekend. The film had its worldwide premiere on September 10, 2004, in Piazza San Marco in Venice, Italy. Screening as part of the Venice Film Festival, it marked the first time that Piazza San Marco was closed for a premiere of a major feature film. The film was projected on the largest inflatable screen in the world, measuring more than six stories tall and over . It required of air to inflate and more than 50 tons of water for stabilization. The premiere was attended by 6,000 visitors, including Will Smith, Angelina Jolie, Robert De Niro, and Michael Imperioli. Jeffrey Katzenberg, the executive producer of the film, explained that they "wanted to find a unique way to introduce this movie to the world. We needed a big idea. … More than anything, we are in showbusiness. This is the show part."


title: Shark Tale

text: "Shark Tale" was released on DVD on February 8, 2005. Physical copies contain behind-the-scenes featurettes, games and activities, blooper reels, an audition for the whale Gigi, the Car Wash music video featuring Aguilera and Elliott, and a short film "Club Oscar". The film was released on Game Boy Advance Video in November 17, and on Blu-ray on February 5, 2019.


title: Shark Tale

text: "Shark Tale" grossed $160.9 million in the United States and Canada and $213.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $374.6 million. It was the ninth-highest-grossing film of 2004.


title: Shark Tale

text: "Shark Tale" opened at #1 with $47.6 million, which was, at the time, the second-highest opening for a DreamWorks Animation film behind "Shrek 2" ($108 million). It remained the #1 film in the U.S. and Canada for its second and third weekends.


title: Shark Tale

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 35% based on 182 reviews, with an average rating of 5.20/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Derivative and full of pop culture in-jokes." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Shark Tale

text: Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars, observing, "Since the target audience for "Shark Tale" is presumably kids and younger teenagers, how many of them have seen the R-rated "Godfather" and will get all the inside jokes? Not a few, I suppose, and some of its characters and dialogue have passed into common knowledge. But it's strange that a kid-oriented film would be based on parody of a 1972 gangster movie for adults." He also opined that younger viewers would have trouble enjoying a film about adult characters with adult problems, such as an elaborate love triangle and a main character wanting to clear his debt with loan sharks, and compared it to more successful fish-focused animated features like Pixar Animation Studios' "Finding Nemo", which Ebert felt featured a simpler plot that audiences could more easily identify with. Richard Roeper commented that although the film was not on the same level as "Finding Nemo", it was a film worth seeing.


title: Shark Tale

text: Todd McCarthy of "Variety" was critical of the film's lack of originality: "Overfamiliarity extends to the story, jokes and music, most of which reference popular entertainment of about 30 years ago" noting that the script combines "The Godfather" and "Jaws", with a dash of "Car Wash". McCarthy calls Smith's character "tiresomely familiar", and Zellweger's "entirely uninteresting", but praises the vocal performance of Martin Scorsese. Kirk Honeycutt of "The Hollywood Reporter" said the film was not as good as "Shrek", but called it "an overly jokey but often quite entertaining spoof that should please families everywhere."


title: Shark Tale

text: "Shark Tale" was criticized for perpetuating negative stereotypes of Italian-Americans in its antagonists. Politician Bill Pascrell said: "The prevailing message is negative and they have to be held out to dry for it. I'm a very proud Italian-American. When you stereotype me, it's like making fun of my grandparents". Columbus Citizens Foundation issued a statement condemning the stereotyping of people with Italian names as gangsters. Dona De Sanctis, deputy executive director of the Order Sons of Italy in America, said: "We were very concerned about this type of stereotyping being passed on to another generation of children." John Mancini, the founder of the Italic Institute of America, protested the movie, stating: "We're concerned about what preteens are learning from the outside world. They don't associate other groups as criminals, they only know Italians as gangsters. Our goal here is to de-Italianize it." The protest was coordinated by the Italian American One Voice Coalition of New Jersey. DreamWorks reacted by changing the name of Peter Falk's character from Don Brizzi to Don Feinberg. However, Mancini demanded that everything Italian—character names, the mannerisms, the forms of speech—be dropped.


title: Shark Tale

text: Shark Tale: Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on September 21, 2004. The soundtrack features newly recorded music by various artists, including Christina Aguilera, Mary J. Blige, Bobby Valentino, Sean Paul, Timbaland, The Pussycat Dolls, Ludacris, Missy Elliott, and Justin Timberlake, as well as "Some of My Best Friends Are Sharks", the film's closing theme composed by Hans Zimmer.


title: Shark Tale

text: Janet Jackson and Beyoncé initially planned to record a duet for the film's soundtrack. Jackson's frequent collaborator Jimmy Jam, who had recently worked with Beyoncé for "The Fighting Temptations" soundtrack, commented, "Obviously we'd love to have the involvement of Janet and Beyonce, who we just worked with on "Fighting Temptations". They've already expressed interest", adding "There are a lot of opportunities with an animated piece to work with some different people." Jeffrey Katzenberg, CEO of DreamWorks Animation, had appointed Jackson's producers Jam & Lewis to be involved with the soundtrack, though the duo only ended up producing only one song for the film, with Jam saying "We worked for DreamWorks before on the Bryan Adams song for "" and the Boyz II Men tune for "The Prince of Egypt", and Katzenberg is a fan of what we do. He thought we would be perfect to do the music for "Shark Tale.""


title: Shark Tale

text: A video game based on the film was released on September 29, 2004, for Microsoft Windows, Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Game Boy Advance. Published by Activision, Edge of Reality developed the console versions of the game, while Vicarious Visions developed the Game Boy Advance version, and Amaze Entertainment developed the Microsoft Windows version. The cast from the film didn't reprise their roles in the game, except David P. Smith reprising his role as Crazy Joe.


title: Ring (film)

text: Production took approximately nine months. "Ring" and its sequel "Spiral" were released in Japan at the same time. After its release, "Ring" was a huge box office success in Japan and was acclaimed by critics. It inspired numerous follow-ups in the "Ring" franchise, popularized Japanese horror (or "J-horror") internationally, and triggered a trend of Western remakes of J-horror films, including the 2002 American film "The Ring".


title: Ring (film)

text: During a sleepover, high schoolers Tomoko and Masami discuss an urban legend about a video tape that curses its viewers to die in seven days after a foreboding phone call. Tomoko then confesses that last week she and her friends watched a strange video tape and received an inexplicable phone call afterwards. They receive a false alarm phone call, then Masami goes to the toilet. Tomoko witnesses the TV turn on by itself and is killed by an unseen presence.


title: Ring (film)

text: Tomoko's aunt, journalist Reiko Asakawa, investigates this legend and learns during Tomoko's funeral that the three friends who watched the tape with Tomoko died at the same time as her. Reiko visits Izu Pacific Land Resort, where the four friends were staying, and discovers an unmarked video tape. It contains brief, seemingly unrelated scenes accompanied by screeching sounds, and ends with a shot of a well. After watching, Reiko sees an apparition and receives a phone call that emits the screeching sounds from the tape.


title: Ring (film)

text: Convinced that she has been cursed, Reiko enlists the help of her psychic ex-husband Ryūji Takayama. Ryūji watches the tape despite Reiko's concerns and agrees to help her. Dissecting a copy of the tape Reiko made, the pair find a cryptic message spoken in an Ōshima dialect. Before departing to Ōshima, Reiko catches her and Ryūji’s seven-year-old son Yōichi watching the tape after being told to do so by "Tomoko". In Ōshima, Reiko and Ryūji learn about Shizuko Yamamura, who, prior to her suicide, gained notoriety following a public demonstration of her psychic ability organised by ESP researcher Dr Heihachiro Ikuma, with whom she had an affair. When confronting Takashi, Shizuko's brother who extorted her, the pair learn through a vision that, during the demonstration, Shizuko's young daughter Sadako psychically killed a journalist who decried Shizuko's abilities. After failing to track down Sadako, Reiko realises that Ryūji never received a phone call after watching the tape as she did at the cabin in Izu. After a boat ride back to the mainland provided by Takashi, the pair rush to the cabin to investigate.


title: Ring (film)

text: Reiko and Ryūji find a sealed well in the cabin's crawlspace and, through another vision, learn that Dr Ikuma bludgeoned Sadako, pushed her into this well, and trapped her inside. They conclude that Sadako remained alive and that the curse was born when a video tape "recorded" the rage she had projected. When draining the water, they find Sadako's remains, and, since Reiko does not die despite having passed her deadline, believe the curse is broken.


title: Ring (film)

text: The next day, Ryūji finds his TV turn on by itself, showing the well at the end of the video tape. Sadako's vengeful spirit staggers from the well and out of the TV, advancing toward him and frightening him to death. Reiko, who had been trying to call Ryūji at the time, hears his last moments over the phone. Guided by an apparition, she deduces the actual way to break the curse: copying the tape and showing it to someone else within seven days, effectively letting the curse spread. Reiko realises that while she did this, Ryūji did not. Desperate to save Yōichi, Reiko drives to her father's home to show him the tape.


title: Ring (film)

text: Critics have discussed "Ring"s preoccupations with Japanese tradition's collision with modernity. Colette Balmain identifies: "In the figure of Sadako, "Ring" [utilises the] vengeful yūrei archetype of conventional Japanese horror". She argues how this traditional Japanese figure is expressed via a video tape which "embodies contemporary anxieties, in that it is technology through which the repressed past reasserts itself".


title: Ring (film)

text: Ruth Goldberg argues that "Ring" expresses "ambivalence about motherhood". She reads Reiko as a mother who – due to the new potential for women's independence – neglects her "natural" role as martyred homemaker in pursuit of an independent identity, subsequently neglecting her child. Goldberg identifies a doubling effect whereby the unconscious conflicts of Reiko's family are expressed via the supernatural in the other family under Reiko's investigation.


title: Ring (film)

text: Jay McRoy reads the ending hopefully: if the characters therapeutically understand their conflicts, they can live on. Balmain, however, is not optimistic; she reads the replication of the video as technology spreading, virus-like, throughout Japan.


title: Ring (film)

text: The film's title, "Ring", can be interpreted in several ways, such as alluding to the never ending cyclical nature of the ring curse/virus. Another interpretation is that "ring" relates to the phone call which warns those that view the video tape that they will die in seven days, as well as to the view of the ring of light seen from the bottom of the well where Sadako's body was left to decompose.


title: Ring (film)

text: After the moderate success of the 1991 novel "Ring" by Koji Suzuki, Kadokawa Shoten decided to adapt it into a motion picture.


title: Ring (film)

text: Screenwriter Hiroshi Takahashi and director Hideo Nakata collaborated to work on the script after reading Suzuki's novel and watching Fuji Television's 1995 made-for-TV film, directed by Chisui Takigawa. The broadcast version of the 1995 film was re-edited and released on home video under a new title, "Ring: Kanzenban" ( "Ring: The Complete Edition"; Nakata did not state which version of it he and Takahashi watched.


title: Ring (film)

text: In their film script, Takashi and Nakata changed the protagonist's gender (from male to female), name (from Kazuyuki Asakawa to Reiko Asakawa), marital status (from married to divorced) and child's gender and name (from daughter Yoko to son Yoichi).


title: Ring (film)

text: With the budget of US$1.5 million, the entire production took nine months and one week. According to director Nakata, the script and pre-production process took three or four months, shooting five weeks and post-production four months.


title: Ring (film)

text: The special effects on the cursed video tape and some parts in the film were shot on a 35 mm film which was passed on to a laboratory in which a computer added a "grainy" effect. Extended visual effects were used in the scene in which the ghost of Sadako Yamamura climbs out of the television. First, they shot the kabuki actress Rie Inoo walking backwards in a jerky, exaggerated motion. They then played the film in reverse to portray an unnatural-looking walk for Sadako.


title: Ring (film)

text: "Ring" was released in Japan on January 31, 1998 where it was distributed by Toho. Upon release in Japan, "Ring" became the highest-grossing horror film in the country. The film was shown at the 1999 Fantasia Film Festival where it won the first place award for Best Feature in the Asian films section.


title: Ring (film)

text: In the Philippines, the film was given limited releases as "Ring: Circle of Evil" on both December 4, 2002, and January 11, 2003, to coincide with the North American remake's release on January 17.


title: Ring (film)

text: In Japan, the film earned a distribution income (rentals) of in 1998, making it one of the top ten highest-grossing Japanese films of the year. The film grossed a total Japanese box office revenue of ().


title: Ring (film)

text: "Variety" stated that "Ring"s "most notable success" has been in Hong Kong, where it became the biggest grosser during the first half of the year, beating popular American films such as "The Matrix". On its 1999 Hong Kong release, "Ring" earned (US$4.03 million) during its two-month theatrical run making it Hong Kong's highest-grossing Japanese-language film. This record was later beaten by "Stand By Me Doraemon" in 2015. In Taiwan, where it released in 1999, the film grossed ().


title: Ring (film)

text: In France, the film sold 94,257 tickets, equivalent to an estimated gross revenue of approximately (). In South Korea, 56,983 tickets were sold in the capital city of Seoul, equivalent to an estimated gross revenue of approximately (). The film also grossed $59,001 in Chile and the United Kingdom, adding up to an estimated worldwide gross revenue of approximately .


title: Ring (film)

text: "Ring" was released directly to home video in the United States and Canada by DreamWorks with English, Spanish, and French subtitles on March 4, 2003, under the transliterated title "Ringu".


title: Ring (film)

text: In the United Kingdom, it was watched by 390,000 viewers on television during the first half of 2005, making it the sixth most-watched foreign-language film on UK television during that period. "Ring 2" also drew 360,000 viewers on UK television during the same period, adding up to a combined 750,000 UK television viewership for both "Ring" films during the first half of 2005.


title: Ring (film)

text: To coincide with its 20th anniversary, Arrow Films under their Arrow Video imprint issued a Blu-ray Disc of "Ring" on March 18, 2019 in the UK and Ireland. Additionally, a Blu-ray box set featuring "Ring", the sequels "Spiral" and "Ring 2", and prequel "", was also released. The transfer features a 4K resolution restoration that was scanned from the film's original camera negative. The picture grading and restoration, which took place at Imagica Labs in Tokyo, was supervised and approved by "Ring" cinematographer Jun'ichirō Hayashi. Both Arrow's single Blu-ray Disc and Blu-ray box set were later released in the United States and Canada on October 29, again under the transliterated title "Ringu".


title: Ring (film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 97% based on 38 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.5 out of 10. The site's critical consensus reads: ""Ringu" combines supernatural elements with anxieties about modern technology in a truly frightening and unnerving way".


title: Ring (film)

text: "Sight & Sound" critic Mark Kermode praised the film's "timeless terror", with its "combination of old folk devils and contemporary moral panics" which appeal to both teen and adult audiences alike. While Adam Smith of "Empire" Online finds the film "throttled by its over complexity, duff plotting and a distinct lack of actual action", Kermode emphasizes that "one is inclined to conclude that it is the telling, rather than the content of the tale, that is all-important". "Variety" agrees that the slow pace, with "its gradual evocation of evil lying await beneath the surface of normality", is one of the film's biggest strengths. "Ring" was listed as the twelfth best horror film of all time by "The Guardian" and also picked by Stuart Heritage in the same paper as the film that frightened him most.


title: Ring (film)

text: "Ring" was ranked No. 69 in "Empire" magazine's "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema" in 2010. In the early 2010s, "Time Out" conducted a poll with several authors, directors, actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films. "Ring" placed at number 61 on their top 100 list.


title: Ring (film)

text: The international success of the Japanese films launched a revival of horror filmmaking in Japan that resulted in such pictures as Kiyoshi Kurosawa's 2001 film "Pulse" (known as in Japan), Takashi Shimizu's (2000), Hideo Nakata's , also based on a short story by Suzuki), and Higuchinsky's "Uzumaki" (2000, a.k.a. "Vortex", based on the Junji Ito horror manga of the same name).


title: Ring (film)

text: Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Hollywood horror had largely been dominated by the slasher sub-genre, which relied on on-screen violence, shock tactics, and gore. "Ring", whose release in Japan roughly coincided with "The Blair Witch Project" in the United States, helped to revitalise the genre by taking a more restrained approach to horror, leaving much of the terror to the audience's imagination. The film initiated global interest in Japanese cinema in general and Japanese horror cinema in particular, a renaissance which led to the coining of the term "J-Horror" in the West. This "New Asian Horror" resulted in further successful releases, such as "" and "Dark Water". In addition to Japanese productions this boom also managed to bring attention to similar films made in East Asia at the same time such as "A Tale of Two Sisters" from South Korea and "The Eye" from Hong Kong.


title: Ring (film)

text: All of these films were later remade in English. Released in 2002, "The Ring" reached number 1 at the box office and grossed slightly more in Japan than the original. The original "Ring" grossed in 1998, while "The Ring" remake grossed in 2002.


title: Ring (film)

text: The original sequel was "Spiral", released in 1998, but due to its poor reception, a new sequel, "Ring 2", was released in 1999 which continued the storyline of this film. It was followed by a 2000 prequel, "", followed by "Sadako" in 2019. "Spiral" in turn was followed by "Sadako 3D" in 2012 and "Sadako 3D 2" in 2013.


title: Ring (film)

text: A television series, "", was made, with a similar storyline but many changes in characters and their backstories. A South Korean remake "The Ring Virus" was made in 1999; as well as an American remake, "The Ring", in 2002.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: He came to prominence as a stand-up comedian in the 1980s and became known for his dark, neurotic and self-deprecating humor.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: As an actor he is known for co-starring with Jamie Lee Curtis in the sitcom "Anything but Love", for playing the role of Prince John in the film "" and for his recurring role as a semi-fictionalized version of himself in HBO's "Curb Your Enthusiasm".


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in Englewood, New Jersey. His family is Jewish, but not especially religious. His father, Bill (d. 1971), was co-owner of Ambassador Caterers in nearby Teaneck, New Jersey, and his mother, Blanche, was an actress in community theatre. Lewis is the youngest of three siblings – his brother was older than him by 6 years, and his sister by 9. Lewis's father's catering business kept his father very busy, and his siblings had both left home by the 1960s, leaving Lewis at home alone with his mother, with whom he did not get along. Lewis told "The Washington Post" in 2014 that he suspected that his birth had been a mistake.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis was known for being the class clown and causing trouble in school. He graduated from Dwight Morrow High School in 1965 and attended The Ohio State University where he attained a degree in marketing.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis first tried stand-up at an open-mic in Greenwich Village in 1971. He began writing and regularly performing stand-up comedy in 1972, while working as a copywriter for an advertising agency by day. He was discovered by comedian David Brenner, while performing in Greenwich Village. Brenner helped Lewis's career by introducing him to the comedy clubs in Los Angeles and getting Lewis his first appearance on "The Tonight Show". By the mid-1970s, Lewis had appeared on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" and publications such as the "New York Daily News" and "New York Magazine" were naming him one of the "new breed" or "class" of comedians, along with such names as Robert Klein, Lily Tomlin, Richard Pryor, George Carlin, Andy Kaufman, Richard Belzer and Elayne Boosler. His influences are Buster Keaton, Woody Allen, Lenny Bruce and Richard Pryor.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis is known for dark comedy, self-deprecation and for frank discussions of his many neuroses as well as his struggles with alcoholism and drug addiction. He is noted for wearing all-black attire and for pacing and gesticulating wildly during his stand-up act. In his early days he was also known for bringing taped-together sheets from a legal pad to his performances, that he would lay across the floor in front of him to remind him of joke premises and topics he wished to cover during his performance.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis made his screen acting debut in "Diary of a Young Comic", a 90 minute film that aired on NBC in 1979 in the timeslot normally reserved for episodes of "Saturday Night Live". A satirical look at the Hollywood scene, Lewis stars in the film as Billy Gondola (born Gondolstein), a young Jewish comedian who leaves New York City to find fame in Los Angeles. The film's script was co-written by Lewis and Bennett Tramer and was adapted from a story written by Gary Weis, who also served as the film's director. The film features Bill Macy as Billy's father, Michael Lerner as his agent, and Stacy Keach as a landlord. Performers George Jessel, Dom DeLuise, Nina van Pallandt and Gary Mule Deer make appearances in the film as themselves.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis gained much wider exposure in the 1980s and 1990s with numerous appearances on talk shows such as "The Tonight Show", both "Late Night" and the "Late Show with David Letterman", and "The Howard Stern Show" He also produced the comedy specials "I'm in Pain", which aired on Showtime in 1985, followed by "I'm Exhausted", "I'm Doomed" and "Richard Lewis: The Magical Misery Tour", which all aired on HBO in 1988, 1990 and 1997 respectively. From 1988 to 1992 he co-starred with Jamie Lee Curtis on the sitcom "Anything but Love". He also starred on the short-lived sitcoms "Daddy Dearest" with Don Rickles in 1993 and Hiller and Diller with Kevin Nealon in 1998. He played Prince John in the 1993 film "", and starred a struggling alcoholic and drug addict, in the 1995 drama film "Drunks", a film that also featured performances from Faye Dunaway, George Martin, Parker Posey, Howard Rollins, Spalding Gray and Dianne Wiest and was based on Gary Lennon's play "Blackout". Lewis also appeared in the 1995 drama film "Leaving Las Vegas" and the 1997 romantic comedy "Hugo Pool".


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Into the 2000s, Lewis had recurring roles as a B movie producer on the sitcom "Rude Awakening" and as Rabbi Richard Glass on the family drama series "7th Heaven". Lewis also had a recurring role on the sitcom "Curb Your Enthusiasm" as Richard Lewis, a semi-autobiographical version of himself. Lewis first met the show's star and creator, Larry David, at summer camp in Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York when they were 12 years old – Lewis claimed that at the time they hated each other. The two comedians also happened to be born three days apart in the same hospital. The pair met again just over a decade later while performing stand-up in New York and became friends. Having appeared on the series since its first episode, it was confirmed in 2021 that Lewis would not be returning to the show in its 11th season, due to pain Lewis was experiencing in relation to back and shoulder issues and multiple surgeries. However Lewis later confirmed via Twitter that he was convinced by David to return for one episode. Lewis also told "GQ" in October 2021 that he hoped that "Curb Your Enthusiasm" would return for more seasons so that he could once again play a more regular role on the show.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: "GQ" magazine included Lewis on their list of "The 20th Century’s Most Influential Humorists", and Lewis was ranked #45 on Comedy Central's list of "100 Greatest Standups of All Time" released in 2004.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: In 2006, "The Yale Book of Quotations" included an entry for the expression "the ______ from hell" (as in "the night from hell", "the date from hell". etc.,) that was attributed Lewis. Lewis also petitioned the editors of "Bartlett's Familiar Quotations" to include the idiom, which was also worked into the plot of "Curb Your Enthusiasm" during the episode "The Nanny from Hell." Lewis's lawyer sent some video tapes of Lewis using the phrase to Bartlett's general editor Justin Kaplan. Bartlett's declined, stating that the expression had predated Lewis's first taped broadcast. In response, Lewis told "Entertainment Weekly" that he traces popular usage of the line back to his early days on David Letterman's show.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis met Joyce Lapinsky in 1998 at a Ringo Starr album release party, while Lapinsky was working in music publishing. The pair were engaged in 2004 and married the following year.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Discussions of Lewis's battles with anxiety and depression, and his multiple therapy sessions, have been a fixture of his comedy. He has also stated in interviews that he suffers from an eating disorder due to body dysmorphia.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis has been open about his recovery from alcohol and drug abuse, having been a user of both cocaine and crystal meth. His addictions worsened into the 1990s, prompting Lewis to stop performing stand-up from 1991 to 1994. In a 1995 interview with the "Santa Maria Times", Lewis discussed how John Candy's death in 1994 caused him to reflect upon his own life and career. The two starred together in Candy's last film, the Western-themed comedy film "Wagons East". In later interviews, Lewis stated that he got sober in 1994 after winding up in a hospital emergency room due to a cocaine overdose.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis published his memoir in 2000, titled "The Other Great Depression". The book was reissued in 2008 with an added afterword where Lewis reflected further on his continued struggles with addiction. In 2015 he followed this up with the book "Reflections From Hell: Richard Lewis' Guide on How Not to Live," which contains Lewis's commentary and observations in the form of one-liners and other comedic premises, interspersed with images created by artist Carl Nicholas Titolo.


title: Richard Lewis (comedian)

text: Lewis has struggled with health issues resulting in multiple surgeries. In 2016 he shattered his right hand after falling from his roof, in 2019 he had back surgery related to acute back pain, and in early 2020 he shattered his shoulder, resulting in yet more surgery. In 2020 it was revealed that Lewis had endured great pain during the shooting of "Curb Your Enthusiasm" and in 2021 he announced that he would only be returning for one episode of the 11th season, but hoped to appear more regularly in any potential subsequent seasons.


title: Wise (company)

text: Wise (formerly TransferWise) is a London-based financial technology company founded by Estonian businessmen Kristo Käärmann and Taavet Hinrikus in January 2011.


title: Wise (company)

text: Wise was founded by Taavet Hinrikus (Skype's first employee) and financial consultant Kristo Käärmann. Its system has been compared to the hawala money transfer system.


title: Wise (company)

text: In its first year of operation, transactions through Wise amounted to €10 million. In 2012, Wise was named as one of "East London's 20 hottest tech startups" by "The Guardian", Start Up of the Week by "Wired UK", one of five "start-ups to watch" at Seedcamp's 2012 US Demo Day by TechCrunch, and appeared in Startups.co.uk's list of the top 100 UK start-ups of 2012.


title: Wise (company)

text: In April 2013, Wise stopped letting users purchase Bitcoin, citing pressure from banking providers. Independent comparison site Monito reported that Wise was on average 83% cheaper than the big four UK banks on major currency "routes", but could be up to 90% cheaper in certain specific cases.


title: Wise (company)

text: In May 2015, Wise was ranked No. 8 on CNBC's 2015 Disruptor 50 list, and in August 2015, the company was named a World Economic Forum Tech Pioneer.


title: Wise (company)

text: On 8 April 2017, an internal memo from British bank Santander claimed the bank would lose 84% of its revenue from its money transfer business if its charges were the same as Wise. Also in April 2017, the company announced the opening of its APAC hub in Singapore. In 2019, the company announced opening an office in Brussels. In May 2017, the company announced its customers were sending over £1 billion every month using the service, and that the company had turned profitable six years after being founded.


title: Wise (company)

text: On 21 January 2021, Sky News reported that Wise had appointed Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley as joint global co-ordinators for its planned initial public offering. On 22 February 2021, the company rebranded from TransferWise to Wise. As part of this rebranding, the company also launched a new website domain. The company rebranded to reflect its expanded product offering beyond international money transfer.


title: Wise (company)

text: On 2 July 2021, it was announced in a prospectus published by the company that co-founder Taavet Hinrikus would step down as chair within a year. It was also announced that David Wells would replace him in this position.


title: Wise (company)

text: On 7 July 2021, Wise went public with a direct listing on the London Stock Exchange, and was valued at $11 billion.


title: Wise (company)

text: On 27 June 2022, the Financial Conduct Authority reported that the Wise CEO, Kristo Käärmann, was included on their list of individuals and businesses receiving penalties for a deliberate default regarding their tax affairs. He would remain on the list for 12 months from September 2021. He reportedly failed to pay £720,000 for the 2017–2018 tax year.


title: Wise (company)

text: Wise received seed funding amounting to $1.3 million from a consortium including venture firms IA Ventures and Index Ventures, IJNR Ventures, NYPPE as well as individual investors such as PayPal co-founder Max Levchin, former Betfair CEO David Yu, and Wonga.com co-founder Errol Damelin. Wise also received investment after being named one of Seedcamp 2011's winners.


title: Wise (company)

text: In May 2013, it was announced that Wise had secured a $6 million investment round led by Peter Thiel's Valar Ventures. Wise raised a further $25 million in June 2014, adding Richard Branson as an investor.


title: Wise (company)

text: In January 2015, it was announced that Wise had raised a $58 million Series C round, led by investors Andreessen Horowitz. In May 2016, Wise secured a funding of $26 million. This raised the company's valuation to $1.1 billion. As of May 2016, Wise has raised a total of $117 million in funding.


title: Wise (company)

text: In November 2017, the company raised a $280 million Series E led by Old Mutual Global Investors and IVP, as well as Sapphire Ventures, Japanese Mitsui & Co, and World Innovation Lab.


title: Wise (company)

text: In May 2019, the company had the secondary investment round of $292 million and reached the total valuation of $3.5 billion, more than double the valuation Wise achieved in late 2017 at the time of its $280 million Series E round.


title: Wise (company)

text: In July 2020, the company disclosed a secondary investment round of $319 million and reached the total valuation of $5 billion, led by new investor D1 Capital Partners and existing shareholder Lone Pine Capital. Vulcan Capital also came on board as a new investor, with Baillie Gifford, Fidelity Investments and LocalGlobe adding to their existing holdings.


title: Wise (company)

text: In May 2016, Wise's claim "you save up to 90% against banks" was called misleading by the UK Advertising Standards Authority.


title: Wise (company)

text: In June 2020, after experts raised ethical and privacy concerns around the digital COVID-19 immunity passports Wise was helping develop, the company conceded immunity passports were not a "perfect solution" and co-founder Hinrikus said they would not be launched publicly until there was scientific consensus on COVID-19 immunity.


title: Wise (company)

text: Wise used to be a preferred service for Ukrainian nationals to transfer cash, especially after the Russian attacks to the country, e.g., for supporting relatives that had to flee Ukraine. While other financial institutions kept their operations for Ukraine residents open, Wise suspended the opening of new accounts.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno ( ; Latin ) was an ancient Roman goddess, the protector and special counsellor of the state. She was equated to Hera, queen of the gods in Greek mythology. A daughter of Saturn, she was the sister and wife of Jupiter and the mother of Mars, Vulcan, Bellona and Juventas. Like Hera, her sacred animal was the peacock. Her Etruscan counterpart was Uni, and she was said to also watch over the women of Rome. As the patron goddess of Rome and the Roman Empire, Juno was called ("Queen") and was a member of the Capitoline Triad ("Juno Capitolina"), centered on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, and also including Jupiter, and Minerva, goddess of wisdom.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno's own warlike aspect among the Romans is apparent in her attire. She was often shown armed and wearing a goatskin cloak. The traditional depiction of this warlike aspect was assimilated from the Greek goddess Athena, who bore a goatskin, or a goatskin shield, called the aegis. Juno was also shown wearing a diadem.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The name "Juno" was also once thought to be connected to "Iove" (Jove), originally as "Diuno" and "Diove" from "*Diovona". At the beginning of the 20th century, a derivation was proposed from "iuven-" (as in Latin "iuvenis", "youth"), through a syncopated form "iūn-" (as in "iūnix", "heifer", and "iūnior", "younger"). This etymology became widely accepted after it was endorsed by Georg Wissowa.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: "Iuuen-" is related to Latin "aevum" and Greek "aion" (αἰών) through a common Indo-European root referring to a concept of vital energy or "fertile time". The "iuvenis" is he who has the fullness of vital force. In some inscriptions Jupiter himself is called "Iuuntus", and one of the epithets of Jupiter is "Ioviste", a superlative form of "iuuen-" meaning "the youngest". Iuventas, "Youth", was one of two deities who "refused" to leave the Capitol when the building of the new Temple of Capitoline Jove required the exauguration of deities who already occupied the site.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno is the equivalent to Hera, the Greek goddess for love and marriage. Juno is the Roman goddess of love and marriage.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Ancient etymologies associated Juno's name with "iuvare", "to aid, benefit", and "iuvenescere", "rejuvenate", sometimes connecting it to the renewal of the new and waxing moon, perhaps implying the idea of a moon goddess.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno's theology is one of the most complex and disputed issues in Roman religion. Even more than other major Roman deities, Juno held a large number of significant and diverse epithets, names and titles representing various aspects and roles of the goddess. In accordance with her central role as a goddess of marriage, these included "Pronuba" and "Cinxia" ("she who looses the bride's girdle"). However, other epithets of Juno have wider implications and are less thematically linked.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: While her connection with the idea of vital force, the fullness of vital energy, and eternal youthfulness is now generally acknowledged, the multiplicity and complexity of her personality have given rise to various and sometimes irreconcilable interpretations among modern scholars.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno is certainly the divine protectress of the community, who shows both a sovereign and a fertility character, often associated with a military one. She was present in many towns of ancient Italy: at Lanuvium as Sespeis Mater Regina, Laurentum, Tibur, Falerii, Veii as Regina, at Tibur and Falerii as Regina and Curitis, Tusculum and Norba as Lucina. She is also attested at Praeneste, Aricia, Ardea, Gabii. In five Latin towns a month was named after Juno (Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Praeneste, Tibur). Outside Latium in Campania at Teanum she was Populona (she who increase the number of the people or, in K. Latte's understanding of the "iuvenes", the army), in Umbria at Pisaurum Lucina, at Terventum in Samnium Regina, at Pisarum Regina Matrona, at Aesernia in Samnium Regina Populona. In Rome she was since the most ancient times named Lucina, Mater and Regina. It is debated whether she was also known as Curitis before the evocatio of the Juno of Falerii: this though seems probable.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Other epithets of hers that were in use at Rome include Moneta and Caprotina, Tutula, Fluonia or Fluviona, Februalis, the last ones associated with the rites of purification and fertility of February.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Her various epithets thus show a complex of mutually interrelated functions that in the view of Georges Dumézil and Vsevolod Basanoff (author of "Les dieux Romains") can be traced back to the Indoeuropean trifunctional ideology: as Regina and Moneta she is a sovereign deity, as Sespeis, Curitis (spear holder) and Moneta (again) she is an armed protectress, as Mater and Curitis (again) she is a goddess of the fertility and wealth of the community in her association with the curiae.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The epithet "Lucina" is particularly revealing since it reflects two interrelated aspects of the function of Juno: cyclical renewal of time in the waning and waxing of the moon and protection of delivery and birth (as she who brings to light the newborn as vigour, vital force). The ancient called her "Covella" in her function of helper in the "labours" of the new moon. The view that she was also a Moon goddess though is no longer accepted by scholars, as such a role belongs to Diana "Lucifera": through her association with the moon she governed the feminine physiological functions, menstrual cycle and pregnancy: as a rule all lunar deities are deities of childbirth. These aspects of Juno mark the heavenly and worldly sides of her function. She is thus associated to all beginnings and hers are the kalendae of every month: at Laurentum she was known as "Kalendaris Iuno" (Juno of the Kalends). At Rome on the Kalends of every month the "pontifex minor" invoked her, under the epithet "Covella", when from the "curia Calabra" he announced the date of the "nonae". On the same day the "regina sacrorum" sacrificed to Juno a white sow or lamb in the Regia. She is closely associated with Janus, the god of passages and beginnings who after her is often named "Iunonius".


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Some scholars view this concentration of multiple functions as a typical and structural feature of the goddess, inherent to her being an expression of the nature of femininity. Others though prefer to dismiss her aspects of femininity and fertility and stress only her quality of being the spirit of youthfulness, liveliness and strength, regardless of sexual connexions, which would then change according to circumstances: thus in men she incarnates the "iuvenes", a word often used to designate soldiers, hence resulting in a tutelary deity of the sovereignty of peoples; in women capable of bearing children, from puberty on she oversees childbirth and marriage. Thence she would be a "poliad" goddess related to politics, power and war. Others think her military and poliadic qualities arise from her being a fertility goddess who through her function of increasing the numbers of the community became also associated to political and military functions.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: "Part of the following sections is based on the article by Geneviève Dury Moyaers and Marcel Renard "Aperçu critique des travaux relatifs au culte de Junon" in "Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römische Welt" 1981 p. 142-202."


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The rites of the month of February and the "Nonae Caprotinae" of July 5 offer a depiction of Juno's roles in the spheres of fertility, war, and regality.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: In the Roman calendar, February is a month of universal purification, and begins the new year. In book II of his "Fasti", Ovid derives the month's name from "februae" (expiations); lustrations designed to remove spiritual contamination or ritual pollution accumulated in the previous year. On the 1st of the month, a black ox was sacrificed to Helernus, a minor underworld deity whom Dumézil takes as a god of vegetation related to the cult of Carna/Crane, a nymph who may be an image of Juno Sospita. On the same day, Juno's "dies natalis" ("birthday") as Juno Sospita was celebrated at her Palatine temple. On February 15 the Lupercalia festival was held, in which Juno was involved as "Juno Lucina". This is usually understood to be a rite of purification and fertility. A goat was sacrificed and its hide cut into strips, used to make whips known as "februum" and "amiculus Iunonis", wielded by the Luperci. The Juno of this day bears the epithet of "Februalis", "Februata", "Februa". On the last day of the month, leading into March 1, she was celebrated as protectress of matrons and marriages. The new year began on March 1. The same was celebrated as the birthday of Rome's founder and first king, Romulus, and the peaceful union of Romans and Sabine peoples through treaty and marriage after their war, which was ended by the intervention of women.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: After Wissowa many scholars have remarked the similarity between the Juno of the Lupercalia and the Juno of Lanuvium "Seispes Mater Regina" as both are associated with the goat, symbol of fertility. But in essence there is unity between fertility, regality and purification. This unity is underlined by the role of Faunus in the aetiologic story told by Ovid and the symbolic relevance of the Lupercal: asked by the Roman couples at her "lucus" how to overcome the sterility that ensued the abduction of the Sabine women, Juno answered through a murmuring of leaves ""Italidas matres sacer hircus inito"" "That a sacred ram cover the Italic mothers".


title: Juno (mythology)

text: "Februlis" oversees the secundament of the placenta and is strictly associated to "Fluvonia, Fluonia", goddess who retains the blood inside the body during pregnancy. While the protection of pregnancy is stressed by Duval, Palmer sees in Fluonia only the Juno of lustration in river water. Ovid devotes an "excursus" to the lustrative function of river water in the same place in which he explains the etymology of February.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: A temple ("aedes") of Juno Lucina was built in 375 BC in the grove sacred to the goddess from early times. It stood precisely on the Cispius near the sixth shrine of the Argei. probably not far west of the church of S. Prassede, where inscriptions relating to her cult have been found. The grove should have extended down the slope south of the temple. As Servius Tullius ordered the gifts for the newborn to be placed in the treasury of the temple though it looks that another shrine stood there before 375 BC. In 190 BC the temple was struck by lightning, its gable and doors injured. The annual festival of the Matronalia was celebrated here on March 1, day of the dedication of the temple.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: A temple to Iuno Sospita was vowed by consul Gaius Cornelius Cethegus in 197 BC and dedicated in 194. By 90 BC the temple had fallen into disrepute: in that year it was stained by episodes of prostitution and a bitch delivered her puppies right beneath the statue of the goddess. By decree of the senate consul L. Iulius Caesar ordered its restoration. In his poem "Fasti" Ovid states the temple of Juno Sospita had become dilapidated to the extent of being no longer discernible "because of the injuries of time": this looks hardly possible as the restoration had happened no longer than a century earlier and relics of the temple exist to-day. It is thence plausible that an older temple of Juno Sospita existed in Rome within the pomerium, as Ovid says it was located near the temple of the Phrygian Mother (Cybele), which stood on the western corner of the Palatine. As a rule temples of foreign, imported gods stood outside the pomerium.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The alliance of the three aspects of Juno finds a strictly related parallel to the Lupercalia in the festival of the "Nonae Caprotinae". On that day the Roman free and slave women picnicked and had fun together near the site of the wild fig ("caprificus"): the custom implied runs, mock battles with fists and stones, obscene language and finally the sacrifice of a male goat to Juno "Caprotina" under a wildfig tree and with the using of its lymph.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: This festival had a legendary aetiology in a particularly delicate episode of Roman history and also recurs at (or shortly after) a particular time of the year, that of the so-called "caprificatio" when branches of wild fig trees were fastened to cultivated ones to promote insemination. The historical episode narrated by ancient sources concerns the siege of Rome by the Latin peoples that followed the Gallic sack. The dictator of the Latins Livius Postumius from Fidenae would have requested the Roman senate that the "matronae" and daughters of the most prominent families be surrendered to the Latins as hostages. While the senate was debating the issue a slave girl, whose Greek name was Philotis and Latin Tutela or Tutula proposed that she together with other slave girls would render herself up to the enemy camp pretending to be the wives and daughters of the Roman families. Upon agreement of the senate, the women dressed up elegantly and wearing golden jewellery reached the Latin camp. There they seduced the Latins into fooling and drinking: after they had fallen asleep, they stole their swords. Then Tutela gave the convened signal to the Romans brandishing an ignited branch after climbing on the wild fig ("caprificus") and hiding the fire with her mantle. The Romans then irrupted into the Latin camp killing the enemies in their sleep. The women were rewarded with freedom and a dowry at public expenses.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Dumézil in his "Archaic Roman Religion" had been unable to interpret the myth underlying this legendary event, later though he accepted the interpretation given by P. Drossart and published it in his "Fêtes romaines d'été et d'automne, suivi par dix questions romaines" in 1975 as "Question IX". In folklore the wild fig tree is universally associated with sex because of its fertilising power, the shape of its fruits and the white viscous juice of the tree.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Basanoff has argued that the legend not only alludes to sex and fertility in its association with wildfig and goat but is in fact a summary of sort of all the qualities of Juno. As Juno Sespeis of Lanuvium Juno Caprotina is a warrior, a fertiliser and a sovereign protectress. In fact, the legend presents a heroine, Tutela, who is a slightly disguised representation of the goddess: the request of the Latin dictator would mask an attempted evocatio of the tutelary goddess of Rome. Tutela indeed shows regal, military and protective traits, apart from the sexual ones. Moreover, according to Basanoff these too (breasts, milky juice, "genitalia", present or symbolised in the fig and the goat) in general, and here in particular, have an inherently apotropaic value directly related to the nature of Juno. The occasion of the "feria", shortly after the poplifugia, i.e. when the community is in its direst straits, needs the intervention of a divine tutelary goddess, a divine queen, since the king (divine or human) has failed to appear or has fled. Hence the customary battles under the wild figs, the scurrilous language that bring together the second and third function. This festival would thus show a ritual that can prove the trifunctional nature of Juno.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Other scholars limit their interpretation of Caprotina to the sexual implications of the goat, the "caprificus" and the obscene words and plays of the festival.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Under this epithet Juno is attested in many places, notably at Falerii and Tibur. Dumézil remarked that Juno Curitis "is represented and invoked at Rome under conditions very close to those we know about for "Juno Seispes" of Lanuvium". Martianus Capella states she must be invoked by those who are involved in war. The hunt of the goat by stonethrowing at Falerii is described in Ovid "Amores" III 13, 16 ff. In fact the Juno Curritis of Falerii shows a complex articulated structure closely allied to the threefold Juno Seispes of Lanuvium.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Ancient etymologies associated the epithet with Cures, with the Sabine word for spear "curis", with "currus" cart, with "Quirites", with the "curiae", as king Titus Tatius dedicated a table to Juno in every curia, that Dionysius still saw.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Modern scholars have proposed the town of Currium or Curria, Quirinus, "*quir(i)s" or "*quiru", the Sabine word for spear and curia. The *quiru- would design the sacred spear that gave the name to the primitive curiae. The discovery at Sulmona of a sanctuary of Hercules "Curinus" lends support to a Sabine origin of the epithet and of the cult of Juno in the curiae. The spear could also be the "celibataris hasta" (bridal spear) that in the marriage ceremonies was used to comb the bridegroom's hair as a good omen. Palmer views the rituals of the curiae devoted to her as a reminiscence of the origin of the curiae themselves in rites of "evocatio", a practice the Romans continued to use for Juno or her equivalent at later times as for Falerii, Veii and Carthage. Juno Curitis would then be the deity evoked after her admission into the curiae.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno Curitis had a temple on the Campus Martius. Excavations in Largo di Torre Argentina have revealed four temple structures, one of whom (temple D or A) could be the temple of Juno Curitis. She shared her anniversary day with Juppiter Fulgur, who had an altar nearby.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: This Juno is placed by ancient sources in a warring context. Dumézil thinks the third, military, aspect of Juno is reflected in Juno Curitis and Moneta. Palmer too sees in her a military aspect.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: As for the etymology, Cicero gives the verb "monēre" warn, hence "the Warner". Palmer accepts Cicero's etymology as a possibility while adding "mons" mount, hill, verb "e-mineo" and noun "monile" referred to the Capitol, place of her cult. Also perhaps a cultic term or even, as in her temple were kept the "Libri Lintei", "monere" would thence have the meaning of recording: Livius Andronicus identifies her as Mnemosyne.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Her "dies natalis" was on the kalendae of June. Her Temple on the summit of the Capitol was dedicated only in 348 BC by dictator L. Furius Camillus, presumably a son of the great Furius. Livy states he vowed the temple during a war against the Aurunci. Modern scholars agree that the origins of the cult and of the temple were much more ancient. M. Guarducci considers her cult very ancient, identifying her with Mnemosyne as "the Warner" because of her presence near the auguraculum, her oracular character, her announcement of perils: she considers her as an introduction into Rome of the Hera of Cuma dating to the 8th century. L. A. Mac Kay considers the goddess more ancient than her etymology on the testimony of Valerius Maximus who states she was the Juno of Veii. The sacred geese of the Capitol were lodged in her temple: as they are recorded in the episode of the Gallic siege (ca. 396-390 BC) by Livy, the temple should have existed before Furius's dedication. Basanoff considers her to go back to the regal period: she would be the Sabine Juno who arrived at Rome through Cures. At Cures she was the tutelary deity of the military chief: as such she is never to be found among Latins. This new quality is apparent in the location of her "fanum", her name, her role: 1. her altar is located in the regia of Titus Tatius; 2. Moneta is, from "monere", "the Adviser": like Egeria with Numa (Tatius's son in law) she is associated to a Sabine king; 3. In Dionysius of Halicarnassus the altar-tables of the curiae are consecrated to Juno Curitis to justify the false etymology of Curitis from curiae: the tables would assure the presence of the tutelary "numen" of the king as an adviser within each curia, as the epithet itself implies. It can be assumed thence that Juno Moneta intervenes under warlike circumstances as associated to the sacral power of the king. Since coins were later made near her temple, her epithet, "moneta" became the Latin term for both the place where coins were made, but also for the currency itself (and the Latin word ultimately yielded in English both "mint" and "money").


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno Regina is perhaps the epithet most fraught with questions. While some scholars maintain she was known as such at Rome since the most ancient times as paredra (consort) of Jupiter in the Capitoline Triad others think she is a new acquisition introduced to Rome after her evocatio from Veii.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Palmer thinks she is to be identified with Juno Populona of later inscriptions, a political and military poliadic (guardian) deity who had in fact a place in the Capitoline temple and was intended to represent the "Regina" of the king. The date of her introduction, though ancient, would be uncertain; she should perhaps be identified with Hera Basilea or as the queen of Jupiter Rex. The actual epithet Regina could though come from Veii. At Rome this epithet may have been applied to a Juno other than that of the temple on the Aventine built to lodge the evocated Veian Juno as the rex sacrorum and his wife-queen were to offer a monthly sacrifice to Juno in the Regia. This might imply that the prerepublican Juno was royal.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: J. Gagé dismisses these assumptions as groundless speculations as no Jupiter Rex is attested and in accord with Roe D'Albret stresses that at Rome no presence of a Juno Regina is mentioned before Marcus Furius Camillus, while she is attested in many Etruscan and Latin towns. Before that time her Roman equivalent was Juno Moneta. Marcel Renard for his part considers her an ancient Roman figure since the title of the Veian Juno expresses a cultic reality that is close to and indeed presupposes the existence at Rome of an analogous character: as a rule it is the presence of an original local figure that may allow the introduction of the new one through evocatio. He agrees with Dumézil that we ignore whether the translation of the epithet is exhaustive and what Etruscan notion corresponded to the name "Regina" which itself is certainly an Italic title. This is the only instance of evocatio recorded by the annalistic tradition. However Renard considers Macrobius's authority reliable in his long list of "evocationes" on the grounds of an archaeological find at Isaura. Roe D'Albret underlines the role played by Camillus and sees a personal link between the deity and her magistrate. Similarly Dumézil has remarked the link of Camillus with Mater Matuta. In his relationship to the goddess he takes the place of the king of Veii. Camillus's devotion to female deities Mater Matuta and Fortuna and his contemporary vow of a new temple to both Matuta and Iuno Regina hint to a degree of identity between them: this assumption has by chance been supported by the discovery at Pyrgi of a bronze lamella which mentions together Uni and Thesan, the Etruscan Juno and Aurora, i.e. Mater Matuta. One can then suppose Camillus's simultaneous vow of the temples of the two goddesses should be seen in the light of their intrinsic association. Octavianus will repeat the same translation with the statue of the Juno of Perusia in consequence of a dream


title: Juno (mythology)

text: That a goddess evoked in war and for political reasons receive the homage of women and that women continue to have a role in her cult is explained by Palmer as a foreign cult of feminine sexuality of Etruscan derivation. The persistence of a female presence in her cult through the centuries down to the lectisternium of 217 BC, when the "matronae" collected money for the service, and to the times of Augustus during the ludi saeculares in the sacrifices to Capitoline Juno are proof of the resilience of this foreign tradition.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Gagé and D'Albret remark an accentuation of the matronal aspect of Juno Regina that led her to be the most matronal of the Roman goddesses by the time of the end of the republic. This fact raises the question of understanding why she was able of attracting the devotion of the "matronae". Gagé traces back the phenomenon to the nature of the cult rendered to the Juno Regina of the Aventine in which Camillus played a role in person. The original devotion of the "matronae" was directed to Fortuna. Camillus was devout to her and to Matuta, both matronal deities. When he brought Juno Regina from Veii the Roman women were already acquainted with many Junos, while the ancient rites of Fortuna were falling off. Camillus would have then made a political use of the cult of Juno Regina to subdue the social conflicts of his times by attributing to her the role of primordial mother.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno Regina had two temples ("aedes") in Rome. The one dedicated by Furius Camillus in 392 BC stood on the Aventine: it lodged the wooden statue of the Juno transvected from Veii. It is mentioned several times by Livy in connexion with sacrifices offered in atonement of prodigia. It was restored by Augustus. Two inscriptions found near the church of S. Sabina indicate the approximate site of the temple, which corresponds with its place in the lustral procession of 207 BC, near the upper end of the Clivus Publicius. The day of the dedication and of her festival was September 1.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Another temple stood near the circus Flaminius, vowed by consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 187 BC during the war against the Ligures and dedicated by himself as censor in 179 on December 23. It was connected by a porch with a temple of Fortuna, perhaps that of Fortuna Equestris. Its probable site according to Platner is just south of the porticus Pompeiana on the west end of circus Flaminius.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The Juno Cealestis of Carthage Tanit was evoked according to Macrobius. She did not receive a temple in Rome: presumably her image was deposited in another temple of Juno (Moneta or Regina) and later transferred to the Colonia Junonia founded by Caius Gracchus. The goddess was once again transferred to Rome by emperor Elagabalus.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The first mention of a Capitoline triad refers to the "Capitolium Vetus". The only ancient source who refers to the presence of this divine triad in Greece is Pausanias X 5, 1–2, who mentions its existence in describing the Φωκικόν in Phocis. The Capitoline triad poses difficult interpretative problems. It looks peculiarly Roman, since there is no sure document of its existence elsewhere either in Latium or Etruria. A direct Greek influence is possible but it would be also plausible to consider it a local creation. Dumézil advanced the hypothesis it could be an ideological construction of the Tarquins to oppose new Latin nationalism, as it included the three gods that in the Iliad are enemies of Troy. It is probable Latins had already accepted the legend of Aeneas as their ancestor. Among ancient sources indeed Servius states that according to the Etrusca Disciplina towns should have the three temples of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva at the end of three roads leading to three gates. Vitruvius writes that the temples of these three gods should be located on the most elevated site, isolated from the other. To his Etruscan founders the meaning of this triad might have been related to peculiarly Etruscan ideas on the association of the three gods with the birth of Herakles and the siege of Troy, in which Minerva plays a decisive role as a goddess of destiny along with the sovereign couple Uni Tinia.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The cults of the Italic Junos reflected remarkable theological complexes: regality, military protection and fertility.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: At Tibur and Falerii their "sacerdos" was a male, called "pontifex sacrarius", a fact that has been seen as a proof of the relevance of the goddess to the whole society. In both towns she was known as "Curitis", the spearholder, an armed protectress. The martial aspect of these Junos is conspicuous, quite as much as that of fecundity and regality: the first two look strictly interconnected: fertility guaranteed the survival of the community, peaceful and armed. Iuno Curitis is also the tutelary goddess of the "curiae" and of the new brides, whose hair was combed with the spear called "caelibataris hasta" as in Rome. In her annual rites at Falerii youths and maiden clad in white bore in procession gifts to the goddess whose image was escorted by her priestesses. The idea of purity and virginity is stressed in Ovid's description. A she goat is sacrificed to her after a ritual hunting. She is then the patroness of the young soldiers and of brides.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: At Lanuvium the goddess is known under the epithet Seispes Mater Regina. The titles themselves are a theological definition: she was a sovereign goddess, a martial goddess and a fertility goddess. Hence her flamen was chosen by the highest local magistrate, the dictator, and since 388 BC the Roman consuls were required to offer sacrifices to her. Her sanctuary was famous, rich and powerful.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Her cult included the annual feeding of a sacred snake with barley cakes by virgin maidens. The snake dwelt in a deep cave within the precinct of the temple, on the "arx" of the city: the maidens approached the lair blindfolded. The snake was supposed to feed only on the cakes offered by chaste girls. The rite was aimed at ensuring agricultural fertility. The site of the temple as well as the presence of the snake show she was the tutelary goddess of the city, as Athena at Athens and Hera at Argos. The motif of the snake of the palace as guardian goddess of the city is shared by Iuno Seispes with Athena, as well as its periodic feeding. This religious pattern moreover includes armour, goatskin dress, sacred birds and a concern with virginity in cult. Virginity is connected to regality: the existence and welfare of the community was protected by virgin goddesses or the virgin attendants of a goddess. This theme shows a connexion with the fundamental theological character of Iuno, that of incarnating vital force: virginity is the condition of unspoilt, unspent vital energy that can ensure communion with nature and its rhythm, symbolised in the fire of Vesta. It is a decisive factor in ensuring the safety of the community and the growth of crops. The role of Iuno is at the crossing point of civil and natural life, expressing their interdependence.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: At Laurentum she was known as Kalendaris Iuno and was honoured as such ritually at the kalendae of each month from March to December, i.e. the months of the pre-Numan ten-month year, a fact which is a testimony to the antiquity of the custom.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: A Greek influence in their cults looks probable. It is noteworthy though that Cicero remarked the existence of a stark difference between the Latin Iuno Seispes and the Argolic Hera (as well the Roman Iuno) in his work De natura deorum. Claudius Helianus later wrote "...she has much new of Hera Argolis" The iconography of Argive Hera, matronal and regal, looks quite far away from the warlike and savage character of Iuno Seispes, especially considering that it is uncertain whether the former was an armed Hera.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: After the definitive subjugation of the Latin League in 338 BC the Romans required as a condition of peace the condominium of the Roman people on the sanctuary and the sacred grove of Juno Seispes in Lanuvium, while bestowing Roman citizenry on the Lanuvians. Consequently, the "prodigia" (supernatural or unearthly phenomena) which happened in her temple were referred to Rome and accordingly expiated there. Many occurred during the presence of Hannibal in Italy. Perhaps the Romans were not completely satisfied with this solution as in 194 BC consul C. Cornelius Cethegus erected a temple to the "Juno Sospita" of Lanuvium in the Forum Holitorium (vowed three years earlier in a war with the Galli Insubri); in it the goddess was honoured in military garb. The flamen or special priest belonging to Juno Seispes continued to be a Lanuvian, specially nominated by the town to take care of the goddess even though she was housed in her temple at Rome (in the Forum Holitorium). At the time of Cicero, Milo, who served as the city's dictator and highest magistrate in 52 BC (Cic. Mil. 27), and of course was also a Roman citizen (he had been tribune of the plebs in 57 BC), resided in Rome. When he fatally met Clodius near Bovillae (Milo's slaves killed Clodius in that encounter), he was on his way to Lanuvium in order to nominate the flamen of Juno Seispes.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The complexity of the figure of Juno has caused much uncertainty and debate among modern scholars. Some emphasize one aspect or character of the goddess, considering it as primary: the other ones would then be the natural and even necessary development of the first. Palmer and Harmon consider it to be the natural vital force of youthfulness, Latte women's fecundity. These original characters would have led to the formation of the complex theology of Juno as a sovereign and an armed tutelary deity.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Georges Dumézil on the other hand proposed the theory of the irreducibility and interdependence of the three aspects (sovereignty, war, fertility) in goddesses that he interprets as an original, irreducible structure as hypothesised in his hypothesis of the trifunctional ideology of the Indoeuropeans. While Dumézil's refusal of seeing a Greek influence in Italic Junos looks difficult to maintain in the light of the contributions of archaeology, his comparative analysis of the divine structure is supported by many scholars, as M. Renard and J. Poucet. His theory purports that while male gods incarnated one single function, there are female goddesses who make up a synthesis of the three functions, as a reflection of the ideal of woman's role in society. Even though such a deity has a peculiar affinity for one function, generally fertility, i. e. the third, she is nevertheless equally competent in each of the three.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: As concrete instances Dumézil makes that of Vedic goddess Sarasvatī and Avestic Anāhīta. Sarasvati as river goddess is first a goddess of the third function, of vitality and fertility associated to the deities of the third function as the Aśvin and of propagation as Sinīvalī. She is "the mother" and on her rely all vital forces. But at the same time she belongs to the first function as a religious sovereign: she is pure, she is the means of purifications and helps the conceiving and realisation of pious thoughts. Lastly she is also a warrior: allied with the Maruts she annihilates the enemies and, sole among female goddesses, bears the epithet of the warrior god Indra, vṛtraghnỉ, "destroyer of oppositions". She is the common spouse of all the heroes of the Mahābhārata, sons and heirs of the Vedic gods Dharma, Vāyu, Indra and of the Aśvin twins. Though in hymns and rites her threefold nature is never expressed conjointly (except in Ṛg Veda VI 61, 12:: "triṣadásthā" having three seats).


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Only in her Avestic equivalent Anahita, the great mythic river, does she bear the same three valences explicitly: her Yašt states she is invoked by warriors, by clerics and by deliverers. She bestows on females an easy delivery and timely milking. She bestowed on heroes the vigour by which they defeated their demonic adversaries. She is the great purifier, "she who puts the worshipper in the ritual, pure condition" ("yaož dā"). Her complete name too is threefold: "The Wet ("Arədvī"), The Strong ("Sūrā"), The Immaculate ("Anāhitā")".


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Dumézil remarks these titles match perfectly those of Latin Junos, especially the Juno Seispes Mater Regina of Lanuvium, the only difference being in the religious orientation of the first function. Compare also the epithet Fluonia, Fluviona of Roman Juno, discussed by G. Radke. However D. P. Harmon has remarked that the meaning of Seispes cannot be seen as limited to the warrior aspect, as it implies a more complex, comprehensive function, i. e. of Saviour.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Among Germanic peoples the homologous goddess was bivalent, as a rule the military function was subsumed into the sovereign: goddess *Frīy(y)o- was at the same time sovereign, wife of the great god, and Venus (thence *Friy(y)a-dagaz "Freitag for Veneris dies). However the internal tension of the character led to a duplication in Scandinavian religion: Frigg resulted in a merely sovereign goddess, the spouse of wizard god Óðinn, while from the name of Freyr, typical god of the third function, was extracted a second character, Freyja, confined as a Vani to the sphere of pleasure and wealth.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Dumézil opines that the theologies of ancient Latium could have preserved a composite image of the goddess and this fact, notably her feature of being "Regina", would in turn have rendered possible her "interpretatio" as Hera.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The divine couple received from Greece its matrimonial implications, thence bestowing on Juno the role of tutelary goddess of marriage ("Iuno Pronuba").


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The association of Juno and Jupiter is of the most ancient Latin theology. Praeneste offers a glimpse into original Latin mythology: the local goddess Fortuna is represented as nursing two infants, one male and one female, namely Jove (Jupiter) and Juno. It seems fairly safe to assume that from the earliest times they were identified by their own proper names and since they got them they were never changed through the course of history: they were called Jupiter and Juno. These gods were the most ancient deities of every Latin town. Praeneste preserved divine filiation and infancy as the sovereign god and his paredra Juno have a mother who is the primordial goddess Fortuna Primigenia. Many terracotta statuettes have been discovered which represent a woman with a child: one of them represents exactly the scene described by Cicero of a woman with two children of different sex who touch her breast. Two of the votive inscriptions to Fortuna associate her and Jupiter: " Fortunae Iovi puero..." and "Fortunae Iovis puero..."


title: Juno (mythology)

text: However, in 1882 R. Mowat published an inscription in which Fortuna is called "daughter of Jupiter", raising new questions and opening new perspectives in the theology of Latin gods. Dumézil has elaborated an interpretative theory according to which this contradiction would be an intrinsic, fundamental feature of Indoeuropean deities of the primordial and sovereign level, as it finds a parallel in Vedic religion. The contradiction would put Fortuna both at the origin of time and into its ensuing diachronic process: it is the comparison offered by Vedic deity Aditi, the "Not-Bound" or "Enemy of Bondage", that shows that there is no question of choosing one of the two apparent options: as the mother of the Aditya she has the same type of relationship with one of his sons, Dakṣa, the minor sovereign who represents the "Creative Energy", being at the same time his mother and daughter, as is true for the whole group of sovereign gods to which she belongs.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The relationship of the female sovereign deity with the god of beginnings and passages is reflected mainly in their association with the kalendae of every month, which belong to both, and in the festival of the Tigillum Sororium of October 1.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Janus as gatekeeper of the gates connecting Heaven and Earth and guardian of all passages is particularly related to time and motion. He holds the first place in ritual invocations and prayers, in order to ensure the communication between the worshipper and the gods. He enjoys the privilege of receiving the first sacrifice of the new year, which is offered by the "rex" on the day of the Agonium of January as well as at the kalendae of each month: These rites show he is considered the patron of the cosmic year. Ovid in his "Fasti" has Janus say that he is the original Chaos and also the first era of the world, which got organised only afterwards. He preserves a tutelary function on this universe as the gatekeeper of Heaven. His nature, qualities and role are reflected in the myth of him being the first to reign in Latium, on the banks of the Tiber, and there receiving the god Saturn, in the age when the Earth could still bear gods. The theology of Janus is also presented in the carmen Saliare. According to Johannes Lydus the Etruscans called him Heaven. His epithets are numerous "Iunonius" is particularly relevant, as the god of the kalendae who cooperates with and is the source of the youthful vigour of Juno in the birth of the new lunar month. His other epithet "Consivius" hints to his role in the generative function.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The role of the two gods at the kalendae of every month is that of presiding over the birth of the new moon. Janus and Juno cooperate as the first looks after the passage from the previous to the ensuing month while the second helps it through the strength of her vitality. The rites of the kalendae included the invocations to Juno Covella, giving the number of days to the "nonae", a sacrifice to Janus by the rex sacrorum and the pontifex minor at the "curia Calabra" and one to Juno by the regina sacrorum in the Regia: originally when the month was still lunar the "pontifex minor" had the task of signalling the appearance of the new moon. While the meaning of the epithet Covella is unknown and debated, that of the rituals is clear as the divine couple is supposed to oversee, protect and help the moon during the particularly dangerous time of her darkness and her "labours": the role of Juno Covella is hence the same as that of Lucina for women during parturition. The association of the two gods is reflected on the human level at the difficult time of labours as is apparent in the custom of putting a key, symbol of Janus, in the hand of the woman with the aim of ensuring an easy delivery, while she had to invoke Juno Lucina. At the nonae Caprotinae similarly Juno had the function of aiding and strengthening the moon as the nocturnal light, at the time when her force was supposed to be at its lowest, after the Summer solstice.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The Tigillum Sororium was a rite (sacrum) of the gens Horatia and later of the State. In it "Janus Curiatius" was associated to "Juno Sororia": they had their altars on opposite sides of the alley behind the Tigillum Sororium. Physically this consisted of a beam spanning the space over two posts. It was kept in good condition down to the time of Livy at public expenses. According to tradition it was a rite of purification that served at the expiation of Publius Horatius who had murdered his own sister when he saw her mourning the death of her betrothed Curiatius. Dumézil has shown in his "Les Horaces et les Curiaces" that this story is in fact the historical transcription of rites of reintegration into civil life of the young warriors, in the myth symbolised by the hero, freed from their "furor" (wrath), indispensable at war but dangerous in social life. What is known of the rites of October 1 shows at Rome the legend has been used as an aetiological myth for the yearly purification ceremonies which allowed the "desacralisation" of soldiers at the end of the warring season, i.e. their cleansing from the religious pollution contracted at war. The story finds parallels in Irish and Indian mythologies. These rites took place in October, the month that at Rome saw the celebration of the end of the yearly military activity. Janus would then be the patron of the "feria" as god of transitions, Juno for her affinities to Janus, especially on the day of the kalendae. It is also possible though that she took part as the tutelary goddess of young people, the "iuniores", etymologically identical to her. Modern scholars are divided on the interpretation of J. Curiatius and J. Sororia. Renard citing Capdeville opines that the wisest choice is to adhere to tradition and consider the legend itself as the source of the epithets.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: M. Renard advanced the view that Janus and not Jupiter was the original paredra or consort of Juno, on the grounds of their many common features, functions and appearance in myth or rites as is shown by their cross coupled epithets Janus Curiatius and Juno Sororia: Janus shares the epithet of Juno Curitis and Juno the epithet Janus Geminus, as "sororius" means paired, double. Renard's theory has been rejected by G. Capdeville as not being in accord with the level of sovereign gods in Dumézil's trifunctional structure. The theology of Janus would show features typically belonging to the order of the gods of the beginning. In Capdeville's view it is only natural that a god of beginnings and a sovereign mother deity have common features, as all births can be seen as beginnings, Juno is invoked by deliverers, who by custom hold a key, symbol of Janus.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Even though the origins of Hercules are undoubtedly Greek his figure underwent an early assimilation into Italic local religions and might even preserve traces of an association to Indoiranian deity Trita Apya that in Greece have not survived. Among other roles that Juno and Hercules share there is the protection of the newborn. Jean Bayet, author of "Les origines de l'Arcadisme romain", has argued that such a function must be a later development as it looks to have superseded that of the two original Latin gods Picumnus and Pilumnus.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The two gods are mentioned together in a dedicatory inscription found in the ruins of the temple of Hercules at Lanuvium, whose cult was ancient and second in importance only to that of Juno Sospita. In the cults of this temple just like in those at the Ara maxima in Rome women were not allowed. The exclusion of one sex is a characteristic practice in the cults of deities of fertility. Even though no text links the cults of the Ara maxima with Juno Sospita, her temple, founded in 193 BC, was located in the Forum Holitorium near the Porta Carmentalis, one of the sites of the legend of Hercules in Rome. The feria of the goddess coincides with a "Natalis Herculis", birthday of Hercules, which was celebrated with "ludi circenses", games in the circus. In Bayet's view Juno and Hercules did supersede Pilumnus and Picumnus in the role of tutelary deities of the newborn not only because of their own features as goddess of the deliverers and as apotropaic tutelary god of infants but also because of their common quality as gods of fertility. This was the case in Rome and at Tusculum where a cult of Juno Lucina and Hercules was known. At Lanuvium and perhaps Rome though their most ancient association rests on their common fertility and military characters. The Latin Junos certainly possessed a marked warlike character (at Lanuvium, Falerii, Tibur, Rome). Such a character might suggest a comparison with the Greek armed Heras one finds in the South of Italy at Cape Lacinion and at the mouth of river Sele, military goddesses close to the Heras of Elis and Argos known as "Argivae". In the cult this Hera received at Cape Lacinion she was associated with Heracles, supposed to be the founder of the sanctuary. Contacts with Central Italy and similarity would have favoured a certain assimilation between Latin warlike Junos and Argive Heras and the association with Heracles of Latin Junos. Some scholars, mostly Italians, recognize in the Junos of Falerii, Tibur and Lavinium the Greek Hera, rejecting the theory of an indigenous original cult of a military Juno. Renard thinks Dumézil's opposition to such a view is to be upheld: Bayet's words though did not deny the existence of local warlike Junos, but only imply that at a certain time they received the influence of the Heras of Lacinion and Sele, a fact that earned them the epithet of "Argive" and a Greek connotation. However Bayet recognized the quality of mother and of fertility deity as being primitive among the three purported by the epithets of the Juno of Lanuvium (Seispes, Mater, Regina).


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Magna Graecia and Lanuvium mixed their influence in the formation of the Roman Hercules and perhaps there was a Sabine element too as is testified by Varro, supported by the find of the sanctuary of Hercules Curinus at Sulmona and by the existence of a Juno Curitis in Latium.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The mythical theme of the suckling of the adult Heracles by Hera, though being of Greek origin, is considered by scholars as having received its full acknowledgement and development in Etruria: Heracles has become a bearded adult on the mirrors of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Most scholars view the fact as an initiation, i.e. the accession of Heracles to the condition of immortal. Even though the two versions coexisted in Greece and that of Heracles infant is attested earlier Renard suggests a process more in line with the evolution of the myth: the suckling of the adult Heracles should be regarded as more ancient and reflecting its original true meaning.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The view that Juno was the feminine counterpart to Genius, i.e. that as men possess a tutelary entity or "double" named genius, so women have their own one named "juno", has been maintained by many scholars, lastly Kurt Latte. In the past it has also been argued that goddess Juno herself would be the issue of a process of abstraction from the individual "junos" of every woman. According to Georg Wissowa and K. Latte, Genius (from the root "gen-", whence "gigno" bear or be born, archaic also "geno") would designate the specific virile generative potency, as opposed to feminine nature, reflected in conception and delivery, under the tutelage of Juno Lucina. Such an interpretation has been critically reviewed by Walter F. Otto.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: While there are some correspondences between the ideas about genius and "juno", especially in the imperial age, the relevant documentation is rather late (Tibullus mentions it first). Dumézil also remarks that from these passages one could infer that every woman has a Venus too. As evidence of the antiquity of the concept of a "juno" of women, homologous to the "genius" of men, is the Arval sacrifice of two sheep to the Juno Deae Diae ("the juno of goddesses named Dea Dia"), in contrast to their sacrifice of two cows sacrificed to Juno (singular). However both G. Wissowa and K. Latte allow that this ritual could have been adapted to fit theology of the Augustan restoration. While the concept of a Juno of goddesses is not attested in the inscriptions of 58 BC from Furfo, that of a Genius of gods is, and even of a Genius of a goddess, Victoria. On this point it looks remarkable that also in Martianus Capella's division of Heaven a "Juno Hospitae Genius" is mentioned in region IX, and not a "Juno": the sex of this Genius is feminine. See section below for details.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Romans believed the genius of somebody was an entity that embodied his essential character, personality, and also originally his vital, generative force and "raison d' être". However the genius had no direct relationship with sex, at least in the conceptions of the classical period, even though the nuptial bed was named "lectus genialis" in honour of the Genius and brides on the day of marriage invoked the genius of their grooms. This seems to hint to a significance of the "Genius" as the propagative spirit of the "gens", of whom every human individual is an incarnation: Censorinus states: "Genius is the god under whose tutelage everyone is born and lives on", and that "many ancient authors, among whom Granius Flaccus in his "De Indigitamentis", maintain that he is one and the same with the Lar", meaning the Lar Familiaris. Festus calls him "a god endowed with the power of doing everything", then citing an Aufustius: "Genius is the son of the gods and the parent of men, from whom men receive life. Thence is he named my genius, because he begot me". Festus's quotation goes on saying: "Other think he is the special god of every place", a notion that reflects a different idea. In classic age literature and iconography he is often represented as a snake, that may appear in the conjugal bed, this conception being perhaps the result of a Greek influence. It was easy for the Roman concept of Genius to expand annexing other similar religious figures as the Lares and the Greek δαίμων ἀγαθός.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The genius was believed to be associated with the forehead of each man, while goddess Juno, not the "juno" of every woman, was supposed to have under her jurisdiction the eyebrows of women or to be the tutelary goddess of the eyebrows of everybody, irrespective of one's sex.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: According to one interpretation of the Di Penates, Juno, along with Jupiter and Minerva, is one of the Penates of man. This view is ascribed by Macrobius to the mystic religion of Samothrace, imported to Rome by Tarquinius Priscus, himself an initiate, who thereby created the Roman Capitoline Triad. Juno is the god by whom man gets his body.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Among the female entities that in the pontifical invocations accompanied the naming of gods, Juno was associated to Heries, which she shared with Mars ("Heres Martea").


title: Juno (mythology)

text: All festivals of Juno were held on the kalendae of a month except two (or, perhaps, three): the "Nonae Caprotinae" on the nonae of July, the festival of "Juno Capitolina" on September 13, because the date of these two was determined by the preeminence of Jupiter. Perhaps a second festival of "Juno Moneta" was held on October 10, possibly the date of the dedication of her temple. This fact reflects the strict association of the goddess with the beginning of each lunar month.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Every year, on the first of March, women held a festival in honour of Juno Lucina called the Matronalia. Lucina was an epithet for Juno as "she who brings children into light". On this day, lambs and cattle were sacrificed in her honor in the temple of her sacred grove on the Cispius.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The festival of "Juno Regina" fell on September 1, followed on the 13th of the same month by that of "Juno Regina Capitolina".


title: Juno (mythology)

text: October 1 was the date of the "Tigillum Sororium" in which the goddess was honoured as "Juno Sororia".


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The last of her yearly festivals was that of "Juno Sospita" on February 1. It was an appropriate date for her celebration since the month of February was considered a perilous time of passage, the cosmic year then coming to an end and the limits between the world of the living and the underworld being no longer safely defined. Hence the community invoked the protection ("tutela") of the warlike "Juno Sospita", ""The Saviour"".


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Juno is the patroness of marriage, and many people believe that the most favorable time to marry is June, the month named after the goddess.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The Etruscans were a people who maintained extensive (if often conflicting) contacts with the other peoples of the Mediterranean: the Greeks, the Phoenicians, and the Carthaginians.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Evidence of intense cultural exchanges with the Greeks has been found in 1969 at the sanctuary of the port of Gravisca near Tarquinia. Renard thinks the cult of Hera in great emporia such as Croton, Posidonia, Pyrgi might be a counter to Aphrodite's, linked to sacred prostitution in ports, as the sovereign of legitimate marriage and family and of their sacrality. Hera's presence had already been attested at Caere in the sanctuary of Manganello. In the 18th century a dedication to Iuno Historia was discovered at Castrum Novum (Santa Marinella). The cult of Iuno and Hera is generally attested in Etruria.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The relationship between Uni and the Phoenician goddess Astarte has been brought to light by the discovery of the Pyrgi Tablets in 1964. At Pyrgi, one of the ports of Caere, excavations had since 1956 revealed the existence of a sacred area, intensely active from the last quarter of the 4th century, yielding two documents of a cult of Uni. Scholars had long believed the Etruscan goddess Uni was strongly influenced by the Argive Heras and had her Punic counterpart in the Carthaginian goddess Tanit, identified by the Romans as Juno Caelestis. Nonetheless Augustine of Hippo had already stated that Juno was named Astarte in the Punic language, a notion that the discovery of the Pyrgi lamellae has proved correct. It is debated whether such an identification was linked to a transient political stage corresponding with Tefarie Velianas's Carthaginian-backed tyranny on Caere as the sanctuary does not show any other trait proper to Phoenician ones. The mention of the goddess of the sanctuary as being named locally Eileitheia and Leucothea by different Greek authors narrating its destruction by the Syracusean fleet in 384 BC, made the picture even more complex. R. Bloch has proposed a two-stage interpretation: the first theonym Eilethya corresponds to Juno Lucina, the second Leucothea to Mater Matuta. However, the local theonym is Uni and one would legitimately expect it to be translated as Hera. A fragmentary bronze lamella discovered on the same site and mentioning both theonym Uni and Thesan (i. e. Latin Juno and Aurora-Mater Matuta) would then allow the inference of the integration of the two deities at Pyrgi: the local Uni-Thesan matronal and auroral, would have become the Iuno Lucina and the Mater Matuta of Rome. The Greek assimilation would reflect this process as not direct but subsequent to a process of distinction. Renard rejects this hypothesis since he sees in Uni and Thesan two distinct deities, though associated in cult. However the entire picture should have been familiar in Italian and Roman religious lore as is shown by the complexity and ambivalence of the relationship of Juno with Rome and Romans in Virgil's Aeneid, who has Latin, Greek and Punic traits, result of a plurisaecular process of amalgamation. Also remarkable in this sense is the "Fanum Iunonis" of Malta (of the Hellenistic period) which has yielded dedicatory inscriptions to Astarte and Tanit.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Martianus Capella's collocation of gods into sixteen different regions of Heaven is supposed to be based on and to reflect Etruscan religious lore, at least in part. It is thence comparable with the theonyms found in the sixteen cases of the outer rim of the Piacenza Liver. Juno is to be found in region II, along with Quirinus Mars, Lars militaris, Fons, Lymphae and the dii Novensiles. This position is reflected on the Piacenza Liver by the situation of Uni in case IV, owing to a threefold location of Tinia in the first three cases that determines an equivalent shift.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: An entity named Juno Hospitae Genius is to be found alone in region IX. Since Grotius (1599) many editors have proposed the correction of Hospitae into Sospitae. S. Weinstock has proposed to identify this entity with one of the spouses of Neptune, as the epithet recurs below (I 81) used in this sense.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: In region XIV is located Juno Caelestis along with Saturn. This deity is the Punic Astarte/Tanit, usually associated with Saturn in Africa. Iuno Caelestis is thence in turn assimilated to Ops and Greek Rhea. Uni is here the Punic goddess, in accord with the identification of Pyrgi. Her paredra was the Phoenician god Ba'al, interpreted as Saturn. Capdeville admits of being unable to explain the collocation of Juno Caelestis among the underworld gods, which looks to be determined mainly by her condition as spouse of Saturn.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: In the Dutch city of Maastricht, which was founded as "Trajectum ad Mosam" in the Roman province of Germania Inferior about 2000 years ago, the remains of the foundations of a substantial temple for Juno and Jupiter are to be found in the cellars of Hotel Derlon. Over part of the Roman remains the first Christian church of the Netherlands was built in the 4th century AD.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: The story behind these remains begins with Juno and Jupiter being born as twins of Saturn and Opis. Juno was sent to Samos when she was a very young child. She was carefully raised there until puberty, when she then married her brother. A statue was made representing Juno, the bride, as a young girl on her wedding day. It was carved out of Parian marble and placed in front of her temple at Samos for many centuries. Ultimately this statue of Juno was brought to Rome and placed in the sanctuary of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. For a long time the Romans honored her with many ceremonies under the name Queen Juno. The remains were moved then sometime between the 1st century and the 4th century to the Netherlands.


title: Juno (mythology)

text: Perhaps Juno's most prominent appearance in Roman literature is as the primary antagonistic force in Virgil's "Aeneid", where she is depicted as a cruel and savage goddess intent upon supporting first Dido and then Turnus and the Rutulians against Aeneas' attempt to found a new Troy in Italy. Maurus Servius Honoratus, commenting on some of her several roles in the "Aeneid", supposes her as a conflation of Hera with the Carthaginian storm-goddess Tanit. Ovid's "Metamorphoses" offers a story accounting for her sacred association with the peacock. She is remembered in "De Mulieribus Claris", a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature. William Shakespeare briefly employs Juno as a masque character in "The Tempest" (Act IV, Scene I).


title: Juno (mythology)

text: In spaceflight, NASA launched a space probe to Jupiter in 2011, and named it Juno in reference to her relationship to the god Jupiter in mythology.