title: Crowded House

text: In May 1999, Crowded House issued a compilation of unreleased songs, "Afterglow", which included the track "Recurring Dream", recorded when the group were still called The Mullanes and included Craig Hooper on guitar. The album's liner notes included information about the songs, written by music journalist David Hepworth. Some limited-release versions included a second CD with songwriting commentary by Finn. The liner notes confirmed that Crowded House had no plans to reunite at that time. A 2003 compilation album, "Classic Masters", was released only in the US, while 2005 saw the release of the album "She Will Have Her Way", a collection of cover versions of Crowded House, Split Enz, Tim Finn and Finn Brothers songs by Australasian female artists. The album reached the top 5 in Australia and New Zealand.


title: Crowded House

text: On 26 March 2005, Paul Hester was found dead. He had committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree in a park near his home in Melbourne. He was 46 years old. His obituary in "The Sydney Morning Herald" stated that he had fought "a long battle with depression." Following the news of Hester's death, Nick Seymour joined The Finn Brothers on stage at the Royal Albert Hall in London, where the three played in memory of Hester. A snare drum with a top hat on it stood at the front of the stage as a tribute. Writing in 2010 Neil Finn said, "When we lost Paul it was like someone pulled the rug out from underneath everything, a terrible jolt out of the dark blue. He was the best drummer I had ever played with and for many years, my closest friend."


title: Crowded House

text: In 2006 Neil Finn asked Nick Seymour to play bass on his third solo album. Seymour agreed and the two joined up with producer and multi-instrumentalist Ethan Johns to begin recording. As the recording sessions progressed it was decided that the album would be issued under the Crowded House band name, rather than as a Neil Finn solo album. In January 2007, the group publicly announced their reformation and on 23 February, after 20 days of auditions, former Beck drummer Matt Sherrod joined Finn, Seymour and Mark Hart to complete the new line up. As Sherrod and Hart had not participated in the initial sessions, four new tracks were recorded with producer Steve Lillywhite including the album's first single "Don't Stop Now".


title: Crowded House

text: On 17 March 2007 the band played a live show at their rehearsal studio in front of around fifty fans, friends and family. The performance was streamed live as a webcast. The two-and-a-half-hour set included some new tracks, including "Silent House" co-written by Finn with the Dixie Chicks. A concert onboard "The Thekla", moored in Bristol, followed on 19 March. Crowded House played at the Marquee Theatre in Tempe, Arizona on 26 April as a warm-up for their appearance at the Coachella Festival on 29 April in Indio, California. They also played at the Australian Live Earth concert in Sydney on 7 July. The next day, Finn and Seymour were interviewed on "Rove Live" and the band, with Hart and Sherrod, performed "Don't Stop Now" to promote the new album, which was titled "Time on Earth". The single was a minor hit in Australia and the UK. The album was released worldwide in June and July. It topped the album chart in New Zealand and made number 2 in Australia and number 3 in the UK.


title: Crowded House

text: On 6 December 2008 Crowded House played the Homebake festival in Sydney, with warm up gigs at small venues in Hobart, Melbourne and Sydney. For these shows the band were augmented by multi-instrumentalist Don McGlashan and Neil's younger son, Elroy Finn, on guitar. On 14 March 2009 the band joined Neil's older son, Liam Finn, on stage for three songs at the Sound Relief concert in Melbourne.


title: Crowded House

text: Crowded House began recording their follow-up to "Time on Earth" in April 2009, at Finn's own Roundhead Studios. The album, "Intriguer", was produced by Jim Scott who had worked on "The Sun Came Out" by Neil's 7 Worlds Collide project. In August 2009, Finn travelled to Los Angeles to record some overdubs at Jim Scott's Los Angeles studio before they began mixing tracks. The album was released in June 2010, in time for the band's appearance at the West Coast Blues & Roots Festival near Perth. Finn stated that the album contains some, "Unexpected twists and turns" and some songs that, "Sound like nothing we've done before." "Intriguer" topped the Australian album chart, reached number 3 in New Zealand and number 12 in the UK.


title: Crowded House

text: Crowded House undertook an extensive world tour in 2010 in support of "Intriguer". This was the first album where the band regularly interacted with fans via the internet on their own re-launched website, Twitter and Facebook. The band sold recordings of the shows on the "Intriguer" tour on USB flash drives and made individual live tracks available for free download.


title: Crowded House

text: A new compilation album, The Very Very Best of Crowded House, was released in October 2010 to celebrate the band's 25th anniversary. It includes 19 of the band's greatest hits and is also available in a box set with a 25 track DVD of their music videos. A deluxe digital version, available for download only, has 32 tracks including a rare 1987 live recording of the band's version of the Hunters & Collectors song "Throw Your Arms Around Me". No mention of this album has been made on the band's official website or Twitter page, which suggests that they are not involved with its release.


title: Crowded House

text: Following the success of the album "She Will Have Her Way" in 2005, a second album of cover versions of Finn Brothers songs (including Crowded House songs) was released on 12 November 2010. Entitled "He Will Have His Way", all tracks are performed by Australasian male artists.


title: Crowded House

text: In November 2011 an Australian tour featured artists involved with the "She Will Have Her Way" and "He Will Have His Way" projects, including Paul Dempsey, Clare Bowditch, Seeker Lover Keeper (Sarah Blasko, Sally Seltmann and Holly Throsby), Alexander Gow (Oh Mercy) and Lior. The band played what would be their last concert for over five years at the A Day on the Green festival in Auckland on 27 February 2011.


title: Crowded House

text: Former Crowded House drummer Peter Jones died from brain cancer on 18 May 2012, aged 49. A statement issued by the band described him as, "A warm-hearted, funny and talented man, who was a valuable member of Crowded House."


title: Crowded House

text: In September 2015, the song "Help is Coming" from the "Afterglow" album, was released as a download and limited edition 7" single to raise money for the charity Save the Children. The B-side, "Anthem", was a previously-unreleased track, recorded at the same demo session as "Help is Coming" in 1995, with vocals added in 2015. Peter Jones plays drums on both songs. The money will be used to provide shelter, water, sanitation and hygiene for refugees in Syria, Lebanon and Iraq. Neil Finn said of "Help Is Coming"..."It was always a song about refugees, even if at the time I was thinking about the immigrants setting off on ships from Europe to America, looking for a better life for their families. There is such a huge scale and urgency to the current refugee crises that barely a day goes by without some crushing image or news account to confront us. We can't be silent any more."


title: Crowded House

text: Neil Finn confirmed in a 2016 interview with the Dutch newspaper "Volkskrant" that Crowded House had been on indefinite hiatus since the end of the "Intriguer" tour. Later that year, however, he and Seymour announced a series of concerts at the Sydney Opera House to mark the 20th anniversary of the "Farewell to the World" show (24 November 1996). The band, with the same lineup as its initial reunion and Tim Finn as guest, performed four shows between 24 and 27 November 2016. Around the same time, each of the band's 7 studio albums (including the rarities collection "Afterglow") was reissued in deluxe 2-CD format with bonus tracks including demos, live recordings, alternate mixes, b-sides and outtakes.


title: Crowded House

text: In April 2018, Neil Finn joined Fleetwood Mac, along with Mike Campbell of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, as a full-time member in the wake of Lindsey Buckingham's departure from the band.


title: Crowded House

text: In August 2019, Crowded House announced a reunion show at the 2020 Byron Bay Bluesfest. Shortly afterwards, Mark Hart announced that he would not be involved in the group's reunion. Finn confirmed Hart's departure on his podcast Fangradio, noting that he "love[s] Hart dearly as a friend, as a contributor and a collaborator" and that "all will be revealed... trust that good thought and good heart gets put into all of these decisions." In December 2019, Neil Finn announced that the new Crowded House line-up would consist of himself, Seymour, the band's original producer Mitchell Froom and his sons Liam and Elroy. He added that they were making a new studio album, the first since 2010's "Intriguer". Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the band's planned 2020 concerts have had to be rescheduled to 2021, and later again to 2022.


title: Crowded House

text: On 15 October 2020, the band released "Whatever You Want", the first single from the band in over a decade. The band also shared an accompanying music video, starring Mac DeMarco.


title: Crowded House

text: On 17 February 2021, the band shared another single, "To the Island." The track serves as the second single to the band's seventh studio album, "Dreamers Are Waiting", which was announced on the same day for release on 4 June 2021. The band supported the single with a national tour of New Zealand in March 2021.


title: Crowded House

text: On 19 August 2021, the band performed their single “To the Island” on CBS's "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert". On 2 December 2021, the band announced that it will be touring Australia in 2022, with 6 shows around the country, including the 2022 Bluesfest lineup. On 24 June 2022, the band played at Glastonbury Festival.


title: Crowded House

text: As the primary songwriter for the band, Neil Finn has always set the tone for the band's sound. AllMusic said that Finn "has consistently proven his knack for crafting high-quality songs that combine irresistible melodies with meticulous lyrical detail." Neil's brother Tim was an early and important musical influence. Neil first saw Tim play with Split Enz in 1972, and said "that performance and those first songs made a lasting impression on me." His mother was another significant musical influence, encouraging him to listen to a variety of genres, including Irish folk music and Māori music. She would play piano at family parties and encourage Neil and Tim to accompany her.


title: Crowded House

text: Bassist Nick Seymour, who is also an artist, designed or co-designed all of the band's album covers and interior artwork. He also designed some of the costumes worn by the group, notably those from the cover of the group's debut album "Crowded House". Seymour collaborated with Finn and Hester on the set design of some of their early music videos, including "Don't Dream It's Over" and "Better Be Home Soon". Since the band reunited, Seymour has again designed their album covers.


title: Crowded House

text: The majority of the covers for the band's singles were not designed by Seymour. The artwork for "Pineapple Head" was created by Reg Mombassa of Mental As Anything. For the first four albums Mombassa and Noel Crombie, who had been the main designer of Split Enz's artwork, assisted Seymour in creating sets and costumes. For the "Farewell to the World" concerts Crombie designed the set, while Mombassa and Seymour designed promotional materials and artwork.


title: Crowded House

text: Crowded House has won several national and international awards. In Australia, the group has won 13 ARIA Awards from 36 nominations, including the inaugural Best New Talent in 1987. The majority of their wins were for their first two albums, "Crowded House" and "Temple of Low Men". They won eight APRA Awards from eleven nominations and were nominated for "The New Zealand Silver Scroll" for "Don't Stop Now" in 2007. "Don't Dream It's Over" was named the seventh best Australian song of all time in 2001. In 1987, Crowded House won the American MTV Video Music Award for "Best New Artist" for their song "Don't Dream It's Over", which was also nominated for three other awards. In 1994, the group was named "International Group of the Year" at the BRIT Awards. In 2009, "Don't Dream It's Over" was ranked number fifty on the Triple J "Hottest 100 of All Time", voted by the Australian public.


title: Crowded House

text: In November 2016 Crowded House was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame, 30 years after their formation.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: Margaret Cassidy Lawson (born August 12, 1980) is an American actress who is best known for her role as Detective Juliet "Jules" O'Hara in the TV show "Psych".


title: Maggie Lawson

text: From 2018 to 2019, she held the recurring role of Nathalie Flynn on Fox's "Lethal Weapon"s third and final season.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: Lawson started her career at the age of 8 in local community and dinner theater productions. She later became a youth TV host on WDRB Fox 41 "Kid's Club" in Louisville, and moved to Los Angeles for her first pilot at 15.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: In 2011, Lawson briefly returned to her roots in theater to star in the play "Greedy," directed by James Roday, which played for a few weekends in Los Angeles.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: Lawson starred in various sitcoms like "Cybill," "Boy Meets World" and "Home Improvement" throughout her early career in both guest starring and supporting roles. She also made guest appearances on television series such as "Smallville" and "Fear Itself," and co-starred in "It's All Relative" and "Crumbs".


title: Maggie Lawson

text: For The Wonderful World of Disney, Lawson starred in a double role in "Model Behavior" featuring Justin Timberlake, and in the 2002 installment of "Nancy Drew" in the title role. Other film credits include "Pleasantville," "Nice Guys Sleep Alone" and "Cleaner."


title: Maggie Lawson

text: From 2006 to 2014, Lawson co-starred in the USA Network original series, "Psych", as Detective Juliet O'Hara. She reprised her role in 2017 in "", in in 2020 and Psych 3: This is Gus, in 2021.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: Following "Psych," she scored leading roles in ABC's 2013 sitcom "Back in the Game", CBS's 2014 sitcom pilot "Save the Date" and CBS's 2016 fantasy sitcom "Angel from Hell." She also had short arcs on "Two and a Half Men," "The Great Indoors," and Netflix's "The Ranch."


title: Maggie Lawson

text: Also for Netflix, Lawson starred in the recurring role of Christa on the second and third seasons of horror-comedy series "Santa Clarita Diet" as well as the movie "Spivak" in 2018.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: For Hallmark Channel, Lawson has starred in "My Favorite Wedding" and "Christmas Encore" in 2017, "The Story of Us" and "Christmas in Evergreen: Tidings of Joy" in 2019.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: Most recently, Lawson starred in a recurring role as Dr. Natalie Flynn on the 3rd season of "Lethal Weapon" and was featured in "Treehouse," the 6th episode of Hulu's monthly horror movie anthology "Into The Dark."


title: Maggie Lawson

text: In 2020 she played Kay, the female lead opposite Jason Biggs, in the FOX comedy series "Outmatched", "about a blue-collar couple [...] in South Jersey trying to get by and raise four kids, three of whom just happen to be certified geniuses."


title: Maggie Lawson

text: Throughout the series run of "Psych" (2006–2014), Lawson was in a relationship with series lead James Roday Rodriguez.


title: Maggie Lawson

text: On November 14, 2014, Lawson became engaged to "Back in the Game" co-star Ben Koldyke and married him on August 8, 2015, on his family's ranch in New Mexico. In early 2017, Lawson filed for divorce from Koldyke.


title: Math rock

text: Math rock is a style of progressive and indie rock with roots in bands such as King Crimson and Rush as well as 20th-century minimal music composers such as Steve Reich. It is characterized by complex, atypical rhythmic structures (including irregular stopping and starting), counterpoint, odd time signatures, angular melodies, and extended, often dissonant, chords. It bears similarities to post-rock.


title: Math rock

text: Math rock is typified by its rhythmic complexity, seen as "mathematical" in character by listeners and critics. While most rock music uses a meter (however accented or syncopated), math rock makes use of more non-standard, frequently changing time signatures such as , , , or .


title: Math rock

text: As in traditional rock, the sound is most often dominated by guitars and drums. However, drums play a greater role in math rock in providing driving complex rhythms. Math rock guitarists make use of tapping techniques and loop pedals to build on these rhythms, as illustrated by songs like those of "math rock supergroup" Battles.


title: Math rock

text: Lyrics are generally not the focus of math rock; the voice is treated as just another instrument in the mix. Often, vocals are not overdubbed, and are positioned less prominently, as in the recording style of Steve Albini, or the Rolling Stones producer Jimmy Miller. Many of math rock's best-known groups are entirely instrumental such as Don Caballero or Hella.


title: Math rock

text: The term began as a joke but has developed into the accepted name for the musical style. One advocate of this is Matt Sweeney, singer with Chavez, a group often linked to the math rock scene. Despite this, not all critics see math rock as a serious sub-genre of rock.


title: Math rock

text: A significant intersection exists between math rock and emo, exemplified by bands such as Tiny Moving Parts or American Football, whose sound has been described as "twinkly, mathy rock, a sound that became one of the defining traits of the emo scene throughout the 2000s".


title: Math rock

text: The albums "Red" and "Discipline" by King Crimson, "Spiderland" by Slint are generally considered seminal influences on the development of math rock. The Canadian punk rock group Nomeansno (founded in 1979 and inactive as of 2016) have been cited by music critics as a "secret influence" on math rock, predating much of the genre's development by more than a decade. An even more avant-garde group of the same era, Massacre, featured the guitarist Fred Frith and the bassist Bill Laswell. With some influence from the rapid-fire energy of punk, Massacre's influential music used complex rhythmic characteristics. Black Flag's 1984 album, "My War", also included unusual polyrhythms.


title: Math rock

text: Math rock has a significant presence in Japan; the most prominent Japanese groups include Toe, Tricot, and Lite. Other Japanese groups which incorporate math rock in their music include Ling tosite Sigure, Zazen Boys and Mouse on the Keys while the Japanoise scene features bands such as Ruins, Zeni Geva, and Boredoms.


title: Math rock

text: Taiwan has a very small indie music scene, of which Math rock is an emergent genre that is quickly gaining in popularity, with well-known math rock bands including Elephant Gym.


title: Math rock

text: The European math rock scene started in the late 90s to early 2000, including bands such as Adebisi Shank (Ireland), Kobong (Poland), The Redneck Manifesto (Ireland), Three Trapped Tigers and TTNG (United Kingdom) and Uzeda (Italy). Foals (England) was formed in 2005.


title: Math rock

text: Bands from Washington, D.C. include The Dismemberment Plan, Shudder to Think, Hoover, Faraquet, 1.6 Band, Autoclave, later Jawbox, and Circus Lupus. Polvo of Chapel Hill, North Carolina is often considered one of the cornerstones of math rock, although the band has disavowed that categorization.


title: Math rock

text: In California, math rock groups from San Diego include Upsilon Acrux, Drive Like Jehu, Antioch Arrow, Tristeza, No Knife, Heavy Vegetable, and Sleeping People. Northern California math rock bands included Tera Melos, Game Theory and The Loud Family, both of the latter led by Scott Miller, who was said to "tinker with pop the way a born mathematician tinkers with numbers". The origin of Game Theory's name is mathematical, suggesting a "nearly mathy" sound cited as "IQ rock."


title: Math rock

text: By the turn of the 21st century, most of the later generation bands such as Sweep the Leg Johnny had disbanded. Bands in the late 1990s and 2000s, such as TTNG and American Football, began combining math rock and emo, creating a much more vocally oriented sound.


title: Math rock

text: In the mid-2000s, many math rock bands enjoyed renewed popularity. Slint and Chavez embarked on reunion tours, while Shellac toured and released their first album in seven years. Don Caballero reunited with a new lineup and released an album in 2006, while several of its original members joined new projects, such as the band Knot Feeder.


title: Multilingualism

text: Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots.


title: Multilingualism

text: Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is usually acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars disagree. Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called simultaneous bilinguals. It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other.


title: Multilingualism

text: People who speak more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals.


title: Multilingualism

text: Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization. Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but not in the case of non-English-based programming languages). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.


title: Multilingualism

text: The first recorded use of the word multilingualism originated in the English language in the 1800s as a combination of multi (many) and lingual (pertaining to languages, with the word existing in the Middle Ages). The phenomenon however, is old as different languages themselves.


title: Multilingualism

text: Together, like many different languages, modern-day multilingualism is still encountered by some people who speak the same language. Bilingual signs represent a multitude of languages in an evolutive variety of texts with each writing.


title: Multilingualism

text: The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. This should not be confused with the term “bilingual”. These two phrases can often be used interchangeably, but to be bilingual indicates that two languages are learned, while multilingual suggests it is more than two. There are two sides to the linguistic debate has to how to define multilingualism, however. At one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence in and mastery of more than one language. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the languages and thus sound like a native speaker. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people "multi-competent".


title: Multilingualism

text: In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English. Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political reasons. One example is the creation of Serbo-Croatian as a standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects; after the breakup of Yugoslavia it was split into Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin. Another example is that Ukrainian was dismissed as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings.


title: Multilingualism

text: Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least three languages: the two national languages (Finnish and Swedish) and one foreign language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also study further languages, such as German or Russian.


title: Multilingualism

text: In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country.


title: Multilingualism

text: In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being the global lingua franca, sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries have just one domestic official language. This is occurring especially in Germanic regions such as Scandinavia, the Benelux and among Germanophones, but it is also expanding into some non-Germanic countries.


title: Multilingualism

text: One view is that of the linguist Noam Chomsky in what he calls the human language acquisition device—a mechanism which enables a learner to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by surrounding speakers. This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty, which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a second language (L2).


title: Multilingualism

text: If language learning is a cognitive process, rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning.


title: Multilingualism

text: Rod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation. European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to the interconnectedness with neighbor countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union.


title: Multilingualism

text: Based on the research in Ann Fathman's "The Relationship between age and second language productive ability," there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but that the order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age.


title: Multilingualism

text: In second language class, students will commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and culture patterns. Robert B. Kaplan thinks that in second language classes, the foreign-student paper is out of focus because the foreign student is employing rhetoric and a sequence of thought which violate the expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. Logic in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, is the basis of rhetoric, evolved out of a culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric, then, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture. Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing.


title: Multilingualism

text: People who learn multiple languages may also experience positive transfer – the process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the grammar or vocabulary of the new language is similar to those of the languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life.


title: Multilingualism

text: Translanguaging also supports the acquisition of new languages. It helps the development of new languages by making connections between languages.


title: Multilingualism

text: Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as a native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation the parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in the parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context, and/or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or the other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of "code-switching" in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize the family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of "languages", namely a consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves ("e.g.", Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more "persons" and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons.


title: Multilingualism

text: In sequential bilingualism, learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire a "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age three as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984). Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he/she is immersed in a school setting where instruction is offered in a different language.


title: Multilingualism

text: In simultaneous bilingualism, the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language.


title: Multilingualism

text: The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages.


title: Multilingualism

text: A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while the community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French.


title: Multilingualism

text: Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language – the common underlying proficiency hypothesis. Cummins' work sought to overcome the perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second. The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of the first language.


title: Multilingualism

text: Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire the second language. While previously children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, today researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is closer to five years.


title: Multilingualism

text: An interesting outcome of studies during the early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically. These students exhibit more cognitive elasticity including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required will perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools.


title: Multilingualism

text: A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language actively (through speaking, writing, or signing). Multilingual people can speak any language they write in, but cannot necessarily write in any language they speak. More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person is generally referred to as a polyglot, a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby.


title: Multilingualism

text: Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other.


title: Multilingualism

text: In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill which a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on the use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual.


title: Multilingualism

text: The reverse phenomenon, where people who know more than one language end up losing command of some or all of their additional languages, is called language attrition. It has been documented that, under certain conditions, individuals may lose their L1 language proficiency completely, after switching to the exclusive use of another language, and effectively "become native" in a language that was once secondary after the L1 undergoes total attrition.


title: Multilingualism

text: This is most commonly seen among immigrant communities and has been the subject of substantial academic study. The most important factor in spontaneous, total L1 loss appears to be age; in the absence of neurological dysfunction or injury, only young children typically are at risk of forgetting their native language and switching to a new one. Once they pass an age that seems to correlate closely with the critical period, around the age of 12, total loss of a native language is not typical, although it is still possible for speakers to experience diminished expressive capacity if the language is never practiced.


title: Multilingualism

text: People who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have enhanced executive functions, such as inhibitory control or cognitive flexibility, or even have reduced-risk for dementia. More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. One possible reason for this discrepancy is that bilingualism is rich and diverse; bilingualism can take different forms according to the context and geographic location in which it is studied.


title: Multilingualism

text: Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation. An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects.


title: Multilingualism

text: Bilingual and multilingual individuals are shown to have superior auditory processing abilities compared to monolingual individuals. Several investigations have compared auditory processing abilities of monolingual and bilingual individuals using tasks such as gap detection, temporal ordering, pitch pattern recognition etc. In general, results of studies have reported superior performance among bilingual and multilingual individuals. Further, among bilingual individuals, the level of proficiency in the second language was also reported to have an influence on the auditory processing abilities.


title: Multilingualism

text: Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and the gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United States by Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits as bilingual persons were found to have around $3,000 per year more salary than monolinguals.


title: Multilingualism

text: A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision-making skills. A study published a year later found that switching into a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness. In 2014, another study has shown that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with a moral dilemma, as in the trolley problem. The utilitarian option was chosen more often in "the fat man" case when presented in a foreign language. However, there was no difference in the switch track case. It was surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language.


title: Multilingualism

text: Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of a language (including but not limited to its idioms and eponyms) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively can form an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be. Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural empathy, open-mindedness and social initiative. The idea of linguistic relativity, which claims that the language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time. Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking; thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book "Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven": "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent a unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person." However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. François Grosjean wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to a shift in situation or context, independent of language." However, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional connotations and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of the world. A 2013 study found that rather than an emotion-based explanation, switching into the second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness.


title: Multilingualism

text: While many polyglots know up to six languages, the number drops off sharply past this point. People who speak many more than this—Michael Erard suggests eleven or more—are sometimes classed as "hyperpolyglots". Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, for example, was an Italian priest reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages. The causes of advanced language aptitude are still under research; one theory suggests that a spike in a baby's testosterone levels while in the uterus can increase brain asymmetry, which may relate to music and language ability, among other effects.


title: Multilingualism

text: While the term "savant" generally refers to an individual with a natural and/or innate talent for a particular field, people diagnosed with savant syndrome are typically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate profound and prodigious capacities and/or abilities far in excess of what would be considered normal, occasionally including the capacity for languages. The condition is associated with an increased memory capacity, which would aid in the storage and retrieval of knowledge of a language. In 1991, for example, Neil Smith and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli described Christopher, a man with non-verbal IQ scores between 40 and 70, who learned sixteen languages. Christopher was born in 1962 and approximately six months after his birth was diagnosed with brain damage. Despite being institutionalized because he was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, was able to speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered unusual among savants.


title: Multilingualism

text: Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact. Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual.


title: Multilingualism

text: In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:


title: Multilingualism

text: N.B. the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms polyglossia, omnilingualism, and multipart-lingualism are more appropriate.


title: Multilingualism

text: Taxell’s paradox refers to the notion that monolingual solutions are essential to the realization of functional bilingualism, with multilingual solutions ultimately leading to monolingualism. The theory is based on the observation of the Swedish language in Finland in environments such as schools is subordinated to the majority language Finnish for practical and social reasons, despite the positive characteristics associated with mutual language learning.


title: Multilingualism

text: Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described in the Communication Accommodation Theory.


title: Multilingualism

text: Some multilinguals use code-switching, which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching allows speakers to participate in more than one cultural group or environment. Code-switching may also function as a strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages.


title: Multilingualism

text: This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within the same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through calquing. This results in speakers using words like "courrier noir" (literally mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail, "chantage".


title: Multilingualism

text: Sometimes a pidgin language may develop. A pidgin language is a fusion of two languages that is mutually understandable for both speakers. Some pidgin languages develop into real languages (such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore) while others remain as slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang, which is more or less mutually intelligible both in Finnish and Swedish). In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have the effect of changing one or both to the point where it may be considered that a new language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because of a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided into political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High German with Hebrew and borrowings from Slavic languages.


title: Multilingualism

text: Bilingual interaction can even take place without the speaker switching. In certain areas, it is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia. Most speakers of Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages is usually called non-convergent discourse, a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists between Dutch and Afrikaans, although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia, where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages (Czech and Slovak) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilinguality still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate after Czechoslovakia split up.


title: Multilingualism

text: With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization:


title: Multilingualism

text: Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as office suites, web browsers, etc.). Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.


title: Multilingualism

text: The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as a way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT, Jan A. Nelson, and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive development of the tools, working with third parties and standards bodies to assure broad availability of multilingual app development is provided. With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform development for Windows Universal Apps as well as IOS and Android.


title: Multilingualism

text: According to Hewitt (2008) entrepreneurs in London from Poland, China or Turkey use English mainly for communication with customers, suppliers, and banks, but their native languages for work tasks and social purposes. Even in English-speaking countries immigrants are still able to use their mother tongue in the workplace thanks to other immigrants from the same place. Kovacs (2004) describes this phenomenon in Australia with Finnish immigrants in the construction industry who spoke Finnish during working hours. Although foreign languages may be used in the workplace, English is still a key working skill. Mainstream society justifies the divided job market, arguing that getting a low-paying job is the best that newcomers can achieve considering their limited language skills.


title: Multilingualism

text: With companies going international they are now focusing more and more on the English level of their employees. Especially in South Korea since the 1990s, companies are using different English language testing to evaluate job applicants, and the criteria in those tests are constantly upgrading the level for good English. In India, it is even possible to receive training to acquire an English accent, as the number of outsourced call centers in India has soared in the past decades. Meanwhile, Japan ranks 53rd out of 100 countries in 2019 EF English Proficiency Index, amid calls for this to improve in time for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.


title: Multilingualism

text: Within multiracial countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is not unusual for one to speak two or more languages, albeit with varying degrees of fluency. Some are proficient in several Chinese varieties, given the linguistic diversity of the ethnic Chinese community in both countries.


title: Multilingualism

text: Not only in multinational companies is English an important skill, but also in the engineering industry, in the chemical, electrical and aeronautical fields. A study directed by Hill and van Zyl (2002) shows that in South Africa young black engineers used English most often for communication and documentation. However, Afrikaans and other local languages were also used to explain particular concepts to workers in order to ensure understanding and cooperation.


title: Multilingualism

text: In Europe, as the domestic market is generally quite restricted, international trade is a norm. Languages that are used in multiple countries include:


title: Multilingualism

text: English is a commonly taught second language at schools, so it is also the most common choice for two speakers, whose native languages are different. However, some languages are so close to each other that it is generally more common when meeting to use their mother tongue rather than English. These language groups include:


title: Multilingualism

text: In multilingual countries such as Belgium (Dutch, French, and German), Finland (Finnish and Swedish), Switzerland (German, French, Italian and Romansh), Luxembourg (Luxembourgish, French and German) or Spain (Spanish, Catalan, Basque and Galician), it is common to see employees mastering two or even three of those languages.


title: Multilingualism

text: Many minor Russian ethnic groups, such as Tatars, Bashkirs and others, are also multilingual. Moreover, with the beginning of compulsory study of the Tatar language in Tatarstan, there has been an increase in its level of knowledge of the Russian-speaking population of the republic.


title: Multilingualism

text: Continued global diversity has led to an increasingly multilingual workforce. Europe has become an excellent model to observe this newly diversified labor culture. The expansion of the European Union with its open labor market has provided opportunities both for well-trained professionals and unskilled workers to move to new countries to seek employment. Political changes and turmoil have also led to migration and the creation of new and more complex multilingual workplaces. In most wealthy and secure countries, immigrants are found mostly in low paid jobs but also, increasingly, in high-status positions.


title: Multilingualism

text: It is extremely common for music to be written in whatever the contemporary lingua franca is. If a song is not written in a common tongue, then it is usually written in whatever is the predominant language in the musician's country of origin, or in another widely recognized language, such as English, German, Spanish, or French.


title: Multilingualism

text: The bilingual song cycles "there..." and "Sing, Poetry" on the 2011 contemporary classical album "Troika" consist of musical settings of Russian poems with their English self-translation by Joseph Brodsky and Vladimir Nabokov, respectively.


title: Multilingualism

text: Multilingual stories, essays, and novels are often written by immigrants and second generation American authors. Chicana author Gloria E. Anzaldúa, a major figure in the fields Third World Feminism, Postcolonial Feminism, and Latino philosophy explained the author's existential sense of obligation to write multilingual literature. An often quoted passage, from her collection of stories and essays entitled , states:"Until I am free to write bilingually and to switch codes without having always to translate, while I still have to speak English or Spanish when I would rather speak Spanglish, and as long as I have to accommodate the English speakers rather than having them accommodate me, my tongue will be illegitimate. I will no longer be made to feel ashamed of existing. I will have my voice: Indian, Spanish, white. I will have my serpent’s tongue – my woman’s voice, my sexual voice, my poet’s voice. I will overcome the tradition of silence".Multilingual novels by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie display phrases in Igbo with translations, as in her early works "Purple Hibiscus" and "Half of a Yellow Sun". However, in her later novel "Americanah", the author does not offer translations of non-English passages. The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros is an example of Chicano literature has untranslated, but italicized, Spanish words and phrases throughout the text.


title: Multilingualism

text: American novelists who use foreign languages (outside of their own cultural heritage) for literary effect, include Cormac McCarthy who uses untranslated Spanish and Spanglish in his fiction.


title: Multilingualism

text: Multilingual poetry is prevalent in US Latino literature where code-switching and translanguaging between English, Spanish, and Spanglish is common within a single poem or throughout a book of poems. Latino poetry is also written in Portuguese and can include phrases in Nahuatl, Mayan, Huichol, Arawakan, and other indigenous languages related to the Latino experience. Contemporary multilingual poets include Giannina Braschi, Ana Castillo, Sandra Cisneros, and Guillermo Gómez-Peña


title: Multilingualism

text: The 2021 Indian documentary film Dreaming of Words traces the life and work of Njattyela Sreedharan, a fourth standard drop-out, who compiled a multilingual dictionary connecting four major Dravidian languages Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu. Travelling across four states and doing extensive research, he spent twenty five years making this multilingual dictionary.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: The Marksman is a 2021 American action thriller film directed by Robert Lorenz. The plot follows a brooding rancher and former Marine (Liam Neeson), living in an Arizona border town, who must help a young boy (Jacob Perez) escape a Mexican drug cartel. Katheryn Winnick, Juan Pablo Raba, and Teresa Ruiz also star.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: The film was theatrically released in the United States on January 15, 2021, by Open Road Films and Briarcliff Entertainment. It received mixed reviews from critics, who praised Neeson's performance but criticized the film as being formulaic.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: Former US Marine Corps Scout Sniper and Vietnam war veteran Jim Hanson, a widower, lives along the Arizona-Mexico border with his dog, Jackson. While tending his ranch, which he is behind in payments on, he reports illegal border crossings to the United States Border Patrol, where his step-daughter Sarah works. One day he encounters Rosa and her son Miguel, Mexican citizens fleeing from the cartel. As Hanson calls border patrol, a cartel gang led by Mauricio approaches and a shootout ensues, in which Hanson shoots and kills Mauricio's brother and Rosa is fatally wounded. Before dying, Rosa gives Hanson her family's address in Chicago and a bag of cash, begging him to take Miguel there.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: Border patrol shows up and takes Miguel, but one of the gang members claims him as a relative. Hanson sees their car outside the station and sneaks Miguel out to head for Chicago along Route 66. The gang get into America, tracking the pair via Hanson's credit card. Hanson and Miguel escape several close calls but the cartel members kill Jackson and find the map Hanson used to plan his route.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: The cartel use spotters to find Hanson's truck, which breaks down during a chase. Retreating to a nearby farm, Hanson snipes three of the cartel members, but Mauricio captures Miguel. After a skirmish, Hanson is shot and stabbed but he seriously wounds Mauricio with a gunshot. Hanson offers Mauricio the gun with a single bullet as choice: either use it as a coup de grâce or to shoot Hanson. As Hanson and Miguel leave the farm, they hear a gunshot, indicating that Mauricio chose suicide. Hanson drops Miguel off at his family's home in Chicago before getting on a bus and closing his eyes.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: The project, originally titled "The Minuteman", was announced in May 2019, with Liam Neeson set to star. In September 2019, it was announced that Winnick and Raba joined the cast of the film.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: Principal photography occurred in Lorain, Portage County, and Chardon, Ohio. Filming also occurred in New Mexico, and wrapped in October 2019.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: "The Marksman" was initially scheduled to be theatrically released in the United States on January 22, 2021, but was later moved up a week to January 15.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: "The Marksman" grossed $15.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $7.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide of $23 million.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: The film grossed $3.7 million over the four-day MLK opening weekend, the second Open Road/Neeson title to top the box office during the COVID-19 pandemic after "Honest Thief" the previous October. The film played best in the South, with men making up 57% of the audience, and 72% being over the age of 25. It remained in first the following weekend with $2.03 million, then made $1.2 million in its third weekend and finished third.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 39% based on 108 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The site's critics consensus reads, ""The Marksman" benefits from having Liam Neeson in the lead, but this formulaic action thriller should have aimed higher." On Metacritic, it holds a weighted average score of 44 out of 100 based on 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by PostTrak gave the film a 73% positive score, with 46% saying they would definitely recommend it.


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: Jeannette Catsoulis of "The New York Times" wrote: "Predictable to a fault, the movie coasts pleasurably on Neeson's seasoned, sad-sweet charisma." Michael O'Sullivan at "The Washington Post" rated the film 2/4 stars, writing that it "proves itself to be the cinematic version of comfort food: satisfyingly familiar but full of starch and empty calories."


title: The Marksman (2021 film)

text: Owen Gleiberman at "Variety", gave a more negative review, stating "Lorenz stages the action with a convincing ebb and flow, but thanks to an undercooked script what happens in between is mostly boilerplate." David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a C− and wrote "..."The Marksman" might be two three-ways short of "The Mule", but almost everything about it — from its 'get off my lawn' misanthropy to its general take on the uselessness of government in American life — feels geared for a late-career Eastwood vehicle."


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Norville "Shaggy" Rogers is a fictional character and one of the main characters in the "Scooby-Doo" franchise. He is generally depicted as an amateur detective, cowardly, lazy, and the long-time best friend of his equally cowardly dog, Scooby-Doo.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Shaggy has a characteristic speech pattern marked by his frequent use of the filler word "like" and a pubescent voice that often cracks. In the show, he is the only protagonist with facial hair, which consists of a rough goatee. His signature attire consists of a baggy green V-neck T-shirt, loose maroon or brown bell-bottom pants, and black shoes. In "The 13 Ghosts of Scooby-Doo" and early made-for-TV films, he wore a red V-neck and blue jeans.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Like his dog Scooby, Shaggy is often bribed with Scooby Snacks due to his large appetite and love for food. He and Scooby justify their hunger by insisting that "Being in a constant state of terror makes us constantly hungry!" in "Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island". Shaggy's favorite meal is an "extra cheese pizza with pickles," as revealed in the TV film "Scooby-Doo! Abracadabra-Doo". In "Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico", it is revealed by Fred that the reason Shaggy eats so much (while maintaining his slender physique) is his "high metabolism". However, in "", it is stated by Fred that the real reason Shaggy is so skinny is because he is a vegetarian (a reference to Casey Kasem's veganism). The episode "A Clue for Scooby-Doo" from the inaugural series "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!", reveals that his taste for unlikely food combinations (such as chocolate-covered hot dogs and liverwurst "a la mode”) is a consequence of an infant Shaggy receiving a garbage disposal unit for his first toy.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: In "Bedlam in the Big Top", he says he used to run track, and in "What a Night for a Knight" he states that he was a gymnast – both of which explain his uncanny skills in quickly evading villains. He has been shown, in some instances, to be able to run even faster than Scooby, even when the latter is running on all fours. Shaggy is capable of impressive feats of athleticism when he is scared; however, these abilities are invariably used for comedy, with Shaggy only being capable of such feats when panicked. For example, after being scared in "Scooby-Doo! Camp Scare", he shakes the iron bars of an old-fashioned jail cell so hard that they collapse.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Normally, Shaggy becomes extremely scared when faced with monsters or other frightening situations, usually displaying cowardice to a much greater degree than any other character except for Scooby. This was explained in the "Legend of the Phantosaur" as a possible type of panic disorder. However, on occasion he shows courage when his friends are in serious danger.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: The four teenage lead characters of "Scooby-Doo" were inspired by four of the main characters from the 1959–63 American sitcom "The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis", with Shaggy having been derived from the character Maynard G. Krebs, as played by Bob Denver. Maynard's beatnik-style goatee, general appearance, and use of the word "like" all found their way into the character of Shaggy, with the base personality of the character updated to make him a hippie rather than a beatnik.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Casey Kasem, the first voice actor for Shaggy, said that he originally felt uncomfortable after being assigned to Shaggy. Kasem stated that while he was "hip to what hippies were about", he had never before portrayed a hippie character. Kasem had wanted to voice act for Fred Jones, and Frank Welker had wanted to voice act for Shaggy. Instead, the CBS network assigned Kasem to Shaggy and Welker to Fred. Unsure what the voice of a hippie would sound like, Kasem based his vocal style and mannerisms for Shaggy on those of Dick Crenna's character Walter Denton from the radio/television sitcom "Our Miss Brooks".


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Kasem stated that as he continued to voice Shaggy, the character evolved. Kasem said that the "voice dynamics" improved and that his laughs increasingly gained quality. He added that Shaggy in 2002 is "more frightened today than he was at the beginning." Kasem convinced the producers that Shaggy should be a vegetarian, like himself, in 2002.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Radio disc-jockey and actor Casey Kasem created Shaggy's voice. Kasem voiced Shaggy for 28 years, from "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" in 1969 until the "Johnny Bravo" crossover episode "Bravo Dooby-Doo" in 1997. Starting with "What's New, Scooby-Doo?" in 2002 and "" in 2003, Kasem resumed the role and continued to do so until his retirement in 2009. Billy West voiced the character in the film "Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island" (1998). Scott Innes (who has also voiced Scooby and Scrappy-Doo) voiced Shaggy in the 1999–2001 direct-to-video films, and in video games until 2009. Innes reprised Shaggy in "Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law" and a DirecTV commercial featuring the Scooby gang in 2008. Scott Menville voiced Shaggy in "Shaggy & Scooby-Doo Get a Clue!". Upon Casey Kasem's official retirement in 2009, Matthew Lillard (who played Shaggy in the 2002 and 2004 live-action films) took over as the main voice of Shaggy. Lillard also played Shaggy in "Robot Chicken" and "Mad". Nick Palatas played Shaggy in the 2009 and 2010 live-action films. Will Forte voiced the character for the 2020 animated film "Scoob!" while Iain Armitage voices the child version of Shaggy.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: In most cases, Shaggy is from the fictional town of Coolsville, Ohio. When he was old enough to go to school, he adopted Scooby–Doo from the Knittingham Puppy Farm. Later on, he met Fred Jones, Daphne Blake, and Velma Dinkley. They became friends and they decided to form Mystery Incorporated. According to "", Shaggy was the one who bought the Mystery Machine and gave it its paint job.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: According to "", Shaggy's old nickname was Buzz (apparently for his buzz cut) until his 10th birthday. Fred says that, contrary to what people believe, Shaggy is not skinny because Scooby is always stealing his food, but rather because he's a vegetarian. But as healthy as Shaggy tries to stay, he has battled unhealthy habits. Velma calculates that he once ate exactly 45% of his body weight. This led to him dieting and starting a new hobby: collecting decorator belt buckles. Shaggy claims to have the largest collection of decorator belt buckles in the world and currently owns 653. He also states that he wears a different belt buckle for every mystery if one pays attention, the joke being that his baggy shirt always hides them.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: In "Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated", he is from Crystal Cove along with the other members of Mystery Incorporated. His parents' names are Colton and Paula Rogers and appear to be quite well off, living in a mansion. He dates Velma for a short period during the first season.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Shaggy and Scooby make a cameo appearance in the 2003 live-action/animated film "", where Shaggy berates Matthew Lillard over his portrayal of Shaggy in the 2002 live-action film and threatens to "come after" him if he screws up in .


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Shaggy and Scooby-Doo made a non-speaking cameo in "Teen Titans Go!" episode entitled "I See You" when Cyborg and Beast Boy were rapping. Shaggy later appears in the crossover episode "Cartoon Feud" along with The Scooby Gang, where Control Freak forces them to compete in "Family Feud" with Matthew Lillard reprising the role of Shaggy.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Outside of "Scooby-Doo" video games, Shaggy appears as a playable character, along with Scooby, in the crossover video game "Lego Dimensions". Shaggy's character includes the Mystery Machine. Matthew Lillard reprises his role for the game. Lillard reprises this role in the platform fighting game "MultiVersus", in which Shaggy is a playable character.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Shaggy's appearance as a skilled brawler and daredevil while in a hypnotized state after someone says the word "bad" in "Scooby-Doo! Legend of the Phantosaur" became the subject of an internet meme in 2017, which began when YouTube user Midya uploaded "Ultra Instinct Shaggy", a video juxtaposing a scene from the film where Shaggy single-handedly defeats a biker gang with "Kyūkyoku no Battle", a song by Akira Kushida from the "Dragon Ball Super" soundtrack, parodying the Ultra Instinct transformation that "Dragon Ball" protagonist Goku attains. This later spawned numerous fan art depictions of Shaggy as godlike or even a "Dragon Ball" character, as well as screenshots of behind-the-scenes interviews from the 2002 film with fake captions of the cast members purportedly attesting to Shaggy's "immense power" on set. The meme also led to a Change.org petition to add Shaggy as a DLC character in "Mortal Kombat 11", which caught the attention of both "Mortal Kombat" series co-creator Ed Boon and Matthew Lillard.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Despite not making it to the game, Shaggy would appear in his "Ultra Instinct" form in the animated film, "", where he appears as a cameo on the Warner Bros. Animation logo grabbing Scorpion by the neck and pulling him into the Netherrealm. Shaggy's portrayal and abilities in "MultiVersus" are also derived from the "Ultra Instinct Shaggy" meme.


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: Some viewers of the original "Scooby-Doo" believed that Shaggy smoked marijuana due to his hippie behavior and constant hunger. In a "Newsweek" article, Casey Kasem was asked if he had ever observed that subtext in the series, and Kasem responded that "there wasn't anything like that at all", explaining, "[I] guess it's because, I don't know, it was a wholesome show from beginning to end." Kasem was not aware of the fan viewpoint until the interviewer brought it up. The makers of the "Scooby-Doo" film shot several scenes referencing Shaggy's supposed drug use, but few of those scenes were included in the final film. One scene which made it into the film has a minor character introduce herself to Shaggy as "Mary Jane" (a slang term for marijuana), and he responds, "Like, that is my favorite name." Matthew Lillard, the current voice of Shaggy, does not think he smokes marijuana: "He just seems like that. He acts a little goofy and high, he's lovable and scaredand just happens to have the munchies."


title: Shaggy Rogers

text: In an online radio interview with host Stu Shostak, series creators Joe Ruby and Ken Spears recalled that they never intended for Shaggy to be a marijuana smoker, and "took umbrage" at the jokes in the 2002 film.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: A set is the mathematical model for a collection of different things; a set contains "elements" or "members", which can be mathematical objects of any kind: numbers, symbols, points in space, lines, other geometrical shapes, variables, or even other sets. The set with no element is the empty set; a set with a single element is a singleton. A set may have a finite number of elements or be an infinite set. Two sets are equal if they have precisely the same elements.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Sets are ubiquitous in modern mathematics. Indeed, set theory, more specifically Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, has been the standard way to provide rigorous foundations for all branches of mathematics since the first half of the 20th century.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The concept of a set emerged in mathematics at the end of the 19th century. The German word for set, "Menge", was coined by Bernard Bolzano in his work "Paradoxes of the Infinite". Georg Cantor, one of the founders of set theory, gave the following definition at the beginning of his "Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre":


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The foremost property of a set is that it can have elements, also called "members". Two sets are equal when they have the same elements. More precisely, sets "A" and "B" are equal if every element of "A" is an element of "B", and every element of "B" is an element of "A"; this property is called the "extensionality of sets".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The simple concept of a set has proved enormously useful in mathematics, but arise if no restrictions are placed on how sets can be constructed:


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Naïve set theory defines a set as any "well-defined" collection of distinct elements, but problems arise from the vagueness of the term "well-defined".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: In subsequent efforts to resolve these paradoxes since the time of the original formulation of naïve set theory, the properties of sets have been defined by axioms. Axiomatic set theory takes the concept of a set as a primitive notion. The purpose of the axioms is to provide a basic framework from which to deduce the truth or falsity of particular mathematical propositions (statements) about sets, using first-order logic. According to Gödel's incompleteness theorems however, it is not possible to use first-order logic to prove any such particular axiomatic set theory is free from paradox.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Mathematical texts commonly denote sets by capital letters in italic, such as , , . A set may also be called a "collection" or "family", especially when its elements are themselves sets.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Roster or enumeration notation defines a set by listing its elements between curly brackets, separated by commas:


title: Set (mathematics)

text: In a set, all that matters is whether each element is in it or not, so the ordering of the elements in roster notation is irrelevant (in contrast, in a sequence, a tuple, or a permutation of a set, the ordering of the terms matters). For example, and represent the same set.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: For sets with many elements, especially those following an implicit pattern, the list of members can be abbreviated using an ellipsis ". For instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified in roster notation as


title: Set (mathematics)

text: An infinite set is a set with an endless list of elements. To describe an infinite set in roster notation, an ellipsis is placed at the end of the list, or at both ends, to indicate that the list continues forever. For example, the set of nonnegative integers is


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Set-builder notation specifies a set as a selection from a larger set, determined by a condition on the elements. For example, a set can be defined as follows:


title: Set (mathematics)

text: In this notation, the vertical bar "|" means "such that", and the description can be interpreted as " is the set of all numbers such that is an integer in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive". Some authors use a colon ":" instead of the vertical bar.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: If is a set and is an element of , this is written in shorthand as , which can also be read as ""x" belongs to "B"", or ""x" is in "B"". The statement ""y" is not an element of "B"" is written as , which can also be read as ""y" is not in "B"".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The "empty set" (or "null set") is the unique set that has no members. It is denoted or formula_2 or or (or ).


title: Set (mathematics)

text: A "singleton set" is a set with exactly one element; such a set may also be called a "unit set". Any such set can be written as , where "x" is the element.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The set and the element "x" mean different things; Halmos draws the analogy that a box containing a hat is not the same as the hat.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: If every element of set "A" is also in "B", then "A" is described as being a "subset of B", or "contained in B", written "A" ⊆ "B", or "B" ⊇ "A". The latter notation may be read "B contains A", "B includes A", or "B is a superset of A". The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called "inclusion" or "containment". Two sets are equal if they contain each other: "A" ⊆ "B" and "B" ⊆ "A" is equivalent to "A" = "B".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: If "A" is a subset of "B", but "A" is not equal to "B", then "A" is called a "proper subset" of "B". This can be written "A" ⊊ "B". Likewise, "B" ⊋ "A" means "B is a proper superset of A", i.e. "B" contains "A", and is not equal to "A".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: A third pair of operators ⊂ and ⊃ are used differently by different authors: some authors use "A" ⊂ "B" and "B" ⊃ "A" to mean "A" is any subset of "B" (and not necessarily a proper subset), while others reserve "A" ⊂ "B" and "B" ⊃ "A" for cases where "A" is a proper subset of "B".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: An Euler diagram is a graphical representation of a collection of sets; each set is depicted as a planar region enclosed by a loop, with its elements inside. If is a subset of , then the region representing is completely inside the region representing . If two sets have no elements in common, the regions do not overlap.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: A Venn diagram, in contrast, is a graphical representation of sets in which the loops divide the plane into zones such that for each way of selecting some of the sets (possibly all or none), there is a zone for the elements that belong to all the selected sets and none of the others. For example, if the sets are , , and , there should be a zone for the elements that are inside and and outside (even if such elements do not exist).


title: Set (mathematics)

text: There are sets of such mathematical importance, to which mathematicians refer so frequently, that they have acquired special names and notational conventions to identify them.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Many of these important sets are represented in mathematical texts using bold (e.g. formula_3) or blackboard bold (e.g. formula_4) typeface. These include


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Each of the above sets of numbers has an infinite number of elements. Each is a subset of the sets listed below it.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Sets of positive or negative numbers are sometimes denoted by superscript plus and minus signs, respectively. For example, formula_19 represents the set of positive rational numbers.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: A "function" (or "mapping") from a set to a set is a rule that assigns to each "input" element of an "output" that is an element of ; more formally, a function is a special kind of relation, one that relates each element of to "exactly one" element of . A function is called


title: Set (mathematics)

text: An injective function is called an "injection", a surjective function is called a "surjection", and a bijective function is called a "bijection" or "one-to-one correspondence".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The cardinality of a set , denoted , is the number of members of . For example, if , then . Repeated members in roster notation are not counted, so , too.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: More formally, two sets share the same cardinality if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between them.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The list of elements of some sets is endless, or "infinite". For example, the set formula_20 of natural numbers is infinite. In fact, all the special sets of numbers mentioned in the section above are infinite. Infinite sets have "infinite cardinality".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. Arguably one of the most significant results from set theory is that the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers. Sets with cardinality less than or equal to that of formula_20 are called "countable sets"; these are either finite sets or "countably infinite sets" (sets of the same cardinality as formula_20); some authors use "countable" to mean "countably infinite". Sets with cardinality strictly greater than that of formula_20 are called "uncountable sets".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: However, it can be shown that the cardinality of a straight line (i.e., the number of points on a line) is the same as the cardinality of any segment of that line, of the entire plane, and indeed of any finite-dimensional Euclidean space.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The continuum hypothesis, formulated by Georg Cantor in 1878, is the statement that there is no set with cardinality strictly between the cardinality of the natural numbers and the cardinality of a straight line. In 1963, Paul Cohen proved that the continuum hypothesis is independent of the axiom system ZFC consisting of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice. (ZFC is the most widely-studied version of axiomatic set theory.)


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The power set of a set is the set of all subsets of . The empty set and itself are elements of the power set of , because these are both subsets of . For example, the power set of is . The power set of a set is commonly written as or .


title: Set (mathematics)

text: If has elements, then has elements. For example, has three elements, and its power set has elements, as shown above.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: If is infinite (whether countable or uncountable), then is uncountable. Moreover, the power set is always strictly "bigger" than the original set, in the sense that any attempt to pair up the elements of with the elements of will leave some elements of unpaired. (There is never a bijection from onto .)


title: Set (mathematics)

text: A partition of a set "S" is a set of nonempty subsets of "S", such that every element "x" in "S" is in exactly one of these subsets. That is, the subsets are pairwise disjoint (meaning any two sets of the partition contain no element in common), and the union of all the subsets of the partition is "S".


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Suppose that a universal set (a set containing all elements being discussed) has been fixed, and that is a subset of .


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The operations above satisfy many identities. For example, one of De Morgan's laws states that (that is, the elements outside the union of and are the elements that are outside "and" outside ).


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The power set of any set becomes a Boolean ring with symmetric difference as the addition of the ring and intersection as the multiplication of the ring.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: Sets are ubiquitous in modern mathematics. For example, structures in abstract algebra, such as groups, fields and rings, are sets closed under one or more operations.


title: Set (mathematics)

text: One of the main applications of naive set theory is in the construction of relations. A relation from a domain to a codomain is a subset of the Cartesian product . For example, considering the set of shapes in the game of the same name, the relation "beats" from to is the set ; thus beats in the game if the pair is a member of . Another example is the set of all pairs , where is real. This relation is a subset of , because the set of all squares is subset of the set of all real numbers. Since for every in , one and only one pair is found in , it is called a function. In functional notation, this relation can be written as .


title: Set (mathematics)

text: The inclusion–exclusion principle is a technique for counting the elements in a union of two finite sets in terms of the sizes of the two sets and their intersection. It can be expressed symbolically as


title: Early Middle Ages

text: The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history, following the decline of the Western Roman Empire, and preceding the High Middle Ages ( 11th to 13th centuries). The alternative term "late antiquity", for the early part of the period, emphasizes elements of continuity with the Roman Empire, while "Early Middle Ages" is used to emphasize developments characteristic of the earlier medieval period.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: The period saw a continuation of trends evident since late classical antiquity, including population decline, especially in urban centres, a decline of trade, a small rise in average temperatures in the North Atlantic region and increased migration. In the 19th century the Early Middle Ages were often labelled the "Dark Ages", a characterization based on the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time, although the term is scarcely used by academics today. However, the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, continued to survive, though in the 7th century the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate conquered swathes of formerly Roman territory.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: Many of the listed trends reversed later in the period. In 800, the title of "Emperor" was revived in Western Europe with Charlemagne, whose Carolingian Empire greatly affected later European social structure and history. Europe experienced a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the feudal system, which adopted such innovations as three-field planting and the heavy plough. Barbarian migration stabilized in much of Europe, although the Viking expansion greatly affected Northern Europe.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: Starting in the 2nd century, various indicators of Roman civilization began to decline, including urbanization, seaborne commerce, and population. Archaeologists have identified only 40 percent as many Mediterranean shipwrecks from the 3rd century as from the first. Estimates of the population of the Roman Empire during the period from 150 to 400 suggest a fall from 65 million to 50 million, a decline of more than 20 percent. Some scholars have connected this de-population to the (300–700), when a decrease in global temperatures impaired agricultural yields.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: Early in the 3rd century Germanic peoples migrated south from Scandinavia and reached the Black Sea, creating formidable confederations which opposed the local Sarmatians. In Dacia (present-day Romania) and on the steppes north of the Black Sea the Goths, a Germanic people, established at least two kingdoms: Therving and Greuthung.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: The arrival of the Huns in 372–375 ended the history of these kingdoms. The Huns, a confederation of central Asian tribes, founded an empire. They had mastered the difficult art of shooting composite recurve bows from horseback. The Goths sought refuge in Roman territory (376), agreeing to enter the Empire as unarmed settlers. However many bribed the Danube border-guards into allowing them to bring their weapons.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: The discipline and organization of a Roman legion made it a superb fighting unit. The Romans preferred infantry to cavalry because infantry could be trained to retain the formation in combat, while cavalry tended to scatter when faced with opposition. While a barbarian army could be raised and inspired by the promise of plunder, the legions required a central government and taxation to pay for salaries, constant training, equipment, and food. The decline in agricultural and economic activity reduced the empire's taxable income and thus its ability to maintain a professional army to defend itself from external threats.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: In the Gothic War (376–382), the Goths revolted and confronted the main Roman army in the Battle of Adrianople (378). By this time, the distinction in the Roman army between Roman regulars and barbarian auxiliaries had broken down, and the Roman army was composed mainly of barbarians and soldiers recruited for a single campaign. The general decline in discipline also led to the use of smaller shields and lighter weaponry. Not wanting to share the glory, Eastern Emperor Valens ordered an attack on the Therving infantry under Fritigern without waiting for Western Emperor Gratian, who was on the way with reinforcements. While the Romans were fully engaged, the Greuthung cavalry arrived. Only one-third of the Roman army managed to escape. This represented the most shattering defeat that the Romans had suffered since the Battle of Cannae (216 BC), according to the Roman military writer Ammianus Marcellinus. The core army of the Eastern Roman Empire was destroyed, Valens was killed, and the Goths were freed to lay waste to the Balkans, including the armories along the Danube. As Edward Gibbon comments, "The Romans, who so coolly and so concisely mention the acts of "justice" which were exercised by the legions, reserve their compassion and their eloquence for their own sufferings, when the provinces were invaded and desolated by the arms of the successful Barbarians."


title: Early Middle Ages

text: The empire lacked the resources, and perhaps the will, to reconstruct the professional mobile army destroyed at Adrianople, so it had to rely on barbarian armies to fight for it. The Eastern Roman Empire succeeded in buying off the Goths with tribute. The Western Roman Empire proved less fortunate. Stilicho, the western empire's half-Vandal military commander, stripped the Rhine frontier of troops to fend off invasions of Italy by the Visigoths in 402–03 and by other Goths in 406–07.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: Fleeing before the advance of the Huns, the Vandals, Suebi, and Alans launched an attack across the frozen Rhine near Mainz; on 31 December 406, the frontier gave way and these tribes surged into Roman Gaul. There soon followed the Burgundians and bands of the Alamanni. In the fit of anti-barbarian hysteria which followed, the Western Roman Emperor Honorius had Stilicho summarily beheaded (408). Stilicho submitted his neck, "with a firmness not unworthy of the last of the Roman generals", wrote Gibbon. Honorius was left with only worthless courtiers to advise him. In 410, the Visigoths led by Alaric I captured the city of Rome and for three days fire and slaughter ensued as bodies filled the streets, palaces were stripped of their valuables, and the invaders interrogated and tortured those citizens thought to have hidden wealth. As newly converted Christians, the Goths respected church property, but those who found sanctuary in the Vatican and in other churches were the fortunate few.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: The Goths and Vandals were only the first of many bands of peoples that flooded Western Europe in the absence of administrative governance. Some lived only for war and pillage and disdained Roman ways. Other peoples had been in prolonged contact with the Roman civilization, and were, to a certain degree, romanized. "A poor Roman plays the Goth, a rich Goth the Roman," said King Theoderic of the Ostrogoths. The subjects of the Roman empire were a mixture of Roman Christian, Arian Christian, Nestorian Christian, and pagan. The Germanic peoples knew little of cities, money, or writing, and were mostly pagan, though they were increasingly converting to Arianism, a non-trinitarian form of Christianity that considers God the Son to have been created by, and thus inferior to, God the Father, rather than the two being co-eternal, which is the position of Chalcedonian Christianity. Arianism found some favour in the Roman Empire before being eclipsed by the Chalcedonian position and then suppressed as heretical.


title: Early Middle Ages

text: During the migrations, or "Völkerwanderung" (wandering of the peoples), the earlier settled populations were sometimes left intact though usually partially or entirely displaced. Roman culture north of the Po River was almost entirely displaced by the migrations. Whereas the peoples of France, Italy, Spain and Portugal continued to speak the dialects of Vulgar Latin that today constitute the Romance languages, the language of the smaller Roman-era population of what is now England disappeared with barely a trace in the territories settled by the Anglo-Saxons, although the Brittanic kingdoms of the west remained Brythonic speakers. The new peoples greatly altered established society, including law, culture, religion, and patterns of property ownership.