title: Paper

text: In Europe and other regions using the ISO 216 paper-sizing system, the weight is expressed in grams per square metre (g/m or usually gsm) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 gsm and 120 gsm. Anything heavier than 160 gsm is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.


title: Paper

text: Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on customary units and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.


title: Paper

text: The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a sheet's width and length. It was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square metre (approx. 1189 × 841 mm). A1 is half the size of a sheet of A0 (i.e., 594 mm × 841 mm), such that two sheets of A1 placed side by side are equal to one sheet of A0. A2 is half the size of a sheet of A1, and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets).


title: Paper

text: The density of paper ranges from for tissue paper to for some specialty paper. Printing paper is about .


title: Paper

text: Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminium sulfate salt that is significantly acidic. Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing, making it somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would be eventually detrimental. The cellulose fibres that make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and the presence of alum eventually degrades the fibres until the acidic paper disintegrates in a process known as "slow fire". Documents written on rag paper are significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent, and the stability of these papers is less of an issue.


title: Paper

text: Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials, which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential.


title: Paper

text: Paper made from wood pulp is not necessarily less durable than a rag paper. The aging behaviour of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not the original source of the fibres. Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids.


title: Paper

text: Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps. With almost twice the yield as chemical pulping, mechanical pulps is often cheaper. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers tend to use mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use acid-free paper, made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books.


title: Paper

text: Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years leading to increase in deforestation, with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Most paper companies also plant trees to help regrow forests. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp, but is one of the most controversial issues.


title: Paper

text: Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of total waste produced in the United States each year, which adds up to 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in the United States alone. The average office worker in the US prints 31 pages every day. Americans also use in the order of 16 billion paper cups per year.


title: Paper

text: Conventional bleaching of wood pulp using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds, including chlorinated dioxins. Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals.


title: Paper

text: The paper pulp and print industries emitted together about 1% of world Greenhouse-gas emissions in 2010 and about 0.9% in 2012, but less than screens: digital technologies emitted approximately 4% of world Greenhouse-gas emissions in the year 2019 and the number can be two times larger by 2025.


title: Paper

text: Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made out of paper, and known commercially as PaperFoam, the new packaging has mechanical properties very similar to those of some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.


title: Paper

text: With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags.


title: Paper

text: Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Janina Zione Gavankar (; born November 29, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She is trained as a pianist, vocalist, orchestral percussionist and majored in theatre at the University of Illinois Chicago. Her roles include Shiva on "The League", Leigh Turner on "The Gates", Luna Garza on HBO's "True Blood", McKenna Hall on The CW's "Arrow" and Diana Thomas on FOX's "Sleepy Hollow". In marketing, she also played "Ms. Dewey", a personified search engine and virtual assistant for Microsoft.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Gavankar was born in Joliet, Illinois to Ganesh "Peter" Gavankar, an engineer from Mumbai, who first travelled to the US to pursue a master's degree, and Shan Demohra "Mohra" Gavankar, of


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Gavankar has acted in theatre, film, television, and online. Her most notable roles include Iden Versio, a canon Star Wars character and the protagonist of "Star Wars: Battlefront II"; shapeshifter Luna Garza in "True Blood", Papi in "The L Word"; Ms. Dewey, the personification of a Microsoft live search engine; and Shiva, the namesake of the sought after trophy on "The League". She regularly appears in Funny or Die shorts.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: In 2006 she joined the cast of "The L Word" as a series regular, and shot all of the clips used for Ms. Dewey. In 2007, she landed a lead in CW pilot "Dash 4 Cash". In 2008, Gavankar appeared in the TV series "Stargate Atlantis", "Grey's Anatomy", "NCIS", "My Boys", and "Factory". In 2009, she appeared in the TV shows "The Cleaner", "Dollhouse", "Three Rivers", and "The League", as well as indie movies "Men, Interrupted", "Indian Gangster", and "". Gavankar played the voice of Nikki in "Quantum Quest". She landed a lead role in "The Gates", since cancelled, on ABC. She appears on CW's "Arrow" as a vice squad police officer and brief girlfriend to Oliver Queen.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Gavankar is an admitted gamer and has appeared on, as well as co-hosted, G4 TV's "Attack of the Show!", Epileptic Gaming's "Up All Night", where she helped review "Rock Band", "Burnout Paradise", and "Army of Two".


title: Janina Gavankar

text: In 2011 Gavankar became a series regular in HBO's "True Blood" as a public school teacher and shapeshifter, Luna Garza, who gets romantically involved with one of the main characters of the series.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Her indie movie, "Satellite of Love", premiered at the Dallas International Film Festival in 2012, and her 2012 indie "I'm Afraid of Virginia Wolf" is currently in post-production. On December 20, 2012, Gavankar was the last person interviewed for the now cancelled "Attack of the Show!" which aired on G4 TV.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: On August 3, 2013, Gavankar landed a role as a witch named Qetsiyah in the fifth season of "The Vampire Diaries". She guest starred in the third season of "Husbands".


title: Janina Gavankar

text: In 2014, she starred as Amita in the video game, "Far Cry 4". She also played Detective Meredith Bose on "The Mysteries of Laura" from 2014 to 2016.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: She starred as Iden Versio, the main character in the campaign mode of the 2017 Electronic Arts video game "Star Wars Battlefront II".


title: Janina Gavankar

text: In 2018, she was in two films. "Blindspotting" premiered at the Sundance Film Festival, and "The Vanishing of Sidney Hall" was distributed by A24.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Starting in 2021, Gavankar had a starring role as the antagonist in seasons 2 & 3 of the ABC hit show Big Sky playing the sibling in a mafia family.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Gavankar returned to music with a cover of Kanye West's "Love Lockdown". Gavankar's former all female singing group, Endera, was signed to Cash Money Records Universal Records.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: She collaborated on a project for a song called "Tell Me What" in India with Pratichee Mohapatra of Viva, Deep, and Navraaz. She has had songs licensed to movies and television, and has sung and played marimba on film scores. Gavankar was featured in Russian artist Ella Leya's music video for "Wish I Could", in the music video by San Francisco-based band Recliner for their single "Float Away", as well as the music video for Manu Narayan's band Darunam.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: In August 2012, she released the single for her upcoming EP, entitled "Waiting for Godot", and in November, "Billboard" premiered the official music video. It went on to win numerous film festival awards.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: While in high school, Gavankar auditioned for the front ensemble of the Phantom Regiment Drum and Bugle Corps of Rockford, Illinois. Before hearing whether she had made the corps, she was accepted for the Yale School of Drama's summer camp, and went there. "I fell in love with drum corps when I was 13 years old", Gavankar has stated, and remains a strong fan of the activity. When she heard the Martin Garrix/Usher collaboration, "Don't Look Down", she had the idea of performing it as marching music. With assistance from Drum Corps International, she contacted the Jersey Surf Drum and Bugle Corps and arranger Colin Bell. She went into the studios in New York with fifty members of Jersey Surf and recorded the music video "Don't Look Down- #JustAddDrumCorps Edition" that was released in April 2015.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: On May 20, 2015, Gavankar performed a percussion duet at Carnegie Hall with Questlove for the Best Buddies charity benefit.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: Gavankar was the first actress to use Twitter, signing up on Richard Branson's computer on Necker Island in 2006.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: In 2011 she created a free template for actors and artists to help them control their online presence and in 2012, spoke at the Suits and Spooks Conference about how she discovered a solution for data challenges faced by actors through the use of open source tools.


title: Janina Gavankar

text: In 2008, Gavankar was nominated for an Asian Excellence Award. In 2012, Gavankar received the Gravity Summit Award for Excellence in Social Media.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Led Zeppelin is the debut studio album by English rock band Led Zeppelin. It was released on 12 January 1969 in the United States and on 31 March in the United Kingdom by Atlantic Records.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The album was recorded in September and October 1968 at Olympic Studios in London, shortly after the band's formation. It contains a mix of original material worked out in the first rehearsals, and remakes and rearrangements of contemporary blues and folk songs. The sessions took place before the group had secured a recording contract and totalled 36 hours; they were paid for directly by Jimmy Page, the group's founder, leader and guitarist, and Led Zeppelin's manager Peter Grant and cost £1,782 () to complete. They were produced by Page, who as a musician was joined by band members Robert Plant (lead vocals, harmonica), John Paul Jones (bass, keyboards), and John Bonham (drums). Percussionist Viram Jasani appears as a guest on one track. The tracks were mixed by Page's childhood friend Glyn Johns, and the iconic album cover showing the "Hindenburg" disaster was designed by George Hardie.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Led Zeppelin" showed the group's fusion of blues and rock, and their take on the emerging hard rock sound was immediately commercially successful in both the UK and US, reaching the top 10 on album charts in both countries, as well as several others, while it reached number one in Spain's albums chart. Many of the songs were longer and not well suited to be released as singles for radio airplay; Page was reluctant to release "singles", so only "Good Times Bad Times", backed with "Communication Breakdown", was released outside of the UK. However, due to exposure on album-oriented rock radio stations, and growth in popularity of the band, many of the album's songs have become classic rock radio staples.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: In July 1968, the English rock band the Yardbirds disbanded after two founder members Keith Relf and Jim McCarty quit the group, with a third, Chris Dreja, leaving to become a photographer shortly afterwards. The fourth member, guitarist Jimmy Page, was left with rights to the name and contractual obligations for a series of concerts in Scandinavia. Page asked seasoned session player and arranger John Paul Jones to join as bassist, and hoped to recruit Terry Reid as singer and Procol Harum's B. J. Wilson as drummer. Wilson was still committed to Procol Harum, and Reid declined to join but recommended Robert Plant, who met with Page at his boathouse in Pangbourne, Berkshire in August to talk about music and work on new material.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Page and Plant realised they had good musical chemistry together, and Plant asked friend and former band-mate John Bonham to drum for the new group. The line-up of Page, Plant, Jones and Bonham first rehearsed on 19 August 1968 (the day before Plant's 20th birthday), shortly before a tour of Scandinavia as "the New Yardbirds", performing some old Yardbirds material as well as new songs such as "Communication Breakdown", "I Can't Quit You Baby", "You Shook Me", "Babe I'm Gonna Leave You" and "How Many More Times". After they returned to London following the tour, Page changed the band's name to Led Zeppelin, and the group entered Olympic Studios at 11 p.m. on 25 September 1968 to record their debut album.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Page said that the album took only about 36 hours of studio time (over a span of a few weeks) to create (including mixing), adding that he knew this because of the amount charged on the studio bill. One of the primary reasons for the short recording time was that the material selected for the album had been well-rehearsed and pre-arranged by the band on the Scandinavian tour.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The band had not yet signed a deal, and there was no record company money to waste on excessive studio time. Page and Led Zeppelin's manager Peter Grant paid for the sessions themselves. The reported total studio costs were £1,782. The self-funding was important because it meant they could record exactly what they wanted without record company interference.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: For the recordings Page played a psychedelically painted Fender Telecaster – a gift from friend Jeff Beck after Page recommended him to join the Yardbirds in 1965, replacing Eric Clapton on lead guitar. Page played the Telecaster through a Supro amplifier, and used a Gibson J-200 for the album's acoustic tracks. For "Your Time Is Gonna Come" he used a Fender 10-string pedal steel guitar.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Led Zeppelin" was produced by Page and engineered by Glyn Johns, who had known each other since they were teenagers in the suburb of Epsom. According to Page, most of the album was recorded live, with overdubs added later.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Page used a "distance makes depth" approach to production. He used natural room ambience to enhance the reverb and recording texture on the record, demonstrating the innovations in sound recording he had learned during his session days. At the time, most music producers placed microphones directly in front of the amplifiers and drums. For "Led Zeppelin", Page developed the idea of placing an additional microphone some distance from the amplifier (as far as ) and then recording the balance between the two. Page became one of the first producers to record a band's "ambient sound": the distance of a note's time-lag from one end of the room to the other.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Because of the live recording, some songs had Plant's vocals bleed onto other tracks. Page later stated that this was a natural product of Plant's powerful voice, but added the leakage "sounds intentional". On "You Shook Me", Page used the "reverse echo" technique. It involves hearing the echo before the main sound (instead of after it), and is achieved by turning the tape over and recording the echo on a spare track, then turning the tape back over again to get the echo preceding the signal.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: This was one of the first albums to be released in stereo only. Prior to this, albums had been released in separate mono and stereo versions.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The songs on "Led Zeppelin" came from the first group rehearsals, which were then refined on the Scandinavian tour. The group were familiar with the material when they entered Olympic to start recording, a reason the album was completed quickly. Plant participated in songwriting but was not given credit because of unexpired contractual obligations to CBS Records. He was retroactively given credit on "Good Times, Bad Times", "Your Time Is Gonna Come", "Communication Breakdown", "Babe I'm Gonna Leave You", and "How Many More Times".


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Good Times Bad Times" was a commercial-sounding track that was considered as the group's debut single in the UK, and released as such in the US. As well as showcasing the whole band and their new heavy style, it featured a catchy chorus and a variety of guitar overdubs. Despite being a strong track, it was seldom performed live by Led Zeppelin. One of the few occasions it was played was the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert in 2007.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Babe I'm Gonna Leave You" was a re-arrangement of a song composed by Anne Bredon in the 1950s. Page had heard the song recorded by Joan Baez for her 1962 album "Joan Baez in Concert". It was one of the first numbers that he worked on with Plant when the two first met at Pangbourne in August 1968. Page played both the Gibson J-200 acoustic and Telecaster on the track. Plant originally sang the song in a heavier style, similar to other performances on the album, but was persuaded by Page to re-record it to allow some light and shade on the track.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "You Shook Me" was a blues song with lyrics by Willie Dixon and fitted in with the British blues boom that was ongoing when the album was being recorded. Jones, Plant and Page took solos on Hammond organ, harmonica and guitar respectively. Page put backwards echo on the track, which was then a novel production device, on the call and response between the vocal and guitar towards the end. The song had been recorded by Jeff Beck for the album "Truth" (1968) and Beck subsequently said he was unhappy about Led Zeppelin copying his arrangement.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Dazed and Confused" was written and recorded by Jake Holmes in 1967. The original album credited Page as the sole composer; Holmes sued for copyright infringement in 2010 and an out-of-court settlement was reached the following year. The Yardbirds performed the song regularly in concert during 1968, including several radio and television sessions. Their arrangement included a section where Page played the guitar with a violin bow, an idea suggested by David McCallum Sr. whom Page had met while doing sessions. Page also used the guitar solo for one of the last Yardbirds recordings, "Think About It". Led Zeppelin's adaptations of "Dazed and Confused" used some different lyrics, while Jones and Bonham developed the arrangement to accommodate their playing styles.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The song was an important part of Led Zeppelin's live show throughout their early career, and became a vehicle for group improvisation, eventually stretching in length to over 30minutes. The improvisation would sometimes include parts of another song, including the group's "The Crunge" and "Walter's Walk" (released later on "Houses of the Holy" and "Coda", respectively), Joni Mitchell's "Woodstock" and Scott McKenzie's "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)". It was briefly dropped from the live set in 1975 after Page injured a finger, but was re-instated for the remainder of the tour. The last full live performance during Led Zeppelin's main career was at Earl's Court in London later that year, after which the violin bow section of the song's guitar solo was played as a standalone piece. It was revived as a complete song performance for the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert in 2007.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Your Time Is Gonna Come" opens with Jones playing an unaccompanied organ solo, leading into the verse. Page plays acoustic and pedal steel guitar. The track has a crossfade into "Black Mountain Side", an acoustic instrumental based on Bert Jansch's arrangement of the traditional folk song "Black Water Side" and influenced by the folk playing of Jansch and John Renbourn. The song was regularly performed live as a medley with the Yardbirds solo guitar number "White Summer".


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Communication Breakdown" was built around a Page guitar riff, and one of the first tunes the group worked on. They enjoyed playing it live, and consequently it was a regular part of their set. It was played intermittently throughout the group's career, often as an encore.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "I Can't Quit You Baby" was another Willie Dixon-penned blues number. It was recorded live in the studio, and arranged in a slower and more laid-back style compared to some of the other material on the album.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "How Many More Times" was the group's closing live number in their early career. The song was improvised around an old Howlin' Wolf number, "How Many More Years", and a Page guitar riff, which developed spontaneously into a jam session. The track includes a bolero section similar to Jeff Beck's "Beck's Bolero" (which was written by and featured Page), and segues into "Rosie" and "The Hunter" which were improvised during recording. Page played the guitar with the violin bow in the middle section of the track, similar to "Dazed and Confused".


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Two other songs from the Olympic sessions, "Baby Come On Home" and "Sugar Mama", were left off the album. They were released on the 2015 reissue of the retrospective album "Coda".


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: "Led Zeppelin"s front cover, which was chosen by Page, features a black-and-white image of the burning "Hindenburg" airship, photographed by Sam Shere on 6 May 1937, during the Hindenburg disaster. The image refers to the origin of the band's name itself: When Page, Beck and The Who's Keith Moon and John Entwistle were discussing the idea of forming a group, Moon joked, "It would probably go over like a lead balloon", and Entwistle reportedly replied, "a lead zeppelin!"


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The back cover features a photograph of the band taken by Dreja. The entire design of the album's sleeve was coordinated by George Hardie, with whom the band would continue to collaborate for future sleeves. Hardie himself also created the front cover illustration, rendering the famous original black-and-white photograph in ink using a Rapidograph technical pen and a mezzotint technique.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Hardie recalled that he originally offered the band a design based on an old club sign in San Franciscoa multi-sequential image of a zeppelin airship up in the clouds. Page declined but it was retained as the logo for the back cover of Led Zeppelin's first two albums and a number of early press advertisements. The first UK pressing featured the band name and the Atlantic logo in turquoise. When it was switched to the orange print later that year, the turquoise-printed sleeve became a collector's item.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The album cover gained further widespread attention when, at a February 1970 gig in Copenhagen, the band were billed as "the Nobs" as the result of a legal threat from aristocrat Eva von Zeppelin (a relative of the creator of the Zeppelin aircraft). Von Zeppelin, upon seeing the logo of the "Hindenburg" crashing in flames, threatened legal action over the concert taking place. In 2001, Greg Kot wrote in "Rolling Stone" that "The cover of "Led Zeppelin"… shows the "Hindenburg" airship, in all its phallic glory, going down in flames. The image did a pretty good job of encapsulating the music inside: sex, catastrophe and things blowing up."


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The album was advertised in selected music papers under the slogan "Led Zeppelinthe only way to fly". It initially received poor reviews. In a stinging assessment, "Rolling Stone" magazine asserted that the band offered "little that its twin, the Jeff Beck Group, didn't say as well or better three months ago… to fill the void created by the demise of Cream, they will have to find a producer, editor and some material worthy of their collective talents", calling Page a "limited producer" and criticizing his writing skills. It also called Plant "as foppish as Rod Stewart, but nowhere near so exciting". Because of the bad press, Led Zeppelin avoided talking to them throughout their career. Eventually, their reputation as a good live band recovered by word-of-mouth.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Rock journalist Cameron Crowe noted years later: "It was a time of 'super-groups', of furiously hyped bands who could barely cut it, and Led Zeppelin initially found themselves fighting upstream to prove their authenticity." Despite shaky press the album is now considered by some of their fans to be one of the group's best albums.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: However, press reaction to the album was not entirely negative. In Britain the album received a glowing review in "Melody Maker". Chris Welch wrote, in a review titled "Jimmy Page triumphsLed Zeppelin is a gas!": "their material does not rely on obvious blues riffs, although when they do play them, they avoid the emaciated feebleness of most so-called British blues bands". In "Oz", Felix Dennis regarded it as one of those rare albums that "defies immediate classification or description, simply because it's so obviously a turning point in rock music that only time proves capable of shifting it into eventual perspective". In comparing the record to their follow-up "Led Zeppelin II", Robert Christgau wrote in "The Village Voice" that the debut was "subtler and more ambitious musically", and not as good, "because subtlety defeated the effect. Musicianship, in other words, was really incidental to such music, but the music did have real strength and validity: a combination of showmanship and overwhelming physical force."


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The album was a commercial success. It was initially released in the US on 12 January 1969 to capitalise on the band's first North American concert tour. Before that, Atlantic Records had distributed a few hundred advance white label copies to key radio stations and reviewers. A positive reaction to its contents, coupled with a good reaction to the band's opening concerts, resulted in the album generating 50,000 advance orders. The album reached number 10 on the "Billboard" chart. The album earned its US gold certification in July 1969.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The album's success and influence is widely acknowledged, even by publications that were initially sceptical. In 2006, "Rolling Stone" commented on the originality of the music, and Zeppelin's heavy style, comparing them to Cream, Jimi Hendrix, the MC5 and the Stooges, but reiterated that they had mass appeal. "Led Zeppelin" was cited by Stephen Thomas Erlewine as "a significant turning point in the evolution of hard rock and heavy metal". According to arts and culture scholar Michael Fallon, it "announced the emergence of a loud and raw new musical genre" in metal. and by the BBC as "a product of the 1960s whose often bombastic style signposted a new decade". Sheldon Pearce from "Consequence of Sound" regarded it as Zeppelin's "ode to rock's progressive metamorphosis" and "the first hard rock domino" for their future accomplishments: "Its orchestration delves adventurously through hard rock and heavy metal with bluesy undertones that often cause the chords to weep poignantly as if struck with malice".


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The album was described as a "brilliant if heavy-handed blues-rock offensive" by popular music scholar Ronald Zalkind. Martin Popoff argued that while the album may not have been the first heavy metal record, it did feature what was likely to be the first metal song – "Communication Breakdown""with its no-nonsense machine gun between the numbers riff". In 2003, VH1 named "Led Zeppelin" the 44th-greatest album of all time. The same year, the album was ranked 29th on "Rolling Stone"s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (their highest charting album on the list); an accompanying blurb read: "Heavy metal still lives in its shadow," maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, and ranked 101st in a 2020 revised list. In 2004, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Jimmy Page, observed Aerosmith's Joe Perry, "was an incredible producer and he wrote all these great songs. When he was cutting the first Zeppelin album, he knew what he wanted. His vision was so much more global than Jeff and Eric's. Playing guitar was just one part of the puzzle… I have to have the first four Led Zeppelin albums on me at all times."


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: Along with the group's next two albums – "Led Zeppelin II" and "Led Zeppelin III" – the album was remastered and reissued in June 2014. The reissue comes in six formats: a standard CD edition, a deluxe two-CD edition, a standard LP version, a deluxe three-LP version, a super deluxe two-CD-plus-three-LP version with a hardback book, and as high-resolution, 24-bit/96k digital downloads. The deluxe and super-deluxe editions feature bonus material from a concert at the Olympia in Paris, recorded in October 1969, previously available only in bootleg forms. The reissue was released with an inverted black and white version of the original album's artwork as its bonus disc's cover.


title: Led Zeppelin (album)

text: The reissue was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 97, based on 10 reviews. "Q" deemed it an improvement over previous remasters of the album and credited Page's contribution to the remaster for revealing more detail. Erlewine found the bonus disc "particularly exciting" in his review for AllMusic, writing that "it's not tight but that's its appeal, as it shows how the band was a vital, living beast, playing differently on-stage than they did in the studio." According to "Paste" magazine's Ryan Reed, "for years, Zep-heads have tolerated the murky fidelity of the '90s remasters" until the reissue, which "finally punches and shimmers instead of fizzling in fuzz". He was critical of the bonus disc, however, believing it "remains inessential—the very definition of 'for completists only.'... [It] demonstrates Zeppelin at their most bloated, sloppily fumbling through rhythmic cues and extending tracks to their breaking point".


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch ( ; ) is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the seat of the Canterbury Region. Christchurch lies on the South Island's east coast, just north of Banks Peninsula on Pegasus Bay. The Avon River / Ōtākaro flows through the centre of the city, with an urban park along its banks. The city's territorial authority population is people, and includes a number of smaller urban areas as well as rural areas. The population of the urban area is people. Christchurch is the second-largest city by urban area population in New Zealand, after Auckland. It is the major urban area of an emerging sub-region known informally as Greater Christchurch. Notable smaller urban areas within this sub-region include Rangiora and Kaiapoi in Waimakariri District, north of the Waimakariri River, and Rolleston and Lincoln in Selwyn District to the south.


title: Christchurch

text: The first inhabitants migrated to the area sometime between 1000 and 1250 AD. They hunted moa, which led to birds' extinct by 1450, and destroyed much of the mataī and tōtara forest. The first iwi to settle the area that would later become known as Christchurch were the Waitaha, who migrated to the area in the 16th century. They were followed later by the Kāti Māmoe, who conquered the Waitaha. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ngāi Tahu migrated to the area and subjugated the Kāti Māmoe. Over time Ngāi Tahu would develop a large pā based around Kaiapoi, which was a major centre for the trade of pounamu.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter on 31 July 1856, making it officially the oldest established city in New Zealand. The Canterbury Association, which settled the Canterbury Plains, named the city after Christ Church, Oxford. The new settlement was laid out in a grid pattern centred on Cathedral Square; during the 19th century there were few barriers to the rapid growth of the urban area, except for the Pacific to the east and the Port Hills to the south. Agriculture is the historic mainstay of Christchurch's economy. The early presence of the University of Canterbury and the heritage of the city's academic institutions in association with local businesses has fostered a number of technology-based industries. Christchurch is one of five Antarctic gateway cities, hosting Antarctic support bases for several nations.


title: Christchurch

text: The city suffered a series of earthquakes between September 2010 and January 2012, with the most destructive occurring at 12.51 p.m. on 22 February 2011, in which 185 people were killed and thousands of buildings across the city suffered severe damage, with a few central city buildings collapsing. By late 2013, 1,500 buildings in the city had been demolished, leading to ongoing recovery and rebuilding projects. The city later became the site of a terrorist attack targeting two mosques on 15 March 2019, in which 51 people were killed, and which was described by the Prime Minister, Jacinda Ardern, as "one of New Zealand's darkest days".


title: Christchurch

text: The name of "Christchurch" was agreed on at the first meeting of the Canterbury Association on 27 March 1848. It was suggested by founder John Robert Godley, whose alma mater was Christ Church, University of Oxford.


title: Christchurch

text: The Māori name "Ōtautahi" ("the place of Tautahi") was adopted in the 1930s; originally it was the name of a specific site by the Avon River (near present-day Kilmore Street). The site was a seasonal dwelling of Ngāi Tahu chief Te Potiki Tautahi, whose main home was Port Levy on Banks Peninsula. Prior to that the Ngāi Tahu generally referred to the Christchurch area as "Karaitiana", a transliteration of the English word Christian.


title: Christchurch

text: Archaeological evidence found in a cave at Redcliffs in 1876 has indicated that the Christchurch area was first settled by moa-hunting tribes about 1250 AD. These first inhabitants were thought to have been followed by the Waitaha iwi, who are said to have migrated from the East coast of the North Island in the 16th century. Following tribal warfare, the Waitaha (made of three peoples) were dispossessed by the Ngāti Māmoe iwi. They were in turn subjugated by the Ngāi Tahu iwi, who remained in control until the arrival of European settlers 600 years later.


title: Christchurch

text: Land covered in mataī and tōtara forest was cleared in what is now the central city, and in 1500 the population increased due to Kāti Māmoe and then further Ngāi Tahu migration. The largest single settlement was at Kaiapoi's pā, a bustling fortification controlled by the powerful Ngāi Tahu hapū Kāi Tūāhuriri. This pā was founded by the nobleman Tūrākautahi, and was run by his family and prestigious tohunga in a highly sophisticated social and economic fabric. Tūrākautahi's hapū, Kāi Tūāhuriri, was named for his father, the important leader Tūāhuriri. Tūāhuriri a powerful chief who had influence and control over vast swathes of Christchurch, Nelson and Wellington, before a conflict with his brother-in-law Tutekawa caused him to drown in Te Roto o Wairewa (Lake Forsyth). The settlement remained where it was, controlled by Tūāhuriri's descendants, until it was sacked in the 1830s by Te Rauparaha.


title: Christchurch

text: After the purchase of land at Putaringamotu (modern Riccarton) by the Weller brothers, whalers of Otago and Sydney, a party of European settlers led by Herriott and McGillivray established themselves in what is now Christchurch, early in 1840. Their abandoned holdings were taken over by brothers William and John Deans in 1843 who stayed. The First Four Ships were chartered by the Canterbury Association and brought the first 792 of the "Canterbury Pilgrims" to Lyttelton Harbour. These sailing vessels were the "Randolph", "Charlotte Jane", , and "Cressy". The "Charlotte Jane" was the first to arrive on 16 December 1850. The Canterbury Pilgrims had aspirations of building a city around a cathedral and college, on the model of Christ Church in Oxford.


title: Christchurch

text: The name "Christ Church" was decided before the ships' arrival, at the Association's first meeting, on 27 March 1848. The exact basis for the name is not known. It has been suggested that it is named for Christchurch, in Dorset, England; for Canterbury Cathedral; or in honour of Christ Church, Oxford. The last explanation is the one generally accepted.


title: Christchurch

text: At the request of the Deans brothers – whose farm was the earliest European settlement in the area – the river was named after the River Avon in Scotland, which rises in the Ayrshire hills near to where their grandfather's farm was located.


title: Christchurch

text: Captain Joseph Thomas, the Canterbury Association's Chief Surveyor, surveyed the surrounding area. By December 1849 he had commissioned the construction of a road from Port Cooper, later Lyttelton, to Christchurch via Sumner. However, this proved more difficult than expected and road construction was stopped while a steep foot and pack horse track was constructed over the hill between the port and the Heathcote valley, where access to the site of the proposed settlement could be gained. This track became known as the Bridle Path, because the path was so steep that pack horses needed to be led by the bridle.


title: Christchurch

text: Goods that were too heavy or bulky to be transported by pack horse over the Bridle Path were shipped by small sailing vessels some eight miles (13 km) by water round the coast and up the Avon Heathcote Estuary to Ferrymead. New Zealand's first public railway line, the Ferrymead Railway, opened from Ferrymead to Christchurch in 1863. Due to the difficulties in travelling over the Port Hills and the dangers associated with shipping navigating the Sumner bar, a railway tunnel was built through the Port Hills to Lyttelton, opening in 1867.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch became a city by royal charter on 31 July 1856, the first in New Zealand. Many of the city's Gothic Revival buildings by architect Benjamin Mountfort date from this period. Christchurch was the seat of provincial administration for the Province of Canterbury, which was abolished in 1876. By 1874, Christchurch was New Zealand's fourth largest city with a population of 14,270 residents. Christchurch buildings were damaged by earthquakes in 1869, 1881 and 1888. The 1888 earthquake caused the highest 7.8 metres of the Christchurch Cathedral spire to collapse.


title: Christchurch

text: In 1901 an earthquake measuring 6.9, centred near Cheviot, caused the spire on top of Christchurch Cathedral to collapse again, but this time only the top 1.5 metres fell. On this occasion it was rebuilt with timber and metal instead of stone.


title: Christchurch

text: In 1906, the New Zealand International Exhibition opened in Hagley Park. More than one million people visited the exhibition. In 1908 a large fire which started at the Stranges Department Store destroyed buildings in central Christchurch on High St, Cashel St and Lichfield Streets.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch started to receive a regular supply of electricity from the Lake Coleridge hydroelectric scheme in April 1915 and as a result the first electric lights became operational in Christchurch in May 1915.


title: Christchurch

text: The Spanish Flu epidemic arrived in Christchurch in November 1918. It would eventually lead to the deaths of 466 Christchurch people.


title: Christchurch

text: The first set of traffic lights was installed in Christchurch in 1930 at the intersection of Cashel and Colombo Streets.


title: Christchurch

text: In 1940, after several years of planning, Harewood Airport opened for flying. This was developed over a number of years to become Christchurch International Airport and in 1950 it was New Zealand's first international airport.


title: Christchurch

text: In 1947, New Zealand's worst fire disaster occurred at Ballantyne's Department Store in the inner city, with 41 people killed in a blaze which razed the rambling collection of buildings.


title: Christchurch

text: In 1969, the one-way system running through central Christchurch was established. The first two streets to be made one-way were Lichfield and St Asaph streets. They were followed by Barbadoes, Madras, Salisbury and Kilmore streets.


title: Christchurch

text: On Saturday 4 September 2010, a magnitude 7.1 earthquake struck Christchurch and the central Canterbury region at 4:35 am. With its epicentre near Darfield, west of the city at a depth of , it caused widespread damage to the city and minor injuries, but no direct fatalities.


title: Christchurch

text: Nearly six months later on Tuesday 22 February 2011, a second earthquake measuring magnitude 6.3 struck the city at 12:51 pm. Its epicentre was located closer to the city, near Lyttelton at a depth of .


title: Christchurch

text: Although lower on the moment magnitude scale than the previous earthquake, the intensity and violence of the ground shaking was measured to be IX ("Violent"), among the strongest ever recorded globally in an urban area and 185 people were killed. People from more than 20 countries were among the victims. The city's ChristChurch Cathedral was severely damaged and lost its spire. The collapse of the CTV Building resulted in the majority of fatalities. Widespread damage across Christchurch resulted in loss of homes, major buildings and infrastructure. Significant liquefaction affected the eastern suburbs, and the total cost to insurers of rebuilding has been estimated at NZ$20–30 billion.


title: Christchurch

text: There were continuing aftershocks for some time, with 4,558 above a magnitude 3.0 recorded in the Canterbury region from 4 September 2010 to 3 September 2014. Particularly large events on 13 June 2011, 23 December 2011, and 2 January 2012 all caused further damage and minor injuries; but no further deaths. Following the earthquakes over 1500 buildings in the city had been demolished or partly demolished by September 2013.


title: Christchurch

text: The city experienced rapid growth following the earthquakes. A Christchurch Central Recovery Plan guides rebuilding in the central city. There has been massive growth in the residential sector, with around 50,000 new houses expected to be constructed in the Greater Christchurch area by 2028 as outlined in the Land Use Recovery Plan (LURP).


title: Christchurch

text: On 13 February 2017, two bush fires started on the Port Hills. These merged over the next two days and the single very large wild fire extended down both sides of the Port Hill almost reaching Governors Bay in the south-west, and the Westmorland, Kennedys Bush, and Dyers Pass Road almost down to the Sign of the Takahe. Eleven houses were destroyed by fire, over one thousand residents were evacuated from their homes, and over of land was burned.


title: Christchurch

text: Fifty-one people died from two consecutive mass shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre by an Australian white supremacist carried out on 15 March 2019. Forty others were injured. The attacks have been described by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern as "one of New Zealand's darkest days". On 2 June 2020, the attacker pleaded guilty to multiple charges of murder, attempted murder, and terrorism. On 27 August, he was sentenced to life in prison without parole, the first time such a sentence was handed down in New Zealand.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch lies in Canterbury, near the centre of the east coast of the South Island, east of the Canterbury Plains. It is located near the southern end of Pegasus Bay, and is bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean coast and the estuary of the Avon and Heathcote Rivers. To the south and south-east the urban portion of the city is limited by the volcanic slopes of the Port Hills separating it from Banks Peninsula. To the north the city is bounded by the braided Waimakariri River.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is one of a group of only four current cities in the world to have been carefully planned following the same layout of a central city square, four complementing city squares surrounding it and a parklands area that embrace the city centre. The first city built with this pattern was Philadelphia. Later came Savannah and Adelaide, before Christchurch.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch has one of the highest-quality water supplies in the world, with its water rated among the purest and cleanest in the world. Untreated, naturally filtered water is sourced, via more than 50 pumping stations surrounding the city, from aquifers emanating from the foothills of the Southern Alps. However, since 2018 about 70% of Christchurch's water supply has been temporarily chlorinated due to well-head upgrades, and the chlorination is planned to be stopped after the upgrades have been completed and certified.


title: Christchurch

text: At the city's centre is Cathedral Square, surrounding the now-earthquake-damaged landmark Anglican cathedral, Christ Church. The area around this square and within the Four Avenues of Christchurch (Bealey Avenue, Fitzgerald Avenue, Moorhouse Avenue and Deans Avenue) is considered to be the central business district (CBD) of the city. The central city also has a number of residential areas, including Inner City East, Inner City West, Avon Loop, Moa Neighbourhood and Victoria, but many of the residential buildings in the CBD were demolished following the February 2011 earthquakes. Cathedral Square is located at the crossing of two major central streets, Colombo Street and Worcester Street.


title: Christchurch

text: Cathedral Square, the heart of the city, hosted attractions such as (until the February 2011 earthquake) the Wizard of New Zealand, Ian Brackenbury Channell, and evangelist Ray Comfort; regular market days; free standing food and coffee carts; an aquarium, pubs and restaurants and the city's chief tourist information centre. it is expected that activities in Cathedral Square will increase as the rebuild progresses. (After the 2011 earthquake the Wizard of New Zealand moved to New Regent Street. and operated there until he lost his contract with the city in 2021.)


title: Christchurch

text: The central city also includes the pedestrianised sections of Cashel and High streets commonly known pre-earthquakes as 'City Mall'. Refurbished in 2008/09 the mall featured especially designed seating, flower and garden boxes, more trees, paving, and an extension to the central city tram route. The tram route extension was nearly complete when the February 2011 earthquake struck. Following the earthquakes, most buildings in Cashel Mall were demolished. A shopping area called opened on Cashel Street adjacent to Ballantyne's Department Store in October 2011. The Re:START mall was made of colourful shipping containers that were converted to house retail stores. The Bridge of Remembrance commemorating war dead stands at the western end of the mall, was repaired rededicated on Anzac Day, Monday 25 April 2016.


title: Christchurch

text: The Cultural Precinct provided a backdrop to a vibrant scene of ever-changing arts, cultural, and heritage attractions within an area of less than one square kilometre. The Arts Centre, the Canterbury Museum and the Art Gallery are located in the Cultural Precinct. The majority of the activities were free and a printable map was provided. There areas are slowly being reopened follow earthquake repair and strengthening work.


title: Christchurch

text: In 2010, the Christchurch City Council released "A City For People Action Plan", a programme of work through to 2022 to improve public spaces within the central city to entice more inner city residents and visitors. A primary action was to reduce the impact of motorised private vehicles and increase the comfort of pedestrians and cyclists. The plan was based on a report prepared for the council by renowned Danish design firm Gehl Architects. Since the 2011 Christchurch earthquake, Wellington architect Ian Athfield has been selected to re-plan, although many varied suggestions have been promoted for rebuilding the central city.


title: Christchurch

text: The Central City, which was fully closed off following 22 February earthquake, opened in stages and was fully reopened in June 2013; although there were still some streets closed off due to earthquake damage, infrastructure repair work, and damaged buildings.


title: Christchurch

text: The Christchurch functional urban area, as defined by Statistics New Zealand, covers . Towns and settlements in the functional urban area include:


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch has a temperate oceanic climate with a mild summer, cool winter, and regular moderate rainfall. It has mean daily maximum air temperatures of in January and in July. Under the Köppen climate classification, Christchurch has an oceanic climate ("Cfb"). Summer in the city is mostly warm but is often moderated by a sea breeze from the north-east. A record temperature of was reached in February 1973. A notable feature of the weather is the "nor'wester", a hot föhn wind that occasionally reaches storm force, causing widespread minor damage to property. Like many cities, Christchurch experiences an urban heat island effect; temperatures are slightly higher within the inner city regions compared to the surrounding countryside.


title: Christchurch

text: In winter it is common for the temperature to fall below at night. There are on average 80 days of ground frost per year. Snowfalls occur on average three times per year, although in some years no snowfall is recorded. The coldest temperature recorded was on 18 July 1945, the third lowest recorded temperature of New Zealand's major cities.


title: Christchurch

text: On cold winter nights, the surrounding hills, clear skies, and frosty calm conditions often combine to form a stable inversion layer above the city that traps vehicle exhausts and smoke from domestic fires to cause smog. While not as bad as smog in Los Angeles or Mexico City, Christchurch smog has often exceeded World Health Organisation recommendations for air pollution. To limit air pollution, the regional council banned the use of open fires in the city in 2006. In 2008 council prohibited the use of woodburners more than 15 years old, while making funding available to upgrade domestic home heating systems.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch City covers a land area of and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km.


title: Christchurch

text: This is the second-most populous area administered by a single council in New Zealand, and the largest city in the South Island. The population comprises people in the Christchurch urban area, people in the Lyttelton urban area, people in the Diamond Harbour urban area, and people in rural settlements and areas.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch City had a population of 369,006 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 27,537 people (8.1%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 20,550 people (5.9%) since the 2006 census. There were 138,381 households. There were 183,972 males and 185,034 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.99 males per female. The median age was 37.1 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 63,699 people (17.3%) aged under 15 years, 82,971 (22.5%) aged 15 to 29, 166,959 (45.2%) aged 30 to 64, and 55,377 (15.0%) aged 65 or older.


title: Christchurch

text: Ethnicities were 77.9% European/Pākehā, 9.9% Māori, 3.8% Pacific peoples, 14.9% Asian, and 2.9% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.


title: Christchurch

text: Although some people objected to giving their religion, 50.8% had no religion, 36.3% were Christian, 1.8% were Hindu, 1.1% were Muslim, 1.0% were Buddhist and 2.9% had other religions.


title: Christchurch

text: Of those at least 15 years old, 75,207 (24.6%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 49,554 (16.2%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $32,900, compared with $31,800 nationally. 50,229 people (16.5%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 153,480 (50.3%) people were employed full-time, 46,011 (15.1%) were part-time, and 11,466 (3.8%) were unemployed.


title: Christchurch

text: The table below shows the ethnic profile of Christchurch's population, as recorded in the censuses held between 2001 and 2018. The percentages add up to more than 100%, as some people counted themselves as belonging to more than one ethnic group. Figures for 2006 refer to just Christchurch City, not the whole urban area. The substantial percentage drop in the numbers of 'Europeans' in that census was mainly caused by the increasing numbers of people from this group choosing to define themselves as 'New Zealanders'–even though this was not one of the groups listed on the census form.


title: Christchurch

text: English is the most spoken language (95.9%) followed by Te Reo Maori (2.1%), Mandarin (1.9%), Tagalog (1.5%) and French (1.3%). Percentages add up to more than 100% as people may select more than one language.


title: Christchurch

text: The agricultural industry has always been the economic core of Christchurch. Its surrounding farming countryside has long been the basis of its industry, part of the original "package" sold to New Zealand immigrants. PGG Wrightson, New Zealand's leading agribusiness, is based in Christchurch. Its local roots go back to Pyne Gould Guinness, an old stock and station agency serving the South Island.


title: Christchurch

text: Other agribusinesses in Christchurch have included malting, seed development and dressing, wool and meat processing, and small biotechnology operations using by-products from meat works. Dairying has grown strongly in the surrounding areas with high world prices for milk products and the use of irrigation to lift grass growth on dry land. With its higher labour use this has helped stop declines in rural population. Many cropping and sheep farms have been converted to dairying. Conversions have been by agribusiness companies as well as by farmers, many of whom have moved south from North Island dairying strongholds such as Taranaki and the Waikato.


title: Christchurch

text: Cropping has always been important in the surrounding countryside. Wheat and barley and various strains of clover and other grasses for seed exporting have been the main crops. These have all created processing businesses in Christchurch. In recent years, regional agriculture has diversified, with a thriving wine industry springing up at Waipara, and beginnings of new horticulture industries such as olive production and processing. Deer farming has led to new processing using antlers for Asian medicine and aphrodisiacs. The high quality local wine in particular has increased the appeal of Canterbury and Christchurch to tourists.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is the second largest manufacturing centre in New Zealand behind Auckland, the sector being the second largest contributor to the local economy, with firms such as Anderson's making steel work for bridges, tunnels, and hydro-electric dams in the early days of infrastructure work. Now manufacturing is mainly of light products and the key market is Australia, with firms such as those pioneered by the Stewart family among the larger employers. Before clothing manufacture largely moved to Asia, Christchurch was the centre of the New Zealand clothing industry, with firms such as LWR Industries. The firms that remain mostly design and market, and manufacture in Asia. The city also had five footwear manufacturers, but these have been replaced by imports.


title: Christchurch

text: In the last few decades, technology-based industries have sprung up in Christchurch. Angus Tait founded Tait Electronics, a mobile-radio manufacturer, and other firms spun off from this, such as Dennis Chapman's Swichtec. In software, Cantabrian Gil Simpson founded a company that made LINC and Jade programming languages and a management buyout spawned local firm "Wynyard Group".


title: Christchurch

text: There have also been spin-offs from the electrical department of the University of Canterbury engineering school. These included Pulse Data, which became Human Ware (making reading devices and computers for blind people and those with limited vision) and CES Communications (encryption). The Pulse Data founders had moved from the Canterbury University engineering school to work for Wormald Inc. when they set up Pulse Data through a Management buyout of their division.. Spin-off company Invert Robotics developed the world's first climbing robot capable of climbing on stainless steel, aimed at the dairy tank inspection market.


title: Christchurch

text: In recent times, the University of Canterbury engineering school and computer science department play an important role in supplying staff and research for the technology industries, and the Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology provides a flow of trained technicians and engineers. Locally and nationally, the IT sector is known not for its size (the third largest in New Zealand) but for producing innovative and entrepreneurial solutions, products and concepts.


title: Christchurch

text: Tourism is also a significant factor of the local economy. The close proximity of the ski fields and other attractions of the Southern Alps, and hotels, a casino, and an airport that meet international standards make Christchurch a stopover destination for many tourists. The city is popular with Japanese tourists, with signage around Cathedral Square in Japanese.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch has a history of involvement in Antarctic exploration – both Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton used the port of Lyttelton as a departure point for expeditions, and in the central city there is a statue of Scott sculpted by his widow, Kathleen Scott. Within the city, the Canterbury Museum preserves and exhibits many historic artefacts and stories of Antarctic exploration.


title: Christchurch

text: The International Antarctic Centre provides both base facilities and a museum and visitor centre focused upon current Antarctic activities. The United States Navy and United States Air National Guard, augmented by the New Zealand and Australian air forces, use Christchurch Airport as the take-off point for the main supply route to McMurdo and Scott Bases in Antarctica. The Clothing Distribution Center in Christchurch had more than 140,000 pieces of extreme cold weather gear for issue to nearly 2,000 US Antarctic Program participants in the 2007–08 season.


title: Christchurch

text: Some of the local governments in Canterbury and the NZ Transport Agency have created the Greater Christchurch Urban Development Strategy to facilitate future urban planning.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is covered by seven general electorates (, , , , , and ) and one Māori electorate (Te Tai Tonga), each returning one member to the New Zealand House of Representatives. As of the 2020 New Zealand general election there are five general electorate members of the Labour party and two members of the National party. The Māori electorate is represented by the Labour Party.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is a distinctly English city, however it contains various European elements, with strong Gothic Revival architecture. As early settlers of New Zealand, Māori culture is also prevalent in the city. It features many public open spaces and parks, river beds and cafés and restaurants situated in the city centre and surrounding suburbs.


title: Christchurch

text: Only one of the first generation of suburban cinemas, the Hollywood in Sumner, remains open. The largest multiplexes were the Hoyts 8 in the old railway station on Moorhouse Avenue (now demolished) and Reading Cinemas (also eight screens) in the Palms shopping centre in Shirley. Hoyts in Riccarton opened in 2005 with one of its screens for a time holding the record for the largest in New Zealand.


title: Christchurch

text: The Rialto Cinemas on Moorhouse avenue specialised in international films and art house productions. The Rialto also hosted the majority of the city's various film festivals and was home to the local film society. The Rialto was closed following the February 2011 earthquake.


title: Christchurch

text: The Peter Jackson film "Heavenly Creatures" (1994), starring Melanie Lynskey and Kate Winslet, was set in Christchurch.


title: Christchurch

text: The large number of public parks and well-developed residential gardens with many trees has given Christchurch the name of "The Garden City". Hagley Park and the 30-hectare (75 acre) Christchurch Botanic Gardens, founded in 1863, are in the central city, with Hagley Park being a site for sports such as golf, cricket, netball, and rugby, and for open-air concerts by local bands and orchestras. To the north of the city is the Willowbank wildlife park. Travis Wetland, an ecological restoration programme to create a wetland, is to the east of the city centre in the suburb of Burwood.


title: Christchurch

text: Orana Wildlife Park is New Zealand's only open-range zoo, sitting on 80 hectares of land, located on the outskirts of Christchurch.


title: Christchurch

text: Television broadcasts began in Christchurch on 1 June 1961 with the launch of channel CHTV3, making Christchurch the second New Zealand city (behind Auckland) to receive regular television broadcasts. The channel initially broadcast from a 10-kilowatt transmitter atop the Gloucester Street studios until it switched to the newly built 100-kilowatt Sugarloaf transmitter in the Port Hills on 28 August 1965. In November 1969, CHTV3 was networked with its counterpart stations in Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin for form NZBC TV, the predecessor to today's TVNZ 1.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch had its own regional television station Canterbury Television. CTV was first formed in 1991 and ceased broadcasting on 16 December 2016. It aired both local, national and international content, including DW-TV and Al-jazeera World. Since 19 December 2016 CTV has operated as a web-based platform under the Star Media brand.


title: Christchurch

text: VTV, a Korean TV channel airs in Christchurch (also Auckland). It offers English content about Korea, from arirang World, and Korean-speaking content in SBS. This channel broadcasts many of the latest dramas airing in Korea.


title: Christchurch

text: All television channels in Christchurch have been broadcast in digital since analogue switch-off on 28 April 2013.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch has one full-time professional theatre, the Court Theatre, founded in 1971. Originally based in the Christchurch Arts Centre, the Court Theatre has been located in the suburb of Addington in temporary accommodation following the 2011 earthquakes. Alongside the Court is the co-operative and experimental Free Theatre Christchurch, established in 1979 and based in the Arts Centre from 1982, and Showbiz Christchurch, an incorporated society established in 1938 and primarily producing musical theatre. There is also an active recreational theatre scene with community-based theatre companies, such as the Christchurch Repertory Society, Elmwood Players, Riccarton Players, and Canterbury Children's Theatre, producing many quality shows. The Ngaio Marsh Theatre, located at the University of Canterbury, hosts a range of student drama groups, as well as other theatre groups. The Isaac Theatre Royal was originally opened in 1863, and has since been rebuilt four times, most recently following the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. The Isaac Theatre Royal reopened to the public on 17 November 2014.


title: Christchurch

text: The city is known for its many live acts, including a professional symphony orchestra. After the closure of Canterbury Opera in 2006, due to financial reasons, in 2009 another professional opera company, Southern Opera, was founded. After the 2010 and 2011 earthquakes, it suspended its activities, before merging with New Zealand Opera in 2013.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is a home for the experimental music scene of New Zealand. The town is the home to such bands as The Bats, The Narcs, Shocking Pinks, Slim and Bailter Space.


title: Christchurch

text: There are usually buskers around the town square and Christchurch also hosts the World Buskers Festival in January each year. Singer-songwriter Hayley Westenra launched her international career by busking in Christchurch.


title: Christchurch

text: Some of New Zealand's acts such as Shapeshifter, Ladi6, Tiki Taane and Truth are from Christchurch. Promoters, Venues and clubs such as Bassfreaks, The Bedford and Dux Live regularly have international and New Zealand acts within the Drum and Bass scene performing live in Christchurch, along with dance parties, raves and gigs all featuring NZ and local Drum and Bass DJs, with often two or three happening on a single night or weekend (e.g. 2010 when UK Dubstep DJ Doctor P with Crushington was playing at The Bedford, while simultaneously Concord Dawn featuring Trei and Bulletproof was playing at Ministry). Independent Christchurch based radio station Pulzar FM is one of the few radio stations in New Zealand that plays Drum and Bass during the day.


title: Christchurch

text: In recent developments, hip hop has effectively landed in Christchurch. In 2000, First Aotearoa Hip Hop Summit was held there. And in 2003, Christchurch's Scribe released his debut album in New Zealand and has received five times platinum in that country, in addition to achieving two number one singles.


title: Christchurch

text: The Christchurch Arena is New Zealand's second-largest permanent multipurpose arena, seating between 5,000 and 8,000, depending on configuration. It is home of the Mainland Tactix netball side. It was the venue for the 1999 World Netball championships, and has been host to many concerts


title: Christchurch

text: The Christchurch Town Hall auditorium (2,500 seats, opened 1972) was the first major auditorium design by architects Warren and Mahoney and acousticians Marshall Day. It is still recognised as a model example of concert-hall design with an excellent modern pipe organ. The hall reopened on 23 February 2019, after being closed for eight years for repair after the significant damage caused by the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch also has a casino, and there are also a wide range of live music venues – some short-lived, others with decades of history. Classical music concerts were held at the Christchurch Music Centre until it was demolished as a result of earthquake damage. The Piano was built to offer a variety of performance spaces for music and the arts.


title: Christchurch

text: In late 2014 it was announced that a 284 million dollar project was underway to build a convention centre located on the block defined by Armagh Street, Oxford Terrace, Worcester Street and Colombo Street. Gloucester Street becomes part of the Centre itself, but allows for retail use and public access. The convention centre, now called Te Pae, hosts several events at the same time; starting with space for up to 2,000 people, this complements facilities in Auckland and Queenstown. Te Pae opened on 17 December 2021.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is home to the fourth largest school in New Zealand, co-educational state school Burnside High School, with pupils. Cashmere High School, Papanui High School and Riccarton High School are other large schools. There are four single-sex state schools: Shirley Boys' High School, Christchurch Boys' High School, Avonside Girls' High School and Christchurch Girls' High School.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is also home to several single sex private church schools, some of them of the traditional English public school type. These include St Thomas of Canterbury College, St Margaret's College, Christ's College, St Bede's College, Marian College, Catholic Cathedral College, St Andrew's College, Villa Maria College and Rangi Ruru Girls' School. Less conventional schools in the city include Ao Tawhiti, Hagley Community College, and the Christchurch Rudolf Steiner School.


title: Christchurch

text: A number of tertiary education institutions have campuses in Christchurch, or in the surrounding areas.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is served by Christchurch Airport and by buses (local and long-distance) and trains. The local bus service, known as Metro, is provided by Environment Canterbury. The car, however, remains the dominant form of transport in the city, as with the rest of New Zealand.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch has over 2,300 km of roads, of this 360 km is unpaved and 43 km is motorway. Christchurch has three motorways consisting of the Christchurch Northern Motorway (includes the Western Belfast Bypass), Christchurch Southern Motorway and the Christchurch-Lyttelton Motorway.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch has an extensive bus network with bus routes serving most areas of the city and satellite towns. Nearly all bus routes travelled through the central city Bus Exchange before the earthquake but due to reduced passenger numbers since the earthquakes, especially in the central city, the bus network was reorganised to direct more localised services to hubs, such as major shopping centres, where they connect to the central station via core bus routes. Before the 2011 earthquakes, in addition to normal bus services, Christchurch also had a pioneering zero-fare hybrid bus service, the "Shuttle", in the inner city. The service has been suspended following the earthquakes and it is unclear whether it will resume again in the future. Bus services are also available leaving Christchurch, daily passenger bus services operates between Dunedin and Christchurch on the State Highway 1.


title: Christchurch

text: Historically, Christchurch has been known as New Zealand's cycling city and currently still attracts about 7% of commuters cycling. The central city has very flat terrain and the Christchurch City Council has established a network of cycle lanes and paths, such as the Railway Cycleway. Post-quake public consultation on rebuilding the city expressed a strong desire for a more sustainable transport system, particularly greater use of cycling again, and this has been reflected in the council's strategic transport plan. The Christchurch City Council has committed NZ$68.5 million to build a network of modern cycleways over the next five years.


title: Christchurch

text: There is a functioning tramway system in Christchurch, but as a tourist attraction; its loop is restricted to a circuit of the central city. The trams were originally introduced in 1905 as a form of public transport, and ceased operating in 1954, but returned to the inner city (as a tourist attraction) in 1995. However, following the February 2011 earthquake, the system was damaged and within the cordoned off 'Red Zone' of the central city. The tramway reopened in November 2013 on a limited route, with plans to extend the tram route in 2014, first to reopen the complete pre-earthquake circuit, and then to open the extension travelling through the Re:Start Mall and High Street, which was being constructed when the 2011 earthquake struck.


title: Christchurch

text: There is a cable car system called the Christchurch Gondola which operates as a tourist attraction, providing transport from the Heathcote Valley to the top of Mount Cavendish in the city's south-east.


title: Christchurch

text: Rail services, both long-distance and commuter, used to focus on the former railway station on Moorhouse avenue. Commuter trains were progressively cancelled in the 1960s and 1970s. The last such service, between Christchurch and Rangiora, ceased in 1976. After the reduction in services a new Christchurch railway station was established at Addington Junction. The Main North Line railway travels northwards via Kaikoura to Picton and was served by the Coastal Pacific scheduled passenger train until its end in 2021, while the Main South Line heads to Invercargill via Dunedin and was used by the Southerner until its cancellation in 2002.


title: Christchurch

text: The most famous train to depart Christchurch is the TranzAlpine, which travels along the Main South Line to Rolleston and then turns onto the Midland Line, passes through the Southern Alps via the Otira Tunnel, and terminates in Greymouth on the West Coast. This trip is often regarded as one of the ten great train journeys in the world for the amazing scenery through which it passes. The TranzAlpine service is primarily a tourist service and carries no significant commuter traffic.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch Airport is located in Harewood, to the north-west of the city centre. The airport serves as the major base for the New Zealand, Italian and United States Antarctic programs.


title: Christchurch

text: The Christchurch City Council established the city's first public electricity supply in 1903, and the city was connected to Coleridge Power Station in 1914. Up until 1989, electricity distribution and retailing in Christchurch was the responsibility of four entities: the Christchurch City Council Municipal Electricity Department (MED), Riccarton Electricity, the Port Hills Energy Authority, and the Central Canterbury Electric Power Board. In 1989, all four companies entered a joint venture, named Southpower. The 1998 electricity sector reforms required all electricity companies to separate their distribution and retailing businesses. Southpower retained its distribution business and sold its retail business to Meridian Energy. In December 1998, the lines business was renamed Orion New Zealand. Today, Orion owns and operates the local distribution network servicing the city, with electricity fed into it from two Transpower substations at Islington and Bromley.


title: Christchurch

text: The electricity distribution network in Christchurch suffered significant damage in the 2011 earthquakes, especially in the north-east where the 66,000-volt subtransmission cables supplying the area were damaged beyond repair. This necessitated major repairs to the existing infrastructure, as well as building new infrastructure to supply new housing developments.


title: Christchurch

text: At the 2013 census, 94.0% of Christchurch homes were heated wholly or partly by electricity, the highest in the country.


title: Miles Bridges

text: Miles Emmanuel Bridges Sr. (born March 21, 1998) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Michigan State Spartans. A native of Flint, Michigan, he competed for Flint Southwestern Academy (freshman season) at the high school level before moving to Huntington Prep School for his sophomore, junior, and senior year. Bridges was selected 12th overall by the Los Angeles Clippers in the 2018 NBA draft, but was traded to the Hornets on draft night.


title: Miles Bridges

text: Miles was born on March 21, 1998, in Flint, Michigan, to Cynthia and Raymond Bridges. His father Raymond, a two-time basketball state champion at Flint Northern High School, taught him the game at the age of two. According to Miles, his sister Tara Rushing was an important figure in his childhood. Bridges attended middle school at Woodland Park Academy in Grand Blanc, Michigan. At age 12, he practiced at a local YMCA with future high school teammates and coach Keith Gray.


title: Miles Bridges

text: As a freshman, Bridges played varsity basketball with Flint Southwestern Academy in his hometown of Flint, Michigan. There, he played alongside future George Mason signee Jaire Grayer and future Mississippi Valley commit Jovan Embry. He stood 6 ft 4 in (1.93) at 14 years of age and was a center. Bridges averaged 10 points, 11 rebounds, and three blocks per game, leading his team to the regional semifinals and a 17–6 record. He was soon offered an athletic scholarship by Oakland University.


title: Miles Bridges

text: In July 2013, Bridges transferred to Huntington Prep School in Huntington, West Virginia. He was encouraged to make the decision by former Flint Powers Catholic all-state guard JaVontae Hawkins, who had transferred to Huntington Prep as well. Hawkins said, "Just getting away from the violence and distractions in Flint will help him grow and mature because he will be focused and away from his family." As a sophomore, he averaged 9.8 points per game, 9.9 rebounds per game, 2.7 steals, and 3.3 assists per game, while leading the Irish to a 29–5 overall record.


title: Miles Bridges

text: In his junior year, Bridges and Huntington Prep played in the 2015 Dick's Sporting Goods High School Nationals Tournament at Christ the King Regional High School in Middle Village, Queens, New York. On April 2, 2015, Huntington Prep defeated Jaylen Brown and #5 ranked Wheeler 73–70 in the quarterfinals.


title: Miles Bridges

text: On April 3, Bridges had 21 points, eight rebounds, and four assists in a losing effort as Huntington Prep lost to #1 ranked Oak Hill Academy 61–51 in the semi-finals. On the season, Bridges averaged 15.7 points per game, 10.6 rebounds per game, 3.5 assist per game, 2.8 blocks, and 2.3 steals per game with a 31–3 record the most in the school's history, where he played alongside senior and future NBA player Thomas Bryant.


title: Miles Bridges

text: In the 2015 summer, Bridges participated in the NBPA Top 100 Camp at the John Paul Jones Arena in Virginia. As a senior, Bridges averaged 25 points, 10 rebounds, 5.2 assists, and 2.0 steals while leading Huntington Prep to a 25–11 record. In January 2016, Bridges was named a McDonald's All-American and played in the 2016 McDonald's All-American Game, on March 30, 2016 at the United Center in Chicago, IL, where he scored eight points, three rebounds, and two steals in a 114–107 loss to the West team. He also competed in the Jordan Brand Classic All-Star game.


title: Miles Bridges

text: Bridges was a five-star recruit and was ranked as the 10th-best player of his class by Rivals.com, while ESPN ranked him as the No.8 overall recruit in the 2016 high school class. He declined offers from schools such as Kentucky, Kansas, and Oregon. He announced that he would play for Michigan State on October 3, 2015. Head coach Tom Izzo labeled him a "blue-collar superstar" and expected him to easily fit into the team.


title: Miles Bridges

text: In his debut vs. Arizona on November 12, 2016, Bridges scored 21 points and recorded seven rebounds. On November 24, he scored 22 points and grabbed 15 rebounds to help defeat St. John's. On December 1, Tom Izzo announced that Miles Bridges would miss "as least a couple of weeks" due an injured ankle. Bridges returned to action on January 4, 2017 after missing seven games. He scored a career-high 33 points in a January 24 loss to Purdue.


title: Miles Bridges

text: Bridges was named Big Ten Freshman of the week five times. On February 2, 2017, Bridges was named as one of the ten finalists on the Karl Malone Power Forward of the Year watchlist.


title: Miles Bridges

text: He was named Big Ten Freshman of the year and earned second team all-Big Ten honors. He was named to the Sporting News Freshmen All-American Team and USBWA All-District V Team. He was also named unanimous AP Big Ten Newcomer of the Year and AP All-Big Ten Second Team.


title: Miles Bridges

text: He finished the season averaging 16.9 points, 8.3 rebounds, 2.1 assists, and 1.5 blocks per game in 32 minutes per game.


title: Miles Bridges

text: On April 13, Bridges announced his intent to return to Michigan State for his sophomore season, a move prompting many experts to peg the Spartans as the 2018 National Championship favorites, especially with incoming freshman Jaren Jackson Jr. Many also believed Bridges would be the national player of the year as well as being a top 5 pick in the 2018 NBA draft.


title: Miles Bridges

text: Following third-seeded Michigan State's upset loss in the second round of the 2018 NCAA men's basketball tournament, Bridges announced his intention to forgo his final two seasons of collegiate eligibility and declare for the 2018 NBA draft.


title: Miles Bridges

text: On June 21, 2018, Bridges was selected with the twelfth overall pick by the Los Angeles Clippers in the 2018 NBA draft. He was subsequently traded to the Charlotte Hornets in exchange for the pick before him, Shai Gilgeous-Alexander. On July 2, Bridges officially signed a four-year contract with the Hornets worth $16.3 million. Bridges participated in the 2019 Slam Dunk Contest.


title: Miles Bridges

text: Bridges won the Rising Stars Challenge MVP award for Team USA in Chicago on February 14, 2020, and Team USA won against Team World 151–131.


title: Miles Bridges

text: On November 20, 2021, Bridges scored a career-high 35 points, along with 10 rebounds, in a 115–105 loss to the Atlanta Hawks. On April 13, 2022, during the Hornets' 103–132 play-in tournament loss to the Atlanta Hawks, Bridges was ejected and threw his mouthpiece at a 16-year-old Hawks fan. The next day, he was fined $50,000 by the NBA for the incident.


title: Miles Bridges

text: On June 29, 2022, Bridges was arrested in Los Angeles for felony domestic violence and was released on $130,000 bond. He allegedly assaulted Mychelle Johnson in front of their two children. According to Johnson's hospital report which she posted to Instagram, she was an "adult victim of abuse by male partner" which included assault by strangulation, brain concussion, closed fracture of nasal bone, contusion of rib, multiple bruises, and a neck muscle strain. On July 19, Bridges was charged with one felony count of injuring a child's parent and two felony counts of child abuse. The following day, he pled not guilty to all three charges at his arraignment. On November 3, he plead no contest to the felony domestic charge and was sentenced to three years of probation. The other two charges were dismissed.


title: On the Road

text: On the Road is a 1957 novel by American writer Jack Kerouac, based on the travels of Kerouac and his friends across the United States. It is considered a defining work of the postwar Beat and Counterculture generations, with its protagonists living life against a backdrop of jazz, poetry, and drug use. The novel is a roman à clef, with many key figures of the Beat movement, such as William S. Burroughs (Old Bull Lee), Allen Ginsberg (Carlo Marx), and Neal Cassady (Dean Moriarty) represented by characters in the book, including Kerouac himself as the narrator Sal Paradise.


title: On the Road

text: The idea for "On the Road", Kerouac's second novel, was formed during the late 1940s in a series of notebooks, and then typed out on a continuous reel of paper during three weeks in April 1951. It was published by Viking Press in 1957.


title: On the Road

text: "The New York Times" hailed the book's appearance as "the most beautifully executed, the clearest and the most important utterance yet made by the generation Kerouac himself named years ago as 'beat,' and whose principal avatar he is." In 1998, the Modern Library ranked "On the Road" 55th on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. The novel was chosen by "Time" magazine as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005.


title: On the Road

text: After Kerouac dropped out of Columbia University, he served on several different sailing vessels before returning to New York to write. He met and mixed with Beat Generation figures Allen Ginsberg, William Burroughs, and Neal Cassady. Between 1947 and 1950, while writing what would become "The Town and the City" (1950), Kerouac engaged in the road adventures that would form "On the Road". Kerouac carried small notebooks, in which much of the text was written as the eventful span of road trips unfurled. He started working on the first of several versions of the novel as early as 1948, based on experiences during his first long road trip in 1947. However, he remained dissatisfied with the novel. Inspired by a 10,000-word rambling letter from his friend Neal Cassady, Kerouac in 1950 outlined the "Essentials of Spontaneous Prose" and decided to tell the story of his years on the road with Cassady as if writing a letter to a friend in a form that reflected the improvisational fluidity of jazz. In a letter to a student in 1961, Kerouac wrote: "Dean and I were embarked on a journey through post-Whitman America to FIND that America and to FIND the inherent goodness in American man. It was really a story about 2 Catholic buddies roaming the country in search of God. And we found him."


title: On the Road

text: The first draft of what was to become the published novel was written in three weeks in April 1951, while Kerouac lived with Joan Haverty, his second wife, at 454 West 20th Street in New York City's Manhattan. The manuscript was typed on what he called "the scroll"—a continuous, scroll of tracing paper sheets that he cut to size and taped together. The roll was typed single-spaced, without margins or paragraph breaks. In the following years, Kerouac continued to revise this manuscript, deleting some sections (including some sexual depictions deemed pornographic in the 1950s) and adding smaller literary passages. Kerouac wrote a number of inserts intended for "On the Road" between 1951 and 1952, before eventually omitting them from the manuscript and using them to form the basis of another work, "Visions of Cody" (1951–1952). "On the Road" was championed within Viking Press by Malcolm Cowley and was published by Viking in 1957, based on revisions of the 1951 manuscript. Besides differences in formatting, the published novel was shorter than the original scroll manuscript and used pseudonyms for all of the major characters.


title: On the Road

text: Viking Press released a slightly edited version of the original manuscript titled "On the Road: The Original Scroll" (August 16, 2007), corresponding with the 50th anniversary of original publication. This version has been transcribed and edited by English academic and novelist Dr. Howard Cunnell. As well as containing material that was excised from the original draft due to its explicit nature, the scroll version also uses the real names of the protagonists, so Dean Moriarty becomes Neal Cassady and Carlo Marx becomes Allen Ginsberg, etc.


title: On the Road

text: In 2007, Gabriel Anctil, a journalist of Montreal daily "Le Devoir", discovered in Kerouac's personal archives in New York almost 200 pages of his writings entirely in Quebec French, with colloquialisms. The collection included 10 manuscript pages of an unfinished version of "On the Road", written on January 19, 1951.


title: On the Road

text: The original scroll of "On the Road" was bought in 2001 by Jim Irsay for $2.43 million (equivalent to $ million in ). It has occasionally been made available for public viewing, with the first 30 feet (9 m) unrolled. Between 2004 and 2012, the scroll was displayed in several museums and libraries in the United States, Ireland, and the UK. It was exhibited in Paris in the summer of 2012 to celebrate the movie based on the book.


title: On the Road

text: The two main characters of the book are the narrator, Sal Paradise, and his friend Dean Moriarty, much admired for his carefree attitude and sense of adventure, a free-spirited maverick eager to explore all kicks and an inspiration and catalyst for Sal's travels. The novel contains five parts, three of them describing road trips with Moriarty. The narrative takes place in the years 1947 to 1950, is full of Americana, and marks a specific era in jazz history, "somewhere between its Charlie Parker "Ornithology" period and another period that began with Miles Davis." (Pt. 1, Ch. 3) The novel is largely autobiographical, Sal being the alter ego of the author and Dean standing for Neal Cassady. Like Kerouac, Sal Paradise is a writer who published two books over the course of the plot, even though the names are not known.


title: On the Road

text: The first section describes Sal's first trip to San Francisco. Disheartened after a divorce, his life changes when he meets Dean Moriarty, who is "tremendously excited with life," and begins to long for the freedom of the road: "Somewhere along the line I knew there would be girls, visions, everything; somewhere along the line the pearl would be handed to me." In July 1948, he sets off from his aunt’s house in Paterson with fifty dollars (equivalent to about US$500 in 2021) in his pocket. After taking several buses and hitchhiking, he arrives in Denver, where he hooks up with Carlo Marx, Dean, and their friends. There are parties—among them an excursion to the ghost town of Central City. Eventually Sal leaves by bus and gets to San Francisco, where he meets Remi Boncoeur and his girlfriend Lee Ann. Remi arranges for Sal to take a job as a night watchman at a boarding camp for merchant sailors waiting for their ship. Not holding this job for long, Sal hits the road again. "Oh, where is the girl I love?" he wonders. Soon he meets Terry, the "cutest little Mexican girl," on the bus to Los Angeles. They stay together, traveling back to Bakersfield, then to Sabinal, "her hometown," where her family works in the fields. He meets Terry's brother Ricky, who teaches him the true meaning of "mañana" ("tomorrow"). Working in the cotton fields, Sal realizes that he is not made for this type of work. Leaving Terry behind, he takes a bus back east to Pittsburgh, and then hitchhikes his way to Times Square in New York City. Once there he bums a quarter off a preacher who looks the other way, and arrives at his aunt's house, just missing Dean, who had come to see him, by two days.


title: On the Road

text: In December 1948 Sal is celebrating Christmas with his relatives in Testament, Virginia, when Dean shows up with Marylou (having left his second wife, Camille, and their newborn baby, Amy, in San Francisco) and Ed Dunkel. Sal's Christmas plans are shattered as "now the bug was on me again, and the bug's name was Dean Moriarty." First they drive to New York, where they meet Carlo and party. Dean wants Sal to make love to Marylou, but Sal declines. In Dean's Hudson they take off from New York in January 1949 and make it to New Orleans. In Algiers they stay with the morphine-addicted Old Bull Lee and his wife Jane. Galatea Dunkel joins her husband in New Orleans while Sal, Dean, and Marylou continue their trip. Once in San Francisco, Dean again leaves Marylou to be with Camille. "Dean will leave you out in the cold anytime it is in the interest of him," Marylou tells Sal. Both of them stay briefly in a hotel, but soon she moves out, following a nightclub owner. Sal is alone and on Market Street has visions of past lives, birth, and rebirth. Dean finds him and invites him to stay with his family. Together, they visit nightclubs and listen to Slim Gaillard and other jazz musicians. The stay ends on a sour note: "what I accomplished by coming to Frisco I don't know," and Sal departs, taking the bus back to New York.


title: On the Road

text: In the spring of 1949, Sal takes a bus from New York to Denver. He is depressed and lonesome; none of his friends are around. After receiving some money, he leaves Denver for San Francisco to see Dean. Camille is pregnant and unhappy, and Dean has injured his thumb trying to hit Marylou for sleeping with other men. Camille throws them out, and Sal invites Dean to come to New York, planning to travel further to Italy. They meet Galatea, who tells Dean off: "You have absolutely no regard for anybody but yourself and your kicks." Sal realizes she is right—Dean is the "HOLY GOOF"—but also defends him, as "he's got the secret that we're all busting to find out." After a night of jazz and drinking in Little Harlem on Folsom Street, they depart. On the way to Sacramento they meet a "fag", who propositions them. Dean tries to hustle some money out of this but is turned down. During this part of the trip Sal and Dean have ecstatic discussions having found "IT" and "TIME". In Denver a brief argument shows the growing rift between the two, when Dean reminds Sal of his age, Sal being the older of the two. They get a 1947 Cadillac that needs to be taken to Chicago from a travel bureau. Dean drives most of the way, crazy, careless, often speeding at over , delivering the car in a disheveled state. By bus they move on to Detroit and spend a night on Skid Row, Dean hoping to find his homeless father. From Detroit they share a ride to New York and arrive at Sal's aunt's new flat in Long Island. They go on partying in New York, where Dean meets Inez and gets her pregnant while his wife is expecting their second child.


title: On the Road

text: In the spring of 1950, Sal gets the itch to travel again while Dean is working as a parking lot attendant in Manhattan, living with his girlfriend Inez. Sal notices that he has been reduced to simple pleasures—listening to basketball games and looking at erotic playing cards. By bus Sal takes to the road again, passing Washington, D.C., Ashland, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, and eventually reaching Denver. There he meets Stan Shephard, and the two plan to go to Mexico City when they learn that Dean has bought a car and is on the way to join them. In a rickety '37 Ford sedan the three set off across Texas to Laredo, where they cross the border. They are ecstatic, having left "everything behind us and entering a new and unknown phase of things." Their money buys more (10 cents for a beer), police are laid back, cannabis is readily available, and people are curious and friendly. The landscape is magnificent. In Gregoria, they meet Victor, a local kid, who leads them to a bordello where they have their last grand party, dancing to mambo, drinking, and having fun with prostitutes. In Mexico City Sal becomes ill from dysentery and is "delirious and unconscious." Dean leaves him, and Sal later reflects: "When I got better I realized what a rat he was, but then I had to understand the impossible complexity of his life, how he had to leave me there, sick, to get on with his wives and woes."


title: On the Road

text: Dean, having obtained divorce papers in Mexico, had first returned to New York to marry Inez, only to leave her and go back to Camille. After his recovery from dysentery in Mexico, Sal returns to New York in the fall. He finds a girl, Laura, and plans to move with her to San Francisco. Sal writes to Dean about his plan to move to San Francisco. Dean writes back saying that he's willing to come and accompany Laura and Sal. Dean arrives more than five weeks early, but Sal is out taking a late-night walk alone. Sal returns home, sees a copy of Proust, and knows it is Dean's. Sal realizes his friend has arrived, but at a time when Sal doesn't have the money to relocate to San Francisco. On hearing this Dean makes the decision to head back to Camille, Sal's friend Remi Boncoeur denies Sal's request to give Dean a short lift to 40th Street on their way to a Duke Ellington concert at the Metropolitan Opera House. Sal's girlfriend Laura realizes this is a painful moment for Sal and prompts him for a response as the party drives off without Dean. Sal replies: "He'll be alright". Sal later reflects as he sits on a river pier under a New Jersey night sky about the roads and lands of America that he has travelled and states: "... I think of Dean Moriarty, I even think of Old Dean Moriarty the father we never found, I think of Dean Moriarty."