title: Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star

text: An adaptation of the song, named "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Earth", was written by Charles Randolph Grean, Fred Hertz and Leonard Nimoy. It is included on Nimoy's first album "Leonard Nimoy Presents Mr. Spock's Music from Outer Space" (1967).


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Under the Dome is an American science-fiction mystery drama television series. It premiered on CBS on June 24, 2013, and concluded on September 10, 2015. The series was developed by Brian K. Vaughan and based on Stephen King's 2009 novel of the same name.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: "Under the Dome" tells the story of the residents of the fictional small town of Chester's Mill, when a massive, transparent, indestructible dome suddenly cuts them off from the rest of the world. Military forces, the government, and the media positioned outside the barrier attempt to break it down, while the residents trapped inside must find their own ways to survive with diminishing resources and rising tensions. A small group of people inside the dome must also unravel complicated mysteries to figure out what the dome is, where it came from, and when (and if) it will go away.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: "Under the Dome" was an instant success for the network; the premiere in June 2013 broke the record as the most-watched summer drama premiere on any television network since 1992. The show continued to enjoy high viewership ratings throughout its first season, but the second and third seasons of the series had significant declines in live viewership. Initially, "Under the Dome" had a positive critical reception, which changed into mixed reviews as the series progressed.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: "Under the Dome" came to a conclusion in September 2015. Over three seasons, 39 episodes were produced. Executive producer and showrunner Neal Baer stated in an interview after the finale aired: "I'm very happy with this ending. I feel very satisfied. We made it so there "could" be another [season]… but it wasn't necessary."


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The cast members portray characters who were mostly taken from the original novel, "although some have been combined and others have changed jobs".


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The Kinship is an alien species that can take over any living person and exert complete control over every action. Another species had sought to take over The Kinship's world, during an event known as "The Great Destruction". To survive, The Kinship abandoned their own world, hoping to live on another life-supporting planet. They place an egg inside a meteor to transport themselves across the galaxy, hoping the meteor would crash on another inhabited planet. Once there, the egg would infect the first life form that touches it.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In 1988, the Kinship's meteor crashes in Chester's Mill. Teenagers Melanie, Pauline, Sam and Lyle find the meteor in the middle of the woods. As they approach it, four glowing hand prints appear, one on each side of the meteor. When the four place their hands on the meteor, it opens, revealing a glowing pink egg. Attracted by the egg, Melanie picks it up. However, Lyle pushes her into the meteor, killing her and stopping the Kinship's infection process. Melanie's friends bury her and the alien egg, swearing never to talk about the incident again.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In 2013, two archaeologists, Christine and Eva, search for an intact egg, which they believe to be located in Chester's Mill. They work for a large energy company called "Aktaion," which has studied other eggs that crashed to Earth. All of the other eggs were damaged by their impact.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Christine and Eva find the intact egg. As Christine holds it, the infection process begins. A large pink explosion occurs, and a dome lowers around them, with a mini-dome descending over the egg. Christine and Eva are sucked into a large cave and cocooned.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Over the next six weeks, many events happen within the dome. Joe and Norrie find the mini-dome and the egg within it. The Kinship chooses Joe, Norrie, James, and Angie to be "the four hands," people who protect the dome, the mini dome, and the egg, and interact with them. Pink stars, a visible energy source, appear many times throughout the life of the dome, most noticeably on the egg.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Seasons 1 and 2 focus on the people inside the dome and on the nature of the mysterious dome itself. Season 3 provides answers to these mysteries.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In season 3, Christine resurrects Melanie, whom Christine uses to lure the townspeople into the caves so they can be cocooned and The Kinship can infect them. Halfway through the transfer process, Big Jim breaks the egg, preventing a full infection. Over time, the townspeople become absorbed by The Kinship, except for a few who fight the aliens and try to escape. These remnants of the townspeople are known as The Resistance: Julia, Big Jim, Joe, Norrie, Hunter, Barbie, and Lily, an employee of Aktaion.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: After a while, the dome begins to deteriorate because the egg is being destroyed. As a result, The Kinship and The Resistance must work together to escape; otherwise, the dome will turn to stone, and everyone will suffocate and die. They eventually bring down the dome. However, The Resistance plans to capture and kill The Kinship. Once the dome comes down, the government enters Chester's Mill and imprisons everyone, letting the non-infected people (The Resistance) remain free.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: All is well until a year later when The Resistance discover The Kinship's leader, Dawn, is still alive, posing as a schoolteacher and traveling with children to find another egg and bring down a new dome. She finds an intact egg and says, "We'll come back another time."


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The project was first announced in November 2009. Two years later Brian K. Vaughan was hired to adapt the novel as a series, then set up at cable network Showtime. Showtime entertainment president David Nevins felt that the series was not right for the network and suggested to Nina Tassler, his CBS counterpart, that she take on the project. Tassler was interested and picked up the series along with attaching veteran television producer Neal Baer, who was under contract at CBS, as the showrunner. It was announced in November 2012 that CBS had bypassed ordering a pilot and given "Under the Dome" a 13-episode straight-to-series commitment. "This is a great novel coming to the television screen with outstanding auspices and in-season production values to create a summer programming event," commented Tassler in the official CBS press release.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In January 2013, CBS released its summer 2013 schedule, which revealed that "Under the Dome" would premiere on June 24, 2013.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: A teaser trailer was created specially for Super Bowl XLVII. Instead of showing footage, the teaser directed viewers to the show's official website, where they could enter their street address and postal code to view photos of what their homes and neighborhood would look like "under the dome".


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In the first season, Brian K. Vaughan and Stephen King served as executive producers along with Baer, Justin Falvey, Darryl Frank, Jack Bender, Steven Spielberg, and Stacey Snider. Danish director Niels Arden Oplev produced and directed the pilot. Baer served as the showrunner for the series. Vaughan exited the series before the premiere of season two, citing personal reasons. However, he had helped plan the second season with Baer and King before he left. Tim Schlattmann joined the series as an executive producer for season three.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Days before the series premiere aired on U.S. television, the cast and executive producers of "Under the Dome" met in Wilmington, North Carolina, on June 20, 2013, for an advance screening of the pilot episode. During the presentation event, the city's mayor, Bill Saffo, declared Monday, June 24, 2013, as "Dome Day", and awarded Stephen King a key to the city.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: On June 24, 2013, the night of the series premiere, entertainment website Vulture published an article about the economics of "Under the Dome"; to bring the expensive production (an estimated $3 million per episode) to life, CBS had struck a deal with Amazon Video that would bring new episodes to the platform four days after they debuted on CBS. That deal, estimated at $750,000 for each episode, covered one-quarter of each episode's estimated production cost. Additionally, the article says that foreign markets also played an important role in the financing, bringing in about $1.9 million, and with the North Carolina state tax credits the show earned for filming in the state, an estimated $400,000, meant CBS had already earned back the money they paid for each episode before the episodes even aired on TV. CBS president and CEO Leslie Moonves described the deals: "Combining Amazon with the international syndication deal makes "Under the Dome" profitable immediately".


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: On July 29, 2013, the series was renewed for a 13-episode second season, with executive producer and "Under the Dome" novel writer Stephen King announced to be writing the second-season premiere episode. The second season premiered on June 30, 2014, with King making a cameo appearance in the episode, as a customer in the Sweetbriar Rose diner. The second season ended on September 22, 2014.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: On October 9, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season. During a CBS press briefing in May 2015, showrunner and executive producer Neal Baer promised answers in the new season. "We will tell you why the dome came down and what it's about", with new executive producer Tim Schlattman adding, "You'll see how these puzzle pieces form a puzzle that may be different from what you thought it would be".


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: A month later, Baer provided some insight on the series as a whole, saying that each season has "an overarching philosophy". "The first year was faith, fear and fascism. The second year was faith vs. science. This year, it's the individual vs. the group, with the theme being the enemy within."


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The third season premiered on June 25, 2015. Following information from CBS entertainment chairman Nina Tassler in August that "The Dome is coming down at the end of this season", speculation started that the third season would also be the final season, which CBS confirmed at the end of the month.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In an interview after the series finale aired on September 10, 2015, Neal Baer said he was "very happy with this ending. I feel very satisfied. We made it so there "could" be another [season]… but it wasn't necessary."


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Baer had previously stated in an interview in October 2013 that he knew what the ending of the show would be, and that five seasons of 13 episodes would be an ideal length. Despite this, when the series ended in 2015 after only three seasons, Baer said a potential fourth season would've been a "real challenge", as the third-season finale left the show in a situation where he questioned ""Then what?" Would we do the same thing again?"


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: CBS affiliate WRAL-TV reported August 10, 2015, that tours around the show sets in the EUE/Screen Gems studio would be wrapping early, because the sets no longer used for the series were going to be torn down.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: On August 25, 2015, it was reported that the show's props would be sold between August 27 and 29, 2015.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Filming for the series officially began in Southport and Wilmington, both in North Carolina, on February 28, 2013. Additional filming took place in Burgaw. It was confirmed on October 9, 2014 that even after extensive cuts to the state tax credits, filming would remain in the Wilmington area for the show's third season.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: On June 27, 2013, King acknowledged that "the TV version of "Under the Dome" varies considerably from the book version", and called the series "very good" while commenting on some of those differences:


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: [If] you look closely, you'll see that most of my characters are still there, although some have been combined and others have changed jobs. That's also true of the big stuff, like the supermarket riot, the reason for all that propane storage, and the book's thematic concerns with diminishing resources. Many of the changes wrought by Brian K. Vaughan and his team of writers have been of necessity, and I approved of them wholeheartedly. Some have been occasioned by their plan to keep the dome in place over Chester's Mill for months instead of little more than a week, as is the case in the book. Other story modifications are slotting into place because the writers have completely reimagined the source of the dome.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The first season has a score of 72/100, based on 35 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews", on review aggregator website Metacritic. The season has a score of 81%, based on 47 reviews, on film and TV review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes; the site's critical consensus for the season reads: ""Under the Dome" is an effective and engrossing horror/mystery with airtight plotting and great special effects."


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Positive reviews included Tim Goodman of "The Hollywood Reporter", who wrote that "the intriguing Stephen King adaption is filled with storytelling promise", Glenn Garvin of the "Miami Herald", who wrote that "based on the pilot episode — with its taut script, strong performances and special effects that are impressive without being overwhelming — there's hope that "Under The Dome" might measure up to its unsettling print progenitor", and Verne Gay of "Newsday", who wrote that the show "looks like a summer winner". A negative review came from Matthew Gilbert of "The Boston Globe", who wrote that "so much is working against "Under the Dome," it's hard to get genuinely excited. While the arrival of the dome is intriguing, the characters are not".


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The second season has a score of 52/100, based on nine reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews", on review aggregator website Metacritic. The season has a score of 57%, based on 14 reviews, on film and TV review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes; the site's critical consensus for the season reads: "Though it reins in some of the first season's absurdity and shows potential for improvement, "Under the Dome"'s second season still feels like a ride with no closure."


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: Negative reviews included Hank Stuever of "The Washington Post", who wrote that "I just don't buy "Under the Dome," on any level. I think the story is a shambles and the concept is dumb", and Verne Gay of "Newsday", who wrote "Under the dumb". However, other critics were more positive; Mark Dawidziak of "The Plain Dealer" wrote that "If not top-tier TV terror fare, "Under the Dome" certainly is solid second-level stuff. And given the state of horror on television these days, that's a bloody good compliment. Even while acknowledging the occasional misstep, give "Under the Dome" credit for getting a lot of things right", while Sarah Rodman of "The Boston Globe" wrote that "there are glimmers of hope for season two".


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In a June 2015 interview with "The Hollywood Reporter" to discuss season three, Neal Baer commented on the "less-than-favorable" critical reception to previous episodes. "I always feel like critics ... if they could do it better, they'd be writing the show. So bring it on! ... It's really easy to criticize, and it's really hard to develop a show." Baer also stated, "I think criticism is important, because it brings context to shows. It gives insight. ... But criticism has changed so much in the past several years because of the Internet. There are so many places, so many voices. Sometimes it feels like there's a bandwagon of sorts!" Jokingly, Baer did note that "fortunately, the audience has been pretty critic-proof in many ways."


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The third season received mixed reviews. Positive reviews included Ken Tucker of Yahoo!, who wrote that ""Under the Dome" is certainly broadcast television's most enjoyable science-fiction/fantasy series, a summer treat that, while sometimes silly and over-the-top, is never less than energetically imaginative and aware of the history of its genre", Scott Von Doviak of The A.V. Club, who wrote that "this show is always more fun when it leans into its sci-fi elements", and Paul Dailly of TV Fanatic, who wrote that "All things considered, this was a solid, if unspectacular return for the show". Negative reviews included Kevin Yeoman of ScreenRant, who wrote that "There is a certain joy that comes from watching something as consistently moronic as "Under the Dome"", and Tim Surette of TV.com, who wrote that "it takes balls to think your audience is so dumb and brain dead that you feel the need to explain the big twist in the episode that's about to happen before the episode even begins".


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: The "Under the Dome" series premiere aired June 24, 2013, and established new records. It was the highest-rated CBS summer premiere since "Big Brother"s 2000 season, the most-watched drama summer premiere on any television network since 1992, and the second highest rated premiere of the 2012–13 United States network television schedule after "The Following". With DVR viewership figures added, the series premiere was viewed by a total of 17.76 million viewers.


title: Under the Dome (TV series)

text: In Canada, the series premiered on June 24, 2013, on Global Television Network. In Australia, the series premiered on June 25, 2013, on Network Ten, and on January 4, 2015, on TV H!TS. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on August 19, 2013, on Channel 5. In the Republic of Ireland, the series premiered on September 12, 2014, on RTÉ2. On September 21, 2018 the entire series started a re-run on Horror Channel in the United Kingdom. In India, it is digitally available to stream on MX Player in Hindi, Tamil and Telugu languages.


title: Logan International Airport

text: General Edward Lawrence Logan International Airport , also known as Boston Logan International Airport and commonly as Boston Logan, Logan Airport or simply Logan, is an international airport that is located mostly in East Boston and partially in Winthrop, Massachusetts. It opened in 1923, covers , has six runways and four passenger terminals, and employs an estimated 16,000 people. It is the largest airport in both the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the New England region in terms of passenger volume and cargo handling as well as the busiest airport in the Northeastern United States outside the New York metropolitan area. The airport saw 42 million passengers in 2019, the most in its history. It is named after General Edward Lawrence Logan, a 20th-century war hero native to Boston.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Logan has non-stop service to destinations throughout the United States, Canada, Latin America, the Caribbean, the North Atlantic region (including Bermuda and the Azores), Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. BOS is the northeastern hub for Cape Air and is the secondary transatlantic hub for Delta Air Lines, serving several destinations in Europe. It is also an operating base for JetBlue. American Airlines and United Airlines also carry out significant operations from the airport, including daily transcontinental flights, as well as daily flights to London-Heathrow. All of the major U.S. air carriers offer flights from Boston to all or the majority of their primary and secondary hubs.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Logan Airport opened on September 8, 1923, and at that time it was mainly used by the Massachusetts Air National Guard and the United States Army Air Corps. during this time, it was known as Jeffrey Field. The first scheduled commercial passenger flights to start at the new airfield were on Colonial Air Transport between Boston and New York City, starting in 1927. On January 1, 1936, the airport's weather station became the official point for Boston's weather observations and records by the National Weather Service.


title: Logan International Airport

text: During the 1940s and 1950s, due to the rise in demand for air travel, the airport added of landfill in Boston Harbor, taken from the former Governors, Noddle's and Apple Islands. During this time, the airport expanded the terminals, adding terminals B and C in 1949, which are still in use today. In 1943, the state of Massachusetts renamed the airport after Maj. Gen. Edward Lawrence Logan, a Spanish–American War officer from South Boston, a statue of whom by sculptor Joseph Coletti was unveiled and dedicated on May 20, 1956. In 1952, Logan Airport became the first in the United States with an indirect rapid transit connection, with the opening of the Airport station on the Blue Line.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Boston became a transatlantic gateway after World War II. In the late 1940s, American Overseas Airlines began operating a weekly Boston-Shannon-London service, shortly after, Pan Am began operating nonstop service to Shannon Airport in Ireland and Santa Maria Airport in the Azores, continuing to London and Lisbon respectively. By the early 1950s, BOAC had started nonstop service the Stratocruiser to Glasgow and Prestwick Airport in Scotland. Around this time(but unknown is the exact date) Air France began operating a multi-stop Constellation service linking Boston to Orly Airport in Paris. During this time, BOAC began service on the new De Havilland Comet, the first commercial jetliner in the world, on direct flights to Boston from London Heathrow. In April 1957, the Official Airline Guide showed 49 weekday departures with the list as follows: American, 31 Eastern, 25 Northeast Airlines, 8 United Airlines, 7 TWA domestic, 6 National Airlines, 6 Mohawk Airlines, 2 Trans-Canada Air Lines and one Provincetown-Boston Airlines. In addition TWA had nine departures a week to or from the Atlantic, Pan Am had 18, Air France 8, BOAC 4 and Alitalia 4.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The airport was renamed General Edward Lawrence Logan International Airport by an act of the state legislature on April 29, 1954, reflecting the growing international market.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The jumbo jet era began at Logan in the summer of 1970, when Pan Am started daily Boeing 747 service to London Heathrow. Until 2020, the Boeing 747-400 was scheduled on flights to Boston by British Airways. Lufthansa operates Boeing 747s, including the latest-model Boeing 747-8, on its daily nonstop flights to Frankfurt.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal E was the second largest international arrivals facility in the United States when it opened in 1974. Between 1974 and 2015, the number of international travelers at Logan tripled. International long-haul travel has been one of the fastest growing market sector's at the airport. Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) undertook the "Logan Modernization Project" from 1994 to 2006: a new parking garage, a new hotel, moving walkways, terminal expansions and improvements, and two-tiered roadways to separate arrival and departure traffic.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Massport's relationship with nearby communities has been strained since the mid-1960s, when the agency took control of a parcel of residential land and popular fishing area near the northwest side of the airfield. This land included Frederick Law Olmsted's 46-acre Wood Island Park, a valued recreational area for a neighborhood with "fewer park and recreation facilities than other neighborhood in the city." After decades of litigation, the forfeiture was undertaken to extend Runway 15R/33L, which later became Logan's longest runway via artificial land. Outside of the park on Neptune Road, residents of the neighborhood, formerly, with its convenient park access, the "most prestigious street in East Boston," were bought out of their homes and forced to relocate. Public opposition came to a head when residents laid down in the streets to block bulldozers and supply trucks from reaching the construction zone.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Runway 14/32, Logan's first major runway addition in more than forty years, opened on November 23, 2006. It was proposed in 1973, but was delayed in the courts. According to Massport records, the first aircraft to use the new airstrip was a Continental Express ERJ-145 regional jet landing on Runway 32, on the morning of December 2, 2006.


title: Logan International Airport

text: In April 2007, the FAA approved construction of a center field taxiway long-sought by Massport. The taxiway is between, and parallel to, Runways 4R/22L and 4L/22R. News of the project angered neighboring residents. In 2009 the taxiway opened ahead of schedule and under budget. To ensure the taxiway is not mistaken for a runway, "TAXI" is written in large yellow letters at each end.


title: Logan International Airport

text: A scene from the 2006 film "The Departed" was filmed at Logan, inside the connector bridge between Terminal E and the Central Parking Garage. Terminal C and several United Airlines and Northwest Airlines aircraft can be seen in the background. Parts of the Delta Air Lines 2007 "Anthem" commercial were filmed in Terminal A as well as the connector bridge between Terminal A and Central Parking.


title: Logan International Airport

text: In October 2009 US Airways announced it would close its Boston crew base in May 2010. The airline cited an "operations realignment" as the reason. Over 400 employees were transferred or terminated.


title: Logan International Airport

text: After starting service to Logan in 2004, JetBlue was a major operator at Logan Airport by 2008 and its largest carrier by 2011, with flights to cities throughout North America and the Caribbean.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The Airbus A380 first landed at Logan International Airport for compatibility checks on February 8, 2010. On March 26, 2017, British Airways began flying the A380 to Logan, operating the aircraft three times per week. British Airways announced in October 2018, that A380 service to Boston would expand to daily frequency during the summer 2019 season, beginning on March 31, 2019. Likewise, in January 2019, Emirates announced that it would be deploying the A380 on its daily flight between Logan and Dubai during the June–September 2019 summer season, as high peak seasonal services replacing the B777-300ER on that route. Emirates intends to utilise the A380 as a daily service once the market demand has been achieved.


title: Logan International Airport

text: It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems in which it is categorized as a large hub primary commercial service facility.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Logan International Airport has four lettered passenger terminals, A, B, C, and E, and 102 gate positions in total. With the exception of flights from destinations with U.S. Customs and Border Protection preclearance, inbound international flights arrive at Terminal E for customs screening since the other terminals do not have customs screening facilities. All terminals are connected by pre-security shuttle buses and by the SL1 branch of the MBTA Silver Line BRT, and Terminals A, B, and E via pre-security moving walkways. Moving walkways also connect the terminals to a central parking garage designed for consolidated service between all four terminals and the garage itself. Post-security connection between Terminals B, C and E is available.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal A, which replaced a 1970s-era building once occupied by the now-defunct Eastern Air Lines (and later by its successor Continental Airlines until closed for demolition in 2002), opened to passengers on March 16, 2005. It was designed by Hellmuth, Obata + Kassabaum. The terminal is primarily used by Delta for its hub operations and is divided into a main terminal and a satellite terminal, which are connected via an underground pedestrian tunnel under the ramp. The new redesigned Terminal A was developed under a special facility lease between Massachusetts Port Authority and Delta. On September 14, 2005, six months after opening, Delta filed for bankruptcy and consequently had to reduce the number of gates it leased. Terminal A features two Delta Sky Clubs. One is located on the third floor of the satellite building, and a newer one opened at the site of the former Continental Presidents Club in the main terminal building.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The building is the first airport terminal in the United States to be LEED certified for environmentally friendly design by the U.S. Green Building Council. Among the building's features are heat-reflecting roof and windows, low-flow faucets and waterless urinals, self-dimming lights and stormwater filtration.


title: Logan International Airport

text: In December 2018, Delta announced an expansion of routes to take effect in 2019, which resulted in Southwest moving to Terminal B, and Delta regaining all of Terminal A (other than one gate subleased to WestJet, itself a codeshare airline with Delta). As a result, Delta has declared Logan to be one of their hubs as of June 2019.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal B, designed by John Carl Warnecke & Associates and Desmond & Lord, Inc., opened in 1974. Pier B was completed for US Airways in 1974 and Pier A for American in 1975. The terminal remained largely unchanged until US Airways expanded its operations at Logan in 1979, and improvements designed by HNTB were constructed in 1980. From 1980 until 2000, numerous small projects including passenger seating area improvements, concessions expansions and passenger lounges were completed at both piers. American's facilities were renovated in 1995 and redesigned by Gresham, Smith & Partners, and US Airways' facilities were renovated in 1998 and 2000, and redesigned by URS Corporation with Turner Construction serving as the construction manager.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Until 2014, Terminal B was split into north and south buildings, with a parking garage between the two buildings. The gates of the south building are divided into three groups. The gates of the north building are divided into two groups. Air Canada, Alaska Airlines, American, Boutique Air, Southwest, Spirit, and United operate out of Terminal B. United and American both operate lounges in the terminal (those being the United Club and Admirals Club, respectively) for their customers.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Between 2012 and 2014, Terminal B underwent a $160 million renovation, which was completed in April 2014. It created a post-security walkway that connects Terminal B North to Terminal B South. The renovation also included 24 new ticket counter spots, eight new departure lounges, new concession space, and a new baggage carousel. United, formerly located in Terminals A and C, began operating all flights out of Terminal B effective April 2014.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal C opened in 1967 and was designed by Perry, Shaw, Hepburn and Dean. It underwent renovations in 1987, 2002, and 2005. Continuing the renovations of Terminal C, a post-security connection between Terminal C and Terminal E opened in Summer 2016, allowing for seamless connections between the two terminals, part of Massport's plan to ultimately connect all terminals post-security. The terminal serves Aer Lingus, Cape Air, JetBlue as their operating base, with TAP Air Portugal only having departures take place out of the terminal.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The former Terminal D gates (the three gates at the north end of Terminal C) were renumbered and labeled as part of Terminal E in February 2006. These three gates were used, as part of Terminal E, by Southwest until their move to Terminal A. In 2016, following construction of an airside connector between Terminals E and C, these three gates were renumbered again.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The airport's USO Lounge is located in the baggage claim area of Terminal C, lower level. It offers most typical amenities as other markets as major as Greater Boston. Military ID is mandatory.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal E, also known as the John A. Volpe International Terminal named after the former Governor of Massachusetts and U.S. Secretary of Transportation, serves as the international terminal for Logan and therefore houses the majority of its international arrivals (excluding flights from an origin that has U.S. border preclearance). Also, most non-U.S. carriers excluding Aer Lingus, Air Canada, TAP Air Portugal, and WestJet depart from Terminal E. The terminal was completed in 1974, and designed by Kubitz & Papi, Inc. and Desmond & Lord, Inc. Massport completed the "Terminal E Modernization" project in August 1997 which improved the passenger facilities. The International Gateway Project, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and DMJM Aviation, added to the terminal in 2003, and the entire project was completed in 2008.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal E has a total of 12 gates. All gates within the terminal are designated as common-use, meaning gates are assigned mostly based on an operational need, and no specific airline claims ownership of any of those gates. All ticket counters and gates in Terminal E are shared among the international carriers. Terminal E has several airline lounges (e.g., Air France Lounge, British Airways' First Lounge and Terraces Lounge, Lufthansa's First Lounge and Business Lounges, Virgin Atlantic's Clubhouse Lounge). The third level of Terminal E is used for departures, the second for passport control via U.S. Customs and Border Protection, and the ground level for arrivals and customs, also via U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The Federal Inspection Station located in Terminal E is capable of processing over 2,000 passengers per hour.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal E underwent a $100 million renovation which started in 2014, and includes a post-security connector between Terminals E and C (opened summer 2016), improved immigration and passport control kiosks, and gates capable of serving the Airbus A380. The Terminal E expansion was completed in late January 2017.


title: Logan International Airport

text: In summer 2019, Massport began another expansion project on Terminal E, due to continued growth at the airport. The project, which is slated to be completed in early 2023, will include the addition of 4 new international gates with two jetways each (E13-E16) with all-new shops, restaurants and other passenger services which will stretch into the current North Cargo area, and the renovation of gates E10, E11 and E12 that will each have three jetways to properly accommodate A380s. Additionally, a new TSA checkpoint will be built and the current ticketing, customs, and baggage claim areas will all be expanded. In total, the project is expected to cost $680 million and incorporate roughly of new space.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Located partly in East Boston and partly in the Town of Winthrop, on Boston Harbor, Logan International Airport covers an area of which contains six runways:


title: Logan International Airport

text: Additionally, the harbor to the south of the airport contains water Runway 14W/32W (); this runway, however, is not operated by Logan International Airport but is instead co-operated by two private seaplane bases (SPBs), Tailwind Boston SPB and Cape Air Boston Harbor SPB .


title: Logan International Airport

text: Between 1968 and 1971, Taxiway Sierra was converted into STOL runway 18/36, which was for use by Eastern Air Lines's STOL capable Breguet 941 turboprop shuttle.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Instrument landing system approaches are available for runways 4R, 15R, 22L, 27, and 33L, with runways 4R and 33L certified for CAT III operations. The other runways with ILS are certified for CAT I Instrument Landing operations. EMAS pads are located at the starting thresholds of runways 22R and 33L.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The distinctive central control tower, nearly a dozen stories high, is a local landmark with its pair of segmented elliptical pylons and a six-story platform trussed between them.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Logan Airport has two cargo facilities: North Cargo is adjacent to Terminal E and South Cargo adjacent to Terminals A and B. North Cargo is also the location of several maintenance hangars, including those operated by American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and JetBlue.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Runway 14/32, which opened to air traffic on November 23, 2006, is unidirectional. Runway 32 is used for landings and 14 is used for takeoffs. Massport is barred by a court order from using the runway for overland landings or takeoffs, except in emergencies.


title: Logan International Airport

text: There was fierce opposition towards the construction of 14/32 among communities adjacent to the northwest side of the airport, such as Chelsea and East Boston, as authorities acknowledged these areas would likely see increased noise levels. Many Residents of Winthrop and Revere also joined in opposition, even though Massport had predicted the new traffic patterns allowed by 14/32 would actually reduce overflights and noise in those areas.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Since the opening of the new runway, there has been disagreement about when and how often it should operate. Residents have demanded a minimum of northwest winds, slightly higher than the threshold favored by Massport.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The rationale behind constructing the new runway 14/32 was that it reduces the need for improving existing Runway 15L/33R, which, at only is perhaps the shortest hard-surface runways at major airports in the United States. In 1988, Massport had proposed an extension to 15L/33R (a project which would have required additional filling-in some land along a "clam bed"), but was thwarted by a court injunction.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Boston's Hyatt Harborside Hotel, which sits only a few hundred yards from the runway threshold, was built primarily to prevent Massport from ever extending the length of 14/32 or using it for takeoffs or landings over the city. Massachusetts state legislators carefully chose the location of the hotel—directly in the runway centerline—prior to its construction in 1992.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Boston Logan International Airport was called the "Easiest Airport to Get To" in a 2007 article on aviation.com because of the variety of options to and from the airport. These options include cars, taxis, the MBTA Blue and Silver lines, regional bus services, shared ride vans, ferries, limousines and an in-house airport operator (Massport) intercity bus common carrier, a service offered by few U.S. airports. The service, Logan Express, provides shuttle service to remote park and rides located at Back Bay, Braintree, Framingham, Peabody, and Woburn. Geographically, Logan is located northeast of Back Bay, a short distance with respect to other airports similarly sized and metropolitan areas served.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Massport's Airport Shuttle provides free service between all terminals, the Airport station on the Blue Line and the Rental Car Center, as well as additional service to the water transportation dock located on Harborside Drive.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Ride Shares serve the airport via the central parking garage. Due to sheer volume of users who use the providers, both have been known to use mass-messaging of their customer base to galvanize political pressure and act on a pressure group towards Logan management at MassPort concerning various policies that can impact those providers.


title: Logan International Airport

text: The SL1 branch of the MBTA's Silver Line bus rapid transit service connects all Logan terminals with South Station, a major transportation hub in the downtown Boston financial district that serves MBTA Commuter Rail, Amtrak, Red Line subway and intercity bus. Airport station on the MBTA's Blue Line subway, despite its name, is not in the airport terminal itself; free shuttle buses carry passengers between the Airport station and the terminal buildings. The Blue Line connects with the Orange Line at State, which provides service to both North Station and Back Bay, the two other major rail transportation hubs for Boston. A transfer to the Green Line, which also runs to North Station, is available at Government Center station. The SL3 branch of the Silver Line connects Chelsea with the Airport Station. As of 2019, Massport is considering the construction of either an automated people-mover or rapid transit line to replace the airport shuttle.


title: Logan International Airport

text: A $310 million rental car center opened on September 24, 2013, consolidating all rental car companies into one shared building. Alamo, Avis, Budget, Dollar, Enterprise, Hertz, National, Payless, Sixt, Thrifty, and Zipcar rental car companies currently operate out of facility, which has 3,200 parking spaces across four levels. Access to the new facility is done through a unified bus system consisting of 28 fuel efficient clean hybrid buses operated by Massport which provides service between all the terminals and the rental car center. A handful of livery-plate operators also service the airport offering various chauffeured car, van, or limousine for-hire offerings.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Police services are provided by the Massachusetts State Police Troop F. Fire protection is the responsibility of the Massport Fire Rescue. Even though the airport is technically within city limits, under Massachusetts state law municipal police such as the Boston Police Department do not have jurisdiction on Massport property.


title: Logan International Airport

text: A 250-foot security zone, established in 2002, surrounds the waters around the airport which are marked by 29 buoys indicating the restricted area. The area is patrolled by the Massachusetts State Police, the Boston Police Department, the Massachusetts Environmental Police, the United States Coast Guard and the Boston and Winthrop Harbormasters. Anyone who enters the zone for non-emergency purposes is subject to prosecution and is entered into a State Police database that tracks offenders.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Currently, major air cargo companies such as British Airways World Cargo, Lufthansa Cargo, Cathay Pacific Cargo, Martinair Cargo, China Airlines Cargo, EVA Air Cargo and many more cargo carriers have cargo offices on Airport property.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Also, American Airlines, Delta and JetBlue have maintenance hangars at the airport, all located adjacent to the office building near Terminal E and the North Cargo Terminal. Delta TechOps is Delta Air Lines primary maintenance, repair and overhaul arm.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Also located on the property is the Amelia Earhart General Aviation Terminal which is located near Runway 14/32 and next to the Massport Fire Rescue headquarters. The terminal was built in 1980, and dedicated to former Boston resident Earhart in 1984. Until 2006, American Eagle flights flew out of the terminal when all flights were consolidated in the former B22-29 gates in Pier A, the north building of Terminal B. Passengers had to take a shuttle bus from Terminal B to the Earhart Terminal. The terminal currently sits mostly unused.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Terminal C is home to the airport's chapel, Our Lady of the Airways. Opened in 1951, it is considered the first airport chapel in the United States. The chapel was originally Catholic, but is now non-denominational.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Tailwind Air's seasonal seaplane service to Manhattan began on August 3, 2021. Cape Air is approved but has not yet begun scheduled service.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Logan Airport is a medium-sized airport in terms of cargo, handling 684,875 tons of freight in 2012, making it the 10th busiest airport in the U.S. in terms of cargo. It handles many U.S.-based cargo airlines, including DHL Aviation, FedEx Express and UPS Airlines. It also has cargo offices for many international cargo carriers, including British Airways World Cargo, Cathay Pacific Cargo, China Airlines Cargo, EVA Air Cargo, LATAM Cargo Chile and Saudia Cargo. It has two cargo complexes: the North Cargo Terminal, located near Terminal E, and South Cargo, located near Terminal A. Given that the airport is the 10th busiest cargo facility in the country, with many companies operating at the airport, it has been recognized that future expansion of cargo from Logan is limited due to constrained physical space for expansion.


title: Logan International Airport

text: "* - Includes flights operated by American Eagle, Delta Connection, and United Express partner airlines. The specific airline total passenger numbers only include mainline operations."


title: Logan International Airport

text: The two historically known alternative airports to Logan are both located outside the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Manchester–Boston Regional Airport in Manchester, New Hampshire, is located approximately north-northwest of Logan, an average drive time of 62 minutes via I-90 and I-93. T. F. Green Airport in Warwick, Rhode Island, is located south-southwest of Logan, averaging 76 minutes from Logan via I-90, I-93, and I-95, or a 100-minute ride via the Silver Line SL1 bus to South Station and then the Providence/Stoughton Line commuter rail to T. F. Green Airport station. Massport does not operate these facilities.


title: Logan International Airport

text: Massport does operate Worcester Regional Airport in Worcester, Massachusetts, which also serves as an alternative to Logan, although not widely known as such. In late 2017, the airport finished construction on a Category IIIb Landing System that would allow for arrivals and departures in virtually all weather conditions. The increased reliability, which has been the main concern for airlines operating at the notoriously foggy airport over the years, was expected to draw additional service. The airport is located due west of Logan, primarily accessed via Interstates I-90 and I-290.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The WWE Intercontinental Championship is a professional wrestling championship created and promoted by the American promotion WWE, currently defended on the SmackDown brand division. It is one of two secondary championships for WWE's main roster, along with the WWE United States Championship on Raw. The current champion is Gunther, who is in his first reign.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The championship was established by the then-World Wrestling Federation (WWF) on September 1, 1979, as a result of the WWF North American Heavyweight Championship being unified with an apocryphal South American Heavyweight Championship, with Pat Patterson as the inaugural champion. It is the third-oldest championship currently active in WWE, behind the WWE Championship (1963) and United States Championship (1975), but the second-longest tenured championship, as WWE has only owned the U.S. championship since 2001. Although generally contested in the midcard at WWE shows, it has been defended in the main event of pay-per-views including WrestleMania VI, SummerSlam in 1992, the third and In Your House shows, Backlash in 2001, and at Extreme Rules in 2018. It has been called a "stepping stone" to a WWE world championship.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: In November 2001, the then-WCW United States Championship was unified into the Intercontinental Championship. In 2002, after the introduction of the first brand split, it became exclusive to Raw and the WWF was renamed WWE. Later that year, the European and Hardcore championships were unified into the Intercontinental Championship, which itself was unified into the World Heavyweight Championship. The next year, it was reactivated for Raw, followed by the United States Championship's reactivation as a counterpart championship on SmackDown. The Intercontinental Championship has switched between brands over the years, usually as a result of the WWE Draft; the 2019 Superstar Shake-up moved the title to SmackDown.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The term "intercontinental" in the title originally referred to North and South America. In 1985, the championship belt design changed, the centerplate now centered on the Atlantic Ocean, in a map including western Africa and Europe. On April 7, 1989, the championship was first defended outside of North America, by Rick Rude against The Ultimate Warrior in Turin, Italy. On March 30, 1991, Mr. Perfect made the first Asian defense against The Texas Tornado at a WWF co-promotion with Super World of Sports in Tokyo, Japan. It first came to Africa on April 6, 1997, when champion Rocky Maivia pinned Savio Vega in Durban, South Africa. Shelton Benjamin made the first Australian defense on April 7, 2005, pinning Gene Snitsky in Brisbane.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: WWF North American Heavyweight Champion Pat Patterson became the inaugural champion on September 1, 1979. It was said he had unified his title with the South American Heavyweight Championship, in a tournament in Rio de Janeiro, although both the tournament and South American Championship were entirely fictional.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: On April 1, 1990, at WrestleMania VI, Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion The Ultimate Warrior defeated WWF World Heavyweight Champion Hulk Hogan to win the world title, so the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship was vacated for the first time soon after. Mr. Perfect then won a tournament to crown a new Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: On October 17, 1999, Chyna became the only woman to hold the Intercontinental Championship by defeating Jeff Jarrett at No Mercy. Following the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF) purchase of World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in March 2001, the title was unified with the WCW United States Championship at Survivor Series, causing the United States Championship to become inactive. Then-United States Champion Edge defeated then-Intercontinental Champion Test.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: In 2002, after the first brand split had begun and the WWF was renamed WWE, Raw general manager Eric Bischoff began unifying his brand's singles championships. On July 22, 2002, the Intercontinental Championship was unified with the European Championship in a ladder match, in which then-Intercontinental Champion Rob Van Dam defeated then-European Champion Jeff Hardy. On August 19, 2002, Bischoff made a six-minute gauntlet match for the Hardcore Championship, with the winner facing Van Dam in a second unification match the next week on "Raw". Tommy Dreamer successfully retained his title in that match, and lost to Van Dam in a hardcore match the next week. As a result of the victories over Hardy and Dreamer, Van Dam is regarded as the last European and Hardcore champion in WWE history; these were his first and fourth reigns with those respective titles. On September 30, 2002, Bischoff scheduled a match to unify the Intercontinental Championship with the recently created Raw-exclusive World Heavyweight Championship. The unification match took place at No Mercy the following month and saw then-World Heavyweight Champion Triple H defeat then-Intercontinental Champion Kane, making him the Raw brand's sole male singles champion.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: Over Bischoff's objections, Raw co-general manager Stone Cold Steve Austin reactivated the Intercontinental Championship on the May 5, 2003 episode of "Raw" and declared any former champion on the Raw roster eligible to enter a battle royal at Judgment Day for the title. Christian won the battle royal to win the championship and restore a secondary singles title for Raw wrestlers to compete for. Eventually, WWE did the same thing for SmackDown and created a separate set of titles for that brand; for its secondary title, SmackDown reactivated the United States Championship that had been unified with the Intercontinental Championship in 2001, placing the WWE name on it while claiming the lineage of the old WCW title of the same name (much as they did with the Cruiserweight Championship when that became WWE exclusive).


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: On October 2, 2011, at Hell in a Cell, Cody Rhodes introduced a modified version of the classic championship belt design with the white strap, with the modern WWE "scratch logo" and other embellishments. Following the end of the first brand split on August 29, 2011, the title could be defended on both "Raw" and "SmackDown". On August 18, 2014, the Intercontinental Championship belt, along with all other pre-existing championship belts in WWE at the time, received a minor update, replacing the long-standing scratch logo with WWE's current logo that was originally used for the WWE Network. On May 31, 2015, the championship was contested in an Elimination Chamber match for the first time.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: In July 2016, WWE reintroduced the brand split. During the 2016 draft, then-Intercontinental Champion The Miz was drafted to SmackDown. Just days later, he successfully defended the title against Raw draftee Darren Young at Battleground, making the title exclusive to SmackDown. During the following year's Superstar Shake-up, Intercontinental Champion Dean Ambrose was moved to the Raw brand, making the title exclusive to Raw. Two years later during the 2019 WWE Superstar Shake-up, Intercontinental Champion Finn Bálor moved to SmackDown, making the title exclusive back to SmackDown. Later that year, the NXT brand, formerly WWE's developmental territory, became WWE's third major brand when it was moved to the USA Network in September, thus making the NXT North American Championship a third secondary title for the WWE.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: On November 22, 2019, episode of "SmackDown", Sami Zayn presented a new belt design to champion Shinsuke Nakamura. The redesigned Intercontinental Championship returned to being on a black strap with an entirely new center plate with an irregular shape. The center portion of the center plate features an oval-shape. The top half of the oval says "Intercontinental" and the bottom half says "Champion"; the word "Heavyweight" sits in a banner on the inner side of the oval above the word "Champion". At the center of the oval is a diamond shape, representing a wrestling ring viewed from above, with the WWE logo over a globe. On the sides of the center, plate is two halves of the globe. The left side features the continents of North and South America as well as Africa and Europe, while the globe on the left shows Asia and Australia; both globes show a portion of Antarctica. The rest of the center plate is filled with ornamentation. Like the majority of WWE's other championships, the belt features two side plates with a removable center section that can be customized with the champion's logos; the default side plates consist of the WWE logo over a globe.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: Following the brand split on March 25, 2002, all titles in WWE became exclusive to either the Raw brand or SmackDown brand. The brand split was discontinued on August 29, 2011, and revived on July 19, 2016. The following is a list of dates indicating the transitions of the Intercontinental Championship between the Raw and SmackDown brands.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship Tournament was a tournament to decide a new WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion after previous champion Ultimate Warrior was required to vacate the title after he defeated Hulk Hogan for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania VI.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The WWF Intercontinental Championship Tournament was a tournament to decide a new WWF Intercontinental Champion after previous champion Ahmed Johnson forfeited the title. He suffered (kayfabe) injuries to both kidneys when he was attacked by the debuting Faarooq after winning an 11-man battle royal.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The tournament to determine the new WWF Intercontinental Champion after former champion Stone Cold Steve Austin forfeited the belt after his neck injury. The tournament was held between September 8 and October 5, 1997, with the finals occurring on October 5 at the pay-per-view. The tournament brackets were:


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The WWF Intercontinental Championship Tournament was a tournament to decide a new WWF Intercontinental Champion after previous champion Triple H vacated the title due to injury.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: A tournament was announced to crown a new #1 contender for William Regal's WWE Intercontinental Championship. CM Punk won the tournament by defeating Rey Mysterio in the tournament final at Armageddon.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The WWE Intercontinental Championship Tournament was a tournament to crown a new Intercontinental Champion. On May 7, 2010, after failed attempts of getting Intercontinental Champion Drew McIntyre to stop attacking Matt Hardy, Smackdown General Manager Theodore Long fired McIntyre and vacated the title. The following week, Kofi Kingston won a tournament to become the new champion, but Mr. McMahon reverted Long's decision. Due to the decision by Mr. McMahon, the vacancy of the title and Kingston's championship win are not recognized as WWE continued to recognize McIntyre as champion during that period. At Over the Limit, Kingston defeated McIntyre to win his second official Intercontinental Championship.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: On May 12, 2020, the Intercontinental Championship was declared vacant after champion Sami Zayn elected to refrain from competing during the COVID-19 pandemic. A tournament to crown a new champion was then set to begin on the May 15 episode of "SmackDown".


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: † Neither Jeff Hardy nor Elias were able to compete in the semifinals, as Elias was (kayfabe) injured in a car crash and Hardy was accused of causing it and arrested. AJ Styles and Daniel Bryan were given the option of having a bye in the tournament. Styles opted for the bye to automatically advance to the final on June 12 while Bryan opted to have a new opponent; Sheamus subsequently won a battle royal to qualify for the vacant spot in the semifinals against Bryan that night.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The inaugural champion was Pat Patterson who, as the WWF North American Heavyweight Champion in September 1979 was also declared "South American Heavyweight Champion" after allegedly winning a tournament in Rio de Janeiro. Patterson unified the two championships into the Intercontinental Championship. Since then, there have been 89 different champions. Chris Jericho has the most reigns with nine. Pedro Morales held the championship for a record total of 619 days and The Honky Tonk Man had the longest uninterrupted reign at 454 days, from June 2, 1987, until August 29, 1988. Dean Douglas had the shortest reign at just 13 minutes 52 seconds. Chyna is the only woman in WWE history to win the title. The youngest champion was Jeff Hardy, who won the championship at 23 years old, while the oldest champion was Ric Flair, who won the championship at Unforgiven in 2005 at the age of 56. There have been 10 vacancies throughout the title's history.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: Gunther is the current champion in his first reign. He defeated Ricochet on the June 10, 2022 episode of "SmackDown" in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The Intercontinental Championship's early years have been praised. Samuel Kendall of Comic Book Resources lauded the championship during this era, stating: "It was a foregone conclusion that the Intercontinental Champion was the workhorse of the company and the next in line for the World Heavyweight Championship." Steve Cook of "411Mania" wrote that "nearly anybody that was a big deal in WWE held the championship at some point." Steve Austin said he considered the Intercontinental Championship to be as important as the world titles and he remains in possession of the physical belt that represented the championship during his reign because of its historical importance.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: In the 2010s, WWE was criticized for its booking of the Intercontinental Champions. Chris Jericho said that WWE promoter Vince McMahon told him that "nobody fucking cares about the Intercontinental Championship" after he asked to be placed in a match for the title at WrestleMania 29 in 2013. Also in 2013, Darren Gutteridge of "Pro Wrestling Dot Net" wrote that the "title has proven an albatross for the past decade, with almost all title holders doomed to tread water, usually only beating people decisively when the title is on the line". The albatross metaphor was also used to describe the title in 2014 by James Caldwell of "Pro Wrestling Torch", while Dave Meltzer of the "Wrestling Observer" said that year that "the [Intercontinental] title isn't booked to mean much." Various commentators in 2014 and 2015, including from "The Baltimore Sun", "Rolling Stone", "PWInsider," and "Pro Wrestling Dot Net" have pointed out that the Intercontinental Champion often loses non-title matches, while Mike Tedesco of "Wrestleview" questioned how Intercontinental Champions losing too much is supposed to bring prestige to the title.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: The championship continued to receive criticism into the 2020s. Kendall panned the recent reigns as forgettable and wrote that the title had "turned into a prop to be lugged around, rather than a title that should bestow prestige." Cook wrote that it had been "treated as something of an afterthought" for the previous two decades. The championship was only defended on two pay-per-views in 2021 and was not defended at any within the first quarter of 2022, including WrestleMania 38; its absence on the premiere event was widely criticized by fans.


title: WWE Intercontinental Championship

text: After Vince McMahon retired on July 22, 2022, the championship has been featured more prominently after Paul “Triple H” Levesque (a five-time Intercontinental Champion) took over as Head of Creative. The championship has been featured in the main event on SmackDown most weeks, and has received a five-star match from Dave Meltzer between champion Gunther and challenger Sheamus at Clash at the Castle. It was the second WWE five-star match in the 2020s, as well as the second Intercontinental Championship match to receive a five-star rating in the title’s history, with the last one being Razor Ramon vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania X in 1994. The title's current status has been acclaimed by fans and analysts.


title: Defending Jacob (miniseries)

text: Defending Jacob is an American crime drama miniseries, based on the 2012 novel of the same name by William Landay, produced by Apple TV+. The series was created and written by Mark Bomback and directed by Morten Tyldum. It stars Chris Evans, Michelle Dockery, Jaeden Martell, Cherry Jones, Pablo Schreiber, Betty Gabriel, Sakina Jaffrey and J.K. Simmons. It premiered on April 24, 2020, and concluded on May 29, 2020.


title: Defending Jacob (miniseries)

text: The series received generally favorable reviews from critics, who praised the performances (particularly those of Evans, Dockery and Martell), ambiguity, and emotional weight, but criticized the pacing, length and ending. The miniseries was released on Blu-ray and DVD on July 6, 2021, by Paramount Home Entertainment.


title: Defending Jacob (miniseries)

text: "Defending Jacob" tells the story of a family dealing with the accusation that their 14-year-old son may be a murderer.


title: Defending Jacob (miniseries)

text: On September 20, 2018, it was announced that Apple had given a straight-to-series order consisting of eight episodes to a television miniseries adaptation of William Landay's 2012 novel "Defending Jacob". The series was created by Mark Bomback who also wrote the series and executive produced alongside Chris Evans, Morten Tyldum, Rosalie Swedlin, and Adam Shulman. Tyldum also directed the series as well. Production companies involved with the series consist of Paramount Television and Anonymous Content.


title: Defending Jacob (miniseries)

text: Alongside the series order announcement, it was confirmed that Chris Evans had been cast in the series' lead role. In March 2019, Michelle Dockery and Jaeden Martell joined the cast of the series. In April 2019, Cherry Jones, Pablo Schreiber, Betty Gabriel and Sakina Jaffrey joined the cast of the series. J. K. Simmons was revealed as part of the cast in a March 2020 trailer.


title: Defending Jacob (miniseries)

text: Filming was confirmed to commence in Newton, Massachusetts––the city in which the novel takes place––in April 2019. Three locations were confirmed for filming: Cold Spring Park, the village of Newton Highlands, and the UMass Amherst Mount Ida Campus. Additional filming began in Belmont, Massachusetts. Filming also began in Salem, Massachusetts, on June 15, 2019, as well as at MCI Cedar Junction in Walpole, Massachusetts, on June 17, 2019, and in Lowell, Massachusetts, by the UMass Lowell Tsongas Arena on June 19, 2019. Filming took place at River's Edge in Medford, Massachusetts, on June 21, 2019. Filming also commenced on June 28, 2019, in Worcester, Massachusetts, and on July 8, 2019, in Watertown, Massachusetts, where the facade of the old Watertown Police Station appears as the Newton Police Station in the series. Filming took place on July 9, 2019, at the Town Diner in Watertown. On July 18, 2019, they filmed at C&M Pizza in Leominster, Massachusetts. Neighborhood scenes were filmed in Needham, Massachusetts. The scenes in Mexico were filmed on September 25, 2019, at the Grand Velas hotel in Nuevo Vallarta, in the state of Nayarit. Scenes were also filmed in Waltham on the property of Northgate Gardens Condominium.


title: Defending Jacob (miniseries)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series' approval rating is 72% based on reviews from 61 critics, with an average rating of 6.68/10. The website's critical consensus is, "Despite outstanding work from Michelle Dockery and Chris Evans, "Defending Jacob" stretches its source material too thin, undermining its own rich tension with too much melodramatic padding." On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100 based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The series has reportedly become the second most popular Apple TV+ show.


title: Zach Woods

text: Zachary Woods (born September 25, 1984) is an American actor, comedian, writer, director and producer. He is best known for his roles as a series regular for three seasons as Gabe Lewis on the NBC sitcom "The Office", as Jared Dunn on the HBO comedy series "Silicon Valley", as Zach Harper on the USA Network sitcom "Playing House", and as Matt Spencer on the HBO comedy show "Avenue 5". He also recurred on the HBO series "Veep" as Ed Webster.


title: Zach Woods

text: Woods was born in Trenton, New Jersey. He is Jewish. His father is a psychiatrist who specializes in clinical therapy, and his mother is a nurse practitioner. Woods is a middle child; he has an older brother and younger sister. In 1997 and 1998, he attended summer camp at Interlochen Center for the Arts. He grew up in Yardley, Pennsylvania, and graduated from Pennsbury High School in 2003. He is a graduate of New York University.


title: Zach Woods

text: Woods started performing improv at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre at age 16 and was a part of the improvisational sketch troupe "The Stepfathers", whose members included Bobby Moynihan and Chris Gethard. He has taught improv at Columbia University, Duke University and Lincoln Center. He has appeared in such films as "In the Loop" and "The Other Guys", and appeared in the CollegeHumor skits "Adam and Eve in the Friend Zone" and "The Infinisphere".


title: Zach Woods

text: He is known for starring as Awkward Boy, the protagonist in the YouTube video series "The Most Awkward Boy in the World". In 2010, he appeared as a zombie in a Starburst candy commercial.


title: Zach Woods

text: Starting in 2010, he portrayed Gabe Lewis on the NBC sitcom "The Office". He was promoted to series regular beginning in season 7.


title: Zach Woods

text: From 2014-2019, he co-starred as Jared on HBO's "Silicon Valley". He also appeared on HBO's "Veep" as Ed Webster.


title: Zach Woods

text: Beginning in January 2020, he had a role as Matt Spencer, Head of Customer Relations for "Avenue 5", a science-fiction comedy TV series created by Armando Iannucci that premiered on HBO in the United States.


title: Zach Woods

text: Woods had a role in the action comedy "Spy" (2015), directed by Paul Feig, and appeared in Feig's film "Ghostbusters" in 2016.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: In probability and statistics, Student's "t"-distribution (or simply the "t"-distribution) is any member of a family of continuous probability distributions that arise when estimating the mean of a normally distributed population in situations where the sample size is small and the population's standard deviation is unknown. It was developed by English statistician William Sealy Gosset under the pseudonym "Student".


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The "t"-distribution plays a role in a number of widely used statistical analyses, including Student's "t"-test for assessing the statistical significance of the difference between two sample means, the construction of confidence intervals for the difference between two population means, and in linear regression analysis. Student's "t"-distribution also arises in the Bayesian analysis of data from a normal family.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: If we take a sample of formula_14 observations from a normal distribution, then the "t"-distribution with formula_15 degrees of freedom can be defined as the distribution of the location of the sample mean relative to the true mean, divided by the sample standard deviation, after multiplying by the standardizing term formula_16. In this way, the "t"-distribution can be used to construct a confidence interval for the true mean.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The "t"-distribution is symmetric and bell-shaped, like the normal distribution. However, the "t"-distribution has heavier tails, meaning that it is more prone to producing values that fall far from its mean. This makes it useful for understanding the statistical behavior of certain types of ratios of random quantities, in which variation in the denominator is amplified and may produce outlying values when the denominator of the ratio falls close to zero. The Student's "t"-distribution is a special case of the generalized hyperbolic distribution.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: In statistics, the "t"-distribution was first derived as a posterior distribution in 1876 by Helmert and Lüroth. The "t"-distribution also appeared in a more general form as Pearson Type IV distribution in Karl Pearson's 1895 paper.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: In the English-language literature, the distribution takes its name from William Sealy Gosset's 1908 paper in "Biometrika" under the pseudonym "Student". One version of the origin of the pseudonym is that Gosset's employer preferred staff to use pen names when publishing scientific papers instead of their real name, so he used the name "Student" to hide his identity. Another version is that Guinness did not want their competitors to know that they were using the "t"-test to determine the quality of raw material.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Gosset worked at the Guinness Brewery in Dublin, Ireland, and was interested in the problems of small samples – for example, the chemical properties of barley where sample sizes might be as few as 3. Gosset's paper refers to the distribution as the "frequency distribution of standard deviations of samples drawn from a normal population". It became well known through the work of Ronald Fisher, who called the distribution "Student's distribution" and represented the test value with the letter "t".


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Let formula_17 be independently and identically drawn from the distribution formula_18, i.e. this is a sample of size formula_14 from a normally distributed population with expected mean value formula_20 and variance formula_21.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: has a standard normal distribution (i.e. normal with expected mean 0 and variance 1), and the random variable


title: Student's t-distribution

text: "i.e" where formula_26 has been substituted for formula_27, has a Student's "t"-distribution with formula_28 degrees of freedom. Since formula_29 has replaced formula_30 the only unobservable quantity in this expression is formula_31 so this can be used to derive confidence intervals for formula_32 The numerator and the denominator in the preceding expression are statistically independent random variables despite being based on the same sample formula_33. This can be seen by observing that formula_34 and recalling that formula_35 and formula_36 are both linear combinations of the same set of i.i.d. normally distributed random variables.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: where formula_38 is the number of "degrees of freedom" and formula_39 is the gamma function. This may also be written as


title: Student's t-distribution

text: where B is the Beta function. In particular for integer valued degrees of freedom formula_41 we have:


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The probability density function is symmetric, and its overall shape resembles the bell shape of a normally distributed variable with mean 0 and variance 1, except that it is a bit lower and wider. As the number of degrees of freedom grows, the "t"-distribution approaches the normal distribution with mean 0 and variance 1. For this reason formula_46 is also known as the normality parameter.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The following images show the density of the "t"-distribution for increasing values of formula_38. The normal distribution is shown as a blue line for comparison. Note that the "t"-distribution (red line) becomes closer to the normal distribution as formula_38 increases.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Let formula_54 be the numbers observed in a sample from a continuously distributed population with expected value formula_55. The sample mean and sample variance are given by:


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The "t"-distribution with formula_28 degrees of freedom is the sampling distribution of the "t"-value when the samples consist of independent identically distributed observations from a normally distributed population. Thus for inference purposes "t" is a useful "pivotal quantity" in the case when the mean and variance formula_59 are unknown population parameters, in the sense that the "t"-value has then a probability distribution that depends on neither formula_55 nor formula_21.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: In Bayesian statistics, a (scaled, shifted) "t"-distribution arises as the marginal distribution of the unknown mean of a normal distribution, when the dependence on an unknown variance has been marginalized out:


title: Student's t-distribution

text: where formula_63 stands for the data formula_64, and formula_65 represents any other information that may have been used to create the model. The distribution is thus the compounding of the conditional distribution of formula_55 given the data and formula_21 with the marginal distribution of formula_21 given the data.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: With formula_14 data points, if uninformative, or flat, the location prior formula_70 can be taken for "μ", and the scale prior formula_71 can be taken for "σ", then Bayes' theorem gives


title: Student's t-distribution

text: a normal distribution and a scaled inverse chi-squared distribution respectively, where formula_73 and


title: Student's t-distribution

text: This is a form of the "t"-distribution with an explicit scaling and shifting that will be explored in more detail in a further section below. It can be related to the standardized "t"-distribution by the substitution


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The derivation above has been presented for the case of uninformative priors for formula_55 and formula_21; but it will be apparent that any priors that lead to a normal distribution being compounded with a scaled inverse chi-squared distribution will lead to a "t"-distribution with scaling and shifting for formula_84, although the scaling parameter corresponding to formula_85 above will then be influenced both by the prior information and the data, rather than just by the data as above.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Student's "t"-distribution with formula_38 degrees of freedom can be defined as the distribution of the random variable "T" with


title: Student's t-distribution

text: A different distribution is defined as that of the random variable defined, for a given constant "μ", by


title: Student's t-distribution

text: This random variable has a noncentral "t"-distribution with noncentrality parameter "μ". This distribution is important in studies of the power of Student's "t"-test.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Suppose "X", ..., "X" are independent realizations of the normally-distributed, random variable "X", which has an expected value "μ" and variance "σ". Let


title: Student's t-distribution

text: has a chi-squared distribution with formula_73 degrees of freedom (by Cochran's theorem). It is readily shown that the quantity


title: Student's t-distribution

text: is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance 1, since the sample mean formula_95 is normally distributed with mean "μ" and variance "σ"/"n". Moreover, it is possible to show that these two random variables (the normally distributed one "Z" and the chi-squared-distributed one "V") are independent. Consequently the pivotal quantity


title: Student's t-distribution

text: which differs from "Z" in that the exact standard deviation "σ" is replaced by the random variable "S", has a Student's "t"-distribution as defined above. Notice that the unknown population variance "σ" does not appear in "T", since it was in both the numerator and the denominator, so it canceled. Gosset intuitively obtained the probability density function stated above, with formula_38 equal to "n" − 1, and Fisher proved it in 1925.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The distribution of the test statistic "T" depends on formula_38, but not "μ" or "σ"; the lack of dependence on "μ" and "σ" is what makes the "t"-distribution important in both theory and practice.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Student's "t"-distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variate "X" for which formula_99 is fixed.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: For a "t"-distribution with formula_38 degrees of freedom, the expected value is 0 if formula_106, and its variance is formula_107 if formula_108. The skewness is 0 if formula_6 and the excess kurtosis is formula_110 if formula_8.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: There are various approaches to constructing random samples from the Student's "t"-distribution. The matter depends on whether the samples are required on a stand-alone basis, or are to be constructed by application of a quantile function to uniform samples; e.g., in the multi-dimensional applications basis of copula-dependency. In the case of stand-alone sampling, an extension of the Box–Muller method and its polar form is easily deployed. It has the merit that it applies equally well to all real positive degrees of freedom, ν, while many other candidate methods fail if ν is close to zero.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The function "A"("t" | "ν") is the integral of Student's probability density function, "f"("t") between −"t" and "t", for "t" ≥ 0. It thus gives the probability that a value of "t" less than that calculated from observed data would occur by chance. Therefore, the function "A"("t" | "ν") can be used when testing whether the difference between the means of two sets of data is statistically significant, by calculating the corresponding value of "t" and the probability of its occurrence if the two sets of data were drawn from the same population. This is used in a variety of situations, particularly in "t"-tests. For the statistic "t", with "ν" degrees of freedom, "A"("t" | "ν") is the probability that "t" would be less than the observed value if the two means were the same (provided that the smaller mean is subtracted from the larger, so that "t" ≥ 0). It can be easily calculated from the cumulative distribution function "F"("t") of the "t"-distribution:


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Student's t distribution can be generalized to a three parameter location-scale family, introducing a location parameter formula_113 and a scale parameter formula_114, through the relation


title: Student's t-distribution

text: This means that formula_117 has a classic Student's t distribution with formula_118 degrees of freedom.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Here, formula_114 does "not" correspond to a standard deviation: it is not the standard deviation of the scaled "t" distribution, which may not even exist; nor is it the standard deviation of the underlying normal distribution, which is unknown. formula_114 simply sets the overall scaling of the distribution. In the Bayesian derivation of the marginal distribution of an unknown normal mean formula_113 above, formula_114 as used here corresponds to the quantity formula_124, where


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Equivalently, the distribution can be written in terms of formula_126, the square of this scale parameter:


title: Student's t-distribution

text: This distribution results from compounding a Gaussian distribution (normal distribution) with mean formula_55 and unknown variance, with an inverse gamma distribution placed over the variance with parameters formula_130 and formula_131. In other words, the random variable "X" is assumed to have a Gaussian distribution with an unknown variance distributed as inverse gamma, and then the variance is marginalized out (integrated out). The reason for the usefulness of this characterization is that the inverse gamma distribution is the conjugate prior distribution of the variance of a Gaussian distribution. As a result, the non-standardized Student's "t"-distribution arises naturally in many Bayesian inference problems. See below.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Equivalently, this distribution results from compounding a Gaussian distribution with a scaled-inverse-chi-squared distribution with parameters formula_38 and formula_126. The scaled-inverse-chi-squared distribution is exactly the same distribution as the inverse gamma distribution, but with a different parameterization, i.e. formula_134.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: This version of the t-distribution can be useful in financial modeling. For example, Platen and Sidorowicz found that among the family of generalized hyperbolic distributions, this form of the t-distribution with about 4 degrees of freedom was the best fit for the (log) return of many worldwide stock indices.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: An alternative parameterization in terms of an inverse scaling parameter formula_135 (analogous to the way precision is the reciprocal of variance), defined by the relation formula_136. The density is then given by:


title: Student's t-distribution

text: This distribution results from compounding a Gaussian distribution with mean formula_113 and unknown precision (the reciprocal of the variance), with a gamma distribution placed over the precision with parameters formula_130 and formula_141. In other words, the random variable "X" is assumed to have a normal distribution with an unknown precision distributed as gamma, and then this is marginalized over the gamma distribution.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Suppose that formula_146 represents formula_147 number of independently and identically distributed samples drawn from the Student t-distribution


title: Student's t-distribution

text: With a choice a prior for the degrees of freedom formula_38, denoted as formula_150, Bayesian inference seeks to evaluate the posterior distribution


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The right panels show the result of the numerical experiments. The Bayes estimator based on the Jeffreys prior formula_157 results in relatively lower Mean Squared Error (MSE ) then the Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE) over the values formula_158. It is important to note that no Bayes estimator dominates other estimators over the interval formula_159. In other words, each Bayes estimator has its own region where the estimator is non-inferior to others.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Student's "t"-distribution arises in a variety of statistical estimation problems where the goal is to estimate an unknown parameter, such as a mean value, in a setting where the data are observed with additive errors. If (as in nearly all practical statistical work) the population standard deviation of these errors is unknown and has to be estimated from the data, the "t"-distribution is often used to account for the extra uncertainty that results from this estimation. In most such problems, if the standard deviation of the errors were known, a normal distribution would be used instead of the "t"-distribution.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Confidence intervals and hypothesis tests are two statistical procedures in which the quantiles of the sampling distribution of a particular statistic (e.g. the standard score) are required. In any situation where this statistic is a linear function of the data, divided by the usual estimate of the standard deviation, the resulting quantity can be rescaled and centered to follow Student's "t"-distribution. Statistical analyses involving means, weighted means, and regression coefficients all lead to statistics having this form.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Quite often, textbook problems will treat the population standard deviation as if it were known and thereby avoid the need to use the Student's "t"-distribution. These problems are generally of two kinds: (1) those in which the sample size is so large that one may treat a data-based estimate of the variance as if it were certain, and (2) those that illustrate mathematical reasoning, in which the problem of estimating the standard deviation is temporarily ignored because that is not the point that the author or instructor is then explaining.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: A number of statistics can be shown to have "t"-distributions for samples of moderate size under null hypotheses that are of interest, so that the "t"-distribution forms the basis for significance tests. For example, the distribution of Spearman's rank correlation coefficient "ρ", in the null case (zero correlation) is well approximated by the "t" distribution for sample sizes above about 20.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: when "T" has a "t"-distribution with "n" − 1 degrees of freedom. By symmetry, this is the same as saying that "A" satisfies


title: Student's t-distribution

text: is a 90% confidence interval for μ. Therefore, if we find the mean of a set of observations that we can reasonably expect to have a normal distribution, we can use the "t"-distribution to examine whether the confidence limits on that mean include some theoretically predicted value – such as the value predicted on a null hypothesis.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: It is this result that is used in the Student's "t"-tests: since the difference between the means of samples from two normal distributions is itself distributed normally, the "t"-distribution can be used to examine whether that difference can reasonably be supposed to be zero.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: If the data are normally distributed, the one-sided (1 − "α")-upper confidence limit (UCL) of the mean, can be calculated using the following equation:


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The resulting UCL will be the greatest average value that will occur for a given confidence interval and population size. In other words, formula_95 being the mean of the set of observations, the probability that the mean of the distribution is inferior to UCL is equal to the confidence level 1 − "α".


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The "t"-distribution can be used to construct a prediction interval for an unobserved sample from a normal distribution with unknown mean and variance.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The Student's "t"-distribution, especially in its three-parameter (location-scale) version, arises frequently in Bayesian statistics as a result of its connection with the normal distribution. Whenever the variance of a normally distributed random variable is unknown and a conjugate prior placed over it that follows an inverse gamma distribution, the resulting marginal distribution of the variable will follow a Student's "t"-distribution. Equivalent constructions with the same results involve a conjugate scaled-inverse-chi-squared distribution over the variance, or a conjugate gamma distribution over the precision. If an improper prior proportional to "σ" is placed over the variance, the "t"-distribution also arises. This is the case regardless of whether the mean of the normally distributed variable is known, is unknown distributed according to a conjugate normally distributed prior, or is unknown distributed according to an improper constant prior.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The "t"-distribution is often used as an alternative to the normal distribution as a model for data, which often has heavier tails than the normal distribution allows for; see e.g. Lange et al. The classical approach was to identify outliers (e.g., using Grubbs's test) and exclude or downweight them in some way. However, it is not always easy to identify outliers (especially in high dimensions), and the "t"-distribution is a natural choice of model for such data and provides a parametric approach to robust statistics.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: A Bayesian account can be found in Gelman et al. The degrees of freedom parameter controls the kurtosis of the distribution and is correlated with the scale parameter. The likelihood can have multiple local maxima and, as such, it is often necessary to fix the degrees of freedom at a fairly low value and estimate the other parameters taking this as given. Some authors report that values between 3 and 9 are often good choices. Venables and Ripley suggest that a value of 5 is often a good choice.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: For practical regression and prediction needs, Student's "t"-processes were introduced, that are generalisations of the Student "t"-distributions for functions. A Student's "t"-process is constructed from the Student "t"-distributions like a Gaussian process is constructed from the Gaussian distributions. For a Gaussian process, all sets of values have a multidimensional Gaussian distribution. Analogously, formula_168 is a Student "t"-process on an interval formula_169 if the correspondent values of the process formula_170 (formula_171) have a joint multivariate Student "t"-distribution. These processes are used for regression, prediction, Bayesian optimization and related problems. For multivariate regression and multi-output prediction, the multivariate Student "t"-processes are introduced and used.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The following table lists values for "t"-distributions with "ν" degrees of freedom for a range of one-sided or two-sided critical regions. The first column is "ν", the percentages along the top are confidence levels, and the numbers in the body of the table are the formula_172 factors described in the section on confidence intervals.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: The last row with infinite "ν" gives critical points for a normal distribution since a "t"-distribution with infinitely many degrees of freedom is a normal distribution. (See Related distributions above).


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Let's say we have a sample with size 11, sample mean 10, and sample variance 2. For 90% confidence with 10 degrees of freedom, the one-sided "t"-value from the table is 1.372. Then with confidence interval calculated from


title: Student's t-distribution

text: In other words, 90% of the times that an upper threshold is calculated by this method from particular samples, this upper threshold exceeds the true mean.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: In other words, 90% of the times that a lower threshold is calculated by this method from particular samples, this lower threshold lies below the true mean.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: So that at 80% confidence (calculated from 100% − 2 × (1 − 90%) = 80%), we have a true mean lying within the interval


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Saying that 80% of the times that upper and lower thresholds are calculated by this method from a given sample, the true mean is both below the upper threshold and above the lower threshold is not the same as saying that there is an 80% probability that the true mean lies between a particular pair of upper and lower thresholds that have been calculated by this method; see confidence interval and prosecutor's fallacy.


title: Student's t-distribution

text: Nowadays, statistical software, such as the R programming language, and functions available in many spreadsheet programs compute values of the "t"-distribution and its inverse without tables.


title: Hammer and sickle

text: The hammer and sickle (Unicode: "☭") is a symbol meant to represent proletarian solidarity, a union between agricultural and industrial workers. It was first adopted during the Russian Revolution at the end of World War I, the hammer representing workers and the sickle representing the peasants.


title: Hammer and sickle

text: After World War I (from which Russia withdrew in 1917) and the Russian Civil War, the hammer and sickle became more widely used as a symbol for labor within the Soviet Union and for international proletarian unity. It was taken up by many communist movements around the world, some with local variations. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War, the hammer and sickle remains commonplace in Russia itself and other former Soviet republics. In some other former communist countries, as well as in countries where communism is banned by law, its display is prohibited. The hammer and sickle is also commonplace in later self-declared socialist states such as Cuba, China, North Korea, Vietnam, and Laos.


title: Hammer and sickle

text: The combination of hammer and sickle symbolised the combination of farmers and construction workers. One example of use prior to its political instrumentalization by the Soviet Union is found in Chilean currency circulating since 1894.


title: Hammer and sickle

text: An alternative example is the combination of a hammer and a plough, with the same meaning (unity of peasants and workers). In Ireland, the symbol of the plough remains in use. The Starry Plough banner was originally used by the Irish Citizen Army, a socialist republican workers' militia. James Connolly, who co-founded the Irish Citizen Army with Jack White, said the significance of the banner was that a free Ireland would control its own destiny from the plough to the stars. A sword is forged into the plough to symbolise the end of war with the establishment of a Socialist International. That was unveiled in 1914 and flown by the Irish Citizen Army during the 1916 Easter Rising.


title: Hammer and sickle

text: In 1917, Vladimir Lenin and Anatoly Lunacharsky held a competition to create a Soviet emblem. The winning design was a hammer and sickle on top of a globe in rays of the sun, surrounded by a wreath of grain and under a five-pointed star, with the inscription "proletarians of the world, unite!" in six languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani). It originally featured a sword, but Lenin strongly objected, disliking the violent connotations. The winning designer was Yevgeny Ivanovich Kamzolkin (1885–1957).


title: Hammer and sickle

text: On 6 July 1923, the 2nd session of the Central Executive Committee (CIK) adopted the emblem. In his work, "Daily Life in a Crumbling Empire: The Absorption of Russia into the World Economy", sociologist David Lempert hypothesizes that the hammer and sickle was a secular replacement for the patriarchal cross.


title: Hammer and sickle

text: At the time of creation, the hammer and sickle stood for worker-peasant alliance, with the hammer a traditional symbol of the industrial proletariat (who dominated the proletariat of Russia) and the sickle a traditional symbol for the peasantry, but the meaning has since broadened to a globally recognizable symbol for Marxism, communist parties, or socialist states.