title: Flying ace

text: In World War II, United States Army Air Forces S/Sgt. Michael Arooth, a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress tail gunner serving in the 379th Bombardment Group, was credited with 19 kills and the Consolidated B-24 Liberator gunner Arthur J. Benko (374th Bombardment Squadron) with 16 kills. The Royal Air Force's leading bomber gunner, Wallace McIntosh, was credited with eight kills while serving as a rear turret gunner on Avro Lancasters, including three on one mission. Flight Sergeant F. J. Barker contributed to 12 victories while flying as a gunner in a Boulton Paul Defiant turret-equipped fighter piloted by Flight Sergeant E. R. Thorne. On the German side, Erwin Hentschel, the Junkers Ju 87 rear gunner of Luftwaffe pilot and anti-tank ace Hans-Ulrich Rudel, had 7 confirmed kills. The crew of the bomber pilot Otto Köhnke from "Kampfgeschwader" 3 is credited with the destruction of 11 enemy fighters (6 French, 1 British, 4 Soviet).


title: Flying ace

text: With the advent of more advanced technology, a third category of ace appeared. Charles B. DeBellevue became not only the first U.S. Air Force weapon systems officer (WSO) to become an ace but also the top American ace of the Vietnam War, with six victories. Close behind with five were fellow WSO Jeffrey Feinstein and Radar Intercept Officer William P. Driscoll.


title: Flying ace

text: The first military aviators to score five or more victories on the same date, thus each becoming an "ace in a day", were pilot Julius Arigi and observer/gunner Johann Lasi of the Austro-Hungarian air force, on August 22, 1916, when they downed five Italian aircraft. The feat was repeated five more times during World War I.


title: Flying ace

text: Becoming an ace in a day became relatively common during World War II. A total of 68 U.S. pilots (43 Army Air Forces, 18 Navy, and seven Marine Corps pilots) were credited with the feat, including legendary test pilot Chuck Yeager.


title: Flying ace

text: In the Soviet offensive of 1944 in the Karelian Isthmus, Finnish pilot Hans Wind shot down 30 enemy aircraft in 12 days. In doing so, he obtained "ace in a day" status three times.


title: Flying ace

text: During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Pakistani pilot Muhammad Mahmood Alam downed five aircraft in a single sortie on 7 September 1965 with four in less than a minute, establishing a world record. These claims, however, as always have been widely contested by Indian Air Force.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Lady and the Tramp is a 1955 American animated musical romance film produced by Walt Disney and released by Buena Vista Film Distribution. The 15th Disney animated feature film, it was directed by Clyde Geronimi, Wilfred Jackson, and Hamilton Luske, and features the voices of Barbara Luddy, Larry Roberts, Bill Thompson, Bill Baucom, Verna Felton, and Peggy Lee. Based on the 1945 "Cosmopolitan" magazine story "Happy Dan, The Cynical Dog" by Ward Greene, "Lady and the Tramp" tells the story of Lady the pampered Cocker Spaniel, who happily lives with a refined, upper-middle-class family. Over her life, Lady deals with changes in her family, and meets and falls in love with Tramp the homeless mutt.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was released to theaters on June 22, 1955, to box office success. It was the first animated film to be filmed in the CinemaScope widescreen film process, as well as Disney's first animated film to be distributed by their Buena Vista division. It initially received generally mixed reviews by film critics, but critical reception for the film has been generally positive in modern times. A direct-to-video sequel, "", was released on February 27, 2001, and a live-action/CGI hybrid remake premiered on November 12, 2019, as a launch title for the Disney+ streaming service.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: In 1909, in a small Midwestern town, "Jim Dear" gives his wife "Darling" a cocker spaniel puppy as a Christmas present. The puppy, named Lady, grows up pampered by her doting owners, and befriends her neighbors' dogs Jock (a Scottie) and Trusty (an elderly Bloodhound). Meanwhile, across town, a stray terrier-mix named Tramp feeds on scraps and handouts, and frees his friends Peg the Pekingese and Bull the Bulldog from the local dogcatcher.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Fleeing the angry dogcatcher, Tramp finds himself in Lady's neighborhood. He overhears a distraught Lady conversing with Jock and Trusty about her owners' suddenly-distant behavior towards her. When Jock and Trusty deduce this is because Darling is pregnant, Tramp inserts himself into the conversation as the "voice of experience", and warns Lady that "when a baby moves in, a dog moves out". Annoyed, Jock drives him from the yard. Tramp's words cause Lady to fret throughout Darling's pregnancy, but when the baby boy arrives, she is allowed to meet and bond with him, dispelling her fears.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Later, Jim Dear and Darling take a short trip, leaving the house, Lady, and the baby in the care of Jim Dear's aunt Sarah, who brings along her two Siamese cats Si and Am. Sarah dislikes dogs, and prohibits Lady from seeing the baby; later, the cats destroy the house, and pin the deed on Lady by pretending she injured them. Sarah takes Lady to the pet shop, and has a muzzle put on her; Lady panics and flees into the street, where she is pursued by three savage dogs, until Tramp intervenes to protect her.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Tramp takes Lady to the zoo to have the muzzle removed by a beaver; he then shows Lady his owner-free lifestyle, and they explore the town. The kindly proprietor of Tony's Restaurant gives them a spaghetti dinner to share, before they end the evening with a walk in the park.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: The next day, Tramp tries to convince Lady to live "footloose and collar free" with him; despite liking Tramp, she decides her duty is to watch over the baby. As Tramp escorts Lady home, he stops to chase some chickens; the dogcatcher pursues them both, but only Lady is caught. At the pound, she meets Peg, Bull, and some other strays, who all know Tramp. They reveal he has had many girlfriends in the past, and claim that females are his weakness.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Sarah comes to claim Lady, and chains her in the backyard as punishment for running away. Jock and Trusty propose that Lady should marry and come live with one of them, to escape the abuse, but she gently refuses them. When Tramp arrives to apologize to Lady, she berates him for his many girlfriends and sends him away, too. Afterwards, Lady notices a large rat sneaking into the house through the baby's bedroom window. Her attempts to alert Sarah fail, but Tramp hears her barking, returns, and enters the house himself to save the baby. Lady breaks her chain and follows soon after. Tramp is wounded in the battle with the rat, but manages to kill it behind a curtain. During the struggle, the baby's crib overturns, and he begins to cry; Sarah comes to investigate, and assumes the dogs attacked the baby.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Jim Dear and Darling return home to find that Sarah has locked Lady in the cellar and handed Tramp over to the dogcatcher to be euthanized. Disbelieving Sarah's story, Jim Dear frees Lady, who immediately shows them the dead rat. Overhearing the truth, Jock and Trusty pursue the dogcatcher's cart and try to stop it; the horses spook, causing the cart to crash. Jim Dear and Darling arrive with Lady to rescue Tramp, but Trusty is badly injured in the wreck.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Later, at Christmastime, Tramp has become an official part of the family, and he and Lady have four little puppies of their own. Jock and a mostly-healed Trusty visit the family; the puppies now provide Trusty a new audience for his old stories, but he has forgotten them, much


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: In 1937, Walt Disney Productions story artist Joe Grant came up with an idea inspired by the antics of his English Springer Spaniel Lady, and how she got "shoved aside" by Joe's new baby. He approached Walt Disney with sketches of Lady. Disney enjoyed the sketches and commissioned Grant to start story development on a new animated feature titled "Lady". Through the late 1930s and early 1940s, Joe Grant and other artists worked on the story, taking a variety of approaches, but Disney was not pleased with any of them, primarily because he thought Lady was too sweet, and there was not enough action.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Walt Disney read the short story written by Ward Greene, titled "Happy Dan, the Cynical Dog", in the "Cosmopolitan" magazine, published in 1945. He thought that Grant's story would be improved if Lady fell in love with a cynical dog character like the one in Greene's story, and bought the rights to it. The cynical dog had various names during development, including Homer, Rags, and Bozo, before "Tramp" was chosen.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: The finished film is slightly different from what was originally planned. Lady was to have only one next-door neighbor, a Ralph Bellamy-type canine named Hubert. Hubert was later replaced with Jock and Trusty. Aunt Sarah was the traditional overbearing mother-in-law. In the final film, she is softened to a busybody who, though antagonistic towards Lady and Tramp, is well-meaning (she sends a packet of dog biscuits to the dogs at Christmas to apologize for mistreating them). Aunt Sarah's Nip and Tuck were later renamed Si and Am. Originally, Lady's owners were called Jim Brown and Elizabeth. These were changed to highlight Lady's point of view. They were briefly referred to as "Mister" and "Missis" before settling on the names "Jim Dear" and "Darling". To maintain a dog's perspective, Darling and Jim's faces are rarely shown, similar to Tom's various owners in the "Tom and Jerry" cartoons. The rat was a somewhat comic character in early sketches, but became a great deal more frightening, due to the need to raise dramatic tension. A scene created but then deleted was one in which after Trusty says "Everybody knows, a dog's best friend is his human", Tramp describes a world in which the roles of both dogs and humans are switched; the dogs are the masters and vice versa. There was a love triangle among Lady, Tramp, and a Russian wolfhound named Boris (who appears in the dog pound in the final version).


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: The film's opening sequence, in which Darling unwraps a hat box on Christmas morning and finds Lady inside, is inspired by an incident when Walt Disney presented his wife Lily with a Chow puppy as a gift in a hat box to make up for having previously forgotten a dinner date with her.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: In 1949, Grant left the studio, yet Disney story men were continually pulling Grant's original drawings and story off the shelf to retool. A solid story began taking shape in 1953, based on Grant's storyboards and Greene's short story. Greene later wrote a novelization of the film that was released two years before the film itself, at Walt Disney's insistence, so that audiences would be familiar with the story. Due to Greene's novelization, Grant did not receive film credit for his story work, an issue that animation director Eric Goldberg hoped to rectify in the "Lady and the Tramp" Platinum Edition's behind-the-scenes vignette that explained Grant's role.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: As they had done with deer on "Bambi", the animators studied many dogs of different breeds to capture the movement and personality of dogs. Although the spaghetti eating sequence is probably now the best-known scene from the film, Walt Disney was prepared to cut it, thinking that it would not be romantic and that dogs eating spaghetti would look silly. Animator Frank Thomas was against Walt's decision and animated the entire scene himself without any lay-outs. Walt was impressed by Thomas's work and how he romanticized the scene and kept it in. On viewing the first take of the scene, the animators felt that the action should be slowed down, so an apprentice trainee was assigned to create "half numbers" in between many of the original frames.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Originally, the background artist was supposed to be Mary Blair and she did some inspirational sketches for the film. However, she left the studio to become a children's book illustrator in 1953. Claude Coats was then appointed as the key background artist. Coats made models of the interiors of Jim Dear and Darling's house, and shot photos and film at a low perspective as reference to maintain a dog's view. Eyvind Earle (who later became the art director of Disney's "Sleeping Beauty") did almost 50 miniature concept sketches for the "Bella Notte" sequence and was a key contributor to the film.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Originally, "Lady and the Tramp" was planned to be filmed in a regular full frame aspect ratio. However, due to the growing interest of widescreen film among movie-goers, Disney decided to animate the film in CinemaScope making "Lady and the Tramp" the first animated feature filmed in the process. This new innovation presented additional problems for the animators: the expansion of space created more realism but gave fewer closeups. It also made it difficult for a single character to dominate the screen so that groups had to be spread out to keep the screen from appearing sparse. Longer takes become necessary since constant jump-cutting would seem too busy or annoying. Layout artists essentially had to reinvent their technique. Animators had to remember that they had to move their characters across a background instead of the background passing behind them. Yet the animators overcame these obstacles during the action scenes, such as Tramp killing the rat.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: More problems arose as the premiere date got closer since not all theaters had the capability to show CinemaScope at the time. Upon learning this, Walt issued two versions of the film: one in widescreen, and another in the Academy ratio. This involved gathering the layout artists to restructure key scenes when characters were on the edges of the screen.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was originally released to theaters on June 22, 1955. An episode of "Disneyland" called "A Story of Dogs" aired before the film's release. The film was also reissued to theaters in 1962, 1972, 1980, and 1986. "Lady and the Tramp" also played a limited engagement in select Cinemark Theatres from February 16–18, 2013.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was first released on North American VHS cassette and Laserdisc in 1987 as part of the Walt Disney Classics video series and in the United Kingdom in 1990. At the end of its initial home video release, it was reported to have sold more than three million copies, becoming the best-selling videocassette at the time. It went into moratorium on March 31, 1988. The video cassette had grossed in sales by 1988. Peggy Lee was asked to help promote the release, for which she was paid $500. After its release on videotape, she sought performance and song royalties on the video sales. Disney CEO Michael Eisner refused, thus she filed suit in 1988. Eventually in 1992, the California Court of Appeals order Disney to pay Lee $3.2 million in compensation or about 4% of the video sales.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: It was released on VHS again in 1998 as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection video series. A Disney Limited Issue series DVD of the film was released on November 23, 1999 for a limited sixty-day time period.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was remastered and restored for DVD on February 28, 2006, as the seventh installment of Disney's Platinum Editions series. On its first day, one million copies of the Platinum Edition were sold. The Platinum Edition DVD went on moratorium on January 31, 2007, along with the 2006 DVD re-issue of the film's sequel "".


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was released on Blu-ray on February 7, 2012 as a part of Disney's Diamond Editions series. A standalone 1-disc DVD edition was released on March 20, 2012.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was re-released on Digital HD on February 20, 2018, and on Blu-ray February 27, 2018, as part of the Walt Disney Signature Collection line.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: During its initial release, the film initially polarized critics. Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" claimed the film was "not the best [Disney] has done in this line. The sentimentality is mighty, and the CinemaScope size does not make for any less aware of the thickness of the goo. It also magnifies the animation, so that the flaws and poor foreshortening are more plain. Unfortunately, and surprisingly, the artists' work is below par in this film." "Time" wrote "Walt Disney has for so long parlayed gooey sentiment and stark horror into profitable cartoons that most moviegoers are apt to be more surprised than disappointed to discover that the combination somehow does not work this time." However, "Variety" deemed the film "a delight for the juveniles and a joy for adults". "Harrison's Reports" felt the "scintillating musical score and several songs, the dialogue and the voices, the behaviors and expressions of the different characters, the mellow turn-of-the-century backgrounds, the beautiful color and sweep of the CinemaScope process — all these add up to the one of the most enjoyable cartoon features Disney has ever made." Edwin Schallert of the "Los Angeles Times" described the film as a "delightful, haunting, charmed fantasy that is remarkably enriched with music and, incidentally, with rare conversations among the canine characters."


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: However, the film has since gone on to become regarded as a classic. Dave Kehr, writing for "The Chicago Tribune" gave the film four stars. Animation historian Charles Solomon praised the film. The sequence of Lady and Tramp sharing a plate of spaghetti — climaxed by an accidental kiss as they swallow opposite ends of the same strand of spaghetti — is considered an iconic scene in American film history. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received approval rating, with an average rating of , based on reviews. The website's consensus states, "A nostalgic charmer, "Lady and the Tramp"s token sweetness is mighty but the songs and richly colored animation are technically superb and make for a memorable experience."


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was named number 95 out of the "100 Greatest Love Stories of All Time" by the American Film Institute in their "100 Years...100 Passions" special, as one of only two animated films to appear on the list, along with Disney's "Beauty and the Beast" which ranked 34th. In 2010, Rhapsody called its accompanying soundtrack one of the all-time great Disney and Pixar soundtracks. In June 2011, "TIME" named it one of "The 25 All-TIME Best Animated Films".


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: In its initial release, the film took in a higher figure than any other Disney animated feature since "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", earning an estimated $6.5 million in distributor rentals. When it was re-released in 1962, it grossed roughly between $6 million and $7 million. During its 1971 re-release, the film grossed $10 million, and when it was re-released again in 1980, it grossed $27 million. During its fourth re-release in 1986, it garnered $31.1 million.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: "Lady and the Tramp" has had a domestic lifetime gross of $93.6 million, and a lifetime international gross of $187 million.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: The score for the film was composed and conducted by Oliver Wallace. It was the last Disney animated film for which Oliver Wallace did the score, as the scores for the next six Disney animated films were composed by George Bruns, starting with "Sleeping Beauty" until "Robin Hood". Recording artist Peggy Lee wrote the songs with Sonny Burke and assisted with the score as well. In the film, she sings "La La Lu", "The Siamese Cat Song", and "He's a Tramp". She helped promote the film on the Disney TV series, explaining her work with the score and singing a few of the film's numbers. These appearances are available as part of the "Lady and the Tramp" Platinum Edition DVD set.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: On November 16, 1988, Peggy Lee sued the Walt Disney Company for breach of contract, claiming that she retained the rights to transcriptions of the music, arguing that videotape editions were transcriptions. After a protracted legal battle, she was awarded $2.3 million in 1991.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: The remastered soundtrack of "Lady and the Tramp" was released on CD by Walt Disney Records on September 9, 1997, and was released as a digital download on September 26, 2006.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: On February 27, 2001, Disney Television Animation and Disney Video Premiere released a direct-to-video sequel to the film titled "". Produced 46 years after its predecessor and set two years and a few months after the events of the first film, it centers on the adventures of Lady and Tramp's only son, Scamp, who desires to be a wild dog. He runs away from his family and joins a gang of junkyard dogs to fulfill his longing for freedom and a life without rules. Reviews for the sequel were generally mixed to negative, with critics panning its plot.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Walt Disney Pictures produced a live-action remake of the film with Justin Theroux and Tessa Thompson in the voice roles of Tramp and Lady respectively. The movie premiered on Disney's new streaming service, Disney+, on its US launch date of November 12, 2019.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: In the world builder game "Disney Magic Kingdoms", Lady, Tramp, Tony, Joe, Jock and Trusty appear as playable characters, along with some attractions based on locations of the film. In the game the characters are involved in new storylines that serve as a continuation of the film.


title: Lady and the Tramp

text: Walt Disney wanted the setting of the film to be Marceline, Missouri which had been his childhood hometown. Whilst "Lady and the Tramp" was in production, Walt was also designing Disneyland in California and styled the Main Street, U.S.A. area of the park to Marceline. Tony's Town Square Restaurant is an Italian restaurant inspired by Lady and the Tramp and is located at Walt Disney World, whilst the Pizzeria Bella Notte restaurant is at Disneyland Paris.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Backstreet Rookie () is a 2020 South Korean television series starring Ji Chang-wook and Kim Yoo-jung. It is based on the 2016–2017 webtoon "Convenience Store Saet-byul" written by Hwalhwasan. It is the first Korean drama funded by the global channel Lifetime and produced by Taewon Entertainment. The series aired on SBS TV at 22:00 (KST) time slot from June 19 to August 8, 2020, on Fridays and Saturdays for 16 episodes. It is available on iQIYI and on Rakuten Viki with subtitles in multiple languages globally.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: After being dumped by his girlfriend, Dae-Hyun (Ji Chang-wook) is approached by high-school tough girl Saet-Byul (Kim You-Jung) who needs an adult to help her buy cigarettes, but she is rewarded with candy and a lecture instead. Thankful for his caring act, albeit somewhat sarcastically, she surprises him by giving him a kiss. They go their separate ways and do not see each other for a while.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Three years later, Dae-Hyun manages his family-owned convenience store but is repeatedly forced to work multiple shifts that deprives him from getting any sleep and he struggles to keep up with the daily operations of the store due to his fatigue. Although high school girls like to come in and take pictures with him, the store doesn't make a lot of money. In order to keep his business afloat, Dae-Hyun’s father urges him to hire a part-timer to help him out with the store. With Saet-Byul being the only applicant, Dae-Hyun reluctantly agrees to hire her on a probationary basis.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Dae-Hyun has been suffering due to his convenience store not making enough money and his family being unreliable to help him enough. After getting burned out from the store, he agrees to hiring a part-timer for the late night shift. Saet-Byul sees the ad and she applies for the job to get close to him. Dae-Hyun remembers Saet-Byul as a delinquent and is prepared to reject her but relents after she brings in more customers. Not fully accepting her, he makes it clear she's on probation until she proves her worth.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: While trying to make his business successful, Dae-Hyun wants to advance his relationship with Yeon-Joo; there has been interference due to mistrust and insecurity. Yeon-Joo comes from an affluent family while Dae-Hyun is just a store manager, and she is not prepared to introduce him to her family. Jo Seung-Joon (Do Sang-Woo) is a family friend to Yeon-Joo and co-worker at the company. He always desired Yeon-Joo, but she resisted his advances for Dae-Hyun. The stability of their relationship will be tested after Yeon-Joo meets Saet-Byul.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Yeon-Joo has heard gossip of Dae-Hyun hiring a beautiful part-timer, but wasn't concerned until they met. While out on a date with Dae-Hyun, Yeon-Joo offends some delinquents and they intend to rob her until Saet-Byul defeats them. After seeing her beauty and Saet-Byul's affectionate gaze at Dae-Hyun, Yeon-Joo sees Saet-Byul as a threat and wants her fired. However, Saet-Byul's girlfriends defend her actions as saving Yeon-Joo. Dae-Hyun realizes Saet-Byul is not a troublemaker; he convinces Yeon-Joo to let the matter go. However, Yeon-Joo's insecurities and misunderstandings between the two only intensify because of their closeness. Yeon-Joo privately speaks to Saet-Byul, asking her to leave to save their relationship. Saet-Byul complies and tells Dae-Hyun she's leaving for better financial opportunities.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: At the most inconvenient time, Saet-Byul and Eun-Byul became homeless due to a real estate scam. It is also around this time that Eun-Byul has the chance to become a pop star. Desperate to realize her dreams, she takes all of Saet-Byul's money to pay for a fake parent to weasel her way into the talent agency, leaving Saet-Byul penniless. She bumps into Dae-Hyun's mom, who invites Saet-Byul to stay with them. When Saet-Byul realizes there was something happening between Yeon-Joo and Seung-Joon, she warns Yeon-Joo she'll compete for Dae-Hyun if she doesn't realize his value. Yeon-Joo wants to repair things with Dae-Hyun, but it goes south after she learns Saet-Byul is staying in Dae-Hyun's home. With Yeon-Joo's mom shaming Dae-Hyun's family for their poverty and lack of trust in their relationship, Yeon-Joo breaks up with Dae-Hyun.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Saet-Byul feels she has inconvenienced the Choi family enough and moves out, but she has trouble finding a stable job and a place to stay. Her friends can only give her temporary shelter due to detractors seeing her as a problem; Dae-Hyun's mom convinces her to stay with them for the time being. Dae-Hyun rehires Saet-Byul and promotes her to store manager. With Yeon-Joo no longer in the picture, Saet-Byul enjoys the opportunity to get closer with Dae-Hyun. As they both work to make the store profitable again, Dae-Hyun starts to have feelings for Saet-Byul. Seeing how she never completed her high school education, Dae-Hyun helps Saet-Byul in her GED studies. Just as things are warming up between the two, Yeon-Joo comes back into their lives.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Yeon-Joo discovers the reason why Dae-Hyun left GS Corporate was because Seung-Joon encouraged him to take the fall. She feels guilty and wants to make things up for Dae-Hyun, but he makes it clear he's already moved on and doesn't want to be involved with her. Determined to elevate Dae-Hyun's position, she makes arrangements for Dae-Hyun to meet Chairman Jo. The plan works and the chairman wants to make Dae-Hyun a corporate advisor. Yeon-Joo informs Dae-Hyun about the good news, but he doesn't want to get involved with such matters ever again.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Meanwhile, Eun-Byul has made her debut in the group Fancy Girls, but her career is under threat. The same delinquents that tried to rob Yeon-Joo take compromising photos of Eun-Byul; they demand she gives them money or risks the photos destroying her career. The delinquent trio intend to visit Saet-Byul at the store for money, but they get scared when they see the police talking to her. Believing the law is looking for them, they decide to release all their footage to destroy Saet-Byul and Eun-Byul. News of the Jung Sisters catch fire through social media. The reporter that was investigating this matter gets frustrated as someone releases the news ahead of her; she piggybacks on the news and confirms it.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Their reputations are now tarnished; Eun-Byul is forced to leave Fancy Girls and the locals fear Saet-Byul. Dae-Hyun believes in Saet-Byul and advises facing the problem with honesty will fix everything. Inspired by Dae-Hyun's words, Saet-Byul finds the delinquents on their turf. She defeats the red haired bully and takes her cell phone. Saet-Byul gives the reporter the phone and asks her to clear the names of the people involved in the scandal. Saet-Byul meets up with Eun-Byul after she left Fancy Girls in shame. Despite the wild accusations, Dae-Hyun's mom offers them shelter. The reporter eventually publishes the truth, correcting all misunderstandings and Eun-Byul returns to the group. Aware of the job offer at corporate, Saet-Byul encourages Dae-Hyun to accept the new position. However, he collapses due to exhaustion; HQ sends employees to help him manage the store while he's away, but the new staff doesn't get along with Saet-Byul as Yeon-Joo wants to get rid of her.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Dae-Hyun makes his feelings clear he wants to be with Saet-Byul but she wants to answer him once she gets the results of her GED. However, they can't help treating each other as boyfriend and girlfriend. Yeon-Joo can sense the romantic development between the two and starts forming better relations with Dae-Hyun's mom as a counter. Dae-Hyun's mom pressures him to see a chance to get back together with Yeon-Joo; he only accepts Yeon-Joo's apology and leaves things platonic. Disappointed that he would squander such a chance, Saet-Byul feels guilty that mother and son would fight over the matter. Saet-Byul talks to Dae-Hyun's mom, she fears for Dae-Hyun's future and wants her son to have a better life. Although Dae-Hyun told Saet-Byul to not take matters to heart, she quietly leaves the Choi family with a farewell letter; she hopes Dae-Hyun will have a better future with Yeon-Joo.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Devastated over Saet-Byul's departure, Dae-Hyun is desperate to find her. With his friend's help, Dae-Hyun finds Saet-Byul working at a farm, on the city outskirts. Rather than pressure her to come back, Dae-Hyun says he'll wait for her return. Dae-Hyun will break the news to his parents Saet-Byul left. Baffled at first, Dae-Hyun's mom realizes her words pushed her away. Dae-Hyun has a private dinner with Yeon-Joo; he intends to resign and return to the store. He also makes it clear he won't take Yeon-Joo back; this prompts her to resign from GS25 and take a job in the US for a fresh start. Saet-Byul returns to Sinseong-dong and learns thst she passed her GED exam and that Dae-Hyun resigned. As on her first day at the store, Dae-Hyun is hiring and Saet-Byul comes in to apply. Saet-Byul later answers his question (from his confession earlier) with a “yes” to being together. The story ends with Dae-Hyun's friend declaring he will make their story into a webcomic called Backstreet Rookie and the two of them finally kiss.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: The first script-reading was held in February 2020. The series is directed by Myoungwoo Lee of hit series "The Fiery Priest" (2019).


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: The main cast (Ji Chang-wook, Kim Yoo-jung, Han Sun-hwa and Do Sang-woo) appeared on the 507th episode of the variety show "Running Man" to promote the series.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: Singles from the soundtrack of the series were released from June 19 to July 25, 2020, under the record label of Dreamus and MOSTCONTENTS:


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: The show has faced heavy criticism for sexually suggestive scenes as well as characters drawing objectionable scenes. The show has also been accused of plagiarism.


title: Backstreet Rookie

text: The Korea Communications Standards Commission issued a warning to the show for airing provocative and inappropriate scenes. The KCSC noted that “in the process of producing an R-rated webtoon into a TV series with a rating of 15 years old and older, the drama production team has shown that it lacks consideration in portraying different genders and produced contents that can cause viewers discomfort and aversion”. The KCSC has received over 7,000 complaints about inappropriate scenes in the show.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The Great Heathen Army, also known as the Viking Great Army, was a coalition of Scandinavian warriors who invaded England in AD 865. Since the late 8th century, the Vikings had been engaging in raids on centres of wealth, such as monasteries. The Great Heathen Army was much larger and aimed to conquer and occupy the four kingdoms of East Anglia, Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The name "Great Heathen Army" is derived from the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The force was led by three of the five sons of the semi-legendary Ragnar Lodbrok, including Halfdan Ragnarsson, Ivar the Boneless and Ubba. The campaign of invasion and conquest against the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms lasted 14 years. Surviving sources give no firm indication of its numbers, but it was described as amongst the largest forces of its kind.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The invaders initially landed in East Anglia, where the king provided them with horses for their campaign in return for peace. They spent the winter of 865–866 at Thetford, before marching north to capture York in November 866. York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: During 867, the army marched deep into Mercia and wintered in Nottingham. The Mercians agreed to terms with the Viking army, which moved back to York for the winter of 868–869. In 869, the Great Army returned to East Anglia, conquering it and killing its king. The army moved to winter quarters in Thetford.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: In 871, the Vikings moved on to Wessex, where Alfred the Great paid them to leave. The army then marched to London to overwinter in 871–872. The following campaigning season the army first moved to York, where it gathered reinforcements. This force campaigned in northeastern Mercia, after which it spent the winter at Torksey, on the Trent close to the Humber. The following campaigning season it seems to have subdued much of Mercia. Burgred, the king of Mercia, fled overseas and Coelwulf, described in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" as "a foolish king's thegn" was imposed in his place. The army spent the following winter at Repton on the middle Trent, after which the army seems to have divided. One group seems to have returned to Northumbria, where they settled in the area, while another group seems to have turned to invade Wessex.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: By this time, only the kingdom of Wessex had not been conquered. In May of 878 Alfred the Great defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington, and a treaty was agreed whereby the Vikings were able to remain in control of much of northern and eastern England.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" does not mention the reason for this invasion, perhaps because Viking raids were fairly common during that period of time. "The Tale of Ragnar's Sons", on the other hand, mentions that the invasion of England by the Great Heathen Army was aimed at avenging the death of Ragnar Lodbrok, a legendary Viking ruler of Sweden and Denmark. In the Viking saga, Ragnar is said to have conducted a raid on Northumbria during the reign of King Ælla. The Vikings were defeated and Ragnar was captured by the Northumbrians. Ælla then had Ragnar executed by throwing him into a pit of venomous snakes. When the sons of Ragnar received news of their father's death, they decided to avenge him.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Viking raids began in England in the late 8th century, primarily on monasteries. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" entry for AD 787 reports the first confrontation with the Vikings in England.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: This incident is regarded, by some, as the first raid on England. Æthelweard's version of the Chronicle, known as the "Chronicon Æthelweardi", has a slightly different version of events, saying that the reeve, a certain Beaduheard, had spoken to the visitors in an "authoritative tone" and this is why they killed him.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The designation of these "Hæretha-landers" as Danes is somewhat problematic. Sara María Pons-Sanz states, in "Analysis of the Scandinavian Loanwords in the Aldredian Glosses to the Lindisfarne Gospels", that they were either men from Harthæsysæl (Hardsyssel) in Jutland, so actually Danes, or from Hörthaland in Norway, so that in the last case the word "Danish" refers to all Scandinavian people.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The first monastery to be raided was in 793 at Lindisfarne, off the northeast coast; the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" described the Vikings as "heathen men". Monasteries and minster churches were popular targets as they were wealthy and had valuable, portable objects. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" for the year 840 says that Æthelwulf of Wessex was defeated at Carhampton, Somerset, after 35 Viking ships had landed in the area. The Annals of St. Bertin also reported the incident, stating:


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Despite this, Æthelwulf had some success against the Vikings. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" has repeated references during his reign of victories won by "ealdormen" with the men of their shires. However, the raiding of England continued on and off until the 860s, when instead of raiding, the Vikings changed their tactics and sent a great army to invade England. This army was described by the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" as a "Great Heathen Army" (OE: "mycel hæþen here" or "mycel heathen here").


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Historians provide varying estimates for the size of the Great Heathen Army. According to the 'minimalist' scholars, such as Pete Sawyer, the army may have been smaller than traditionally thought. Sawyer notes that the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" of 865 referred to the Viking force as a Heathen Army, or in Old English ""hæþen here"".


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The law code of King Ine of Wessex, issued in about 694, provides a definition of "here" (pronounced ) as "an invading army or raiding party containing more than thirty-five men", thus differentiating between the term for the invading Viking army and the Anglo-Saxon army that was referred to as the "fyrd". The scribes who wrote the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" used the term "here" to describe the Viking forces. The historian Richard Abels suggested that this was to differentiate between the Viking war bands and those of military forces organised by the state or the crown. By the late 10th and early 11th century, "here" was used more generally as the term for an army, whether it was Viking or not.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Sawyer produced a table of Viking ship numbers, as documented in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", and assumes that each Viking ship could carry no more than 32 men leading to his conclusion that the army would have consisted of no more than 1,000 men. Other scholars give higher estimates. For example, Laurent Mazet-Harhoff observes that many thousands of men were involved in the invasions of the Seine area. Mazet-Harhoff concedes that the military bases that would accommodate these large armies have yet to be rediscovered. Guy Halsall reported that, in the 1990s, several historians suggested that the Great Heathen Army would have numbered in the low thousands and acknowledged that there "is still much room for debate".


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The army probably developed from the campaigns in Francia, where there was a conflict between the Emperor and his sons, and one of the sons had welcomed the support from a Viking fleet. By the time the war had ended, the Vikings had discovered that monasteries and towns situated on navigable rivers were vulnerable to attack. In 845, a raid on Paris was prevented by a large payment of silver to the Vikings. The opportunity for rich pickings drew other Vikings to the area, and by the end of the decade all the main rivers of West Francia were being patrolled by Viking fleets. In 862, the West Frankish king responded to the Vikings, fortifying his towns and defending his rivers, making it difficult for the Vikings to raid inland. The lower reaches of the rivers and the coastal regions were left largely undefended. Religious communities in these areas moved inland away from the reaches of the Viking fleets. With the changes in Francia making raiding more difficult, the Vikings turned their attention to England.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The Viking leaders often joined together for mutual benefit and then dissolved once profit had been achieved. Several of the Viking leaders who had been active in Francia and Frisia joined forces to conquer the four kingdoms constituting Anglo-Saxon England. The composite force probably contained elements from Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Ireland as well as those who had been fighting on the continent. The Anglo-Saxon historian Æthelweard was very specific in his chronicle and said that "the fleets of the viking tyrant Ivar the Boneless landed in England from the north".


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The Vikings had been defeated by the West Saxon King Æthelwulf in 851, so rather than land in Wessex they decided to go further north to East Anglia. Legend has it that the united army was led by the three sons of Ragnar Lodbrok: Halfdan Ragnarsson, Ivar the Boneless (Hingwar), and Ubba. Norse sagas consider the invasion by the three brothers as a response to the death of their father at the hands of Ælla of Northumbria in 865, but the historicity of this claim is uncertain.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: In late 865, the Great Heathen Army encamped in the Isle of Thanet and was promised by the people of Kent danegeld in exchange for peace. Regardless, the Vikings did not abide by this agreement and proceeded to rampage across eastern Kent.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The Vikings used East Anglia as a starting point for an invasion. The East Anglians made peace with the invaders by providing them with horses. The Vikings stayed in East Anglia for the winter before setting out for Northumbria towards the end of 866, establishing themselves at York. In 867, the Northumbrians paid danegeld, and the Viking Army established a puppet leader in Northumbria before setting off for the Kingdom of Mercia, where in 867 they captured Nottingham. The king of Mercia requested help from the king of Wessex to help fight the Vikings. A combined army from Wessex and Mercia besieged the city of Nottingham with no clear result, so the Mercians settled on paying the Vikings off. The Vikings returned to Northumbria in autumn 868 and overwintered in York, staying there for most of 869. They returned to East Anglia and spent the winter of 869–870 at Thetford. While in Thetford, they were attacked by Edmund, king of East Anglia, with whom they had no peace agreement. The Viking army was victorious in these battles, and Edmund was captured, possibly tortured, and killed. He later came to be known as Edmund the Martyr.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: In 871, the Great Summer Army arrived from Scandinavia, led by Bagsecg. The reinforced Viking army turned its attention to Wessex but the West Saxons, led by King Æthelred's brother Alfred, defeated them on 8 January 871 at the Battle of Ashdown, slaying Bagsecg in the process. Three months later, Æthelred died and was succeeded by Alfred (later known as Alfred the Great), who bought the Vikings off to gain time. During 871–872, the Great Heathen Army wintered in London before returning to Northumbria. It seems that there had been a rebellion against the puppet ruler in Northumbria, so they returned to restore power. They then established their winter quarters for 872–873 at Torksey in the Kingdom of Lindsey (now part of Lincolnshire). The Mercians again paid them off in return for peace, and at the end of 873 the Vikings took up winter quarters at Repton in Derbyshire.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: In 874, following their winter stay in Repton, the Great Heathen Army drove the Mercian king into exile and finally conquered Mercia. The exiled Mercian king was replaced by Ceolwulf. According to Alfred the Great's biographer Asser, the Vikings then split into two bands. Halfdan led one band north to Northumbria, where he overwintered by the river Tyne (874–875). In 875, he ravaged further north to Scotland, where he fought the Picts and the Britons of Strathclyde. Returning south of the border in 876, he shared out Northumbrian land among his men, who "ploughed the land and supported themselves." This land was part of what became known as the Danelaw.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: According to Asser, the second band was led by Guthrum, Oscetel, and Anwend. This group also left Repton in 874 and established a base at Cambridge for the winter of 874–875. In late 875 they moved onto Wareham, where they raided the surrounding area and occupied a fortified position. Asser reports that Alfred made a treaty with the Vikings to get them to leave Wessex. The Vikings left Wareham, but it was not long before they were raiding other parts of Wessex, and initially they were successful. Alfred fought back, however, and eventually won victory over them at the Battle of Edington in 878. This was followed closely by what was described by Asser as the Treaty of Wedmore, where Guthrum agreed to be baptised and then for him and his army to leave Wessex. Then some time after, the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum was agreed, that set out the boundaries between Alfred and Guthrum's territories as well as agreements on peaceful trade, and the weregild value of their people.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: In late 878, Guthrum's band withdrew to Cirencester, in the kingdom of Mercia. Then, probably in late 879, it moved to East Anglia, where Guthrum, who was also known by his baptismal name of Aethelstan, reigned as king until his death in 890. The part of the army that did not go with Guthrum mostly went on to more settled lives in Northumbria and York. Some may have settled in Mercia. Evidence for this is the presence of two Viking cemeteries in Derbyshire that are believed to be connected to the Great Army, at Repton and at Heath Wood.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: In 878, a third Viking army gathered on Fulham by the Thames. It seems they were partly discouraged by the defeat of Guthrum but also Alfred's success against the Vikings coincided with a period of renewed weakness in Francia. The Frankish emperor, Charles the Bald, died in 877 and his son shortly after, precipitating a period of political instability of which the Vikings were quick to take advantage. The assembled Viking army on the Thames departed in 879 to begin new campaigns on the continent.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: In 892, the army that had encamped on Fulham, now comprising 250 ships, had returned and re-established itself in Appledore, Kent. Another army of 80 ships soon afterwards also encamped in Milton Regis, posing a threat to the West Saxons. The army subsequently launched a series of attacks on Wessex. Due in part to the King's efforts to resist the invaders and defend Wessex, the Heathen Army made less of an impact against the kingdom than hoped and saw little progress, eventually disbanding in 896.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Throughout the 880s, the Viking presence in his kingdom encouraged Alfred to protect Wessex. The King realised the importance of naval combat against the Vikings and saw to the creation of a navy; Alfred ordered the construction of specialised ships that were supposedly twice as long as Viking ships, some possessing 60 oars, others possessing even more. Alfred also reorganised the army and set up a powerful system of fortified towns known as "burhs".


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Alfred mainly used old Roman cities for his "burhs", as he was able to rebuild and reinforce their existing fortifications. Every freeman in the land could be called out to protect the realm in times of trouble but the speed of Viking hit-and-run raids had been too quick for the local militias to act; part of Alfred's reforms was to create a standing army that could react rapidly to attacks. The Anglo-Saxon rural population lived within a 24 km (15-mile) radius of each "burh", so they were able to seek refuge when necessary. To maintain the "burhs", as well as the standing army, Alfred set up a system of taxation and conscription that is recorded in a document now known as the Burghal Hidage. The "burhs" were connected with a network of military roads, known as "herepaths", enabling Alfred's troops to move swiftly to engage the enemy. As was usually a reference to an invading army, then it follows that was a road for use against a .


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Some historians believe that each "burh" would have had a mounted force ready for action against the Vikings. Based on figures from the Burghal Hidage, it is probable that a fifth of the adult male population of Wessex (27,000 men) would have been mobilised. A common Viking tactic was to seize a centre, usually some sort of fortification, that they could reinforce and then use as a base to plunder the surrounding district. From 884 Alfred's reforms prevented them from doing this in Wessex.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: By 896, the Viking army was all but defeated and no longer saw any reason to continue their attacks and dispersed to East Anglia and Northumbria. Those that were penniless found themselves ships and went south across the sea to the Seine. This influx of new settlers helped consolidate the ever-growing establishment of Danelaw. Anglo-Saxon England had been torn apart by the invading Great Heathen Army and the Vikings had control of northern and eastern England, while Alfred and his successors had defended their kingdom and remained in control of Wessex.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The stone church of St Wystan at Repton was, in the 9th century, the site of an Anglo-Saxon monastery and church. Excavations at the site between 1974 and 1988 found a D-shaped earthwork on the river bank, incorporated into the church. Burials of Viking type were made at the east end of the church, and an existing building was cut down and converted into the chamber of a burial mound that revealed the disarticulated remains of at least 249 people, with their long bones pointing towards the centre of the burial. A large stone coffin was found in the middle of the mass grave, but the remains of this body did not survive. A study of the skeletal remains revealed that at least 80% of the bodies were male, and were between the ages of 15 and 45. A variety of Viking artefacts were also found among the bones.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: Although initial radiocarbon dating suggested that the bodies had accumulated there over several centuries, in February 2018 a team from the University of Bristol announced that the remains could all be dated to the late 9th century, consistent with the time the army wintered in Derbyshire. They attributed the initial discrepancies to the high consumption of seafood by the Vikings. Because the carbon in the Earth's oceans is older than much of the carbon found by organisms on land, radiocarbon dating must be adjusted. This is called the marine reservoir effect.


title: Great Heathen Army

text: The nearby Heath Wood barrow cemetery contains about sixty cremations (rather than burials). Finds of cremation sites in the British Isles are very rare, and this one was probably also associated with the Great Heathen Army.


title: Geography of India

text: India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north (the mainland) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of . India measures from north to south and from east to west. It has a land frontier of and a coastline of .


title: Geography of India

text: On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the Indian Ocean—in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean proper to the south. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separate India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and the Maldives are some to the south of India's Lakshadweep Islands across the Eight Degree Channel. India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some southeast of the mainland, share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. The southernmost tip of the Indian mainland (8°4′38″N, 77°31′56″E) is just south of Kanyakumari, while the southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island. The northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier. India's territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of from the coast baseline. India has the 18th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of .


title: Geography of India

text: The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China, Bhutan, and Nepal. Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Karakoram and Western Himalayan ranges, Punjab Plains, the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch salt marshes. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. On the east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the Khasi Hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.


title: Geography of India

text: The Ganges is the longest river originating in India. The Ganges–Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. Kangchenjunga, in the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at and the world's third highest peak. The climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine and tundra in the upper regions of the Himalayas. Geologically, India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern part of the Indo-Australian Plate.


title: Geography of India

text: India is situated entirely on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of Pangea). The Indo-Australian plate is subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates. About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/year (6 in/yr). About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of , having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland. The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. , the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent". This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm/yr (1.6 in/yr).


title: Geography of India

text: India is divided into 28 States (further subdivided into districts) and 8 union territories including the National capital territory (i.e., Delhi).


title: Geography of India

text: Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to , dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch. This border runs along the Indian states and union territories of Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of the Kashmir region. India claims the whole of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which includes areas now administered by Pakistan and China, which according to India are illegally occupied areas.


title: Geography of India

text: India's border with Bangladesh runs . West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are the states which share the border with Bangladesh. Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil. These enclaves were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border. After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 km (10,000 acres) to Bangladesh.


title: Geography of India

text: The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states and union territories of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to along the eastern borders of India's northeastern states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs . Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are the states which share the border with Bhutan. The border with Nepal runs along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim are the states which share the border with Nepal. The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.


title: Geography of India

text: Cratons are a specific kind of continental crust made up of a top layer called platform and an older layer called basement. A shield is the part of a craton where basement rock crops out of the ground, and it is relatively the older and more stable section, unaffected by plate tectonics.


title: Geography of India

text: An arc of mountains consisting of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. These were formed by the ongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic plains. These mountains form the boundary between two biogeographic realms: the temperate Palearctic realm that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalayan realm which includes South Asia, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.


title: Geography of India

text: The Himalayas in India extend from the Indian-administered region of Ladakh in the north to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. Several Himalayan peaks in India rise above , including Kanchenjunga () on the Sikkim–Nepal border, and Nanda Devi () in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand. The snow line ranges between in Sikkim to around in Ladakh. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.


title: Geography of India

text: The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the "Great Plains" are large alluvial plains dominated by three main rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. They run parallel to the Himalayas, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, and drain most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of . The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries—Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Ghaghara, Kosi, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, and Tista—as well as the rivers of the Ganges Delta, such as the Meghna.


title: Geography of India

text: The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.


title: Geography of India

text: The Thar Desert (also known as "the deserts") is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth. It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of . The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area.


title: Geography of India

text: About 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from in the winter to over during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from below the ground level. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below in the extreme west to eastward. The only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.


title: Geography of India

text: In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes. The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000. Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.


title: Geography of India

text: The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds , and is coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between . The width of the plains varies between . The plains are divided into six regions—the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal.


title: Geography of India

text: The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapti, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.


title: Geography of India

text: The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island formations and are classified as union territories.


title: Geography of India

text: The Lakshadweep Islands lie off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of . They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.


title: Geography of India

text: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude. They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast running in a north–south axis for approximately 910 km. They are located from Kolkata (Calcutta) and from Cape Negrais in Burma. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a north–south axis for around 910 km. The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi). India's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at .


title: Geography of India

text: Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese colony; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.


title: Geography of India

text: India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways. There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding . All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:


title: Geography of India

text: The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into Punjab are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.


title: Geography of India

text: The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment area of about . The Ganges Basin alone has a catchment of about . The Ganges originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand. It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal. (The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains. The Brahmaputra originates in Tibet, China, where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River) (or "Tsangpo"). It enters India in the far-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, then flows west through Assam. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the Jamuna River.


title: Geography of India

text: The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada and Tapi, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.


title: Geography of India

text: (The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through Godavari River, Krishna River and Kaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow).


title: Geography of India

text: The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.


title: Geography of India

text: Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch, and the Gulf of Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka; the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include the Kanyakumari (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost point in India (on Great Nicobar Island); Rama's Bridge, and Point Calimere. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch. Important lakes include Sambhar Lake, the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, Vembanad Lake in Kerala, Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Chilka Lake (lagoon lake) in Odisha, and Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.


title: Geography of India

text: India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks. Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of , which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.


title: Geography of India

text: The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal tiger. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.


title: Geography of India

text: The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sindh province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of . The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.


title: Geography of India

text: India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km a year. Its annual supply of usable and replenshable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres. Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised. About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways. Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soils have a wide diffusion of iron content.


title: Geography of India

text: Most of India's estimated in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High, upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins. India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha. Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven "provinces"—the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.)


title: Geography of India

text: India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings. India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barite and chromite. The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore. It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh-largest of manganese ore and the eighth-largest of aluminium. India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone. India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala. Gold had been mined in the now-defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.


title: Geography of India

text: Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January–February), summer (March–May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June–September) and a post-monsoon period (October–December).


title: Geography of India

text: The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.


title: Geography of India

text: Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed during the day. The coastal regions exceed coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed . The rain-bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was in Phalodi, Rajasthan. . And the lowest was in Dras, Jammu and Kashmir.


title: Geography of India

text: India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation. The Precambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India. The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan.


title: Geography of India

text: Tertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains. The Gondwana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam. The Pleistocene system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes. The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by one centimetre each year.


title: Geography of India

text: Soils in India can be classified into eight categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid and desert, saline and alkaline and peaty and organic soils. Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface. It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley. Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric. National Disaster Management Authority says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone to earthquakes and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks.


title: Geography of India

text: Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive. Red soils are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis. These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: A Mediterranean climate (also called a dry summer temperate climate Cs) is a temperate climate sub-type, generally characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters; these weather conditions are typically experienced in the majority of Mediterranean-climate regions and countries, but remain highly dependent on proximity to the ocean, altitude and geographical location.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: This climate type’s name is in reference to the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea within the Mediterranean Basin, where this climate type is most prevalent. The “original” Mediterranean zone is a massive area, its western region beginning with the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe and coastal regions of northern Morocco, extending eastwards across southern Europe, the Balkans, and coastal Northern Africa, before reaching a dead-end at the Levant region’s coastline.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Mediterranean climate zones are typically located along the western coasts of landmasses, between roughly 30 and 45 degrees north or south of the equator. The main cause of Mediterranean, or dry summer, climate is the subtropical ridge, extending towards the hemisphere in question’s pole during the summer and migrating towards the equator during the winter. This is due to the seasonal poleward-equatorward variations of temperatures.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: The resulting vegetation of Mediterranean climates are the garrigue or maquis in the European Mediterranean Basin, the chaparral in California, the fynbos in South Africa, the mallee in Australia, and the matorral in Chile. Areas with this climate are also where the so-called "Mediterranean trinity" of major agricultural crops have traditionally been successfully grown (wheat, grapes and olives). As a result, these regions are notable for their high-quality wines, grapeseed/olive oils, and bread products.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Most of the historically-iconic cities and regions of the Mediterranean Basin lie within the Mediterranean climatic zone, including Algiers, Athens, Barcelona, Beirut, İzmir, Jerusalem, Marseille, Monaco, Naples, Rome, Tunis, Valencia, and Valletta.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Internationally, locations with Mediterranean climates (outside of the Mediterranean Basin) include Adelaide, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dushanbe, La Jolla, CA, Lisbon, Los Angeles, Monterey, Perth, Porto, San Diego, San Francisco (and the surrounding Bay Area), Santa Barbara, CA, Santiago, Tashkent, Victoria, BC (parts of), and Viña Del Mar, Chile.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, "hot dry-summer" climates (classified as "Csa") and "cool dry-summer" climates (classified as "Csb") are often referred to as just "Mediterranean". Under the Köppen climate system, the first letter indicates the climate group (in this case temperate climates). Temperate climates or ""C"" zones average temperature above (or ), but below , in their coolest months. The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern (""s"" represents dry summers). Köppen has defined a dry summer month as a month with less than of precipitation and as a month within the high-sun months of April to September, in the case of the Northern Hemisphere and October to March, in the case of the Southern Hemisphere, and it also must contain exactly or less than one-third that of the wettest winter month. Some, however, use a level. The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat: ""a"" represents an average temperature in the warmest month above , while ""b"" indicates the average temperature in the warmest month below . There is a "c" with 3 or less months' average temperature above , but this climate is rare and is very isolated.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Under the Köppen classification, dry-summer climates ("Csa", "Csb") usually occur on the western sides of continents. "Csb" zones in the Köppen system include areas normally not associated with Mediterranean climates but with Oceanic climates, such as much of the Pacific Northwest, much of southern Chile, parts of west-central Argentina, and parts of New Zealand. Additional highland areas in the subtropics also meet "Cs" requirements, though they, too, are not normally associated with Mediterranean climates. The same goes for a number of oceanic islands such as Madeira, the Juan Fernández Islands, the western part of the Canary Islands, and the eastern part of the Azores. Due to a lack of western-facing areas, Asia is the only continent without this climate.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Under Trewartha's modified Köppen climate classification, the two major requirements for a "Cs" climate are revised. Under Trewartha's system, at least eight months must have average temperatures of or higher (subtropical), and the average annual precipitation must not exceed . Normally, climates that have eight or more months with a mean temperature over , are located in the low and subtropical latitude portions of the temperate zone (latitudes 25 to 35 north and south), and have mean temperatures around in the coldest months, and warmer than in the warmest months. In the Trewartha climate classification system, the cooler summer "Csb" zones in the Köppen system become "Do" or temperate oceanic climate.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Under the Holdridge life zones classification, the Mediterranean climates can be either temperate or subtropical climates. They are frequently found within the Warm Temperate region as defined by Leslie Holdridge with a mean annual biotemperature between and the frost line or critical temperature line, (depending on locations in the world but often "simplified" as (= 2 ≈ )). Biotemperature is based on the growing season length and temperature. It is measured as the mean of all temperatures, with all temperatures below freezing and above adjusted to 0 °C, as plants are normally dormant at these temperatures. The frost line separates the warm temperate region from the subtropical region. It represents the dividing line between two major physiological groups of evolved plants. On the warmer side of the line, the majority of the plants are sensitive in low temperatures. They can be killed back by frosts as they have not evolved to withstand periods of cold. On the colder temperate side of the line, the total flora is adapted to survive periods of variable lengths of low temperatures, whether as seeds in the case of the annuals or as perennial plants which can withstand the cold. Only the warmest Mediterranean climates with a biotemperature between to and are classified as subtropical climates in the Holdridge classification.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: During summer, regions of the Mediterranean climate are strongly influenced by the subtropical ridge which keeps atmospheric conditions very dry with minimal cloud coverage. In some areas, such as coastal California, the cold current has a stabilizing effect on the surrounding air, further reducing the chances for rain, but often causing thick layers of marine fog that usually evaporates by mid-day. Similar to desert climates, in many Mediterranean climates there is a strong diurnal character to daily temperatures in the warm summer months due to strong solar heating during the day from sunlight and rapid cooling at night.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: In winter, the subtropical ridge migrates towards the equator and leaves the area, making rainfall much more likely. As a result, areas with this climate receive almost all of their precipitation during their winter and spring seasons, and may go anywhere from 4 to 6 months during the summer and early fall without having any significant precipitation. In the lower latitudes, precipitation usually decreases in both the winter and summer due to higher evapotranspiration. Toward the polar latitudes, total moisture usually increases; for instance, the Mediterranean climate in Southern Europe has more rain. The rainfall also tends to be more evenly distributed throughout the year in Southern Europe, while in places such as the Eastern Mediterranean, or in Southern California, the summer is nearly or completely dry. In places where evapotranspiration is higher, steppe climates tend to prevail, but still follow the basic pattern of the Mediterranean climates.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: The majority of the regions with Mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters and very warm summers. However, winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a Mediterranean climate. For instance, in the case of winters, Los Angeles experiences mild to warm temperatures in the winter, with frost and snowfall almost unknown, whereas Tashkent has cold winters with annual frosts and snowfall seen in the winter; or, to consider summer, Seville experiences rather high temperatures in that season. In contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around due to the continuous upwelling of cold subsurface waters along the coast.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Because most regions with a Mediterranean climate are near large bodies of water, temperatures are generally moderate, with a comparatively small range of temperatures between the winter low and summer high unlike dry-summer humid continental climates (although the daily diurnal range of temperature during the summer is large due to dry and clear conditions, except along the immediate coastlines). Temperatures during winter only occasionally fall below the freezing point and snow is generally seldom seen. Summer temperatures can be cool to very hot, depending on the distance from a large body of water, elevation, and latitude, among other factors. Strong winds from inland desert regions can sometimes boost summer temperatures up, quickly increasing the risk of wildfires. Notable exceptions to the usual proximity from bodies of water, thus featuring extremely high summer temperatures and cooler winters, include south-eastern Turkey and northern Iraq (Urfa, Erbil), surrounded by hot deserts to the south and mountains to the north. Those places routinely experience summer daily means of over , while receiving enough rainfall in winter not to fall into arid or semi-arid classifications.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: As in every climatologic domain, the highland locations of the Mediterranean domain can present cooler temperatures in the summer and winter than the lowland areas, temperatures which can sometimes prohibit the growth of typical cold-sensitive Mediterranean plants. Some Spanish authors opt in to use the term Continental Mediterranean Climate for some regions with lower temperatures in winter than the coastal areas (direct translation from ), but most climate classifications (including Köppen's "Cs" zones) show no distinction as long as winter temperature means stay above freezing.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Additionally, the temperature and rainfall pattern for a "Csa" or even a "Csb" climate can exist as a microclimate in some high-altitude locations adjacent to a rare tropical "As" (tropical savanna climate with dry summers, typically in a rainshadow region, as in Hawaii).


title: Mediterranean climate

text: The Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome is closely associated with Mediterranean climate zones, as are unique freshwater communities, though vegetation native to the Mediterranean climate zone can also be found in the approximate nearby climate zones, which usually tend to be the humid subtropical, oceanic and/or semi-arid zones, depending on the region and location. Particularly distinctive of the climate are sclerophyll shrublands, called maquis in the Mediterranean Basin, chaparral in California, matorral in Chile, fynbos in South Africa, and mallee and kwongan shrublands in Australia.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Aquatic communities in Mediterranean climate regions are adapted to a yearly cycle in which abiotic (environmental) controls of stream populations and community structure dominate during floods, biotic components (e.g. competition and predation) controls become increasingly important as the flood discharge declines, and environmental controls regain dominance as environmental conditions become very harsh (i.e. hot and dry); as a result, these communities are well suited to recover from droughts, floods, and fires. Aquatic organisms in these regions show distinct long-term patterns in their structure and function, and are also highly sensitive to the recent effects of climate change.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: The native vegetation of Mediterranean climate lands must be adapted to survive long, hot summer droughts in summer and prolonged wet periods in winter. Mediterranean vegetation examples include the following:


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Many native vegetations in Mediterranean climate area valleys have been cleared for agriculture and farming. In places such as the Sacramento Valley and Oxnard Plain in California, draining marshes and estuaries combined with supplemental irrigation has led to a century of intensive agriculture. Much of the Overberg in the southern Cape of South Africa, was once covered with renosterveld, but has likewise been largely converted to agriculture, mainly for wheat. In hillside and mountainous areas, away from the urban sprawls, ecosystems and habitats of native vegetation are more sustained and undisturbed.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: The fynbos vegetation in the South-western Cape in South Africa is famed for its high floral diversity, and includes such plant types as members of the Restionaceae, Ericas (Heaths) and Proteas. Representatives of the Proteaceae also grow in Australia, such as Banksias. The palette of California native plants is also renowned for its species and cultivar diversity.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: This subtype of the Mediterranean climate ("Csa") is the most common form of the Mediterranean climate, therefore it is also known as a "typical Mediterranean climate". As stated earlier, regions with this form of a Mediterranean climate experience average monthly temperatures in excess of during its warmest month and an average in the coldest month between or, in some applications, between . Also, at least four months must average above to avoid becoming a cold mediterranean subtype. Regions with this form of the Mediterranean climate typically experience hot, sometimes very hot and dry summers and mild, wet winters. In a number of instances, summers here can closely resemble summers seen in arid and semi-arid climates and be close to the thresholds for them. However, high temperatures during summers are generally not quite as high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body of water nearby. All areas with this subtype have wet mild winters. However, some areas with a hot Mediterranean subtype can actually experience very chilly winters, with occasional snowfall.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: "Csa" climates are mainly found around the Mediterranean Sea, southwestern Australia, southwestern South Africa, sections of Central Asia, northern sections of Iran and Iraq, the interior of northern California west of the Sierra Nevada, along the Wasatch Front in Utah, and inland areas of southern Oregon west of the Cascade Mountains. Southern California's coasts also experience hot summers due to the shielding effect of the Channel Islands. However, unshielded areas of that coastline can have warm-summer Mediterranean climates with hot-summer areas just a few kilometres inland.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Occasionally also termed the "Cool-summer Mediterranean climate", this subtype of the Mediterranean climate ("Csb") is less common and experience warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above during its warmest month and as usual an average in the coldest month between or, in some applications, between .


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Cool ocean currents, upwelling and higher latitudes are often the reason for this cooler type of Mediterranean climate. This is why it rarely occurs on the Mediterranean Sea shores, as it is a warm sea and is subtropical, from 3 to 6 °C above the theoric value according to Jean Demangeot.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: The other main reason for this cooler type is the altitude. For instance, Menton on the French coast has a Csa climate while Castellar, Alpes-Maritimes, the adjacent town just north of Menton, with an altitude between , has a Csb climate instead.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: Precipitation occurs often in the colder seasons, but there are a number of clear sunny days even during the wetter seasons.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: "Csb" climates are found in northwestern Iberian Peninsula (namely Galicia and the Norte region and west coast of Portugal), in coastal California, in the Pacific Northwest (namely western Washington, western Oregon and southern portions of Vancouver Island in British Columbia), in central Chile, in parts of southern Australia and in sections of southwestern South Africa. A few locations close to the south coast of England such as Weymouth and Portland just scrape into this climate classification due to very low rainfall in July. A trend towards slightly drier summers during the 1971-2000 climate average period, meant that this classification previously extended slightly further to include a few other weather stations in southern England, such as Bognor Regis and Teignmouth. Rarer instances of this climate can be found in relatively small and isolated high altitude areas of the Andes in Northern Ecuador, Colombia, and Western Venezuela.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: The cold-summer subtype of the Mediterranean climate ("Csc") is rare and predominately found at scattered high-altitude locations along the west coasts of North and South America having a similar climate. This type is characterized by cool, dry summers, with less than four months with a mean temperature at or above , as well as with cool, wet winters, with no winter month having a mean temperature below (or ), depending on the isotherm used). Regions with this climate are influenced by the dry-summer trend (though briefly) that extends considerably poleward along the west coast of the Americas, as well as the moderating influences of high altitude and relative proximity to the Pacific Ocean.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: In North America, areas with "Csc" climate can be found in the Olympic, Cascade, Klamath, and Sierra Nevada ranges in Washington, Oregon and California. These locations are found at high altitude nearby lower altitude regions characterized by a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csb") or hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa"). A rare instance of this climate occurs in the tropics, on Haleakalā Summit in Hawaii.


title: Mediterranean climate

text: In South America, "Csc" regions can be found along the Andes in Chile and Argentina. The town of Balmaceda, Chile is one of the few towns confirmed to have this climate.