title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Chosin Reservoir is a man-made lake located in the northeast of the Korean peninsula. The name Chosin is the Japanese pronunciation of the Korean place name Changjin, and the name stuck due to the outdated Japanese maps used by UN forces. The battle's main focus was around the road that connects Hungnam and Chosin Reservoir, which served as the only retreat route for the UN forces. Through these roads, Yudami-ni and Sinhung-ni, located at the west and east side of the reservoir respectively, are connected at Hagaru-ri (now Changjin-ŭp) (). From there, the road passes through Koto-ri () and eventually leads to the port of Hungnam. The area around the Chosin Reservoir was sparsely populated.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The battle was fought over some of the roughest terrain during some of the harshest winter weather conditions of the Korean War. The road was created by cutting through the hilly terrain of Korea, with steep climbs and drops. Dominant peaks, such as the Funchilin Pass and the Toktong Pass (), overlook the entire length of the road. The road's quality was poor, and in some places it was reduced to a one lane gravel trail. On 14 November 1950, a cold front from Siberia descended over the Chosin Reservoir, and the temperature plunged, according to estimates, to as low as . The cold weather was accompanied by frozen ground, creating considerable danger of frostbite casualties, icy roads, and weapon malfunctions. Medical supplies froze; morphine syrettes had to be defrosted in a medic's mouth before they could be injected; blood plasma was frozen and useless on the battlefield. Even cutting off clothing to deal with a wound risked gangrene and frostbite. Batteries used for the Jeeps and radios did not function properly in the temperature and quickly ran down. The lubrication in the guns gelled and rendered them useless in battle. Likewise, the springs on the firing pins would not strike hard enough to fire the round, or would jam.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Although the 1st Marine Division landed at Wonsan as part of Almond's US X Corps, Almond and Major General Oliver P. Smith of the 1st Marine Division shared a mutual loathing of each other that dated back to a meeting before the landing at Inchon, when Almond had spoken of how easy amphibious landings are even though he had never been involved in one. Smith believed there were large numbers of Chinese forces in North Korea despite the fact that higher headquarters in Tokyo said otherwise, but Almond felt Smith was overly cautious. The mutual distrust between the commanders caused Smith to slow the 1st Marine Division's advance towards the Chosin Reservoir in violation of Almond's instructions. Smith established supply points and airfields along the way at Hagaru-ri and Koto-ri.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: As the US X Corps was pushing towards the reservoir, the Chinese formulated their strategy, based on their experiences in the Chinese Civil War. Working from the assumption that only a light UN presence would be at the reservoir, the Chinese 9th Army was first to destroy the UN garrisons at Yudami-ni and Sinhung-ni, then push towards Hagaru-ri. Believing the bulk of the US X Corps would move to rescue the destroyed units, the 9th Army would then block and trap the main UN forces on the road between Hagaru-ri and Hungnam. The 9th Army initially committed eight divisions for the battle, with most of the forces concentrated at Yudami-ni and Sinhung-ni.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The flaw in the Chinese plan was a lack of accurate intelligence about the UN forces. Even though the US X Corps was stretched thin over northeast Korea, the slow Marine advance allowed the bulk of the US 1st Marine Division, including the 5th, 7th and 11th Marines, to be concentrated at Yudami-ni. Furthermore, the strategically important Hagaru-ri, where a C-47-capable airfield was under construction and a supply dump, was not a priority for the Chinese despite being lightly defended by the 1st and 7th Marines. Only Regimental Combat Team 31 (RCT-31), an understrength and hastily formed regimental combat team of the US 7th Infantry Division, was thinly spread along the eastern bank of the reservoir. Those units would later take the brunt of the Chinese assaults. As for the UN forces, the 1st Marine Division had an effective strength of 25,473 men at the start of the battle, and it was further reinforced by the British Royal Marines unit 41 (Independent) Commando and the equivalent of two regiments from the 3rd and 7th Army Infantry Divisions. The UN forces had a combined strength of about 30,000 men during the course of the battle. The UN forces at Chosin were also supported by one of the greatest concentrations of air power during the Korean War, since the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing stationed at Yonpo Airfield and five aircraft carriers from the US Navy's Task Force 77 were able to launch 230 sorties daily to provide close air support during the battle, while the US Air Force Far East Combat Cargo Command in Japan reached the capacity of airdropping 250 tons of supplies per day to resupply the trapped UN forces.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Although the 9th Army was one of China's elite formations, composed of veterans and former POWs from the Huaihai Campaign, several deficiencies hampered its ability during the battle. Initially the 9th Army was intended to be outfitted in Manchuria during November, but Mao suddenly ordered it into Korea before that could happen. As a result, the 9th Army had almost no winter clothing for the harsh Korean winter. Similarly, poor logistics forced the 9th Army to abandon heavy artillery, while working with little food and ammunition. The food shortage forced the 9th Army to initially station a third of its strength away from the Chosin Reservoir in reserve, and starvation and exposure weakened the Chinese units, since foraging was not an option in the sparsely populated area. By the end of the battle, more Chinese troops had died from the cold than from combat and air raids.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Chinese strength is usually estimated at 120,000 troops for the battle. Before arriving in Korea, the 9th Army was also reinforced. Each of its three corps had four divisions instead of the regular three; thus it had 12 divisions, with 10,000 men per division. Infantry from two formerly "liberated" (surrendered) Nationalist divisions were absorbed to bring each infantry company up to strength. Some companies had approximately 150 men, while others were reinforced with more than 200 men. However, attrition due to UN air raids, poor logistics and cold weather had also taken a toll on the way to the battlefield. On the day 9th Army entered Korea, for example, frostbite inflicted 700 casualties, while most of its transport vehicles were destroyed by UN air raids. Indeed, during the course of the battle, Chinese prisoners of war reported that most of the 9th Army's divisions had become under strength, numbering about 6,500 to 7,000 men per division. These factors, plus uncertainties over the Chinese order of battle in Western sources, led some historians to revise Chinese numbers down to as low as 60,000 during the course of battle.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Eventually, all 12 Chinese divisions of the 9th Army were deployed, although the 78th and the 88th Divisions of the PVA 26th Corps did not make contact with UN forces during the course of the battle. Eight divisions of the PVA 20th and 27th Corps served as the main attacking force. Four divisions of the PVA 26th Corps initially were held back in reserve, and deployed after 20th and 27th Corps had exhausted all their available strength.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: On the night of 27 November, the PVA 20th and 27th Corps of the 9th Army launched multiple attacks and ambushes along the road between the Chosin Reservoir and Kot'o-ri. At Yudam-ni, the 5th, 7th and 11th Marines were surrounded and attacked by the PVA 79th and 89th Divisions, with the 59th Division attacking the road between Yudam-ni and Hagaru-ri to cut off communication. Similarly, RCT-31 was isolated and ambushed at Sinhung-ni by the PVA 80th and 81st Divisions. At Hagaru-ri, the 1st Marine Division command headquarters was targeted by the PVA 58th Division. Finally, the PVA 60th Division surrounded elements of the 1st Marines at Kot'o-ri from the north. Caught by complete surprise, the UN forces were cut off at Yudam-ni, Sinhung-ni, Hagaru-ri and Kot'o-ri by 28 November.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Acting on Almond's order, Smith ordered the 5th Marines to attack west toward Mupyong-ni on 27 November. The attack was soon stalled by the PVA 89th Division and forced the Marines to dig in on the ridges surrounding Yudam-ni. As night came, three Chinese regiments of the 79th Division attacked the ridges on the north and northwest of Yudam-ni, hoping to annihilate the garrison in one stroke. Close quarters fighting soon developed as the attackers infiltrated Marine positions, but the 5th and 7th Marines held the line while inflicting heavy casualties on the Chinese. As day broke on 28 November, the Chinese and Americans were locked in a stalemate around the Yudam-ni perimeter.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: While the battle was underway at Yudam-ni, the PVA 59th Division blocked the road between Yudam-ni and Hagaru-ri by attacking the defending Charlie and Fox Companies of the 7th Marines. The successful assault forced Charlie Company to retreat into Yudam-ni, which left Fox Company, commanded by Captain William E. Barber, isolated on a hill overlooking the Toktong Pass, a vital pass that controlled the road. On 29 November, several efforts by the 7th Marines failed to rescue Fox Company, despite inflicting heavy casualties on the Chinese. Aided by artillery from Hagaru-ri and Marine Corsair fighters, Fox Company managed to hold out for five days while enduring constant attacks by the PVA 59th Division.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: After the heavy losses suffered by the PVA 79th Division at Yudam-ni, 9th Army headquarters realized that the bulk of the 1st Marine Division was stationed at Yudam-ni, with a garrison strength double the initial estimate. Believing that any further assaults would be futile, Song Shilun ordered the 9th Army to switch their main attacks toward Sinhung-ni and Hagaru-ri, leaving Yudam-ni alone from 28 to 30 November. At the same time, the US Eighth Army on the Korean western front was forced into full retreat at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and MacArthur ordered Almond to withdraw the US X Corps to the port of Hungnam. Acting on Almond and Smith's instructions, Lieutenant Colonel Raymond L. Murray and Colonel Homer L. Litzenberg, commanders of the 5th and 7th Marines, respectively, issued a joint order to break out from Yudam-ni to Hagaru-ri on 30 November. Faced with tough fighting between the blocking Chinese divisions and the withdrawing Marines, Smith remarked: "Retreat, hell! We're not retreating, we're just advancing in a different direction."


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: For the breakout, the Marines formed into a convoy with a single M4A3 Sherman tank in the lead. The plan was to have 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines (3/5) as the vanguard of the convoy, with three battalions covering the rear. At the same time, 1st Battalion, 7th Marines (1/7) would attack towards Fox Company in order to open the road at Toktong Pass. To start the breakout, 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines (3/7) had to first attack south and capture Hills 1542 and 1419 in order to cover the road from Chinese attacks. The breakout was carried out under the air cover of the 1st Marine Air Wing.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: On the morning of 1 December, 3/7 Marines engaged the PVA 175th Regiment of the 59th Division at Hills 1542 () and 1419 (). The Chinese defenders soon forced the Marines to dig in on the slopes between the road and the peaks when the convoy passed 3/7's position by the afternoon. With Hagaru-ri still not captured, the PVA High Command scrambled the 79th Division to resume attacks on Yudam-ni, while the 89th Division rushed south towards Kot'o-ri. The Chinese struck at night, and the ferocity of the fighting forced the rear covering forces to call in night fighters to suppress the attacks. The fighting lasted well into the morning of 2 December until all the Marines had managed to withdraw from Yudam-ni.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: At the same time, 1/7 Marines also tried to break the Chinese blockade at Hill 1419 on 1 December. Despite being badly reduced by combat, hunger and frostbite, the PVA 59th Division sent in its last five platoons and refused to yield. As night approached, 1/7 finally captured the peak and started to march through the hills on the east side of the road. Relying on the element of surprise, they managed to destroy several Chinese positions along the road. On the morning of 2 December, a joint attack by Fox Company and 1/7 secured the Toktong Pass, thus opening the road between Yudam-ni and Hagaru-ri.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Although the road had been opened between Yudam-ni and Hagaru-ri, the convoy still had to fight through the numerous Chinese positions on the hills overlooking the road. On the first night of the retreat, the Chinese struck the convoy in force and inflicted heavy casualties on 3/5 Marines. Although strong air cover suppressed most of the Chinese forces for the rest of the march, the cold weather, harassing fire, raiding parties, and roadblocks slowed the retreat to a crawl, while inflicting numerous casualties. Despite those difficulties, the convoy reached Hagaru-ri in an orderly fashion on the afternoon of 3 December, with the withdrawal completed on 4 December.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: RCT-31, later known as "Task Force Faith," was a hastily formed regimental combat team from the 7th Infantry Division that guarded the right flank of the Marine advance towards Mupyong-ni. Before the battle, RCT-31 was spread thin, with main elements separated on the hills north of Sinhung-ni, the Pyungnyuri Inlet west of Sinhung-ni, and the town of Hudong-ni () south of Sinhung-ni. Although the Chinese believed RCT-31 to be a reinforced regiment, the task force was actually understrength, with one battalion missing, due to the bulk of the 7th Infantry Division being scattered over northeast Korea.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: On the night of 27 November, three regiments from the 80th Division attacked the northern hills () and the inlet, completely surprising the defenders. The 1st Battalion, 32nd Infantry, to the north of Sinhung-ni suffered heavy casualties, while the 57th Field Artillery Battalion and the 3rd Battalion, 31st Infantry, were almost overrun at Pyungnyuri Inlet. The Chinese also sent the 242nd Regiment of the 81st Division towards Hill 1221, (), an undefended hill that controlled the road between Sinhung-ni and Hudong-ni. As the night's fighting ended, RCT-31 was split into three elements.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Believing that the defenders had been completely destroyed at the inlet, the Chinese stopped their attacks and proceeded to loot the American positions for food and clothing. As morning came on 28 November, the 3/31st Infantry counterattacked the PVA 239th Regiment at the inlet, driving the surprised Chinese back in a complete rout. In the afternoon, Almond flew into the Sinhung-ni perimeter of RCT-31, convinced that RCT-31 was strong enough to begin its attack north and deal with whatever "remnants" of Chinese forces were in their way. Almond ordered Colonel Allan D. Maclean, the commander of RCT-31, to resume the offensive north, while presenting Silver Stars to three of Maclean's officers. In disgust, Lieutenant Colonel Don C. Faith, Jr., the commander of the 1/32nd Infantry, threw his medal into the snow.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: On the night of 28 November, the PVA 80th Division attacked again with four regiments. At the inlet, the Chinese assault became a disaster as communications broke down, while devastating fire from the M16 and M19 anti-aircraft (AA) guns attached to the 57th Field Artillery Battalion swept the Chinese ranks. In the aftermath, the PVA 238th and the 239th Regiment together had fewer than 600 soldiers. The attacks by PVA 240th Regiment, on the other hand, forced Maclean to order a retreat from the northern hills towards Sinhung-ni. On 29 November, the 1st Battalion managed to break through the Chinese blockade and reached the Sinhung-ni perimeter, but Maclean was lost when he mistook some Chinese soldiers for American. The Chinese finally stopped their attacks on the night of 29 November, while waiting for fresh reinforcements.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: While RCT-31 was under siege, Almond finally instructed the 1st Marine Division to rescue it by breaking out of Yudam-ni, an impossible order for Smith to implement. Only the 31st Tank Company tried to rescue RCT-31, by attacking Hill 1221 from Hudong-ni, but without infantry support, the two armored attacks on 28 and 29 November were stalled by slippery roads, rough terrain, and close infantry assaults. By 30 November, the US forces evacuated Hudong-ni in order to defend Hagaru-ri, leaving the rest of RCT-31 completely isolated.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: On 30 November, Major General David G. Barr, the commander of the 7th Infantry Division, flew into Sinhung-ni and met with Faith, who by now had assumed command of RCT-31. Faith laid out the difficulties of a breakout, particularly the 500 wounded that RCT-31 had to bring along. On the same day, parts of the PVA 94th Division and the rest of the 81st Division arrived as reinforcements for the 80th Division. By midnight, six Chinese regiments renewed their attacks, and Zhan Danan, the commander of the 80th Division, ordered the complete destruction of RCT-31 before dawn. Again, the 57th Battalion's AA guns held the Chinese at bay, but supplies of shells were desperately low. On the day of 1 December, Faith finally ordered RCT-31 to break out from Sinhung-ni and withdraw to Hagaru-ri.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The breakout began as soon as the weather allowed the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing to provide air cover on 1 December. As the soldiers formed a convoy and tried to leave the Sudong-ni perimeter, the PVA 241st Regiment immediately swarmed over the American forces, with three other regiments closing in. Left with no choice, the covering aircraft dropped napalm right in front of RCT-31, inflicting casualties on both American and Chinese troops. The resulting firestorm wiped out the blocking Chinese company, allowing the convoy to advance. As the front of RCT-31 made its way forward, heavy small arms fire caused many members of the rear guard to seek shelter below the road instead of protecting the trucks. Chinese fire also killed or wounded those already in the trucks as well as the drivers, who viewed the job as a form of suicide. Slowly, the convoy approached a roadblock under Hill 1221 in the late afternoon. Several parties tried to clear Hill 1221, but after taking part of the hill, the leaderless soldiers continued out onto the frozen reservoir instead of returning to the column. As Faith led an assault on the roadblock, he was hit by a Chinese grenade and subsequently died of his wounds. The convoy managed to fight past the first roadblock, but as it reached the second at Hudong-ni, RCT-31 disintegrated under Chinese attacks. Out of the original 2,500 soldiers, about 1,050 managed to reach Hagaru-ri, and only 385 survivors were deemed able-bodied. The remnants of RCT-31 were formed into a provisional army battalion for the rest of the battle.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: To support the Marine attack towards Mupyong-ni, Hagaru-ri became an important supply dump with an airfield under construction. Smith and 1st Marine Division headquarters were also located at Hagaru-ri. With the bulk of the 1st Marine Division gathered at Yudam-ni, Hagaru-ri was lightly defended by two battalions from the 1st and 7th Marines, the rest of the garrison being composed of engineers and rear support units from both the Army and the Marine Corps.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The original Chinese plan called for the 58th Division to attack Hagaru-ri on the night of 27 November, but the division became lost in the countryside due to the outdated Japanese maps it used. It was not until the dawn of 28 November that the 58th Division arrived at Hagaru-ri. Meanwhile, from the fighting and ambushes that had occurred the previous night, the garrison at Hagaru-ri noticed the Chinese forces around them. Lieutenant Colonel Thomas L. Ridge, commander of 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines (3/1), predicted the Chinese attack would come on the night of 28 November. Almost everyone, including rear support units with little combat training, was pressed into service on the front line due to the manpower shortage, and the entire perimeter was on full alert by 21:30.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: It was not long before the PVA 173rd Regiment attacked the western and the southern perimeter, while the 172nd Regiment struck the hills on the northern perimeter. Despite the preparations, the understrength garrison was overwhelmed, with the Chinese opening several gaps in the defenses and reaching the rear areas. The resulting chaos, however, caused a breakdown in discipline among the Chinese soldiers, who began looting food and clothing instead of exploiting the situation. The defending Americans managed to destroy the Chinese forces in counterattacks, while a breakdown of communications between the Chinese regiments allowed the gaps to close. When the fighting stopped, the Chinese had only gained the East Hill () on the northern perimeter. Another attack was planned for the night of 29 November, but air raids by VMF-542 broke up the Chinese formations before it could be carried out.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Given the critical manpower shortage at Hagaru-ri, on 29 November, Smith ordered Colonel Lewis "Chesty" Puller of the First Marine Regiment to assemble a task force to be sent north from Kot'o-ri to open the road south of Hagaru-ri. A task force was formed with 921 troops from 41 (Royal Marine) Commando, G Company of the 1st Marines and B Company of the 31st Infantry. It was dubbed "Task Force Drysdale" after its commander, Lieutenant Colonel Douglas B. Drysdale, who also commanded 41 Commando. On the afternoon of 29 November, Task Force Drysdale pushed north from Koto-ri, while under constant attack from the PVA 60th Division. The task force's harrowing experience later earned the road the nickname "Hell Fire Valley". As the Chinese attacks dragged on, the task force became disorganized, and a destroyed truck in the convoy later split the task force into two segments. Although the lead segment fought its way into Hagaru-ri on the night of 29 November, the rear segment was destroyed. Despite suffering 162 dead and missing and 159 wounded, the task force managed to bring in 300 badly needed infantrymen for the defense at Hagaru-ri.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: As more reinforcements arrived from Hudong-ni on 30 November, the garrisons attempted to recapture the East Hill. All efforts failed, despite the destruction of a Chinese company. When darkness settled, the PVA 58th Division gathered its remaining 1,500 soldiers in a last-ditch attempt to capture Hagaru-ri. The reinforced defenders annihilated most of the attacking forces, with only the defences around the East Hill giving way. As the Chinese tried to advance from the East Hill, they were cut down by the 31st Tank Company.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: By 1 December, the PVA 58th Division was virtually destroyed, with the remainder waiting for reinforcements from the 26th Corps of the 9th Army. Much to the frustration of Song Shilun, the 26th Corps did not arrive before the Marines broke out of Yudam-ni. The airfield was opened to traffic on 1 December, allowing UN forces to bring in reinforcements and to evacuate the dead and wounded. With the Marines at Yudam-ni completing their withdrawal on 4 December, the trapped UN forces could finally start their breakout towards the port of Hungnam.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: After a short rest, the breakout began on 6 December, with the 7th Marines as the vanguard of the retreating column, while the 5th Marines covered the rear. At the same time, the much-delayed PVA 26th Corps arrived at Hagaru-ri with its 76th and 77th Divisions to relieve the 58th and 60th Divisions. As the 7th Marines pushed aside the PVA 76th Division south of Hagaru-ri, the 5th Marines took over the Hagaru-ri perimeter and recaptured the East Hill from the 76th Division. In a last effort to stop the breakout, the customary Chinese night attack was launched, with the 76th and 77th Division striking the Hagaru-ri perimeter from all directions. The Marines repulsed the attacks, inflicting heavy casualties.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Meanwhile, the 7th Marines opened the road between Hagaru-ri and Koto-ri by capturing the high ground surrounding the road. But as soon as the Marines pulled out, the 77th Division returned to the peaks and attacked the column. Chaotic fighting broke out and the retreat was slowed to a crawl. The Marine night fighters, however, returned to subdue the Chinese forces, and most of the blocking troops were eliminated. On 7 December, the rest of the column managed to reach Kot'o-ri with little difficulty, with the last elements reaching Kot'o-ri that night.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: After the failure of the 26th Corps at Hagaru-ri, the PVA High Command ordered the 26th and 27th Corps to chase the escaping UN force, with the 20th Corps assigned to block the escape route. But with most of the 20th Corps destroyed at Yudam-ni and Hagaru-ri, the only forces between Kot'o-ri and Hungnam were the remnants of the 58th and 60th Divisions. In desperation, Song Shilun ordered these troops to dig in at Funchilin Pass, while blowing up the vital bridge (), hoping the terrain and obstacles would allow the 26th and 27th Corps to catch up with the retreating UN forces. The PVA 180th Regiment that occupied Hill 1081 () blew up the original concrete bridge and two improvised replacements in succession, believing the bridge was rendered irreparable. In response, the 1st Battalion, 1st Marines (1/1) attacked Hill 1081 from the south, and the hill was captured on 9 December, though the defenders fought to the last man. At the same time, the 7th Marines and RCT-31 attacked the bridge from the north, only to encounter defenders who were already frozen in their foxholes.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: With the path to Hungnam blocked at Funchilin Pass, eight C-119 Flying Boxcars flown by the US 314th Troop Carrier Wing were used to drop portable bridge sections by parachute. The bridge, consisting of eight separate long, sections, was dropped one section at a time, using a parachute on each section. Four of these sections, together with additional wooden extensions were successfully reassembled into a replacement bridge by Marine Corps combat engineers and the US Army 58th Engineer Treadway Bridge Company on 9 December, enabling UN forces to proceed. Outmaneuvered, the PVA 58th and 60th Divisions still tried to slow the UN advance with ambushes and raids, but after weeks of non-stop fighting, the two Chinese divisions combined had only 200 soldiers left. The last UN forces left Funchilin Pass by 11 December.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: One of the last engagements during the withdrawal was an ambush at Sudong () by the pursuing PVA 89th Division, which Task Force Dog of the 3rd Infantry Division repulsed with little difficulty. The trapped UN forces finally reached the Hungnam perimeter by 21:00 on 11 December.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: By the time the UN forces arrived at Hungnam, MacArthur had already ordered the evacuation of the US X Corps on 8 December in order to reinforce the US Eighth Army, which by then was badly depleted and retreating rapidly towards the 38th parallel. Following his orders, the ROK I Corps, the ROK 1st Marine Regiment and the US 3rd and 7th Infantry Divisions had also set up defensive positions around the port. Some skirmishes broke out between the defending US 7th, 17th and 65th Infantry and the pursuing PVA 27th Corps, but against the strong naval gun fire support provided by US Navy Task Force 90, the badly mauled 9th Army was in no shape to approach the Hungnam perimeter.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: In what US historians called the "greatest evacuation movement by sea in US military history", a 193-ship armada assembled at the port and evacuated not only the UN troops, but also their heavy equipment and roughly a third of the Korean refugees. One Victory ship, the , evacuated 14,000 refugees by herself, despite being designed to carry only 12 passengers. The last UN unit left at 14:36 on 24 December, and the port was destroyed to deny its use to the Chinese. The PVA 27th Corps entered Hungnam on the morning of 25 December.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The US X Corps and the ROK I Corps reported a total of 10,495 battle casualties: 4,385 US Marines, 3,163 US Army personnel, 2,812 South Koreans attached to American formations and 78 British Royal Marines. The 1st Marine Division also reported 7,338 non-battle casualties due to the cold weather, adding up to a total of 17,833 casualties. Despite the losses, the US X Corps preserved much of its strength. About 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies were shipped from Hungnam to Pusan, and they would later rejoin the war effort in Korea. Commanding General Smith was credited for saving the US X Corps from destruction, while the 1st Marine Division, 41 (Royal Marine) Commando and RCT-31 were awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for their tenacity during the battle. Fourteen Marines, two soldiers and one Navy pilot received the Medal of Honor, and all of the UN troops that served at Chosin were later nicknamed "The Chosin Few". On 15 September 2010, the Veterans of the Korean War Chosin Reservoir Battle memorial was unveiled by the United States Marine Corps Commandant General James T. Conway at Camp Pendleton.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The PVA 9th Army suffered 19,202 combat casualties, and 28,954 non-combat casualties were attributed to the harsh Korean winter and lack of food. Total casualties thus amounted to 48,156 - about one third of its total strength. Outside of official channels, the estimation of Chinese casualties has been described as high as 60,000 by Patrick C. Roe, the chairman of Chosin Few Historical Committee, citing the number of replacements requested by 9th Army in the aftermath of the battle. Regardless of the varying estimates, historian Yan Xue of PLA National Defence University noted that the 9th Army was put out of action for three months. With the absence of 9th Army the Chinese order of battle in Korea was reduced to 18 infantry divisions by 31 December 1950, as opposed to the 30 infantry divisions present on 16 November 1950.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: During the battle, UN dead were buried at temporary grave sites along the road. Operation Glory took place from July to November 1954, during which the dead of each side were exchanged. The remains of 4,167 US soldiers were exchanged for 13,528 North Korean and Chinese dead. In addition, 546 civilians who died in UN prisoner-of-war camps were turned over to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War "unknowns" were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (the "Punchbowl Cemetery" in Honolulu, Hawaii). According to a Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) white paper, 1,394 names were also transmitted from the Chinese and North Koreans during the operation, of which 858 proved to be correct. The 4,167 returned remains were found to be 4,219 individuals, of whom 2,944 were found to be Americans, with all but 416 identified by name. Of the 239 Korean War unaccounted for, 186 are not associated with the Punchbowl Cemetery unknowns. From 1990 to 1994, North Korea excavated and returned more than 208 sets of remains, which possibly include 200 to 400 US servicemen, but very few have been identified due to the co-mingling of remains. From 2001 to 2005, more remains were recovered from the Chosin Battle site, and around 220 were recovered near the Chinese border between 1996 and 2006.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Roy E. Appleman, the author of US Army official history "South to Naktong, North to Yalu", writes that both sides could claim victory: the PVA 9th Army ultimately held the battlefield, while X Corps held off the PVA 9th Army in a series of battles that enabled it to withdraw most of its forces as an effective tactical unit. Allan R. Millett qualifies his assessment of the battle as a Chinese "geographic victory" in that they ejected X Corps from North Korea with the PVA’s tactical failure of achieving their stated objective of destroying the 1st Marine Division, adding that the campaign gave the UN confidence that it could withstand the superior numbers of the Chinese forces. The official Chinese history, published by PLA Academy of Military Science, states that despite the heavy casualties, the PVA 9th Army had earned its victory by successfully protecting the eastern flank of Chinese forces in Korea, while inflicting over 10,000 casualties to the UN forces.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Eliot A. Cohen writes that the retreat from Chosin was a UN victory which inflicted such heavy losses on the PVA 9th Army that it was put out of action until March 1951. Paul M. Edwards, founder of the Center for the Study of the Korean War, draws parallels between the battle at Chosin and the Dunkirk evacuation. He writes that the retreat from Chosin following a "massive strategic victory" by the Chinese has been represented as "a moment of heroic history" for the UN forces. Appleman, on the other hand, questioned the necessity of a sea-borne evacuation to preserve the UN forces, asserting that X Corps had the strength to break out of the Chinese encirclement at Hungnam at the end of the battle. Chinese historian Li Xiaobing acknowledges X Corps' successful withdrawal from North Korea, and writes that the Battle of Chosin "has become a part of Marine lore, but it was still a retreat, not a victory." Bruce Cumings simply refers to the battle as a "terrible defeat" for the Americans.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: Patrick C. Roe, who served as an intelligence officer with the 7th Marine Regiment at Chosin, asserts that X Corps directly allowed the Eighth Army to hold the south and quoted MacArthur in corroborating his view. Yu Bin, a historian and a former member of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, states that while the destruction of Task Force Faith was viewed as the single greatest Chinese victory of the war, ultimately the PVA 9th Army had become "a giant hospital" while failing to destroy the numerically inferior UN forces at Chosin as planned. Zhang Renchu, whose 26th Corps was blamed for allowing the X Corps to escape, had threatened suicide over the outcome, while Song Shilun offered to resign his post.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The battle exacerbated inter-service hostility, the Marines blaming the US Army and its leadership for the failure. The collapse of the army units fighting on the east of the reservoir was regarded as shameful, and for many years afterwards their role in the battle was largely ignored. Later studies concluded that Task Force MacLean/Faith had held off for five days a significantly larger force than previously thought and that their stand was a significant factor in the Marines' survival. This was eventually recognized in September 1999 when, for its actions at Chosin, Task Force Faith was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation, an award that General Smith blocked when it was first proposed in 1952.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The Marines evacuated from North Korea and spent January and most of February 1951 rebuilding in the relatively secure South Korea, where they destroyed the well-respected but already weakened North Korean 10th Division in counter-guerrilla operations during the Second Battle of Wonju. The Marines returned to regular and heavy action on 21 February in Operation Killer.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The battle ended the UN force's expectation of total victory, including the capture of North Korea and the reunification of the peninsula. By the end of 1950, PVA/KPA forces had recaptured North Korea and pushed UN forces back south of the 38th parallel. Serious consideration was given to the evacuation of all US forces from the Korean peninsula and US military leaders made secret contingency plans to do so. The disregard by Far Eastern Command under MacArthur of the initial warnings and diplomatic hints by the PVA almost led the entire UN army to disaster at Ch'ongch'on River and Chosin Reservoir and only after the formation and stabilization of a coherent UN defensive line under Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway did the "period of headlong retreats from an attacking, unsuspected foe" cease.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: On the other hand, the battle affected the PVA in two ways, both of which had the result of helping the UN Command to secure its position in South Korea, while losing North Korea. First, according to historian Shu Guang Zhang, PVA commanders were persuaded by their victories at Chosin and Ch'ongch'on that they could "defeat American armed forces", and this led to "unrealistic expectations that the CPV [PVA] would work miracles." Second, the heavy casualties caused by sub-zero temperatures and combat, plus poor logistical support weakened the PVA's eight elite divisions of the 20th and 27th Corps. Of those eight divisions, two were forced to disband. With the absence of 12 out of 30 of Chinese divisions in Korea in early 1951, Roe says that the heavy Chinese losses at Chosin enabled the UN forces to maintain a foothold in Korea.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: By the end of the withdrawal, the Chinese troops had advanced and retook almost all of North Korean territories. On 24 December 1950, MacArthur submitted a list of "retardation targets" in Korea, Manchuria and other parts of China, and requested 34 atomic bombs from Washington with the purpose of sowing a belt of radioactive cobalt to cease further Chinese advances. His request was strongly declined and led to his later dismissal.


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: The Battle of Chosin Reservoir is regarded by some historians as the most brutal in modern warfare by violence, casualty rate, weather conditions, and endurance. Over the course of fourteen days, 17 Medals of Honor (Army and Navy) and 78 Service Cross Medals (Army and Navy) were awarded by the United States, the second most as of 2020 after the Battle of the Bulge (20 MOHs and 83 SCMs).


title: Battle of Chosin Reservoir

text: American veterans of the battle are colloquially referred to as the "Chosin Few" and symbolized by the "Star of Koto-ri".


title: Thesis

text: A thesis (: theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while "dissertation" is normally applied to a doctorate. This is the typical arrangement in American English. In other contexts, such as within most institutions of the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, the reverse is true. The term graduate thesis is sometimes used to refer to both master's theses and doctoral dissertations.


title: Thesis

text: The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, and the required minimum study period may thus vary significantly in duration.


title: Thesis

text: The word "dissertation" can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term "thesis" is also used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work.


title: Thesis

text: The term "thesis" comes from the Greek word , meaning "something put forth", and refers to an intellectual proposition. "Dissertation" comes from the Latin "dissertātiō", meaning "discussion". Aristotle was the first philosopher to define the term thesis. A 'thesis' is a supposition of some eminent philosopher that conflicts with the general opinion...for to take notice when any ordinary person expresses views contrary to men's usual opinions would be silly.For Aristotle, a thesis would therefore be a supposition that is stated in contradiction with general opinion or express disagreement with other philosophers (104b33-35). A supposition is a statement or opinion that may or may not be true depending on the evidence and/or proof that is offered (152b32). The purpose of the dissertation is thus to outline the proofs of why the author disagrees with other philosophers or the general opinion.


title: Thesis

text: A thesis (or dissertation) may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, respectively, though many graduate programs allow candidates to submit a curated collection of articles. An ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters like introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and bibliography or more usually a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the many different areas of study (arts, humanities, social sciences, technology, sciences, etc.) and the differences between them. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory and comprehensive review of the appended published and unpublished article documents.


title: Thesis

text: Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of a thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the previous research literature impinging on the topic of the study, the methods used, and the findings of the project. Most world universities use a multiple chapter format:


title: Thesis

text: Degree-awarding institutions often define their own house style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. In addition to institution-specific house styles, there exist a number of field-specific, national, and international standards and recommendations for the presentation of theses, for instance ISO 7144. Other applicable international standards include ISO 2145 on section numbers, ISO 690 on bibliographic references, and ISO 31 on quantities or units.


title: Thesis

text: Some older house styles specify that front matter (title page, abstract, table of content, etc.) must use a separate page number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. The relevant international standard and many newer style guides recognize that this book design practice can cause confusion where electronic document viewers number all pages of a document continuously from the first page, independent of any printed page numbers. They, therefore, avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter and require a single sequence of Arabic numerals starting with 1 for the first printed page (the recto of the title page).


title: Thesis

text: Presentation requirements, including pagination, layout, type and color of paper, use of acid-free paper (where a copy of the dissertation will become a permanent part of the library collection), paper size, order of components, and citation style, will be checked page by page by the accepting officer before the thesis is accepted and a receipt is issued.


title: Thesis

text: However, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the character size and the page formatting, and leave much freedom for the actual typographic details.


title: Thesis

text: The thesis committee (or dissertation committee) is a committee that supervises a student's dissertation. In the US, these committees usually consist of a primary supervisor or advisor and two or more committee members, who supervise the progress of the dissertation and may also act as the examining committee, or jury, at the oral examination of the thesis (see ).


title: Thesis

text: At most universities, the committee is chosen by the student in conjunction with their primary adviser, usually after completion of the comprehensive examinations or prospectus meeting, and may consist of members of the comps committee. The committee members are doctors in their field (whether a PhD or other designation) and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student.


title: Thesis

text: The role of the thesis supervisor is to assist and support a student in their studies, and to determine whether a thesis is ready for examination. The thesis is authored by the student, not the supervisor. The duties of the thesis supervisor also include checking for copyright compliance and ensuring that the student has included in/with the thesis a statement attesting that he/she is the sole author of the thesis.


title: Thesis

text: In the "Latin American docta", the academic dissertation can be referred to as different stages inside the academic program that the student is seeking to achieve into a recognized Argentine University, in all the cases the students must develop original contribution in the chosen fields by means of several paper work and essays that comprehend the body of the "thesis". Correspondingly to the academic degree, the last phase of an academic thesis is called in Spanish a "defensa de grado", "defensa magistral" or "defensa doctoral" in cases in which the university candidate is finalizing their licentiate, master's, or PhD program, respectively. According to a committee resolution, the dissertation can be approved or rejected by an academic committee consisting of the thesis director and at least one evaluator. All the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach.


title: Thesis

text: At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called "papers", "term papers" or "essays". A longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelor's degree is sometimes called a "major paper". High-quality research papers presented as the empirical study of a "postgraduate" consecutive bachelor "with Honours" or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called "thesis" (Honours Seminar Thesis). Major papers presented as the final project for a master's degree are normally called "thesis"; and major papers presenting the student's research towards a doctoral degree are called "theses" or "dissertations".


title: Thesis

text: At Canadian universities under the French influenced system, students may have a choice between presenting a ""mémoire""', which is a shorter synthetic work (roughly 75 pages) and a "thèse" which is one hundred pages or more. A synthetic monograph associated with doctoral work is referred to as a ""thèse"". See also compilation thesis. Either work can be awarded a ""mention d'honneur"" (excellence) as a result of the decision by the examination committee, although these are rare.


title: Thesis

text: A typical undergraduate paper or essay might be forty pages. Master's theses are approximately one hundred pages. PhD theses are usually over two hundred pages. This may vary greatly by discipline, program, college, or university. However, normally the required minimum study period is primarily depending on the complexity or quality of research requirements.


title: Thesis

text: Theses Canada acquires and preserves a comprehensive collection of Canadian theses at Library and Archives Canada' (LAC) through a partnership with Canadian universities who participate in the program.


title: Thesis

text: At most university faculties in Croatia, a degree is obtained by defending a thesis after having passed all the classes specified in the degree programme. In the Bologna system, the bachelor's thesis, called "završni rad" (literally "final work" or "concluding work") is defended after 3 years of study and is about 30 pages long. Most students with bachelor's degrees continue onto master's programmes which end with a master's thesis called "diplomski rad" (literally "diploma work" or "graduate work"). The term dissertation is used for a doctoral degree paper ("doktorska disertacija").


title: Thesis

text: In the Czech Republic, higher education is completed by passing all classes remaining to the educational compendium for given degree and defending a thesis. For bachelors programme the thesis is called "bakalářská práce" (bachelor's thesis), for master's degrees and also doctor of medicine or dentistry degrees it is the "diplomová práce" (master's thesis), and for Philosophiae doctor (PhD.) degree it is dissertation "dizertační práce". Thesis for so called Higher-Professional School (Vyšší odborná škola, VOŠ) is called "absolventská práce".


title: Thesis

text: In France, the academic dissertation or thesis is called a "thèse" and it is reserved for the final work of doctoral candidates. The minimum page length is generally (and not formally) 100 pages (or about 400,000 characters), but is usually several times longer (except for technical theses and for "exact sciences" such as physics and maths).


title: Thesis

text: To complete a master's degree in research, a student is required to write a "mémoire", the French equivalent of a master's thesis in other higher education systems.


title: Thesis

text: The word "dissertation" in French is reserved for shorter (1,000–2,000 words), more generic academic treatises.


title: Thesis

text: In Germany, an academic thesis is called "Abschlussarbeit" or, more specifically, the basic name of the degree complemented by "-arbeit" (rough translation: "-work"; e.g., "Diplomarbeit", "Masterarbeit", "Doktorarbeit"). For bachelor's and master's degrees, the name can alternatively be complemented by "-thesis" instead (e.g., "Bachelorthesis").


title: Thesis

text: Length is often given in page count and depends upon departments, faculties, and fields of study. A bachelor's thesis is often 40–60 pages long, a diploma thesis and a master's thesis usually 60–100. The required submission for a doctorate is called a "Dissertation" or "Doktorarbeit". The submission for a Habilitation, which is an academic qualification, not an academic degree, is called "Habilitationsschrift", not "Habilitationsarbeit".


title: Thesis

text: A doctoral degree is often earned with multiple levels of a Latin honors remark for the thesis ranging from "summa cum laude" (best) to "rite" (duly). A thesis can also be rejected with a Latin remark ("non-rite", "non-sufficit" or worst as "sub omni canone"). Bachelor's and master's theses receive numerical grades from 1.0 (best) to 5.0 (failed).


title: Thesis

text: In India the thesis defense is called a (Latin for "by live voice") examination ("viva" in short). Involved in the "viva" are two examiners, one guide(student guide) and the candidate. One examiner is an academic from the candidate's own university department (but not one of the candidate's supervisors) and the other is an external examiner from a different university.


title: Thesis

text: In India, PG Qualifications such as MSc Physics accompanies submission of dissertation in Part I and submission of a Project (a working model of an innovation) in Part II. Engineering and Designing qualifications such as BTech, B.E., B.Des, MTech, M.E. or M.Des also involves submission of dissertation. In all the cases, the dissertation can be extended for summer internship at certain research and development organizations or also as PhD synopsis.


title: Thesis

text: In Indonesia, the term thesis is used specifically to refer to master's theses. The undergraduate thesis is called "", while the doctoral dissertation is called "". In general, those three terms are usually called as "tugas akhir" (final assignment), which is mostly mandatory for the completion of a degree. Undergraduate students usually begin to write their final assignment in their third, fourth or fifth enrollment year, depends on the requirements of their respective disciplines and universities. In some universities, students are required to write a "proposal skripsi" or "proposal tesis" (thesis proposal) before they could write their final assignment. If the thesis proposal is considered to fulfill the qualification by the academic examiners, students then may proceed to write their final assignment.


title: Thesis

text: In Iran, usually students are required to present a thesis ( "pāyān-nāmeh") in their master's degree and a dissertation ( "resāleh") in their Doctorate degree, both of which requiring the students to defend their research before a committee and gaining their approval. Most of the norms and rules of writing a thesis or a dissertation are influenced by the French higher education system.


title: Thesis

text: In Italy there are normally three types of thesis. In order of complexity: one for the Laurea (equivalent to the UK Bachelor's Degree), another one for the Laurea Magistrale (equivalent to the UK Master's Degree) and then a thesis to complete the Dottorato di Ricerca (PhD). Thesis requirements vary greatly between degrees and disciplines, ranging from as low as 3–4 ECTS credits to more than 30. Thesis work is mandatory for the completion of a degree.


title: Thesis

text: In Kazakhstan, a bachelor's degree typically requires a "bachelor's diploma work" (kz "бакалаврдың дипломдық жұмысы"), while the master's and PhD degree require a "master's/doctoral dissertation" (kz "магистрлік/докторлық диссертация"). All the works are publicly presented to the special council at the end of the training, which thoroughly examines the work. PhD candidates may be allowed to present their work without a written thesis, if they provide enough publications in leading journals of the field, and one of which should be a review article specifically.


title: Thesis

text: Malaysian universities often follow the British model for dissertations and degrees. However, a few universities follow the United States model for theses and dissertations. Some public universities have both British and US style PhD programs. Branch campuses of British, Australian and Middle East universities in Malaysia use the respective models of the home campuses.


title: Thesis

text: In Pakistan, at undergraduate level the thesis is usually called final year project, as it is completed in the senior year of the degree, the name project usually implies that the work carried out is less extensive than a thesis and bears lesser credit hours too. The undergraduate level project is presented through an elaborate written report and a presentation to the advisor, a board of faculty members and students. At graduate level however, i.e. in MS, some universities allow students to accomplish a project of 6 credits or a thesis of 9 credits, at least one publication is normally considered enough for the awarding of the degree with project and is considered mandatory for the awarding of a degree with thesis. A written report and a public thesis defense is mandatory, in the presence of a board of senior researchers, consisting of members from an outside organization or a university. A PhD candidate is supposed to accomplish extensive research work to fulfill the dissertation requirements with international publications being a mandatory requirement. The defense of the research work is done publicly.


title: Thesis

text: In the Philippines, an academic thesis is named by the degree, such as bachelor/undergraduate thesis or masteral thesis. However, in Philippine English, the term "doctorate" is typically replaced with "doctoral" (as in the case of "doctoral dissertation"), though in official documentation the former is still used. The terms "thesis" and "dissertation" are commonly used interchangeably in everyday language yet it is generally understood that a "thesis" refers to bachelor/undergraduate and master academic work while a "dissertation" is named for doctorate work.


title: Thesis

text: The Philippine system is influenced by American collegiate system, in that it requires a "research project" to be submitted before being allowed to write a thesis. This project is mostly given as a prerequisite writing course to the actual thesis and is accomplished in the term period before; supervision is provided by one professor assigned to a class. This project is later to be presented in front of an academic panel, often the entire faculty of an academic department, with their recommendations contributing to the acceptance, revision, or rejection of the initial topic. In addition, the presentation of the research project will help the candidate choose their primary thesis adviser.


title: Thesis

text: An undergraduate thesis is completed in the final year of the degree alongside existing seminar (lecture) or laboratory courses, and is often divided into two presentations: "proposal" and "thesis" presentations (though this varies across universities), whereas a master thesis or doctorate dissertation is accomplished in the last term alone and is defended once. In most universities, a thesis is required for the bestowment of a degree to a candidate alongside a number of units earned throughout their academic period of stay, though for practice and skills-based degrees a "practicum" and a written report can be achieved instead. The examination board often consists of 3 to 5 examiners, often professors in a university (with a Masters or PhD degree) depending on the university's examination rules. Required word length, complexity, and contribution to scholarship varies widely across universities in the country.


title: Thesis

text: In Poland, a bachelor's degree usually requires a "praca licencjacka" (bachelor's thesis) or the similar level degree in engineering requires a "praca inżynierska" (engineer's thesis/bachelor's thesis), the master's degree requires a "praca magisterska" (master's thesis). The academic dissertation for a PhD is called a "dysertacja" or "praca doktorska". The submission for the Habilitation is called "praca habilitacyjna" or "dysertacja habilitacyjna". Thus the term "dysertacja" is reserved for PhD and Habilitation degrees. All the theses need to be "defended" by the author during a special examination for the given degree. Examinations for PhD and Habilitation degrees are public.


title: Thesis

text: In Portugal and Brazil, a dissertation ("dissertação") is required for completion of a master's degree. The defense is done in a public presentation in which teachers, students, and the general public can participate. For the PhD, a thesis ("tese") is presented for defense in a public exam. The exam typically extends over 3 hours. The examination board typically involves 5 to 6 scholars (including the advisor) or other experts with a PhD degree (generally at least half of them must be external to the university where the candidate defends the thesis, but it may depend on the university). Each university / faculty defines the length of these documents, and it can vary also in respect to the domains (a thesis in fields like philosophy, history, geography, etc., usually has more pages than a thesis in mathematics, computer science, statistics, etc.) but typical numbers of pages are around 60–80 for MSc and 150–250 for PhD.


title: Thesis

text: In Brazil the Bachelor's Thesis is called "TCC" or "Trabalho de Conclusão de Curso" (Final Term / Undergraduate Thesis / Final Paper).


title: Thesis

text: In Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine an academic dissertation or thesis is called what can be literally translated as a "master's degree work" (thesis), whereas the word "dissertation" is reserved for doctoral theses (Candidate of Sciences). To complete a master's degree, a student is required to write a thesis and to then defend the work publicly. The length of this manuscript usually is given in page count and depends upon educational institution, its departments, faculties, and fields of study


title: Thesis

text: At universities in Slovenia, an academic thesis called "diploma thesis" is a prerequisite for completing undergraduate studies. The thesis used to be 40–60 pages long, but has been reduced to 20–30 pages in new Bologna process programmes. To complete Master's studies, a candidate must write "magistrsko delo" (Master's thesis) that is longer and more detailed than the undergraduate thesis. The required submission for the doctorate is called "doktorska disertacija" (doctoral dissertation). In pre Bologna programmes students were able to skip the preparation and presentation of a Master's thesis and continue straightforward towards doctorate.


title: Thesis

text: In Slovakia, higher education is completed by defending a thesis, which is called "bachelor's thesis" "bakalárska práca" for bachelors programme, master's thesis or "diplomová práca" for master's degrees, and also doctor of medicine or dentistry degrees and dissertation "dizertačná práca" for Philosophiae doctor (PhD.) degree.


title: Thesis

text: In Sweden, there are different types of theses. Practices and definitions vary between fields but commonly include the "C thesis"/Bachelor thesis, which corresponds to 15 HP or 10 weeks of independent studies, "D thesis"/'/Magister/one year master's thesis, which corresponds to 15 HP or 10 weeks of independent studies and "E Thesis"/two-year master's thesis, which corresponds to 30 HP or 20 weeks of independent studies. The undergraduate theses are called "uppsats" ("essay"), sometimes "examensarbete", especially at technical programmes.


title: Thesis

text: After that there are two types of post graduate theses: licentiate thesis ("licentiatuppsats") and PhD dissertation ("doktorsavhandling"). A licentiate degree is approximately "half a PhD" in terms of the size and scope of the thesis. Swedish PhD studies should in theory last for four years, including course work and thesis work, but as many PhD students also teach, the PhD often takes longer to complete. The thesis can be written as a monograph or as a compilation thesis; in the latter case, the introductory chapters are called the "kappa" (literally "coat").


title: Thesis

text: Outside the academic community, the terms "thesis" and "dissertation" are interchangeable. At universities in the United Kingdom, the term "thesis" is usually associated with PhD/EngD (doctoral) and research master's degrees, while "dissertation" is the more common term for a substantial project submitted as part of a taught master's degree or an undergraduate degree (e.g. MSc, BA, BSc, BMus, BEd, BEng etc.).


title: Thesis

text: A wide range of supervisory arrangements can be found in the British academy, from single supervisors (more usual for undergraduate and Masters level work) to supervisory teams of up to three supervisors. In teams, there will often be a Director of Studies, usually someone with broader experience (perhaps having passed some threshold of successful supervisions). The Director may be involved with regular supervision along with the other supervisors, or may have more of an oversight role, with the other supervisors taking on the more day-to-day responsibilities of supervision.


title: Thesis

text: In some U.S. doctoral programs, the "dissertation" can take up the major part of the student's total time spent (along with two or three years of classes) and may take years of full-time work to complete. At most universities, "dissertation" is the term for the required submission for the doctorate, and "thesis" refers only to the master's degree requirement.


title: Thesis

text: "Thesis" is also used to describe a cumulative project for a bachelor's degree and is more common at selective colleges and universities, or for those seeking admittance to graduate school or to obtain an honors academic designation. These projects are called "senior projects" or "senior theses"; they are generally done in the senior year near graduation after having completed other courses, the independent study period, and the internship or student teaching period (the completion of most of the requirements before the writing of the paper ensures adequate knowledge and aptitude for the challenge). Unlike a dissertation or master's thesis, they are not as long and they do not require a novel contribution to knowledge or even a very narrow focus on a set subtopic. Like them, they can be lengthy and require months of work, they require supervision by at least one professor adviser, they must be focused on a certain area of knowledge, and they must use an appreciable amount of scholarly citations. They may or may not be defended before a committee but usually are not; there is generally no preceding examination before the writing of the paper, except for at very few colleges. Because of the nature of the graduate thesis or dissertation having to be more narrow and more novel, the result of original research, these usually have a smaller proportion of the work that is cited from other sources, though the fact that they are lengthier may mean they still have total citations.


title: Thesis

text: Specific undergraduate courses, especially writing-intensive courses or courses taken by upperclassmen, may also require one or more extensive written assignments referred to variously as theses, essays, or papers. Increasingly, high schools are requiring students to complete a senior project or senior thesis on a chosen topic during the final year as a prerequisite for graduation. The extended essay component of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme, offered in a growing number of American high schools, is another example of this trend.


title: Thesis

text: Generally speaking, a dissertation is judged as to whether it makes an original and unique contribution to scholarship. Lesser projects (a master's thesis, for example) are judged by whether they demonstrate mastery of available scholarship in the presentation of an idea.


title: Thesis

text: The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis may vary significantly among universities or programs.


title: Thesis

text: One of the requirements for certain advanced degrees is often an oral examination (called a "viva voce" examination or just "viva" in the UK and certain other English-speaking countries). This examination normally occurs after the dissertation is finished but before it is submitted to the university, and may comprise a presentation (often public) by the student and questions posed by an examining committee or jury. In North America, an initial oral examination in the field of specialization may take place just before the student settles down to work on the dissertation. An additional oral exam may take place after the dissertation is completed and is known as a thesis defense or dissertation defense, which at some universities may be a mere formality and at others may result in the student being required to make significant revisions.


title: Thesis

text: The result of the examination may be given immediately following deliberation by the examination committee (in which case the candidate may immediately be considered to have received their degree), or at a later date, in which case the examiners may prepare a defense report that is forwarded to a Board or Committee of Postgraduate Studies, which then officially recommends the candidate for the degree.


title: Thesis

text: At most North American institutions the latter two verdicts are extremely rare, for two reasons. First, to obtain the status of doctoral candidates, graduate students typically pass a qualifying examination or comprehensive examination, which often includes an oral defense. Students who pass the qualifying examination are deemed capable of completing scholarly work independently and are allowed to proceed with working on a dissertation. Second, since the thesis supervisor (and the other members of the advisory committee) will normally have reviewed the thesis extensively before recommending the student to proceed to the defense, such an outcome would be regarded as a major failure not only on the part of the candidate but also by the candidate's supervisor (who should have recognized the substandard quality of the dissertation long before the defense was allowed to take place). It is also fairly rare for a thesis to be accepted without any revisions; the most common outcome of a defense is for the examiners to specify minor revisions (which the candidate typically completes in a few days or weeks).


title: Thesis

text: At universities on the British pattern it is not uncommon for theses at the "viva" stage to be subject to major revisions in which a substantial rewrite is required, sometimes followed by a new "viva". Very rarely, the thesis may be awarded the lesser degree of M.Phil. (Master of Philosophy) instead, preventing the candidate from resubmitting the thesis.


title: Thesis

text: In Australia, doctoral theses are usually examined by three examiners (although some, like the Australian Catholic University, the University of New South Wales, and Western Sydney University have shifted to using only two examiners) without a live defense except in extremely rare exceptions. In the case of a master's degree by research the thesis is usually examined by only two examiners. Typically one of these examiners will be from within the candidate's own department; the other(s) will usually be from other universities and often from overseas. Following submission of the thesis, copies are sent by mail to examiners and then reports sent back to the institution.


title: Thesis

text: Similar to a master's degree by research thesis, a thesis for the research component of a master's degree by coursework is also usually examined by two examiners, one from the candidate's department and one from another university. For an Honours year, which is a fourth year in addition to the usual three-year bachelor's degree, the thesis is also examined by two examiners, though both are usually from the candidate's own department. Honours and Master's theses sometimes require an oral defense before they are accepted.


title: Thesis

text: In Germany, a thesis is usually examined with an oral examination. This applies to almost all Diplom, Magister, master's and doctoral degrees as well as to most bachelor's degrees. However, a process that allows for revisions of the thesis is usually only implemented for doctoral degrees.


title: Thesis

text: There are several different kinds of oral examinations used in practice. The "Disputation", also called "Verteidigung" ("defense"), is usually public (at least to members of the university) and is focused on the topic of the thesis. In contrast, the "Rigorosum" is not held in public and also encompasses fields in addition to the topic of the thesis. The "Rigorosum" is only common for doctoral degrees. Another term for an oral examination is "Kolloquium", which generally refers to a usually public scientific discussion and is often used synonymously with "Verteidigung".


title: Thesis

text: In each case, what exactly is expected differs between universities and between faculties. Some universities also demand a combination of several of these forms.


title: Thesis

text: Like the British model, the PhD or MPhil student is required to submit their theses or dissertation for examination by two or three examiners. The first examiner is from the university concerned, the second examiner is from another local university and the third examiner is from a suitable foreign university (usually from Commonwealth countries). The choice of examiners must be approved by the university senate. In some public universities, a PhD or MPhil candidate may also have to show a number publications in peer reviewed academic journals as part of the requirement. An oral viva is conducted after the examiners have submitted their reports to the university. The oral viva session is attended by the Oral Viva chairman, a rapporteur with a PhD qualification, the first examiner, the second examiner and sometimes the third examiner.


title: Thesis

text: Branch campuses of British, Australian and Middle East universities in Malaysia use the respective models of the home campuses to examine their PhD or MPhil candidates.


title: Thesis

text: In the Philippines, a thesis is followed by an oral defense. In most universities, this applies to all bachelor, master, and doctorate degrees. However, the oral defense is held in once per semester (usually in the middle or by the end) with a presentation of revisions (so-called "plenary presentation") at the end of each semester. The oral defense is typically not held in public for bachelor and master oral defenses, however a colloquium is held for doctorate degrees.


title: Thesis

text: In Portugal, a thesis is examined with an oral defense, which includes an initial presentation by the candidate followed by an extensive questioning/answering period.


title: Thesis

text: In North America, the "thesis defense" or "oral defense" is the final examination for doctoral candidates, and sometimes for master's candidates.


title: Thesis

text: The examining committee normally consists of the thesis committee, usually a given number of professors mainly from the student's university plus their primary supervisor, an external examiner (someone not otherwise connected to the university), and a chair person. Each committee member will have been given a completed copy of the dissertation prior to the defense, and will come prepared to ask questions about the thesis itself and the subject matter. In many schools, master's thesis defenses are restricted to the examinee and the examiners, but doctoral defenses are open to the public.


title: Thesis

text: The typical format will see the candidate giving a short (20–40-minute) presentation of their research, followed by one to two hours of questions.


title: Thesis

text: At some U.S. institutions, a longer public lecture (known as a "thesis talk" or "thesis seminar") by the candidate will accompany the defense itself, in which case only the candidate, the examiners, and other members of the faculty may attend the actual defense.


title: Thesis

text: A student in Russia or Ukraine has to complete a thesis and then defend it in front of their department. Sometimes the defense meeting is made up of the learning institute's professionals and sometimes the students peers are allowed to view or join in. After the presentation and defense of the thesis, the final conclusion of the department should be that none of them have reservations on the content and quality of the thesis.


title: Thesis

text: A conclusion on the thesis has to be approved by the rector of the educational institute. This conclusion (final grade so to speak) of the thesis can be defended/argued not only at the thesis council, but also in any other thesis council of Russia or Ukraine.


title: Thesis

text: The former (DEA) lasted two years and candidates were required to complete coursework and demonstrate their ability to research the specific topics they have studied. From 2011 on, these courses were replaced by academic Master's programmes that include specific training on epistemology, and scientific methodology. After its completion, students are able to enroll in a specific PhD programme ("programa de doctorado") and begin a dissertation on a set topic for a maximum time of three years (full-time) and five years (part-time). All students must have a full professor as an academic advisor ("director de tesis") and a tutor, who is usually the same person.


title: Thesis

text: A dissertation ("tesis doctoral"), with an average of 250 pages, is the main requisite along with typically one previously published journal article. Once candidates have published their written dissertations, they will be evaluated by two external academics ("evaluadores externos") and subsequently it is usually exhibited publicly for fifteen natural days. After its approval, candidates must defend publicly their research before a three-member committee ("tribunal") with at least one visiting academic: chair, secretary and member ("presidente", "secretario" y "vocal").


title: Thesis

text: A typical public Thesis Defence ("defensa") lasts 45 minutes and all attendants holding a doctoral degree are eligible to ask questions.


title: Thesis

text: In Hong Kong, Ireland and the United Kingdom, the thesis defense is called a (Latin for 'by live voice') examination ("viva" for short). A typical "viva" lasts for approximately 3 hours, though there is no formal time limit. Involved in the "viva" are two examiners and the candidate. Usually, one examiner is an academic from the candidate's own university department (but not one of the candidate's supervisors) and the other is an external examiner from a different university. Increasingly, the examination may involve a third academic, the 'chair'; this person, from the candidate's institution, acts as an impartial observer with oversight of the examination process to ensure that the examination is fair. The 'chair' does not ask academic questions of the candidate.


title: Thesis

text: In the United Kingdom, there are only two or at most three examiners, and in many universities the examination is held in private. The candidate's primary supervisor is not permitted to ask or answer questions during the viva, and their presence is not necessary. However, some universities permit members of the faculty or the university to attend. At the University of Oxford, for instance, any member of the university may attend a DPhil viva (the university's regulations require that details of the examination and its time and place be published formally in advance) provided they attend in full academic dress.


title: Thesis

text: A submission of the thesis is the last formal requirement for most students after the defense. By the final deadline, the student must submit a complete copy of the thesis to the appropriate body within the accepting institution, along with the appropriate forms, bearing the signatures of the primary supervisor, the examiners, and in some cases, the head of the student's department. Other required forms may include library authorizations (giving the university library permission to make the thesis available as part of its collection) and copyright permissions (in the event that the student has incorporated copyrighted materials in the thesis). Many large scientific publishing houses (e.g. Taylor & Francis, Elsevier) use copyright agreements that allow the authors to incorporate their published articles into dissertations without separate authorization.


title: Thesis

text: Failure to submit the thesis by the deadline may result in graduation (and granting of the degree) being delayed. At most U.S. institutions, there will also be various fees (for binding, microfilming, copyright registration, and the like), which must be paid before the degree will be granted.


title: Thesis

text: Once all the paperwork is in order, copies of the thesis may be made available in one or more university libraries. Specialist abstracting services exist to publicize the content of these beyond the institutions in which they are produced. Many institutions now insist on submission of digitized as well as printed copies of theses; the digitized versions of successful theses are often made available online.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa Internet, Inc. was an American web traffic analysis company based in San Francisco. It was a wholly-owned subsidiary of Amazon.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa was founded as an independent company in 1996 and acquired by Amazon in 1999 for $250 million in stock. Alexa provided web traffic data, global rankings, and other information on over 30 million websites. Alexa estimated website traffic based on a sample of millions of Internet users using browser extensions, as well as from sites that had chosen to install an Alexa script. As of 2020, its website was visited by over 400 million people every month.


title: Alexa Internet

text: In December 2021, Amazon announced that it would be shutting down its Alexa Internet subsidiary. The service was then discontinued on May 1, 2022.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat. The company's name was chosen in homage to the Library of Alexandria of Ptolemaic Egypt, drawing a parallel between the largest repository of knowledge in the ancient world and the potential of the Internet to become a similar store of knowledge. Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited: to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how many other sites pointed to it, and how frequently it was updated.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa's operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are "crawled" and examined by an automated computer program (nicknamed a "bot" or "web crawler"). This database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, two terabytes in size, to the Library of Congress. Alexa continued to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its original vision of providing an "intelligent" search engine, Alexa was acquired by Amazon.com for approximately US$250 million in Amazon stock.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a comprehensive set of Web services and APIs. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexa's servers or elsewhere. In May 2006, Google was replaced with Windows Live Search as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search. Built in-house, it was the first major application built on the company's Web platform. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements.


title: Alexa Internet

text: In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, "Alexa v. Hornbaker," to stop trademark infringement by the Statsaholic service. In the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexa's servers. Hornbaker removed the term "Alexa" from his service name on March 19, 2007. On November 27, 2008, Amazon announced that Alexa Web Search was no longer accepting new customers, and that the service would be deprecated or discontinued for existing customers on January 26, 2009. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company.


title: Alexa Internet

text: On March 31, 2009, Alexa revealed a major website redesign. The redesigned site provided new web traffic metrics—including average page views per individual user, bounce rate (the rate of users who come to, and then leave a webpage), and user time on website. In the following weeks, Alexa added more features, including visitor demographics, clickstream and web search traffic statistics.


title: Alexa Internet

text: During this period, Alexa had been evolving along with their algorithm. Statistics projection and the use of their technology associated with a large network of certificated websites allowed them to keep ahead of the website traffic metrics around the world. Because of this, many large sites were using it as the main reference of popularity on the internet.


title: Alexa Internet

text: On Wednesday, December 8, 2021, Amazon announced the cessation of its website ranking and competitive analysis service, which has been available to the public for more than 25 years. The statement first published on its website specifies the total cessation of the service as of May 1, 2022. On December 8, it became no longer possible to create accounts or buy subscriptions on the service. Existing subscriptions would be available until May 1, 2022, UTC, then on May 1, 2022 everything on the site was removed and replaced with "End of Service Notice".


title: Alexa Internet

text: A key metric published from Alexa Internet analytics was the Alexa Traffic Rank, also simply known as Alexa Rank. It was also referred to as "Global Rank" by Alexa Internet and was designed to be an estimate of a website's popularity. , Alexa Internet's tooltip for Global Rank said the rank is calculated from a combination of daily visitors and page views on a website over a three-month period.


title: Alexa Internet

text: The Alexa Traffic Rank could be used to monitor the popularity trend of a website and compare the popularity of different websites.


title: Alexa Internet

text: The traffic rank used to be determined from data recollected from users that had the Alexa toolbar installed on their browser. As of 2020, Alexa did not use a toolbar; instead, it used data from users that had installed any of a number of browser extensions and from websites that had the Alexa script installed on their webpages.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa replaced their toolbar with browser extensions. These extensions were made available for Google Chrome and Firefox browsers. The Alexa browser extension displayed the Alexa Traffic Rank for websites, showed related websites, provided search analytics, and quickly allowed users to view the Internet Archive through the Wayback Machine. They were last updated in May 2020, two years prior to the service's closure.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa used to rank sites based primarily on tracking a sample set of Internet traffic—users of its browser toolbar for the Internet Explorer, Firefox and Google Chrome web browsers. The Alexa Toolbar included a popup blocker (which stops unwanted ads), a search box, links to Amazon.com and the Alexa homepage, and the Alexa ranking of the website that the user is visiting. It also allowed the user to rate the website and view links to external, relevant websites. In early 2005, Alexa stated that there had been 10 million downloads of the toolbar, though the company did not provide statistics about active usage. Originally, web pages were only ranked amongst users who had the Alexa Toolbar installed, and could be biased if a specific audience subgroup was reluctant to take part in the rankings. This caused some controversies over how representative Alexa's user base was of typical Internet behavior, especially for less-visited sites. In 2007, Michael Arrington provided examples of Alexa rankings known to contradict data from the comScore web analytics service, including ranking YouTube ahead of Google. In 2021 John Mueller from Google confirmed again that Google doesn't use Amazon Alexa Rank.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Until 2007, a third-party-supplied Mozilla plug-in called Search Status for the Firefox browser served as the only option for Firefox users after Amazon abandoned its A9 toolbar. On July 16, 2007, Alexa released an official toolbar for Firefox called Sparky. On 16 April 2008, many users reported drastic shifts in their Alexa rankings. Alexa confirmed this later in the day with an announcement that they had released an updated ranking system, claiming that they would now take into account more sources of data "beyond Alexa Toolbar users".


title: Alexa Internet

text: Using the Alexa Pro service, website owners could sign up for "certified statistics", which allowed Alexa more access to a website's traffic data. Site owners input JavaScript code on each page of their website that, if permitted by the user's security and privacy settings, ran and sent traffic data to Alexa, allowing Alexa to display—or not display, depending on the owner's preference—more accurate statistics such as total page views and unique page views.


title: Alexa Internet

text: Alexa last detailed their privacy notice in July 2020 as part of their Website Terms of Use and End User License Agreement.


title: Slade

text: Slade are an English rock band formed in Wolverhampton in 1966. They rose to prominence during the glam rock era in the early 1970s, achieving 17 consecutive top 20 hits and six number ones on the UK Singles Chart. The "British Hit Singles & Albums" names them the most successful British group of the 1970s based on sales of singles. They were the first act to have three singles enter the charts at number one; all six of the band's chart-toppers were penned by Noddy Holder and Jim Lea. As of 2006, total UK sales stand at 6,520,171, and their best-selling single, "Merry Xmas Everybody", has sold in excess of one million copies. According to the 1999 BBC documentary "It's Slade", the band have sold over 50 million records worldwide.


title: Slade

text: Following an unsuccessful move to the U.S. in 1975, Slade's popularity in the UK waned, but was unexpectedly revived in 1980 when they were last-minute replacements for Ozzy Osbourne at the Reading Rock Festival. The band later acknowledged this to have been one of the highlights of their career. The original line-up split in 1992, but reformed later in the year as Slade II. The band have continued, with a number of line-up changes, to the present day. They have also shortened the group name back to Slade.


title: Slade

text: A number of artists from diverse genres have cited Slade as an influence, including Nirvana, Smashing Pumpkins, Ramones, Sex Pistols, The Undertones, The Runaways, The Clash, Kiss, Mötley Crüe, Poison, Def Leppard, Twisted Sister, The Replacements, Cheap Trick, Oasis, Quiet Riot (who covered Slade songs for two of their three biggest hits) and Britny Fox. "The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Music" tells of Holder's powerful vocals, guitarist Dave Hill's equally arresting dress sense, and the deliberate misspelling of their song titles (such as "Cum On Feel the Noize" and "Mama Weer All Crazee Now") for which they became well known.


title: Slade

text: All the members of Slade grew up in the Black Country. Drummer Don Powell and bassist Jim Lea were born and brought up in Wolverhampton, lead vocalist Noddy Holder was born and brought up in nearby Caldmore, and lead guitarist Dave Hill moved to Wolverhampton from Holbeton as a child. Slade have released over 30 albums, three of which reached No. 1 in the UK Albums Chart. Their releases have spent 315 weeks in the UK charts and they have earned 24 top-30 UK hits .


title: Slade

text: Slade dominated the UK singles charts during the early 1970s, often outperforming chart rivals such as Wizzard, Sweet, T. Rex, Suzi Quatro, Mud, Gary Glitter, Roxy Music, and David Bowie. Slade achieved twelve Top 5 hit singles in the UK between 1971 and 1974, three of which went straight to #1. Of the 17 Top 20 hits between 1971 and 1976, six made No. 1, three reached No. 2 and two peaked at No. 3. No other UK act of the period enjoyed such consistently high chart placings in the UK Top 40, and this feat was the closest any group had come to matching the Beatles' 22 Top 10 records in a single decade (1960s). Slade sold more singles in the UK than any other group of the 1970s. In 1973 alone, "Merry Xmas Everybody" sold over one million copies globally, obtaining gold disc status. They toured Europe in 1973 and the US in 1974.


title: Slade

text: Slade moved to the US in the mid-1970s in an attempt to break into the American market and, although this was largely unsuccessful, they left their mark on a number of US bands who have since cited Slade as an influence. During the late 1970s, the band returned to the UK following years of commercial failure both at home and abroad. Slade's career was unexpectedly revived when the band were asked to perform at the 1980 Reading Festival when Ozzy Osbourne pulled out at the last minute. For the next two years, the band produced material tailored towards the heavy-metal scene and by 1984, they finally cracked the American market with the hits "Run Runaway" and "My Oh My." This new-found success did not last long, however, and despite a top-25 UK hit in the early '90s the band split shortly after in 1992.


title: Slade

text: In 1964, drummer Don Powell and guitarist Dave Hill were part of a Midland-based group called the Vendors. Regulars on the club circuit, they had also recorded a privately pressed four-track EP. At the time, Noddy Holder was playing guitar and contributing to vocals in Steve Brett & the Mavericks. Signed to Columbia Records, the band released three singles in 1965. After listening to American blues artists such as Sonny Boy Williamson II, John Lee Hooker and Howlin' Wolf, the Vendors decided on a change of direction and name: As the "N Betweens" they gained greater recognition and began to get supporting gigs with acts such as the Hollies, the Yardbirds, Georgie Fame and Spencer Davis.


title: Slade

text: The Mavericks and the 'N Betweens were on their way to separate gigs in Germany when they met on a ferry in 1965. Powell and Hill asked Holder if he would be interested in joining The 'N Betweens, but Holder declined. Later, back in their home town of Wolverhampton, the musicians met again and this time Holder agreed to join the group. Jim Lea, whose musical background and strong bass guitar skills were considered an asset, had already been recruited. Lea, who also played the piano and violin, had been in the Staffordshire Youth Orchestra and had gained first class honours in a London music-school practical exam.


title: Slade

text: By 1966, this new version of the 'N Betweens had recorded a promo single of the Otis Redding track "Security" and a self-penned song, "Evil Witchman", released on Highland Records. A further single, "You Better Run" was released on Columbia Records and produced by Kim Fowley. This last single was reported by Powell to have topped the regional midland charts although it failed to make any national impact. Between 1966 and 1967, the band's performance centred on the R&B and Tamla Motown styles, while Noddy's flair for showmanship began to give the band a focus. During 1967, the band recorded the track "Delighted to See You" which remained unreleased until 1994, where it featured on the various artists compilation "Psychedelia at Abbey Road". Although the group did not record again for roughly two years, they built up a respectable reputation on the live circuit.


title: Slade

text: A local promoter, Roger Allen spotted the group in 1969 and alerted the head of A&R at Philips Records, Jack Baverstock. The group spent a week in the Philips studio at Stanhope Place recording an album, after which Baverstock offered to sign the group to Fontana Records if they changed their name and obtained London-based management. The band were initially hesitant because of the reputation gained as the 'N Betweens' but eventually agreed to "Ambrose Slade", a name inspired by Baverstock's secretary, who had named her handbag Ambrose and her shoes Slade. Baverstock also found the group an agent, John Gunnel, who had previously worked with the entertainment entrepreneur Robert Stigwood.


title: Slade

text: The band's debut album "Beginnings", released in mid-1969, was a commercial failure, as was the instrumental single "Genesis" and the follow-up single "Wild Winds Are Blowing". While the album was being recorded, the band were visited by Gunnel and his business partner, Animals' bassist Chas Chandler. Chandler was impressed with what he heard in the studio, and after seeing the band live the following day, offered to manage them. As Chandler had previous managerial experience with Jimi Hendrix, the band accepted.


title: Slade

text: Chandler was not pleased with the debut album and thought the band would benefit from writing their own material and a change of image. The band adopted a skinhead look as an attempt to gain publicity from what was a newsworthy youth fashion trend, but this also added an unwelcome association with football hooliganism. Noddy Holder and Don Powell were particularly tough-looking individuals already, and the skinhead look exacerbated the disturbing effect of having "toughs" in the band. In 1970, the band shortened their name to Slade and released a new single, a cover of "Shape of Things to Come" which, despite a performance on United Kingdom music show "Top of the Pops", failed to chart.


title: Slade

text: Chandler moved Slade to Polydor Records, believing a higher-profile label would boost sales. Lyrics were added to the instrumental "Genesis" from the band's debut album, the result being released as "Know Who You Are", but again, the single failed to make any impression on the UK chart as did the album "Play It Loud", released in late 1970 and produced by Chandler himself. Later the album was retrospectively well received by fans and critics, and earned a silver disc for sales.


title: Slade

text: Chandler had been managing the band for almost two years without success when he suggested releasing a version of the Bobby Marchan song "Get Down and Get With It", originally performed by Little Richard. Slade still enjoyed a good reputation as a live act and the song had been used in their performances for many years. Always popular, the song's lyrics demanded audience participation and it was hoped that the feeling of a live gig would be projected into the studio recording. The song was released in mid-1971, and by August it entered the top 20 in the United Kingdom, peaking at number 16.