title: The Human League

text: The relationship between Oakey and Ware had always been turbulent, and the pair often quarrelled over creative and personal matters. The lack of success compared with the success of Gary Numan's work at that time had brought matters to a head. Ware insisted the band maintain their pure electronic sound, while Oakey wanted to emulate more successful pop groups. The pair clashed continually, and Ware eventually walked out in 1980. Taking Ware's side, Ian Craig Marsh joined him in exiting The Human League.


title: The Human League

text: Manager Bob Last tried to reconcile both parties, and when that proved impossible, various options were suggested, including two new bands under a Human League sub-label. Eventually, it was agreed that Oakey would continue with the Human League name, while Ware and Marsh would form a completely new band, which became Heaven 17. Two weeks before the UK/Europe tour, the band split.


title: The Human League

text: Retaining the Human League name came at a heavy price for Oakey; he was responsible for all Human League debts and commitments. Also, the Human League would have to pay Ware and Marsh one per cent of royalties of the next Human League album under the Virgin contract.


title: The Human League

text: With the tour only ten days away and the music media reporting that the Human League was finished now that "the talented people had left", promoters started threatening to sue Oakey if the tour was not completed as contracted. To complete the tour, Oakey had to recruit new people in a matter of days. Oakey and his then girlfriend went into Sheffield city centre on a Wednesday night with the intention of recruiting a single female backing vocalist. After looking in various venues, they visited the Crazy Daisy Nightclub on High Street where Oakey spotted two girls dancing together on the dance floor. Susan Ann Sulley and Joanne Catherall, both 17, were just schoolgirls on a night out together. Neither had any experience of singing or dancing professionally. With no preamble, Oakey asked both girls to join the tour as dancers and incidental vocalists.


title: The Human League

text: Oakey states that when he found out the age of the girls and that they were best friends, he revised his plan for a single female and decided that the two girls could look after each other on the tour. Originally just wanting a single female singer to replace the high backing vocals originally provided by Martyn Ware, he says that he thought having two female vocalists/dancers would also add potential glamour to the band. Because of the girls' ages, Oakey and Wright later had to visit Sulley and Catherall's respective parents to obtain permission for the girls to go on the tour. Under the provision that Oakey look after the girls, as well as their school convincing them it could be an educational experience, their parents let them join.


title: The Human League

text: In addition to Sulley and Catherall, Oakey employed professional musician Ian Burden from Sheffield synth band Graph as a session keyboard player for the tour to cover for the keyboards of the now departed Ware and Marsh.


title: The Human League

text: The tour was completed as advertised with the first date at Doncaster Top Rank but was less than successful. The music press was scornful of "Oakey and his dancing girls" and treated the new band line-up with derision. Many of the audiences who had paid to see the original all-male line-up were not happy with the new band; Sulley and Catherall were often heckled and, on occasion, objects were thrown.


title: The Human League

text: On completion of the tour, Burden went on to his next commitment playing bass guitar in West Berlin. Because of the professionalism they had shown and because he planned to use them further vocally, Oakey and manager Bob Last made Sulley and Catherall full members of the band, to be paid on a salary basis.


title: The Human League

text: In January 1981, although they had survived the tour, the band was still in trouble. Heavily in debt to Virgin Records, Oakey and Wright were under pressure to produce results quickly. By February 1981 the band recorded and rushed out "Boys and Girls". Sulley and Catherall (who had returned to their sixth-form full-time) were not involved in the recording but were included on the single's front cover. The single reached No. 47 in the UK charts, the band's highest chart position to that point. Oakey acknowledged that he needed to bring in professional musicians, and so Ian Burden was tracked down and invited to join the band as a trial member.


title: The Human League

text: Virgin's faith had been restored by "Boys and Girls", but they believed the band lacked professional production. In March, Oakey was introduced to veteran producer Martin Rushent. Rushent's first move was to dispatch the entire band to his Genetic Studios in Reading, Berkshire, away from the "unhealthy atmosphere" of Monumental Studios, Sheffield, that they shared with Ware and Marsh's Heaven 17. The first result of the Genetic sessions was the single "The Sound of the Crowd". The single became their first Top 40 hit, reaching No. 12 in the UK.


title: The Human League

text: Bob Last believed that the band could be improved further by the addition of one more professional musician, so in April 1981, his associate Jo Callis (formerly of The Rezillos whom Last had previously managed) was invited to become the final permanent member of the band. The next single, "Love Action (I Believe in Love)", reached No. 3 in the UK in August 1981. The band set about arranging their existing material and demos into a viable album, produced by Rushent. Sulley and Catherall, who had just left school, immediately postponed their plans to attend university to work on the album.


title: The Human League

text: By this time, the band's commercial success and higher profile had caused their first two albums to start selling again. "Reproduction" charted for the first time in August 1981, eventually peaking at No. 34, and "Travelogue" also recharted and returned to the Top 30 for several weeks. Both albums would eventually achieve Gold status. In October 1981, Virgin released a brand new single, "Open Your Heart", which gave the band another Top 10 hit. The band's new album, "Dare", was also released in October 1981 and reached No. 1 in the UK. It spent a total of four weeks at the top spot over the 1981/82 period, remaining in the chart for 77 weeks and eventually going triple platinum.


title: The Human League

text: Because of "Dare" success, Virgin executive Simon Draper instructed that a fourth single be released from the album before the end of 1981. His choice was to be "Don't You Want Me", a track Oakey considered to be a filler and the weakest track on the album. Oakey fought the decision, believing it would damage the band, but was overruled by Draper, and "Don't You Want Me" was released in November 1981. Aided by an expensive music video (a rarity at the time) directed by film maker Steve Barron, the single went to No. 1 for five weeks over the 1981 Christmas period. In a 1995 interview with music journalist James Richliano, Oakey credited MTV for helping the song reach the top of the charts: "I don't think we would have had a number one if it weren't for the video and MTV. Trying to interpret songs with video is a real problem, but at the same time, we know that we wouldn't be here without video."


title: The Human League

text: "Don't You Want Me" became the band's biggest hit, selling almost 1.5 million copies in the UK. "Dare" has since been labelled as one of pop music's most influential albums. In a retrospective review of the album, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, senior editor for AllMusic, gave "Dare" a five-star rating. He wrote: "The technology may have dated, synths and drum machines may have become more advanced, but few have manipulated technology in such an emotionally effective way." Philip Oakey often plays down claims of "Dare" being such an influential album, but at other times acknowledges its influence on modern music. In 2001, paraphrasing an "NME" headline from 1980, Oakey once famously quipped: ""The Human League: one day all music will be made like this! And it is!""


title: The Human League

text: Although the group has been retrospectively identified with the New Romantic movement of this period, according to Dave Rimmer, author of "New Romantics: The Look", "at the time [they] were no such thing." The band themselves have also consistently and strenuously rejected the label. The Sheffield scene in which the Human League formed predated New Romanticism and took more influence from Kraftwerk. Bands in the Sheffield scene were also referred to as Futurists, although Oakey himself has said: "We thought we were the punkiest band in Sheffield."


title: The Human League

text: Capitalising on the success of the album and their recent No. 1 hit single, "Being Boiled" was re-released and became a Top 10 hit in early 1982. The band toured for the first time together internationally. Concurrently, "Dare" (later renamed "Dare!") was released in the US by A&M Records and "Don't You Want Me" also reached No. 1 there in the summer of 1982. A remix album of "Dare" entitled "Love and Dancing" was released under the group name "The League Unlimited Orchestra" (a tribute to Barry White's Love Unlimited Orchestra), reaching No. 3 on the UK album chart.


title: The Human League

text: In 1982, the band received the Best British Newcomer award at the annual Brit Music awards, and Rushent also took Best Producer for his work on "Dare". By the end of the awards party, a drunken Sulley and Catherall had lost the band's valuable trophy and it was never seen again.


title: The Human League

text: In November 1982, the Motown influenced electropop single "Mirror Man" reached No. 2 in the UK chart, just missing another Christmas No. 1, which was taken by a novelty record by Renée and Renato.


title: The Human League

text: The Human League's work was now recognised on both sides of the Atlantic. In February 1983, the band was nominated for the "Best New Artist" award at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards (though the award eventually went to Men at Work).


title: The Human League

text: The follow-up single, "(Keep Feeling) Fascination", was released in April 1983, and peaked at No. 2 in the UK. The following months proved to be difficult ones for the band as they struggled to record a follow-up album to "Dare" under immense pressure from Virgin. A six-song EP called "Fascination!" composed of the singles "Mirror Man" and "Fascination" together with the new track "I Love You Too Much" was released from the original recording sessions for their new album, later to be named "Hysteria." The EP was released in America as a stop-gap and also became a strong seller as an import in the UK.


title: The Human League

text: In August 1983, the band released "the UK's first videotape single" to capitalise on the growing market created by the increasing popularity of domestic home video cassette recorders (VCRs), called "The Human League Video Single". Although "video albums" had been released by bands such as Blondie and ELO as early as 1979, this release was a short (12 mins) video tape cassette in either VHS or Betamax format containing just three tracks (the music videos for "Mirror Man", "Love Action (I Believe in Love)", and "Don't You Want Me"). Although it was not a commercial success (as it retailed for £10.99, compared to 12" vinyl singles averaging £1.99 in 1983), the format caught on and other artists began releasing video singles/EPs of their own.


title: The Human League

text: The band spent many months agonising as they tried to make a successor to "Dare," and as things became ever more stressful, producer Martin Rushent left the project. At this point, the band ditched much of the material recorded so far and started over again with new producers Hugh Padgham and Chris Thomas (though some of Rushent's contributions to certain tracks from the earlier sessions were included on the released album).


title: The Human League

text: Finally in May 1984, the band released the politically charged single "The Lebanon" about the Lebanese Civil War. The single peaked at No. 11 in the UK. This was followed shortly thereafter by the album "Hysteria," so called because of the difficult and tense recording process. It entered the UK album chart at No. 3; however, it climbed no further and critics and fans were divided by the new direction the band had taken. The second single was "Life on Your Own" in mid-1984. The single peaked at No. 16.


title: The Human League

text: Later that year, success outside of the Human League came for Oakey in the shape of the huge hit single "Together in Electric Dreams", a collaboration with one of his idols, synth pioneer Giorgio Moroder. The track was taken from the film soundtrack to "Electric Dreams" and became a massive hit. Often now erroneously credited as a Human League single, due to its success and enduring popularity, the band have since adopted it for their live performances and it appears on their greatest hits compilations. Oakey and Moroder then recorded an album together for Virgin, "Philip Oakey & Giorgio Moroder," but this met with rather less success and the following two singles failed to make the UK Top 40. However, the success of the original Oakey and Moroder track encouraged Virgin to release one final single from "Hysteria" in November 1984; the ballad "Louise" was released and reached No. 13 in the UK.


title: The Human League

text: After "Hysteria," the group found themselves in creative stagnation, struggling to record material to follow up on their previous successes. Key songwriter Jo Callis departed, replaced by drummer Jim Russell. Bob Last quit as manager and was not replaced. In 1985, the band spent several months working on a new album with producer Colin Thurston (who had produced the first two Duran Duran albums), but yet more clashes in the recording studio ensued and the project was shelved in September 1985.


title: The Human League

text: Worried by the lack of progress with their most profitable act, Virgin paired the Human League up with American R&B producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, who had a proven track record with Janet Jackson, the SOS Band, Alexander O'Neal, and Cherelle. Jam and Lewis had expressed an interest in working with the band after hearing their US releases. Virgin flew the entire band to Minneapolis. The four-month-long recording sessions were beset with creative disputes, with Jam and Lewis having preconceived ideas on how they wanted the album to sound, rejecting most of the band's material (which would cost the band considerable loss of royalty income). The band eventually quit the sessions early amidst creative acrimony, although the personal relationships had actually been good.


title: The Human League

text: The final result of the sessions was the "Crash" album. The album featured much material written by the Jam and Lewis team, and showcased their Yamaha DX7-led sound. It had a US No. 1 single, "Human" (No. 8 in the UK), but other singles performed relatively poorly. The album, while making the Top 10 in the UK, was not as popular as previous releases. Disheartened by being sidelined in Minneapolis and with the direction the band had taken, Adrian Wright left the band to work in film. "Crash" was generally more popular in the US and internationally than in the UK. The band toured in the UK and internationally in 1986 and 1987 to capitalise on their high profile at this time.


title: The Human League

text: In 1987, Ian Burden also left the band. In November 1988, a greatest hits compilation album was released that reached No. 3 in UK. This was preceded by the release of the single "Love Is All That Matters" from "Crash."


title: The Human League

text: In 1989, the band built their own studio in Sheffield, jointly funded by Oakey and a business development loan from Sheffield City Council. Oakey believed that if the band owned their own facilities it would cut down on the production costs of future albums, and the band could become more productive.


title: The Human League

text: In 1990, the band released their last album for Virgin Records, "Romantic?." By now, longstanding members Adrian Wright and Ian Burden, together with newer recruit Jim Russell, had all left the band, although Jo Callis did return to play on some of the sessions and co-wrote two songs, including the minor hit single "Heart Like a Wheel". New to the line-up were keyboardist Neil Sutton, who had worked with the band on the Crash tour of 1986, and guitarist/keyboardist Russell Dennett. At odds with the prevailing trend of US grunge and the Manchester scene, the "Romantic?" album did not re-capture the group's huge commercial success of the 1980s, with its second single "Soundtrack to a Generation" barely charting.


title: The Human League

text: In 1992, Virgin abruptly cancelled their recording contract. Damaged by the failure of the album, their rejection by Virgin, harsh criticism in the media and facing financial ruin, the emotional well-being of Oakey and Sulley deteriorated badly. Catherall remained positive, and she is cited as the principal reason that the band did not fold at this, their lowest point.


title: The Human League

text: After a couple of years, the band had recovered enough confidence to put out demos to other record labels. Concurrently in 1993, they were invited to work with veteran Japanese electropop band Yellow Magic Orchestra (YMO), which resulted in the EP "YMO Versus The Human League". Released principally in Japan and Asia in April 1993, the EP includes the songs "Behind the Mask" and "Kimi Ni Mune Kyun" (""I Love You""), written by Oakey and Yukihiro Takahashi, featuring the vocals of Sulley and Catherall.


title: The Human League

text: In 1994, EastWest Records (a subsidiary of Time Warner) showed interest in the band's demos and the material rejected by Virgin. They signed the band and paired them with producer Ian Stanley (formerly of Tears for Fears). EastWest financed expensive music videos and heavily promoted their releases. The first release was on Boxing Day 1994 and was the single "Tell Me When", which gave the band their first Top 10 hit since 1986's "Human". It also topped the UK airplay charts for several weeks. The accompanying album, "Octopus," returned the band to the UK Top 10 and later achieved a gold disc.


title: The Human League

text: On the album cover artwork and in videos, the group was now presented simply as a trio of Oakey/Catherall/Sulley. In reality, however, other musicians had input to the record, including producer Ian Stanley, with continued playing and songwriting contributions from Neil Sutton and Russell Dennett; and Oakey co-writing one track with Jo Callis.


title: The Human League

text: The next single from the album was the ballad "One Man in My Heart", which features Sulley on lead vocals. It reached No. 13 in the UK and was unique in that it was the only single by the Human League to feature a female only lead vocal until "Never Let Me Go" in 2011.


title: The Human League

text: Their renewed success prompted the band to tour again for the first time since 1987, and they conducted a tour of the US and UK in 1995. Subsequent singles "Filling Up with Heaven" and the non-album single "Stay with Me Tonight" also reached the UK Top 40, and a new remix of "Don't You Want Me" was released to capitalise on the band's revitalised profile. This was in the run up to a new "greatest hits" compilation in 1996, but which proved less successful than their first "Greatest Hits" album from 1988.


title: The Human League

text: A change in management at EastWest in 1998 saw the cancellation of the band's contract once again. Afterward, the band co-headlined with Culture Club and Howard Jones on VH1's 1980s "Big Rewind" nostalgia tour and made other concert and public appearances throughout 1997–2000.


title: The Human League

text: In May 2000, the band signed to Papillon Records, a subsidiary of the Chrysalis Group, and began recording tracks for their new album due out the following year. The next album, titled "Secrets", was released August 2001, and, like the previous album "Octopus", the band was presented as the Oakey, Sulley and Catherall trio, although Neil Sutton was credited with keyboards and co-wrote most of the material with Oakey. The album received generally favourable reviews from critics. Commercially, the album flopped, entering the UK album chart at No. 44, falling off the chart the following week. This was not helped by the band's record label, Papillon, which developed financial problems. It was closed by the parent company shortly after the album's release, leading to poor promotion and sales. BBC Radio 1 also refused to playlist the single "All I Ever Wanted" because, now in their 40s, the band did not match the radio station's demographic target audience.


title: The Human League

text: Susan Sulley said that the rejection of "Secrets" was "the lowest the band had been since 1992 and, after putting in so much time and effort in to an album that then failed, nearly causing them to call it a day."


title: The Human League

text: To accompany the then-stalled album, the band conducted the 2001 'Secrets Tour'. Along with Sulley and Catherall, the band had Neil Sutton on keyboards. Long-time studio engineer David Beevers had become part of the on-stage line-up, controlling the sequencers from behind his deck of twin Apple Macintoshes. Oakey further recruited multi-instrumentalist Nic Burke, then aged 21, who he had seen playing in Sheffield, to play electric guitar and keytar. To round off the line-up in 2002, percussionist Errol Rollins was added to play the electronic drum kit. Rollins was replaced by Rob Barton in 2004.


title: The Human League

text: As a point of honour, the band refuses to use playback; they always play live and rehearse before every appearance, ensuring that no two performances are the same. This was clearly demonstrated in 2002, when the band was booked to appear on UK national TV channel GMTV, where they were to play "Don't You Want Me" before being interviewed. The producer was astounded when the band arrived at 5 am (three hours early), expecting to set up and rehearse; it had been assumed they would just mime to playback. Joanne Catherall explained why on air during the interview: "We simply don't sound like we did 20 years ago; it would be wrong if we used tapes, so we do everything live."


title: The Human League

text: In 2003, a second single from "Secrets", "Love Me Madly?", was released independently as a private venture by Nukove, a small independent label especially set up to release Human League material, but it did not have funds for promotion and the single did not chart. Also in 2003, Virgin records released "The Very Best of The Human League", a DVD of most of their previously recorded music videos. The DVD sold well in the UK and US and was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name.


title: The Human League

text: Throughout the following years, the band has continued to tour frequently, enjoying success and popularity as a live act. In 2004, they released The Human League "Live at the Dome", a DVD of a live show filmed at the Brighton Dome, complete with a compilation CD called "Live at the Dome".


title: The Human League

text: At the end of 2005, together with EMI, the band released a compilation album of remixes. Called "The Human League Original Remixes and Rarities", it was aimed at the DJ/Dance market in the US and UK.


title: The Human League

text: As well as dedicated Human League tours, the band has appeared at many independent concerts and festivals worldwide. They have played at the V Festival in 2004 and 2009, Homelands in 2005, Nokia Trends in Brazil 2005, and Festival Internacional de Benicàssim in 2007.


title: The Human League

text: On 22 September 2006, the band performed on the US network television show "Jimmy Kimmel Live!". The band's highlight of 2006 was a performance to an audience of 18,000 at the Hollywood Bowl, Los Angeles, on 24 October 2006, one of their largest concerts to date. This was followed up by an 11-venue tour of Europe in November and December 2006.


title: The Human League

text: The band has been the subject of, and appeared in, various TV documentaries and features, including Channel 4's "Made in Sheffield" and the BBC's "Young Guns: The Bands of the Early 1980s". In June 2007, Sulley and Catherall presented a documentary on Sheffield's pop music history entitled "The Nation's Music Cities" for VH1.


title: The Human League

text: In November and December 2007, to mark their 30th anniversary (1977–2007), the band conducted their highest profile tour since the Secrets tour of 2001. The 'Dare! 2007' tour encompassed 20 European venues from London to Stockholm, most of which were sold out. Their set list included (for the first time ever) a performance of "Dare", played sequentially and in its entirety. This included Philip Oakey playing the Human League's instrumental arrangement of the theme from "Get Carter" on an original Casio VL-Tone from 1981. The remainder of the concert was dedicated to songs from the band's other albums and also included the Oakey/Moroder song "Together in Electric Dreams". The band invested heavily in the stage set and lighting for the tour, including elaborate high definition video backgrounds provided by set designer Rob Sinclair.


title: The Human League

text: A 12" single remix of "Things That Dreams Are Made Of" (originally from the "Dare!" album) was released in the UK in January 2008, by Hooj Choons. It peaked at No. 2 on the UK Dance chart.


title: The Human League

text: In August and September 2008, the band headlined the US Regeneration Tour, supported by ABC, A Flock of Seagulls, Naked Eyes, and, at some venues, Belinda Carlisle.


title: The Human League

text: In November and December 2008, the Human League got together with Martin Fry's ABC and Heaven 17 for 'The Steel City Tour' of the UK. This was Philip Oakey's concept of a joint tour of all three bands celebrating the original electronic music of early 1980s Sheffield (the titular Steel City). Much had been made in the UK media of the history between Heaven 17 and the Human League, the original events of 1980 and the fact they were now working together. Both Oakey and Martyn Ware said that any acrimony from that period had long since been forgotten.


title: The Human League

text: The Human League were one of the headline acts in the line-up at Spillers Wharf on 30 May 2009, in the Newcastle/Gateshead Evolution festival, and were one of the headline bands for Dubai's first music festival, the 'Dubai Sound City' festival, between 5 and 7 November 2009.


title: The Human League

text: On 11 December 2009, the Human League signed a new recording contract with UK based Wall of Sound. They also have their own studio in Sheffield and are managed by Sidewinder Management Ltd. The band continue to record and play live, with regular appearances at music festivals worldwide, at many of which they are among the headliners.


title: The Human League

text: Although the subject of retirement is often brought up in interviews, Oakey, Sulley and Catherall have all stated that they still enjoy performing and intend to carry on for "as long as they are filling concerts and people want to see them". Sulley has joked that she "has to carry on because she doesn't know how to do anything else".


title: The Human League

text: The first single from the album, "Night People" was released on 22 November 2010 but failed to enter the mainstream UK chart. It did, however, reach No. 25 in the UK Indie chart. The follow-up single, "Never Let Me Go", was released in the UK on 1 March 2011; however, in Germany, Switzerland and Austria, "Egomaniac" was chosen as the second single. A double vinyl edition of "Credo" was released on 25 July 2011, together with the download of "Sky", the third single from the album.


title: The Human League

text: At the end of 2012, the band undertook the 'XXXV Tour' across Europe and the UK to celebrate 35 years in existence. The shows were critically acclaimed. The UK's "Daily Telegraph" said "as good a night's entertainment as you are likely to find anywhere on the planet".


title: The Human League

text: In March 2014, "Don't You Want Me" re-entered the Top 20 of the UK Singles Chart, thanks to a social media campaign from the fans of Aberdeen F.C., who won the Scottish League Cup the previous weekend. They have adopted the song as a terrace chant, citing their midfielder Peter Pawlett with the lyrics changed to "Peter Pawlett Baby".


title: The Human League

text: In 2016, the band performed their 'A Very British Synthesizer Group' European and UK tour to accompany the release of the multi-disc anthology of the same name. In winter 2018, they undertook an extensive 'Red Tour' in Europe and the UK.


title: The Human League

text: In 2020, similar 'deluxe' treatment was given to their 1995 "Octopus" album on its 25th anniversary. Also in 2020, a three disc 'Essential' collection from their Virgin Records years reached No. 13 in the UK Albums Chart. This compilation was unique in that the third disc, with the exception of the first two tracks, focused entirely on the band's pre-Dare material.


title: The Human League

text: In 2021 the band embarked on the 'Dare 40' European and UK tour. They played the "Dare" album in full, as well as other songs from their back catalogue.


title: The Human League

text: The Human League has influenced many electropop, other synth-pop, and mainstream performers, including Pet Shop Boys. Moby and Little Boots are longtime fans of the group. They have been sampled and covered by various artists, including Ladytron, Utah Saints, George Michael, Robbie Williams and LCD Soundsystem.


title: The Human League

text: In 2000, the tribute album "" was released. It contains cover versions of 16 of the Human League's songs, including performances by Ladytron, Lali Puna, Momus, Future Bible Heroes, Stephin Merritt and The Aluminum Group.


title: The Human League

text: "Nightshift" identified the Human League, and fellow late 1970s debutants Gary Numan and Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD), as "the holy trinity of synth-pop". The history of the band's Fast Product era is covered in a 2015 documentary, "Big Gold Dream".


title: Renato Sanches

text: Renato Júnior Luz Sanches (; born 18 August 1997) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain and the Portugal national team.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches began his career at Benfica, making his professional debut for the reserves in October 2014 and for the first team in October 2015. In his first and only season with them, he helped Benfica win the Primeira Liga and Taça da Liga double, being awarded Primeira Liga Breakthrough Player and Golden Boy in the process.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches' performances then attracted German side Bayern Munich, who signed him in July 2016 for an initial €35 million, the highest fee at the time for a Portuguese player playing in the Primeira Liga. His performances fell during his first season with the club, leading him to be loaned to Premier League side Swansea City in August 2017. After remaining as a substitute, following his return to Bayern in 2018, he was signed by French Ligue 1 side Lille in August 2019 for a reported fee of €25 million, becoming Lille's most expensive signing ever. In his second season at the club, he helped the team win the 2020–21 Ligue 1, which ended the club's 10-year league title drought.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches won 40 caps and scored 8 goals for Portugal at youth level. He made his full international debut in March 2016 and was chosen for UEFA Euro 2016 at age 18, making him the youngest Portuguese to play in an international tournament as well as the youngest player to win a UEFA Euro final. He scored one goal during the competition and won the Young Player of the Tournament as Portugal captured the title for the first time in their history.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches was born in the Hospital Amadora-Sintra in the Lisbon metropolitan area, to a father also named Renato Sanches, from São Tomé and Príncipe, and a mother named Maria das Dores, from Cape Verde. Nicknamed "Bulo" by his grandmother, he grew up in the impoverished Lisbon neighbourhood of Musgueira. His parents split up months after his birth, and his father moved to work in France; Sanches' birth was not registered until his father returned in 2002 and the parents had him baptised. He was registered on 22 August 2002 with the birthdate of 3:25 p.m. on 18 August 1997.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches started training in football at Águias da Musgueira at age eight, and joined Benfica's youth system in 2006 at age nine. The team paid €750 and 25 footballs for his signature. He convinced Benfica to take him after training with them for 15 minutes, but he initially had reservations about travelling to their academy in Seixal every day, on the other side of the Tagus river.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches made his professional debut in the 2014–15 campaign, with the B-team in the second division. He made his first appearance in the competition on 5 October 2014, starting and playing the first half of the 2–2 away draw against Feirense. He was sent off twice with straight red cards in the second half of the season: as a substitute in a 3–2 home win over Porto B on 11 January 2015, and a starter in a 1–1 draw at Santa Clara on 7 March.


title: Renato Sanches

text: After one year with the reserve team, in 2015–16, Sanches was promoted to the first team, initially only for the training sessions. He remained playing in the reserves, and on 30 August 2015, he scored his first goal in their 2–1 loss at Varzim, opening the scoring within two minutes. Seventeen days later, he scored two penalty kicks in a 3–2 loss at Desportivo das Aves. On 21 October, in the UEFA Youth League, he scored in an away 11–1 group stage win over Galatasaray. Nine days later, Sanches made his debut for the first team, replacing striker Jonas in the 74th minute of a 4–0 win against Tondela.


title: Renato Sanches

text: After the international break in November 2015, Sanches signed a new contract with Benfica until 2021, with a release clause set at €45 million. On 25 November, he made his first appearance in the starting line-up, playing 90 minutes in a 2–2 away draw with Astana in the UEFA Champions League group stage. On the following Monday, Sanches started again, this time in a Primeira Liga win at Braga, receiving praise from the media for his performance. Aged 18, on 4 December, he scored his first goal for Benfica, beating Académica's goalkeeper Trigueira with a 30-metre strike and sealing the 3–0 league win. In so doing, he became Benfica's youngest player to score a home goal in the 21st century, at the Estádio da Luz. It was selected as the Goal of the Month.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches added a second goal on 2 January, the match's only at Vitória de Guimarães in the league. On 24 April, he was a target of racism by some Rio Ave supporters, who made monkey noises when he was leaving the pitch after a 1–0 away victory. He responded to the provocation with a smile and moved his arms, mimicking a monkey. On 8 May, Sanches was sent off for a second yellow card in the first half of a 2–0 win at Marítimo, missing Benfica's last league match in which they retained their title at the expense of city rivals Sporting CP with victory over Nacional. In his last match, the 2016 Taça da Liga Final in Coimbra on 20 May, Benfica won the league cup 6–2 against Marítimo.


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 10 May 2016, Sanches signed a five-year contract effective from 1 July with German club Bayern Munich for €35 million, in a deal totalling €80 million, with the additional €45 million contingent on objectives. With this transfer, he became the most expensive Portuguese player to leave the domestic league, as well as the first Portuguese player to join the Bavarian side. The initial fee was the fourth-highest paid in Bayern Munich's history, after those for Javi Martínez, Mario Götze and Arturo Vidal. Sanches had been tracked extensively by Manchester United before joining Bayern, and their Portuguese former player Nani said they would regret not completing a transfer for him.


title: Renato Sanches

text: After recovering from a thigh injury, Sanches made his debut on 9 September, starting in a 2–0 win at Schalke 04 in place of Arturo Vidal. Although he made errors in his 71 minutes before being replaced by Joshua Kimmich, he was given reassurance by captain Phillip Lahm and goalkeeper Manuel Neuer, with the former saying, "He's a very, very good player, otherwise he wouldn't be here. He's a European champion and will definitely be an asset to us in the future." On 24 October, he became the first Portuguese player to win the Golden Boy award for best European player under the age of 21, ahead of Manchester United's Marcus Rashford.


title: Renato Sanches

text: While Bayern won the Bundesliga, Sanches played only 25 matches across all competitions and did not record a single goal or assist. He started just four league games and playing the entirety of only one. Sanches had to compete with more experienced players like Arturo Vidal, Thiago and Xabi Alonso for playing time. It did not help Sanches that Bayern's manager, Carlo Ancelotti, has a reputation of not relying on young players. Sky Deutschland reporter Torben Hoffman said, "He has had problems with the language and found it hard to integrate with the team. There is also a lot of competition for places at Bayern." Former Bayern player Lothar Matthäus named him among the three worst players of the season, while Sanches himself said he was disappointed by his performances; however, manager Carlo Ancelotti said he would remain at the Allianz Arena for the following season.


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 31 August 2017, Sanches joined Premier League club Swansea City on a one-year loan lasting until 30 June 2018. Sanches was loaned to Swansea in order to play regularly in a strong league. He made his debut ten days later at the Liberty Stadium, in a 0–1 loss to Newcastle United. BBC Sport reporter Dafydd Pritchard called it a "mixed beginning" due to several passing mistakes. On 29 November, manager Paul Clement substituted Sanches at half-time in a 1–0 loss to Chelsea after he had played a pass into the advertising boards on the side of the pitch, believing it to be a teammate.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches suffered hamstring injuries in two consecutive FA Cup matches in January 2018, and new manager Carlos Carvalhal allowed him to go home so the warmer weather could aid his rehabilitation. Sanches did not play a competitive match after 2 January 2018 until the end of the season. At the end of the season, Carvalhal said, "Renato knows he has had a very bad season. He is not at the level he was and when he had the injury in January, it finished him. Renato has a big talent, but he has much to learn. He stopped learning when he left Benfica and went to one of the biggest clubs in the world."


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 1 July 2018, Sanches returned to Bayern Munich. New Bayern manager Niko Kovač said at the beginning of pre-season training, "I'll try to make him feel good here. When someone feels good, it's much easier to perform well. He has skills that you don't see every day in the Bundesliga; that's why FC Bayern signed him." Given a first Bayern start since May 2017, Sanches scored his first goal for the club on 19 September, finishing James Rodríguez's cross in a 2–0 Champions League group win at his former club Benfica. His return to good form was indeed sustained by being elected Bayern's best player of September. On 19 December 2018, Sanches was sent-off against RB Leipzig. Sanches scored his first Bundesliga goal on 18 May, on the final day of the league campaign, appearing as a substitute for Leon Goretzka in a 5–0 win over Eintracht Frankfurt to seal the title; as Bayern finished two points above Dortmund with 78 points. A week later, Sanches won his first DFB-Pokal as Bayern defeated RB Leipzig 3–0 in the 2019 DFB-Pokal Final. Sanches did not appear in the match.


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 16 August 2019, Sanches appeared as a late substitute for Thomas Müller in a 2–2 draw against Hertha Berlin. After the match, in a post-game interview, Sanches made it clear that he wanted to leave the club, to play more regularly. Afterwards, Sanches missed a post-game training and went home, which resulted in him being fined €10,000. Bayern's chairman Karl-Heinz Rummenigge responded to Sanches comments saying "it's not appropriate when one runs off in anger right after the first or second game. He would do well to keep calm. He'll get his chances".


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 23 August 2019, Sanches joined French club Lille on a four-year contract for a reported fee of €20 million, becoming Lille's most expensive signing ever. He made his debut on 1 September, starting in a 2–0 loss at Reims. Initially, Lille's manager Christophe Galtier used Sanches in a variety of positions, being limited to substitute appearances, before playing a match as a starter for the club on 30 November in a 1–0 against Dijon, operating on the left of the midfield. He scored his first goal for the club on December 13 in a 2–0 victory against Montpellier.


title: Renato Sanches

text: In November, Sanches suffered a hamstring injury, which sidelined him for five weeks. After recovering from his injury, he earned a starting spot in the midfield, making his return in a 1–0 win against Nîmes. His impressive performances in the midfield alongside Jonathan Bamba and Jonathan Ikoné, led to Sanches being named Lille's Player of the Month in December and January in two consecutive months. He eventually contributed to 30 appearances, scoring 4 goals, helping Lille to a 4th place finish, as the season finished early due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Renato Sanches

text: In his second season at the club, Sanches formed a partnership in the midfield alongside Benjamin André in a double pivot. However, he suffered another hamstring injury in November, leading him to lose his place in the team to Boubakary Soumaré. Nevertheless, Sanches remained an important player for Lille, making 29 appearances, and providing a crucial assist for Jonathan David in a 2–1 away win over Angers, to win the 2020–21 Ligue 1 with Lille, ending the club's 10-year league title drought.


title: Renato Sanches

text: At the start of the season in August, Sanches was sidelined with a hamstring injury, which required surgery, missing seven weeks of the season. In August, Barcelona negotiated with Lille for the transfer of Sanches, but his injury, led to the transfer collapsing at the final stages. He made his return on 3 October, replacing Jonathan Ikoné in the 94th minute in a 2–0 win against Marseille. On 1 December, Sanches scored his first goal of the season in a 2–1 win against Rennes.


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 4 August 2022, Sanches signed for Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) on a permanent deal until 30 June 2027. The transfer fee paid to Lille was of €10 million, with a potential €3 million in bonuses. On 13 August, he came on as a substitute in a 5–2 home league win over Montpellier, making his PSG debut. He scored his team's fifth goal moments after having come on the pitch.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches gained 40 caps for Portugal all youth categories comprised. He represented Portugal in the 2014 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, helping them reach the semi-finals, where they lost to eventual winners, England. He was named in the Team of the Tournament.


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 18 March 2016, Sanches was called up by Fernando Santos for the senior squad to play friendlies against Bulgaria and Belgium. He debuted for Portugal as a 76th-minute substitute for William Carvalho in the 0–1 loss against Bulgaria in Leiria, and shortly after he was greeted by a fan who invaded the pitch.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches was called up for UEFA Euro 2016, making him the youngest Portuguese to be selected for an international competition, breaking a record held by Cristiano Ronaldo for 12 years. Sanches made his competitive debut on 14 June in the team's opening match against Iceland in Saint-Étienne, replacing João Moutinho for the final 19 minutes of a 1–1 draw. He contributed to the only goal of the match in a 1–0 extra-time victory in the round of 16 against Croatia on 25 June, and was elected man of the match. Observing that performance, former Portuguese international António Sousa said, "When he's on the ball you don't notice how young he is. Physically and mentally, he is more than ready," while Fernando Santos exalted Sanches as a player immune to pressure.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Five days later in the quarter-finals against Poland, Sanches overtook Ronaldo's record as the youngest Portuguese to start in a major tournament. After a one-two with Nani, Sanches shot from outside the box and equalised in the first half to become the youngest player to score in a knockout match at a UEFA European Championship and the third-youngest overall. Following the 1–1 draw, he scored Portugal's second attempt in their penalty shootout victory, and was again elected man of the match. Following the match, teammates Nani and José Fonte praised Sanches' stamina, confidence and desire to learn from his elders. After his nation's 1–0 extra-time victory over hosts France in the final of the tournament, Sanches received the Young Player of the Tournament Award for his performances.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches and striker Eder were notable Euro 2016 winners omitted from Portugal's squad for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia; Sanches played in the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship instead. He was also absent from the 35-man preliminary squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Renato Sanches

text: In September 2018, Sanches was called up for the friendly match against Croatia and the UEFA Nations League match against Italy. On 6 September, he came on as a substitute in the 86th minute against Croatia for his first international cap in nearly 18 months.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches was named in Portugal's final squad for the delayed UEFA Euro 2020 tournament. On 15 June 2021, in Portugal's first game of Euro 2020, Sanches made his first appearance in tournament, replacing William Carvalho in the 81st minute, creating Portugal's first goal in a 3–0 win against Hungary in Budapest. Following the bad performances of teammates Danilo Pereira and William Carvalho in a 4–2 loss against Germany, Sanches emerged as one of the crucial players for Portugal in the competition, with coach Fernando Santos giving him a chance in Portugal's final two games at the tournament, impressing in a 2–2 draw with France in their final group stage match. Following another impressive performance, Portugal were eliminated on 27 June, following a 1–0 loss against Belgium in the round of 16, despite Sanches being distinguished for his breakthrough performances in the competition.


title: Renato Sanches

text: In October 2022, he was named in Portugal's preliminary 55-man squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar however he was omitted from the final 26-man squad.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Sanches has been noted for his versatility in midfield, being comfortable in defensive, attacking, central and wide roles. His attributes include physical strength, passing ability, and being composed in possession. For these traits and his hairstyle, he has been likened to the Dutchman Edgar Davids.


title: Renato Sanches

text: However, in an interview to Benfica TV, Sanches compared his style with that of another Dutchman of Davids' era, Clarence Seedorf. During Euro 2016, former Benfica and Netherlands player Pierre van Hooijdonk also drew comparison with Seedorf, saying "the way [they] play is the same, the intensity also".


title: Renato Sanches

text: During his time with Lille, under manager Christophe Galtier, Sanches was deployed in a double pivot alongside Benjamin André in a 4-2-3-1 formation, or as an inverted midfielder, operating in an attacking role on the right-wing. Sanches also operated on the left of the midfield or in the middle, coming on the right side to play alongside Jonathan Bamba and Jonathan Ikoné in attack or as a box-to-box, supporting the full-back in defense in a 4-4-2 formation.


title: Renato Sanches

text: Opponents of Sanches have claimed he is older than his birth certificate states, basing their judgement on the gap between his birth and its registration. In March 2016, as Sporting CP challenged Benfica for the league title, Sporting's then-president Bruno de Carvalho accused Sanches of lying about his age. Sanches requested Carvalho publicly apologise or face a lawsuit for defamation. During Euro 2016, French former manager Guy Roux made a similar accusation.


title: Renato Sanches

text: According to Goal.com writer Miles Chambers, the accusations against Sanches stem from conscious or unconscious racial stereotyping, based on historical occasions in which players from the African continent have lied about their age, although he was born in Portugal.


title: Renato Sanches

text: On 8 July 2016, the hospital where Sanches was born published the document which proved he was born on 18 August 1997 at 15:25 local time.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: During the Age of Discovery, a large scale European colonization of the Americas took place between about 1492 and 1800. Although the Norse had explored and colonized areas of the North Atlantic, colonizing Greenland and creating a short term settlement near the northern tip of Newfoundland circa 1000 CE, the later and more well-known wave by the European powers is what formally constitutes as beginning of colonization, involving the continents of North America and South America. During this time, several empires from Europe—primarily Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Russia, the Netherlands and Sweden—began to explore and claim the land, natural resources and human capital of the Americas, resulting in the displacement, disestablishment, enslavement, and in many cases, genocide of the indigenous peoples, and the establishment of several settler colonial states. Some formerly European settler colonies—including New Mexico, Alaska, the Prairies or northern Great Plains, and the "Northwest Territories" in North America; the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Yucatán Peninsula, and the Darién Gap in Central America; and the northwest Amazon, the central Andes, and the Guianas in South America—remain relatively rural, sparsely populated and into the 21st century. Russia began colonizing the Pacific Northwest in the mid-18th century, seeking pelts for the fur trade. Many of the social structures—including religions, political boundaries, and linguae francae—which predominate the Western Hemisphere in the 21st century are the descendants of the structures which were established during this period.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: The rapid rate at which Europe grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century because it had been preoccupied with internal wars and it was slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the Black Death. The strength of the Turkish Ottoman Empire over trade routes to Asia prompted Western European monarchs to search for alternatives, resulting in the voyages of Christopher Columbus and the accidental of the "New World".


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Upon the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal and Spain agreed to divide the Earth in two, with Portugal having dominion over non-Christian lands in the eastern half, and Spain over those in the western half. Spanish claims essentially included all of the Americas, however, the Treaty of Tordesillas granted the eastern tip of South America to Portugal, where it established Brazil in the early 1500s. The city of St. Augustine, in current-day Florida, founded in 1565 by the Spanish, is credited as the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the United States.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: It quickly became clear to other Western European powers that they too could benefit from voyages west and by the 1530s, the British and French had begun colonizing the northeast tip of the Americas. Within a century, the Swedish had established New Sweden, the Dutch had established New Netherland, and Denmark–Norway along with the other aforementioned powers had made several claims in the Caribbean, and by the 1700s, Denmark–Norway had revived its former colonies in Greenland, and Russia had begun to explore and claim the Pacific Coast from Alaska to California.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Deadly confrontations became more frequent at the beginning of this period as the Indigenous peoples fought fiercely to preserve their territorial integrity from increasing numbers of European colonizers, as well as from hostile Indigenous neighbors who were equipped with Eurasian technology. Conflict between the various European empires and the Indigenous peoples was the leading dynamic in the Americas into the 1800s, and although some parts of the continent were gaining their independence from Europe by that time, other regions such as California, Patagonia, the "Northwest Territories", and the northern Great Plains experienced little to no colonization at all until the 1800s. European contact and colonization had disastrous effects on the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and their societies.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Norse Viking explorers are the first known Europeans to set foot on what is now North America. Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. The Norsemen established a colony in Greenland in the late tenth century, and lasted until the mid 15th century, with court and parliament assemblies ("þing") taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop located at Garðar. The remains of a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to around the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990–1050). L'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. It was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1978. It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland, established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with the Norse colonization of the Americas. Leif Erikson's brother is said to have had the first contact with the native population of North America which would come to be known as the skrælings. After capturing and killing eight of the natives, they were attacked at their beached ships, which they defended.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: While some Norse colonies were established in the north-eastern part of North America as early as the tenth century, systematic European colonization began in 1492. A Spanish expedition which was headed by the Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus sailed west in order to find a new trade route to the Far East, the source of spices, silks, porcelains, and other rich trade goods. The overland Silk Road did not benefit Iberia and the Portuguese who left Spain in order to conduct voyages down the coast of Africa because they needed to find an alternative route. Columbus inadvertently landed in what Europeans would later call the "New World". This can be seen as a Eurocentric framing, because the Western Hemisphere was also a new world to the first human migrants who arrived in it more than 10,000 years ago. Columbus landed on 12 October 1492 on Guanahani (possibly Cat Island) in The Bahamas, which the Lucayan people had inhabited since the ninth century. Indigenous populations had settled from pole to pole in the hemisphere, so although Europeans deemed the territory terra nullius, "nobody's land", it was the homeland of existing indigenous residents. Western European conquest, large-scale exploration and colonization soon followed after the Spanish and Portuguese final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. Columbus's first two voyages (1492–93) reached the Caribbean island of Hispaniola and various other Caribbean islands, including Puerto Rico and Cuba. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas ratified by the Pope, the two kingdoms of Castile (in a personal union with other kingdoms of Spain) and Portugal divided the entire non-European world into two spheres of exploration and colonization. The north to south boundary cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present-day Brazil. Based on this treaty and on early claims by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to see the Pacific Ocean in 1513.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: The Spanish explorers, conquerors, and settlers sought material wealth, individual aggrandizement, and the spread of Christianity, often summed up in the phrase "gold, glory, and God". The Spanish justified their claims to the New World based on the ideals of the Christian Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims, completed in 1492. In the New World, military conquest to incorporate indigenous peoples into Christendom was considered the "spiritual conquest." In 1492 Pope Alexander VI, the first Spaniard to become Pope, confirmed the rights of Catholic Monarchs of Spain Isabella and Ferdinand the right to explore and convert pagan populations in overseas territories.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: After European contact, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), due in part to Old World diseases carried to the New World, and the conditions that colonization imposed on Indigenous populations, such as forced labor and removal from homelands and traditional medicines. Some scholars have argued that this demographic collapse was the result of the first large-scale act of genocide in the modern era. For example, the labor and tribute of inhabitants of Hispaniola were granted in encomienda to Spaniards, a practice established in Spain for conquered Muslims. Although not technically slavery, it was coerced labor for the benefit of the Spanish grantees, called "encomenderos". Spain had a legal tradition and devised a proclamation known as The Requerimento to be read to indigenous populations in Spanish, often far from the field of battle, stating that the indigenous were now subjects of the Spanish Crown and would be punished if they resisted. When the news of this situation and of the abuse of the institution reached Spain, the New Laws were passed to regulate and gradually abolish the system in the Americas, as well as to reiterate the prohibition of enslaving Native Americans. By the time the new laws were passed, 1542, the Spanish crown had acknowledged their inability to control and properly ensure compliance of traditional laws overseas, so they granted to Native Americans specific protections not even Spaniards had, such as the prohibition of enslaving them even in the case of crime or war. These extra protections were an attempt to avoid the proliferation of irregular claims to slavery. However, as historian Andrés Reséndez has noted, "this categorical prohibition did not stop generations of determined conquistadors and colonists from taking Native slaves on a planetary scale, ... The fact that this other slavery had to be carried out clandestinely made it even more insidious. It is a tale of good intentions gone badly astray."


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: A major event in early Spanish colonization, which had so far yielded paltry returns, was the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521). It was led by Hernán Cortés and made possible by securing indigenous alliances with the Aztecs' enemies, mobilizing thousands of warriors against the Aztecs for their own political reasons. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, became Mexico City, the chief city of the "New Spain". More than an estimated 240,000 Aztecs died during the siege of Tenochtitlan, 100,000 in combat, while 500–1,000 of the Spaniards engaged in the conquest died. The other great conquest was of the Inca Empire (1531–35), led by Francisco Pizarro.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: The early period of exploration, conquest, and settlement, c. 1492–1550, the overseas possessions claimed by Spain were only loosely controlled by the crown. With the conquests of the Aztecs and the Incas, the New World now commanded the crown's attention. Both Mexico and Peru had dense, hierarchically organized indigenous populations that could be incorporated and ruled. Even more importantly, both Mexico and Peru had large deposits of silver, which became the economic motor of the Spanish empire and transformed the world economy. In Peru, the singular, hugely rich silver mine of Potosí was worked by traditional forced indigenous labor drafts, known as the mit'a. In Mexico, silver was found outsize the zone of dense indigenous settlement, so that free laborers migrated to the mines in Guanajuato and Zacatecas. The crown established the Council of the Indies in 1524, based in Seville, and issued laws of the Indies to assert its power against the early conquerors. The crown created the viceroyalty of New Spain and the viceroyalty of Peru to tightened crown control over these rich prizes of conquest.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Over this same time frame as Spain, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil. On behalf of both the Portuguese and Spanish crowns, cartographer Americo Vespuscio explored the South American east coast, and published his new book "Mundus Novus" ("New World") in 1502–1503 which disproved the belief that the Americas were the easternmost part of Asia and confirmed that Columbus had reached a set of continents previously unheard of to any Europeans. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, "America", for the two continents. In April 1500, Portuguese noble Pedro Álvares Cabral claimed the region of Brazil to Portugal; the effective colonization of Brazil began three decades later with the founding of São Vicente in 1532 and the establishment of the system of captaincies in 1534, which was later replaced by other systems. Others tried to colonize the eastern coasts of present-day Canada and the River Plate in South America. These explorers include João Vaz Corte-Real in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real and João Álvares Fagundes, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520).


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20% of all treasure found (the "quinto real" collected by the "Casa de Contratación"), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century silver from the Americas accounted for one-fifth of the combined total budget of Portugal and Spain. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered ports in the Americas.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: France founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America (which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida), a number of Caribbean islands (which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease), and small coastal parts of South America. French explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524; Jacques Cartier (1491–1557), and Samuel de Champlain (1567–1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was on sugar plantations in the French West Indies. In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River. With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: British colonization began with North America almost a century after Spain. The relatively late arrival meant that the British could use the other European colonization powers as models for their endeavors. Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, their first attempt at colonization occurred in Roanoke and Newfoundland, although unsuccessful. In 1606, King James I granted a charter with the purpose of discovering the riches at their first permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of the land. The Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify" the existing Church of England of its residual Catholic rites. The first of these people, known as the Pilgrims, landed on Plymouth Rock in November 1620. Continuous waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies. Later in the century, the new Province of Pennsylvania was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was established by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists also flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Mainly due to discrimination, there was often a separation between English colonial communities and indigenous communities. The Europeans viewed the natives as savages who were not worthy of participating in what they considered civilized society. The native people of North America did not die out nearly as rapidly nor as greatly as those in Central and South America due in part to their exclusion from British society. The indigenous people continued to be stripped of their native lands and were pushed further out west. The English eventually went on to control much of Eastern North America, the Caribbean, and parts of South America. They also gained Florida and Quebec in the French and Indian War.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: John Smith convinced the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter. The lack of food security leading to extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland. Plantation agriculture was a primary aspect of the economies of the Southern Colonies and in the British West Indies. They heavily relied on African slave labor to sustain their economic pursuits.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: From the beginning of Virginia's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three-quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake Colonies. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they became of age. They were given food, clothing, housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer's passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work, they could then start on their own in America. Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Economic advantage also prompted the Darien Scheme, an ill-fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease. The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: The Netherlands had been part of the Spanish Empire, due to the inheritance of Charles V of Spain. Many Dutch people converted to Protestantism and sought their political independence from Spain. They were a seafaring nation and built a global empire in regions where the Portuguese had originally explored. In the Dutch Golden Age, it sought colonies. In the Americas, the Dutch conquered the northeast of Brazil in 1630, where the Portuguese had built sugar cane plantations worked by black slave labor from Africa. Prince Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen became the administrator of the colony (1637–43), building a capital city and royal palace, fully expecting the Dutch to retain control of this rich area. As the Dutch had in Europe, it tolerated the presence of Jews and other religious groups in the colony. After Maurits departed in 1643, the Dutch West India Company took over the colony, until it was lost to the Portuguese in 1654. The Dutch retained some territory in Dutch Guiana, now Suriname. The Dutch also seized islands in the Caribbean that Spain had originally claimed but had largely abandoned, including Sint Maarten in 1618, Bonaire in 1634, Curaçao in 1634, Sint Eustatius in 1636, Aruba in 1637, some of which remain in Dutch hands and retain Dutch cultural traditions.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: On the east coast of North America, the Dutch planted the colony of New Netherland on the lower end of the island of Manhattan, at New Amsterdam starting in 1624. The Dutch sought to protect their investments and purchased the Manhattan from a band of Canarse from Brooklyn who occupied the bottom quarter of Manhattan, known then as the Manhattoes, for 60 guilders' worth of trade goods. Minuit conducted the transaction with the Canarse chief Seyseys, who accepted valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was actually mostly controlled by another indigenous group, the Weckquaesgeeks. Dutch fur traders set up a network upstream on the Hudson River. There were Jewish settlers from 1654 onward, and they remained following the English capture of New Amsterdam in 1664. The naval capture was despite both nations being at peace with the other.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Russia came to colonization late compared to Spain or Portugal, or even England. Siberia was added to the Russian Empire and Cossack explorers along rivers sought valuable furs of ermine, sable, and fox. Cossacks enlisted the aid of indigenous Siberians, who sought protection from nomadic peoples, and those peoples paid tribute in fur to the czar. Thus, prior to the eighteenth century Russian expansion that pushed beyond the Bering Strait dividing Eurasia from North America, Russia had experience with northern indigenous peoples and accumulated wealth from the hunting of fur bearing animals. Siberia had already attracted a core group of scientists, who sought to map and catalogue the flora, fauna, and other aspects of the natural world.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: A major Russian expedition for exploration was mounted in 1742, contemporaneous with other eighteenth-century European state-sponsored ventures. It was not clear at the time whether Eurasia and North America were completely separate continents. The first voyages were made by Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov, with settlement beginning after 1743. By the 1790s the first permanent settlements were established. Explorations continued down the Pacific coast of North America, and Russia established a settlement in the early nineteenth century at what is now called Fort Ross, California. Russian fur traders forced indigenous Aleut men into seasonal labor. Never very profitable, Russia sold its North American holdings to the United States in 1867, called at the time "Seward's Folly."


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Duke Ferdinand I de Medici made the only Italian attempt to create colonies in America. For this purpose the Grand Duke organized in 1608 an expedition to the north of Brazil, under the command of the English captain Robert Thornton.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Unfortunately Thornton, on his return from the preparatory trip in 1609 (he had been to the Amazon), found Ferdinand I dead and all projects were canceled by his successor Cosimo II.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Beginning with the first wave of European colonization, the religious discrimination, persecution, and violence toward the Indigenous peoples' native religions was systematically perpetrated by the European Christian colonists and settlers from the 15th–16th centuries onwards.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: During the Age of Discovery and the following centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires were the most active in attempting to convert the Indigenous peoples of the Americas to the Christian religion. Pope Alexander VI issued the "Inter caetera" bull in May 1493 that confirmed the lands claimed by the Kingdom of Spain, and mandated in exchange that the Indigenous peoples be converted to Catholic Christianity. During Columbus's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. With the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, evangelization of the dense Indigenous populations was undertaken in what was called the "spiritual conquest." Several mendicant orders were involved in the early campaign to convert the Indigenous peoples. Franciscans and Dominicans learned Indigenous languages of the Americas, such as Nahuatl, Mixtec, and Zapotec. One of the first schools for Indigenous peoples in Mexico was founded by Pedro de Gante in 1523. The friars aimed at converting Indigenous leaders, with the hope and expectation that their communities would follow suit. In densely populated regions, friars mobilized Indigenous communities to build churches, making the religious change visible; these churches and chapels were often in the same places as old temples, often using the same stones. "Native peoples exhibited a range of responses, from outright hostility to active embrace of the new religion." In central and southern Mexico where there was an existing Indigenous tradition of creating written texts, the friars taught Indigenous scribes to write their own languages in Latin letters. There is significant body of texts in Indigenous languages created by and for Indigenous peoples in their own communities for their own purposes. In frontier areas where there were no settled Indigenous populations, friars and Jesuits often created missions, bringing together dispersed Indigenous populations in communities supervised by the friars in order to more easily preach the gospel and ensure their adherence to the faith. These missions were established throughout Spanish America which extended from the southwestern portions of current-day United States through Mexico and to Argentina and Chile.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: As slavery was prohibited between Christians and could only be imposed upon non-Christian prisoners of war and/or men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the early 16th century, when Spanish conquerors and settlers sought to mobilize Indigenous labor. Later, two Dominican friars, Bartolomé de Las Casas and the philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, held the Valladolid debate, with the former arguing that Native Americans were endowed with souls like all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary to justify their enslavement. In 1537, the papal bull "Sublimis Deus" definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: When the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the sacred places dedicated to the Indigenous peoples' native religions. However, in Pre-Columbian Mexico, burning the temple of a conquered group was standard practice, shown in Indigenous manuscripts, such as Codex Mendoza. Conquered Indigenous groups expected to take on the gods of their new overlords, adding them to the existing pantheon. They likely were unaware that their conversion to Christianity entailed the complete and irrevocable renunciation of their ancestral religious beliefs and practices. In 1539, Mexican bishop Juan de Zumárraga oversaw the trial and execution of the Indigenous nobleman Carlos of Texcoco for apostasy from Christianity. Following that, the Catholic Church removed Indigenous converts from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition, since it had a chilling effect on evangelization. In creating a protected group of Christians, Indigenous men no longer could aspire to be ordained Christian priests.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Throughout the Americas, the Jesuits were active in attempting to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. They had considerable success on the frontiers in New France and Portuguese Brazil, most famously with Antonio de Vieira, S.J; and in Paraguay, almost an autonomous state within a state.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of Portugal and Spain, and later, France in New France. No other religion was tolerated and there was a concerted effort to convert indigenous peoples and black slaves to Catholicism. The Catholic Church established three offices of the Spanish Inquisition, in Mexico City; Lima, Peru; and Cartagena de Indias in Colombia to maintain religious orthodoxy and practice. The Portuguese did not establish a permanent office of the Portuguese Inquisition in Brazil, but did send visitations of inquistors in the seventeenth century.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Protestant Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Jews, Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and Moravians. Jews fled to the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam when the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions cracked down on their presence.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and various domesticated fowl, from which many diseases originally stemmed. In contrast to the indigenous people, the Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies. The large-scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced Eurasian germs to the indigenous people of the Americas.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact, killing between 10 million and 100 million people, up to 95% of the indigenous population of the Americas. The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Such diseases yielded human mortality of an unquestionably enormous gravity and scale – and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher-end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: According to scientists from University College London, the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so much of the indigenous population that it resulted in climate change and global cooling. Some contemporary scholars also attribute significant indigenous population losses in the Caribbean to the widespread practice of slavery and deadly forced labor in gold and silver mines. Historian Andrés Reséndez, supports this claim and argues that indigenous populations were smaller previous estimations and "a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza and malaria."


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Indigenous population loss following European contact directly led to Spanish explorations beyond the Caribbean islands they initially claimed and settled in the 1490s, since they required a labor force to both produce food and to mine gold. Slavery was not unknown in Indigenous societies. With the arrival of European colonists, enslavement of Indigenous peoples "became commodified, expanded in unexpected ways, and came to resemble the kinds of human trafficking that are recognizable to us today".


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: While disease was the main killer of indigenous peoples, the practice of slavery and forced labor was also significant contributor to the indigenous death toll. With the arrival of Europeans other than Spanish, enslavement of native populations increased since there were no prohibitions against slavery until decades later. It is estimated that from Columbus's arrival to the end of the 19th century between 2.5 and 5 million Native Americans were forced into slavery. Indigenous men, women, and children were often forced into labor in sparsely populated frontier settings, in the household, or in the toxic gold and silver mines. This practice was known as the "encomienda" system and granted free native labor to the Spaniards. Based upon the practice of exacting tribute from Muslims and Jews during the Reconquista, the Spanish Crown granted a number of native laborers to an "encomendero", who was usually a conquistador or other prominent Spanish male. Under the grant, they were theoretically bound to both protecting the natives and converting them to Christianity. In exchange for their forced conversion to Christianity, the natives paid tributes in the form of gold, agricultural products, and labor. The Spanish Crown tried to terminate the system through the Laws of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Laws of the Indies (1542). However, the encomenderos refused to comply with the new measures and the indigenous people continued to be exploited. Eventually, the encomienda system was replaced by the "repartimiento" system which was not abolished until the late 18th century.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: In the Caribbean, deposits of gold were quickly exhausted and the precipitous drop in the indigenous population meant a severe labor shortage. Spaniards sought a high value, low bulk export product to make their fortunes. Cane sugar was the answer. It had been cultivated on the Iberian Atlantic islands. It was a highly desirable, expensive foodstuff. The problem of a labor force was solved by the importation of African slaves, initiating the creation of sugar plantations worked by chattel slaves. Plantations required a significant work force to be purchased, housed, and fed; capital investment in building sugar mills on-site, since once cane was cut, the sugar content rapidly declined. Plantation owners were linked to creditors and a network of merchants to sell processed sugar in Europe. The whole system was predicated on a huge enslaved population. The Portuguese controlled the African slave trade, since the division of spheres with Spain in the Treaty of Tordesillas, they controlled the African coasts. Black slavery dominated the labor force in tropical zones, particularly where sugar was cultivated, in Portuguese Brazil, the English, French, and Dutch Caribbean islands. On the mainland of North America, the English southern colonies imported black slaves, starting in Virginia in 1619, to cultivate other tropical or semi-tropical crops such as tobacco, rice, and cotton.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Although black slavery is most associated with agricultural production, in Spanish America enslaved and free blacks and mulattoes were found in numbers in cities, working as artisans. Most newly transported African slaves were not Christians, but their conversion was a priority. For the Catholic Church, black slavery was not incompatible with Christianity. The Jesuits created hugely profitable agricultural enterprises and held a significant black slave labor force. European whites often justified the practice through the belts of latitude theory, supported by Aristotle and Ptolemy. In this perspective, belts of latitude wrapped around the earth and corresponded with specific human traits. The peoples from the "cold zone" in Northern Europe were "of lesser prudence", while those of the "hot zone" in sub-Sahara Africa were intelligent but "weaker and less spirited". According to the theory, those of the "temperate zone" across the Mediterranean reflected an ideal balance of strength and prudence. Such ideas about latitude and character justified a natural human hierarchy.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Africans slaves were a highly valuable commodity, enriching those involved in the trade. Africans were transported to slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the local native African tribes who captured them elsewhere in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures. The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, the Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch, and British Empires is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans. The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the United States, or 5% of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Throughout the South American hemisphere, there were three large regional sources of populations: Native Americans, arriving Europeans, and forcibly transported Africans. The mixture of these cultures impacted the ethnic makeup that predominates in the hemisphere's largely independent states today. The term to describe someone of mixed European and indigenous ancestry is mestizo while the term to describe someone of mixed European and African ancestry is mulatto. The mestizo and mulatto population are specific to Iberian-influenced current-day Latin America because the conquistadors had (often forced) sexual relations with the indigenous and African women. The social interaction of these three groups of people inspired the creation of a caste system based on skin tone. The hierarchy centered around those with the lightest skin tone and ordered from highest to lowest was the Peninsulares, Criollos, mestizos, indigenous, mulatto, then African.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Unlike the Iberians, the British men came with families with whom they planned to permanently live in what is now North America.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Because the British colonizers' wives were present, the British men rarely had sexual relations with the native women. While the mestizo and mulatto population make up the majority of people in Latin America today, there is only a small mestizo population in present-day North America (excluding Central America).


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: By the early to mid 16th century, even the Iberian men began to carry their wives and families to the Americas. Some women even carried out the voyage alone. Later, more studies of the role of women and female migration from Europe to the Americas have been made.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came under the control of Western European governments, leading to changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century over 50 million people left Western Europe for the Americas. The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian exchange, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), ideas, and communicable disease between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus's voyages to the Americas.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Most scholars writing at the end of the 19th century estimated that the pre-Columbian population was as low as 10 million; by the end of the 20th century most scholars gravitated to a middle estimate of around 50 million, with some historians arguing for an estimate of 100 million or more. A recent estimate is that there were about 60.5 million people living in the Americas immediately before depopulation, of which 90 per cent, mostly in Central and South America, perished from wave after wave of disease, along with war and slavery playing their part.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long-run growth, economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production. Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights, and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: James Mahoney proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee-rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions. Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture, and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: There were at least a dozen European countries involved in the colonization of the Americas. The following list indicates those countries and the Western Hemisphere territories they worked to control.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.


title: European colonization of the Americas

text: The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Quebec City (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is accessible in three languages.


title: Rupert Sanders

text: Rupert Miles Sanders (born 16 March 1971) is an English film director. He has directed the movies "Snow White and the Huntsman" (2012) and "Ghost in the Shell" (2017). In 2021, he directed the pilot episode of the Apple TV+ science fiction series "Foundation".


title: Rupert Sanders

text: Sanders was born in Westminster, London, the eldest son of Thalia (née Garlick) and hospital ophthalmologist Michael Sanders. After a foundation year at Kingston School of Art he graduated with a degree in graphic design from Central St Martins.


title: Rupert Sanders

text: Sanders began his commercial production career under Tony Kaye. He had primarily done art direction before Kaye suggested he try out directing. Sanders has directed numerous television advertisements, including "The Life" for "", which won him two Golden Lions at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival.


title: Rupert Sanders

text: Sanders' first feature film was "Snow White and the Huntsman", which was released in the US in early June 2012. The film's budget was $170 million, including an eight-figure marketing expenditure, and it earned $20.3 million on its opening day in the US. To date, the film has grossed $396,592,829 at the box office.


title: Rupert Sanders

text: After passing the offer to direct the of the "Pirates of the Caribbean" film series, Sanders directed a film adaptation of science fiction manga franchise "Ghost in the Shell", with Avi Arad and Steven Paul producing and Scarlett Johansson starring in the main role. It was released in late March 2017.


title: Rupert Sanders

text: In June 2018, Sanders was announced to direct Johansson again in "Rub & Tug", a planned biopic about Dante "Tex" Gill and his girlfriend Cynthia Bruno, with Johansson starring as Gill. However, the film has been left in development hell after Johansson stepped down from starring in the film when the transgender community criticised having a cisgender actress play a trans man.


title: Rupert Sanders

text: In April 2022, it was announced that Sanders will direct a reboot of "The Crow", with Bill Skarsgård starring as Eric Draven / The Crow.


title: Rupert Sanders

text: Sanders married model Liberty Ross, sister of Oscar-winning composer Atticus Ross, in 2002. They moved to Los Angeles to further Sanders' career. Together they have two children, daughter Skyla and son Tennyson. In July 2012, "Us Weekly" published photos of Sanders in an intimate embrace with actress Kristen Stewart, prompting Sanders and Stewart to issue separate public apologies. Ross subsequently filed for divorce from Sanders in January 2013, seeking joint custody, spousal support, and legal fees. The divorce was finalised on 30 May 2014.


title: Häagen-Dazs

text: Häagen-Dazs ( , ) is an American ice cream brand, established by Reuben and Rose Mattus in The Bronx, New York, in 1960. Starting with only three flavors: vanilla, chocolate, and coffee, the company opened its first retail store in Brooklyn, New York, on November 15, 1976. The company operates worldwide and also produces ice cream bars, ice cream cakes, sorbet, frozen yogurt, and gelato.