title: Kingdom of Scotland

text: During the Bishop's Wars the king attempted to blockade Scotland and planned amphibious assaults from England on the East coast and from Ireland to the West. Scottish privateers took a number of English prizes. After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea coasts, known collectively as the "Scotch Guard". The Scottish navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the army led by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 1649–1651 and the Scottish ships and crews were split up among the Commonwealth fleet. Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary impressment by English men of war, but a fixed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was levied from the sea-coast burghs during the second half of the 17th century. Royal Navy patrols were now found in Scottish waters even in peacetime. In the Second (1665–1667) and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (1672–1674) between 80 and 120 captains, took Scottish letters of marque and privateers played a major part in the naval conflict. In the 1690s, a small fleet of five ships was established by merchants for the Darien Scheme, and a professional navy was established for the protection of commerce in home waters during the Nine Years' War, with three purpose-built warships bought from English shipbuilders in 1696. After the Act of Union in 1707, these vessels were transferred to the Royal Navy.


title: Kingdom of Scotland

text: Before the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in the mid-17th century, there was no standing army in the Kingdom of Scotland. In the Early Middle Ages, war in Scotland was characterised by the use of small war-bands of household troops often engaging in raids and low level warfare. By the High Middle Ages, the kings of Scotland could command forces of tens of thousands of men for short periods as part of the "common army", mainly of poorly armoured spear and bowmen. After the "Davidian Revolution" of the 12th century, which introduced elements of feudalism to Scotland, these forces were augmented by small numbers of mounted and heavily armoured knights. These armies rarely managed to stand up to the usually larger and more professional armies produced by England, but they were used to good effect by Robert I at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 to secure Scottish independence. After the Wars of Scottish Independence, the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France played a large part in the country's military activities, especially during the Hundred Years' War. In the Late Middle Ages, under the Stewart kings forces were further augmented by specialist troops, particularly men-at-arms and archers, hired by bonds of "manrent", similar to English indentures of the same period. Archers became much sought after as mercenaries in French armies of the 15th century in order to help counter the English superiority in this arm, becoming a major element of the French royal guards as the Garde Écossaise. The Stewarts also adopted major innovations in continental warfare, such as longer pikes and the extensive use of artillery. However, in the early 16th century one of the best armed and largest Scottish armies ever assembled still met with defeat at the hands of an English army at the Battle of Flodden Field in 1513, which saw the destruction of a large number of ordinary troops, a large section of the nobility and the king, James IV. In the 16th century, the crown took an increasing role in the supply of military equipment. The pike began to replace the spear and the Scots began to convert from the bow to gunpowder firearms. The feudal heavy cavalry had begun to disappear from Scottish armies and the Scots fielded relatively large numbers of light horse, often drawn from the borders. James IV brought in experts from France, Germany and the Netherlands and established a gun foundry in 1511. Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture from the mid-15th century.


title: Kingdom of Scotland

text: In the early 17th century, relatively large numbers of Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty Years War. As armed conflict with Charles I in the Bishop's Wars became likely, hundreds of Scots mercenaries returned home from foreign service, including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie and these veterans played an important role in training recruits. These systems would form the basis of the Covenanter armies that intervened in the Civil Wars in England and Ireland. Scottish infantry were generally armed, as was almost universal in Western Europe, with a combination of pike and shot. Scottish armies may also have had individuals with a variety of weapons including bows, Lochaber axes, and halberds. Most cavalry were probably equipped with pistols and swords, although there is some evidence that they included lancers. Royalist armies, like those led by James Graham, Marquis of Montrose (1643–1644) and in Glencairn's rising (1653–1654) were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with pike and shot. Montrose's forces were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry.


title: Kingdom of Scotland

text: At the Restoration the Privy Council established a force of several infantry regiments and a few troops of horse and there were attempts to found a national militia on the English model. The standing army was mainly employed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and the guerilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the East. Pikemen became less important in the late 17th century and after the introduction of the socket bayonet disappeared altogether, while matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable flintlock. On the eve of the Glorious Revolution, the standing army in Scotland was about 3,000 men in various regiments and another 268 veterans in the major garrison towns. After the Glorious Revolution the Scots were drawn into King William II's continental wars, beginning with the Nine Years' War in Flanders (1689–1697). By the time of the Act of Union, the Kingdom of Scotland had a standing army of seven units of infantry, two of horse and one troop of Horse Guards, besides varying levels of fortress artillery in the garrison castles of Edinburgh, Dumbarton, and Stirling, which would be incorporated into the British Army.


title: Kingdom of Scotland

text: The earliest recorded use of the Lion Rampant as a royal emblem in Scotland was by Alexander II in 1222. It is recorded with the additional embellishment of a double border set with lilies during the reign of Alexander III (1249–1286). This emblem occupied the shield of the royal coat of arms which, together with a royal banner displaying the same, was used by the King of Scots until the Union of the Crowns in 1603. Then it was incorporated into both the royal arms and royal banners of successive Scottish then British monarchs in order to symbolise Scotland; as can be seen today in the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom. Although now officially restricted to use by representatives of the Sovereign and at royal residences, the Royal Standard of Scotland continues to be one of Scotland's most recognisable symbols.


title: Kingdom of Scotland

text: According to legend, the apostle and martyr Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, was crucified on an X-shaped cross at Patras (Patrae) in Achaea. Use of the familiar iconography of his martyrdom, showing the apostle bound to an X-shaped cross, first appears in the Kingdom of Scotland in 1180 during the reign of William I. This image was again depicted on seals used during the late 13th century; including on one particular example used by the Guardians of Scotland, dated 1286. Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew which does not depict his image, namely the saltire, or crux decussata (from the Latin crux, 'cross', and decussis, 'having the shape of the Roman numeral X'), has its origins in the late 14th century; the Parliament of Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish soldiers wear a white Saint Andrew's Cross on their person, both in front and behind, for the purpose of identification. The earliest reference to the Saint Andrew's Cross as a flag is to be found in the "Vienna Book of Hours", 1503, where a white saltire is depicted with a red background. In the case of Scotland, use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century, with the first certain illustration of a flag depicting such appearing in Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount's "Register of Scottish Arms," 1542.


title: Kingdom of Scotland

text: Following the Union of the Crowns in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, commissioned new designs for a banner incorporating the flags of the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of England. In 1606, a Union Flag was commissioned, combining the crosses of Saint George (the Flag of England), with that of Saint Andrew. There was also a "Scottish" version of this flag, in which the cross of Saint Andrew overlaid the cross of St George. This design may have seen limited, unofficial use in Scotland until 1707, when the "English" variant of the same, whereby the cross of St George overlaid that of St Andrew, was adopted as the flag of the unified Kingdom of Great Britain.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Requiem in D minor, K. 626, is a requiem mass by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791). Mozart composed part of the Requiem in Vienna in late 1791, but it was unfinished at his death on 5 December the same year. A completed version dated 1792 by Franz Xaver Süssmayr was delivered to Count Franz von Walsegg, who commissioned the piece for a requiem service on 14 February 1792 to commemorate the first anniversary of the death of his wife Anna at the age of 20 on 14 February 1791.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The autograph manuscript shows the finished and orchestrated Introit in Mozart's hand, and detailed drafts of the Kyrie and the sequence Dies irae as far as the first eight bars of the Lacrymosa movement, and the Offertory. It cannot be shown to what extent Süssmayr may have depended on now lost "scraps of paper" for the remainder; he later claimed the Sanctus and Benedictus and the Agnus Dei as his own.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Walsegg probably intended to pass the Requiem off as his own composition, as he is known to have done with other works. This plan was frustrated by a public benefit performance for Mozart's widow Constanze. She was responsible for a number of stories surrounding the composition of the work, including the claims that Mozart received the commission from a mysterious messenger who did not reveal the commissioner's identity, and that Mozart came to believe that he was writing the requiem for his own funeral.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: In addition to the Süssmayr version, a number of alternative completions have been developed by composers and musicologists in the 20th and 21st centuries.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Requiem is scored for 2 basset horns in F, 2 bassoons, 2 trumpets in D, 3 trombones (alto, tenor, and bass), timpani (2 drums), violins, viola, and basso continuo (cello, double bass, and organ). The basset horn parts are sometimes played on conventional clarinets, even though this changes the sonority.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: All sections from the Sanctus onwards are not present in Mozart's manuscript fragment. Mozart may have intended to include the "Amen" fugue at the end of the Sequentia, but Süssmayr did not do so in his completion.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The following table shows for the eight sections in Süssmayr's completion with their subdivisions: the title, vocal parts (solo soprano (S), alto (A), tenor (T) and bass (B) [in bold] and four-part choir SATB), tempo, key, and meter.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Requiem begins with a seven-measure instrumental introduction, in which the woodwinds (first bassoons, then basset horns) present the principal theme of the work in imitative counterpoint. The first five measures of this passage (without the accompaniment) are shown below.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: This theme is modeled after Handel's "The ways of Zion do mourn", HWV 264. Many parts of the work make reference to this passage, notably in the coloratura in the Kyrie fugue and in the conclusion of the Lacrymosa.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The trombones then announce the entry of the choir, which breaks into the theme, with the basses alone for the first measure, followed by imitation by the other parts. The chords play off syncopated and staggered structures in the accompaniment, thus underlining the solemn and steady nature of the music. A soprano solo is sung to the "Te decet hymnus" text in the "tonus peregrinus". The choir continues, repeating the psalmtone while singing the "Exaudi orationem meam" section. Then, the principal theme is treated by the choir and the orchestra in downward-gliding sixteenth-notes. The courses of the melodies, whether held up or moving down, change and interlace amongst themselves, while passages in counterpoint and in unison (e.g., "Et lux perpetua") alternate; all this creates the charm of this movement, which finishes with a half cadence on the dominant.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Kyrie follows without pause ("attacca"). It is a double fugue also on a Handelian theme: the subject is based on "And with his stripes we are healed" from "Messiah", HWV 56 (with which Mozart was familiar given his work on a German-language version) and the counter-subject comes from the final chorus of the Dettingen Anthem, HWV 265. The first three measures of the altos and basses are shown below.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The contrapuntal motifs of the theme of this fugue include variations on the two themes of the Introit. At first, upward diatonic series of sixteenth-notes are replaced by chromatic series, which has the effect of augmenting the intensity. This passage shows itself to be a bit demanding in the upper voices, particularly for the soprano voice. A final portion in a slower (Adagio) tempo ends on an "empty" fifth, a construction which had during the classical period become archaic, lending the piece an ancient air.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Dies irae ("Day of Wrath") opens with a show of orchestral and choral might with tremolo strings, syncopated figures and repeated chords in the brass. A rising chromatic scurry of sixteenth-notes leads into a chromatically rising harmonic progression with the chorus singing ""Quantus tremor est futurus"" ("what trembling there will be" in reference to the Last Judgment). This material is repeated with harmonic development before the texture suddenly drops to a trembling unison figure with more tremolo strings evocatively painting the ""Quantus tremor"" text.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Mozart's textual inspiration is again apparent in the Tuba mirum ("Hark, the trumpet") movement, which is introduced with a sequence of three notes in arpeggio, played in B major by a solo tenor trombone, unaccompanied, in accordance with the usual German translation of the Latin "tuba", "Posaune" (trombone). Two measures later, the bass soloist enters, imitating the same theme. At 7, there is a fermata, the only point in all the work at which a solo cadence occurs. The final quarter notes of the bass soloist herald the arrival of the tenor, followed by the alto and soprano in dramatic fashion.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: On the text "Cum vix justus sit securus" ("When only barely may the just one be secure"), there is a switch to a homophonic segment sung by the quartet at the same time, articulating, without accompaniment, the "cum" and "vix" on the "strong" (1st and 3rd), then on the "weak" (2nd and 4th) beats, with the violins and continuo responding each time; this "interruption" (which one may interpret as the interruption preceding the Last Judgment) is heard "sotto voce", "forte" and then "piano" to bring the movement finally into a crescendo into a perfect cadence.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: A descending melody composed of dotted notes is played by the orchestra to announce the "Rex tremendae majestatis" ("King of tremendous majesty", i.e., God), who is called by powerful cries from the choir on the syllable "Rex" during the orchestra's pauses. For a surprising effect, the "Rex" syllables of the choir fall on the second beats of the measures, even though this is the "weak" beat. The choir then adopts the dotted rhythm of the orchestra, forming what Wolff calls baroque music's form of "topos of the homage to the sovereign", or, more simply put, that this musical style is a standard form of salute to royalty, or, in this case, divinity. This movement consists of only 22 measures, but this short stretch is rich in variation: homophonic writing and contrapuntal choral passages alternate many times and finish on a quasi-unaccompanied choral cadence, landing on an open D chord (as seen previously in the Kyrie).


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: At 130 measures, the Recordare ("Remember") is the work's longest movement, as well as the first in triple meter (); the movement is a setting of no fewer than seven stanzas of the "Dies irae". The form of this piece is somewhat similar to sonata form, with an exposition around two themes ( 1–37), a development of two themes (mm. 38–92) and a recapitulation (mm. 93–98).


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: In the first 13 measures, the basset horns are the first the present the first theme, clearly inspired by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach's Sinfonia in D Minor, the theme is enriched by a magnificent counterpoint by cellos in descending scales that are reprised throughout the movement. This counterpoint of the first theme prolongs the orchestral introduction with chords, recalling the beginning of the work and its rhythmic and melodic shiftings (the first basset horn begins a measure after the second but a tone higher, the first violins are likewise in sync with the second violins but a quarter note shifted, etc.). The introduction is followed by the vocal soloists; their first theme is sung by the alto and bass (from 14), followed by the soprano and tenor (from m. 20). Each time, the theme concludes with a hemiola (mm. 18–19 and 24–25). The second theme arrives on "Ne me perdas", in which the accompaniment contrasts with that of the first theme. Instead of descending scales, the accompaniment is limited to repeated chords. This exposition concludes with four orchestral measures based on the counter-melody of the first theme (mm. 34–37).


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The development of these two themes begins in 38 on "Quaerens me"; the second theme is not recognizable except by the structure of its accompaniment. At m. 46, it is the first theme that is developed beginning from "Tantus labor" and concludes with two measures of hemiola at mm. 50–51. After two orchestral bars (mm. 52–53), the first theme is heard again on the text "Juste Judex" and ends on a hemiola in mm. 66–67. Then, the second theme is reused on "ante diem rationis"; after the four measures of orchestra from 68 to 71, the first theme is developed alone.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The recapitulation intervenes in 93. The initial structure reproduces itself with the first theme on the text "Preces meae" and then in m. 99 on "Sed tu bonus". The second theme reappears one final time on m. 106 on "Sed tu bonus" and concludes with three hemiolas. The final measures of the movement recede to simple orchestral descending contrapuntal scales.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Confutatis ("From the accursed") begins with a rhythmic and dynamic sequence of strong contrasts and surprising harmonic turns. Accompanied by the basso continuo, the tenors and basses burst into a "forte" vision of the infernal, on a dotted rhythm. The accompaniment then ceases alongside the tenors and basses, and the sopranos and altos enter softly and "sotto voce", singing "Voca me cum benedictis" ("Call upon me with the blessed") with an arpeggiated accompaniment in strings.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Finally, in the following stanza ("Oro supplex et acclinis"), there is a striking modulation from A minor to A minor.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: This spectacular descent from the opening key is repeated, now modulating to the key of F major. A final dominant seventh chord leads to the Lacrymosa.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The chords begin "piano" on a rocking rhythm in , intercut with quarter rests, which will be reprised by the choir after two measures, on "Lacrimosa dies illa" ("This tearful day"). Then, after two measures, the sopranos begin a diatonic progression, in disjointed eighth-notes on the text "resurget" ("will be reborn"), then "legato" and chromatic on a powerful crescendo. The choir is "forte" by 8, at which point Mozart's contribution to the movement is interrupted by his death.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Süssmayr brings the choir to a reference of the Introit and ends on an "Amen" cadence. Discovery of a fragmentary "Amen" fugue in Mozart's hand has led to speculation that it may have been intended for the Requiem. Indeed, many modern completions (such as Levin's) complete Mozart's fragment. Some sections of this movement are quoted in the Requiem mass of Franz von Suppé, who was a great admirer of Mozart. Ray Robinson, the music scholar and president (from 1969 to 1987) of the Westminster Choir College, suggests that Süssmayr used materials from Credo of one of Mozart's earlier masses, Mass in C major, K. 220 "Sparrow" in completing this movement.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The first movement of the Offertorium, the Domine Jesu, begins on a "piano" theme consisting of an ascending progression on a G minor triad. This theme will later be varied in various keys, before returning to G minor when the four soloists enter a canon on "Sed signifer sanctus Michael", switching between minor (in ascent) and major (in descent). Between these thematic passages are "forte" phrases where the choir enters, often in unison and dotted rhythm, such as on "Rex gloriae" ("King of glory") or "de ore leonis" ("[Deliver them] from the mouth of the lion"). Two choral fugues follow, on "ne absorbeat eas tartarus, ne cadant in obscurum" ("may Tartarus not absorb them, nor may they fall into darkness") and "Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini eius" ("What once to Abraham you promised and to his seed"). The movement concludes homophonically in G major.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Hostias opens in E major in , with fluid vocals. After 20 measures, the movement switches to an alternation of "forte" and "piano" exclamations of the choir, while progressing from B major towards B minor, then F major, D major, A major, F minor, C minor and E major. An overtaking chromatic melody on "Fac eas, Domine, de morte transire ad vitam" ("Make them, O Lord, cross over from death to life") finally carries the movement into the dominant of G minor, followed by a reprise of the "Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini eius" fugue.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The words "Quam olim da capo" are likely to have been the last Mozart wrote; this portion of the manuscript has been missing since it was stolen at 1958 World's Fair in Brussels by a person whose identity remains unknown.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Sanctus is the first movement written entirely by Süssmayr, and the only movement of the Requiem to have a key signature with sharps: D major, generally used for the entry of trumpets in the Baroque era. After a succinct glorification of the Lord follows a short fugue in on "Hosanna in excelsis" ("Glory [to God] in the highest"), noted for its syncopated rhythm, and for its motivic similarity to the "Quam olim Abrahae" fugue.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Benedictus, a quartet, adopts the key of the submediant, B major (which can also be considered the relative of the subdominant of the key of D minor). The Sanctus's ending on a D major cadence necessitates a mediant jump to this new key.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Benedictus is constructed on three types of phrases: the (A) theme, which is first presented by the orchestra and reprised from 4 by the alto and from m. 6 by the soprano. The word "benedictus" is held, which stands in opposition with the (B) phrase, which is first seen at m. 10, also on the word "benedictus" but with a quick and chopped-up rhythm. The phrase develops and rebounds at m. 15 with a broken cadence. The third phrase, (C), is a solemn ringing where the winds respond to the chords with a staggering harmony, as shown in a Mozartian cadence at mm. 21 and 22, where the counterpoint of the basset horns mixes with the line of the cello. The rest of the movement consists of variations on this writing. At m. 23, phrase (A) is reprised on a F pedal and introduces a recapitulation of the primary theme from the bass and tenor from mm. 28 and 30, respectively. Phrase (B) follows at m. 33, although without the broken cadence, then repeats at m. 38 with the broken cadence once more. This carries the movement to a new Mozartian cadence in mm. 47 to 49 and concludes on phrase (C), which reintroduces the "Hosanna" fugue from the Sanctus movement, in the new key of the Benedictus.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Homophony dominates the Agnus Dei. The text is repeated three times, always with chromatic melodies and harmonic reversals, going from D minor to F major, C major, and finally B major. According to the musicologist Simon P. Keefe, Süssmayr likely referenced one of Mozart's earlier masses, Mass in C major, K. 220 "Sparrow" in completing this movement.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Süssmayr here reuses Mozart's first two movements, almost exactly note for note, with wording corresponding to this part of the liturgy.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: At the time of Mozart's death on 5 December 1791, only the first movement, Introitus (Requiem aeternam) was completed in all of the orchestral and vocal parts. The Kyrie, Sequence and Offertorium were completed in skeleton, with the exception of the Lacrymosa, which breaks off after the first eight bars. The vocal parts and continuo were fully notated. Occasionally, some of the prominent orchestral parts were briefly indicated, such as the first violin part of the Rex tremendae and Confutatis, the musical bridges in the Recordare, and the trombone solos of the Tuba Mirum.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: What remained to be completed for these sections were mostly accompanimental figures, inner harmonies, and orchestral doublings to the vocal parts.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The eccentric count Franz von Walsegg commissioned the Requiem from Mozart anonymously through intermediaries. The count, an amateur chamber musician who routinely commissioned works by composers and passed them off as his own, wanted a Requiem Mass he could claim he composed to memorialize the recent passing of his wife. Mozart received only half of the payment in advance, so upon his death his widow Constanze was keen to have the work completed secretly by someone else, submit it to the count as having been completed by Mozart and collect the final payment. Joseph von Eybler was one of the first composers to be asked to complete the score, and had worked on the movements from the Dies irae up until the Lacrymosa. In addition, a striking similarity between the openings of the Domine Jesu Christe movements in the requiems of the two composers suggests that Eybler at least looked at later sections. After this work, he felt unable to complete the remainder and gave the manuscript back to Constanze Mozart.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The task was then given to another composer, Franz Xaver Süssmayr. Süssmayr borrowed some of Eybler's work in making his completion, and added his own orchestration to the movements from the Kyrie onward, completed the Lacrymosa, and added several new movements which a Requiem would normally comprise: Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei. He then added a final section, Lux aeterna by adapting the opening two movements which Mozart had written to the different words which finish the Requiem mass, which according to both Süssmayr and Mozart's wife was done according to Mozart's directions. Some people consider it unlikely, however, that Mozart would have repeated the opening two sections if he had survived to finish the work.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Other composers may have helped Süssmayr. The Agnus Dei is suspected by some scholars to have been based on instruction or sketches from Mozart because of its similarity to a section from the Gloria of a previous mass ("Sparrow Mass", K. 220) by Mozart, as was first pointed out by Richard Maunder. Others have pointed out that at the beginning of the Agnus Dei, the choral bass quotes the main theme from the Introitus. Many of the arguments dealing with this matter, though, center on the perception that if part of the work is high quality, it must have been written by Mozart (or from sketches), and if part of the work contains errors and faults, it must have been all Süssmayr's doing.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Another controversy is the suggestion (originating from a letter written by Constanze) that Mozart left explicit instructions for the completion of the Requiem on "a few scraps of paper with music on them... found on Mozart's desk after his death." The extent to which Süssmayr's work may have been influenced by these "scraps" if they existed at all remains a subject of speculation amongst musicologists to this day.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The completed score, initially by Mozart but largely finished by Süssmayr, was then dispatched to Count Walsegg complete with a counterfeited signature of Mozart and dated 1792. The various complete and incomplete manuscripts eventually turned up in the 19th century, but many of the figures involved left ambiguous statements on record as to how they were involved in the affair. Despite the controversy over how much of the music is actually Mozart's, the commonly performed Süssmayr version has become widely accepted by the public. This acceptance is quite strong, even when alternative completions provide logical and compelling solutions for the work.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The confusion surrounding the circumstances of the Requiem's composition was created in a large part by Mozart's wife, Constanze. Constanze had a difficult task in front of her: she had to keep secret the fact that the Requiem was unfinished at Mozart's death, so she could collect the final payment from the commission. For a period of time, she also needed to keep secret the fact that Süssmayr had anything to do with the composition of the Requiem at all, in order to allow Count Walsegg the impression that Mozart wrote the work entirely himself. Once she received the commission, she needed to carefully promote the work as Mozart's so that she could continue to receive revenue from the work's publication and performance. During this phase of the Requiem's history, it was still important that the public accept that Mozart wrote the whole piece, as it would fetch larger sums from publishers and the public if it were completely by Mozart.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: It is Constanze's efforts that created the flurry of half-truths and myths almost instantly after Mozart's death. According to Constanze, Mozart declared that he was composing the Requiem for himself and that he had been poisoned. His symptoms worsened, and he began to complain about the painful swelling of his body and high fever. Nevertheless, Mozart continued his work on the Requiem, and even on the last day of his life, he was explaining to his assistant how he intended to finish the Requiem.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: With multiple levels of deception surrounding the Requiem's completion, a natural outcome is the mythologizing which subsequently occurred. One series of myths surrounding the Requiem involves the role Antonio Salieri played in the commissioning and completion of the Requiem (and in Mozart's death generally). While the most recent retelling of this myth is Peter Shaffer's play "Amadeus" and the movie made from it, it is important to note that the source of misinformation was actually a 19th-century play by Alexander Pushkin, "Mozart and Salieri", which was turned into an opera by Rimsky-Korsakov and subsequently used as the framework for the play "Amadeus".


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Source materials written soon after Mozart's death contain serious discrepancies, which leave a level of subjectivity when assembling the "facts" about Mozart's composition of the Requiem. For example, at least three of the conflicting sources, all dated within two decades following Mozart's death, cite Constanze as their primary source of interview information.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: In 1798, Friedrich Rochlitz, a German biographical author and amateur composer, published a set of Mozart anecdotes that he claimed to have collected during his meeting with Constanze in 1796. The Rochlitz publication makes the following statements:


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The most highly disputed of these claims is the last one, the chronology of this setting. According to Rochlitz, the messenger arrives quite some time before the departure of Leopold for the coronation, yet there is a record of his departure occurring in mid-July 1791. However, as Constanze was in Baden during all of June to mid-July, she would not have been present for the commission or the drive they were said to have taken together. Furthermore, "The Magic Flute" (except for the Overture and March of the Priests) was completed by mid-July. "La clemenza di Tito" was commissioned by mid-July. There was no time for Mozart to work on the Requiem on the large scale indicated by the Rochlitz publication in the time frame provided.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Also in 1798, Constanze is noted to have given another interview to Franz Xaver Niemetschek, another biographer looking to publish a compendium of Mozart's life. He published his biography in 1808, containing a number of claims about Mozart's receipt of the Requiem commission:


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: This account, too, has fallen under scrutiny and criticism of its accuracy. According to letters, Constanze most certainly knew the name of the commissioner by the time this interview was released in 1800. Additionally, the Requiem was not given to the messenger until some time after Mozart's death. This interview contains the only account from Constanze herself of the claim that she took the Requiem away from Wolfgang for a significant duration during his composition of it. Otherwise, the timeline provided in this account is historically probable.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: However, the most highly accepted text attributed to Constanze is the interview to her second husband, Georg Nikolaus von Nissen. After Nissen's death in 1826, Constanze released the biography of Wolfgang (1828) that Nissen had compiled, which included this interview. Nissen states:


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Mozart esteemed Handel and in 1789 he was commissioned by Baron Gottfried van Swieten to rearrange "Messiah" (HWV 56). This work likely influenced the composition of Mozart's Requiem; the Kyrie is based on the "And with His stripes we are healed" chorus from Handel's "Messiah", since the subject of the fugato is the same with only slight variations by adding ornaments on melismata. However, the same four-note theme is also found in the finale of Haydn's String Quartet in F minor (Op. 20 No. 5) and in the first measure of the A minor fugue from Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavier" Book 2 (BWV 889b) as part of the subject of Bach's fugue, and it is thought that Mozart transcribed some of the fugues of the "Well-Tempered Clavier" for string ensemble (K. 404a Nos. 1–3 and K. 405 Nos. 1–5), but the attribution of these transcriptions to Mozart is not certain.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Some musicologists believe that the Introitus was inspired by Handel's "Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline", HWV 264. Another influence was Michael Haydn's Requiem in C minor; Mozart and his father were viola and violin players respectively at its first three performances in January 1772. Some have noted that Michael Haydn's Introitus sounds rather similar to Mozart's, and the theme for Mozart's "Quam olim Abrahae" fugue is a direct quote of the fugue theme from Haydn's Offertorium and Versus from his aforementioned requiem. In Introitus m. 21, the soprano sings "Te decet hymnus Deus in Zion". It is quoting the Lutheran hymn "". The melody is used by many composers e.g. in Bach's cantata "Meine Seel erhebt den Herren", BWV 10 but also in Michael Haydn's Requiem.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: In the 1960s, a sketch for an Amen Fugue was discovered, which some musicologists (Levin, Maunder) believe belongs to the Requiem at the conclusion of the sequence after the Lacrymosa. H. C. Robbins Landon argues that this Amen Fugue was not intended for the Requiem, rather that it "may have been for a separate unfinished mass in D minor" to which the Kyrie K. 341 also belonged.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: There is, however, compelling evidence placing the Amen Fugue in the Requiem based on current Mozart scholarship. First, the principal subject is the main theme of the Requiem (stated at the beginning, and throughout the work) in strict inversion. Second, it is found on the same page as a sketch for the Rex tremendae (together with a sketch for the overture of his last opera "The Magic Flute"), and thus surely dates from late 1791. The only place where the word 'Amen' occurs in anything that Mozart wrote in late 1791 is in the sequence of the Requiem. Third, as Levin points out in the foreword to his completion of the Requiem, the addition of the Amen Fugue at the end of the sequence results in an overall design that ends each large section with a fugue.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: Since the 1970s several composers and musicologists, dissatisfied with the traditional "Süssmayr" completion, have attempted alternative completions of the Requiem.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The autograph of the Requiem was placed on display at the World's Fair in 1958 in Brussels. At some point during the fair, someone was able to gain access to the manuscript, tearing off the bottom right-hand corner of the second to last page (folio 99r/45r), containing the words "Quam olim d: C:" (an instruction that the "Quam olim" fugue of the "Domine Jesu" was to be repeated da capo, at the end of the Hostias). The perpetrator has not been identified and the fragment has not been recovered.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: If the most common authorship theory is true, then "Quam olim d: C:" might very well be the last words Mozart wrote before he died. It is probable that whoever stole the fragment believed that to be the case.


title: Requiem (Mozart)

text: The Requiem and its individual movements have been repeatedly arranged for various instruments. The keyboard arrangements notably demonstrate the variety of approaches taken to translating the Requiem, particularly the Confutatis and Lacrymosa movements, in order to balance preserving the Requiem's character while also being physically playable. Karl Klindworth's piano solo (c.1900), Muzio Clementi's organ solo, and Renaud de Vilbac's harmonium solo (c.1875) are liberal in their approach to achieve this. In contrast, Carl Czerny wrote his piano transcription for two players, enabling him to retain the extent of the score, if sacrificing timbral character. Franz Liszt's piano solo (c.1865) departs the most in terms of fidelity and character of the Requiem, through its inclusion of composition devices used to showcase pianistic technique.


title: Flat white

text: A flat white is a coffee drink consisting of espresso with microfoam (steamed milk with small, fine bubbles and a glossy or velvety consistency). It is comparable to a latte, but smaller in volume and with less microfoam, therefore having a higher proportion of coffee to milk, and milk that is more velvety in consistency – allowing the espresso to dominate the flavour, while being supported by the milk.


title: Flat white

text: A flat white is generally served in a ceramic cup with saucer. Milk is frothed and foamy as it would be for a latte but held back to around of microfoam, creating a meniscus. Differences in the size of the foam layer differ between regions, with some preferring as little as . Key to the beverage is the crema being coaxed into the meniscus resulting in a uniform dark brown colour across the top of the beverage. Allowing the beverage to stand before drinking enhances the experience as the meniscus thickens and adds texture to each sip, resulting in distinct sip rings/tide marks as the beverage is consumed.


title: Flat white

text: According to a survey of industry commentators a flat white has several defining characteristics, chief among which is a thin layer of velvety microfoam (hence the 'flat' in flat white), as opposed to the significantly thicker layer of foam in a traditional cappuccino.


title: Flat white

text: There is a reference to a "flat white coffee" in the 1962 British film "Danger by My Side", although it is not clear that this refers to the modern drink. Episode 123 of Australian soap opera "The Young Doctors" a character asks for two flat whites in the restaurant Bunny's Place – set in Sydney, this was filmed / broadcast in 1976–1977. The earliest documented references to the modern beverage date back to Australia in the mid-1980s. A review of the Sydney café, Miller's Treat in May 1983 referred to their "flat white coffee". Another Sydney newspaper article in April 1984 satirised a vogue for caffe latte, stating that "caffe latte translates as flat white". At Moors Espresso Bar in Sydney, Alan Preston added the beverage to his permanent menu in 1985. Preston claimed he had imported the idea to Sydney from his native Queensland, where cafés in the 1960s and 1970s had frequently offered "White Coffee – flat"). Other documented references include the Parliament House cafeteria in Canberra putting up a sign in January 1985 saying "flat white only" during a seasonal problem with milk cows that prevented the milk froth from forming.


title: Flat white

text: However, the origins of the flat white are contentious, with New Zealand also claiming its invention. The New Zealand claim originates in Auckland, New Zealand, by Derek Townsend and Darrell Ahlers of Cafe DKD, as an alternative to the Italian latte, and a second New Zealand claim originates from Wellington as a result of a "failed cappuccino" at Bar Bodega on Willis St in 1989. Craig Miller, author of "Coffee Houses of Wellington 1939 to 1979", claims to have prepared a flat white in Auckland in the mid-1980s.


title: Flat white

text: A flat white is essentially the opposite of a "dry cappuccino", which has dry frothy foam but no liquid milk. It has milk (or microfoam) but no froth. The milk should be velvety rather than fluffy and therefore stronger, which requires a shorter, "ristretto" espresso shot to avoid harsh flavours. The flat white is similar to an original Italian cappuccino, which is a single espresso with microfoam served in a cup.


title: Flat white

text: The Spanish café con leche is similar, but uses scalded milk. In a flat white, the milk is steamed without frothing approximately to . Steaming the milk to this temperature retains the fats and proteins in the milk which retain a sweet flavour, lost when milk is steamed to scalding temperatures. A café con leche also lacks the head of microfoam.


title: Flat white

text: The flat white and the latte are also similar, with some people incorrectly suggesting that the only difference between the two drinks is the vessel in which they are presented. In Australia a flat white is served in a ceramic mug, usually of the same volume () as a latte glass. However, some Australian cafés will top a latte with extra froth, while others may pour a flat white slightly shorter. New Zealand flat whites are more commonly served in a tulip shaped cup (). In both Australia and New Zealand, there is a generally accepted difference between lattes and flat whites in the ratio of milk to coffee and the consistency of the milk due to the way the milk is heated.


title: Flat white

text: The coffee style was exported to the United Kingdom by 2005, and by 2010 was being sold in Starbucks franchises there. By 2013 the flat white was available in Australian cafés in New York City, with Hugh Jackman co-owning one of them and endorsing the product. With the flat white becoming increasingly well known globally, large coffee shop chains such as Starbucks, Costa Coffee, Caffè Nero, Cafe Coffee Day, and Pret a Manger added flat whites to their menus. Starbucks debuted the flat white in American stores on 6 January 2015.


title: Flat white

text: In the UK, the phrase "flat white economy" has been used to describe London's network of internet, media and creative businesses.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn (; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi (), was the founder of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030. At the time of his death, his kingdom had been transformed into an extensive military empire, which extended from northwestern Iran proper to the Punjab in the Indian subcontinent, Khwarazm in Transoxiana, and Makran.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Highly Persianized, Mahmud continued the bureaucratic, political, and cultural customs of his predecessors, the Samanids. He established the ground for a future Persianate state in Punjab, particularly centered on Lahore, a city he conquered. His capital of Ghazni evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual centre in the Islamic world, almost rivalling the important city of Baghdad. The capital appealed to many prominent figures, such as al-Biruni and Ferdowsi.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud ascended the throne at the age of 27 upon his father's death, albeit after a brief war of succession with his brother Ismail. He was the first ruler to hold the title "Sultan" ("authority"), signifying the extent of his power while at the same time preserving an ideological link to the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphs. During his rule, he invaded and plundered some of the richest cities and temple towns, such as Mathura and Somnath, in medieval North India seventeen times, and used the booty to build his capital in Ghazni.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud was born in the town of Ghazni in the region of Zabulistan (now present-day Afghanistan) on 2 November 971. His father, Sabuktigin, was a Turkic slave commander who laid foundations to the Ghaznavid dynasty in Ghazni in 977, which he ruled as a subordinate of the Samanids, who ruled Khorasan and Transoxiana. Mahmud's mother was a Tajik woman from a wealthy landowning aristocrat family in the region of Zabulistan, and is therefore known in some sources as "Mahmud-i Zavuli" ("Mahmud from Zabulistan"). Not much about Mahmud's early life is known, other than that he was a school-fellow of Ahmad Maymandi, a Persian native of Zabulistan and foster brother of his.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud married a woman named Kausari Jahan, and they had twin sons, Mohammad and Ma'sud, who succeeded him one after the other; his grandson by Mas'ud, Maw'dud Ghaznavi, also later became ruler of the empire. His sister, Sitr-e-Mu'alla, was married to Dawood bin Ataullah Alavi, also known as Ghazi Salar Sahu, whose son was Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: In 994 Mahmud joined his father Sabuktigin in the capture of Khorasan from the rebel Fa'iq in aid of the Samanid Emir, Nuh II. During this period, the Samanid Empire became highly unstable, with shifting internal political tides as various factions vied for control, the chief among them being Abu'l-Qasim Simjuri, Fa'iq, AbuAli, the General Bekhtuzin as well as the neighbouring Buyid dynasty and Kara-Khanid Khanate.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Sabuktigin died in 997, and was succeeded by his son Ismail as the ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty. The reason behind Sabuktigin's choice to appoint Ismail as heir over the more experienced and older Mahmud is uncertain. It may due to Ismail's mother being the daughter of Sabuktigin's old master, Alptigin. Mahmud shortly revolted, and with the help of his other brother, Abu'l-Muzaffar, the governor of Bust, he defeated Ismail the following year at the battle of Ghazni and gained control over the Ghaznavid kingdom. That year, in 998, Mahmud then traveled to Balkh and paid homage to Amir Abu'l-Harith Mansur b. Nur II. He then appointed Abu'l-Hasan Isfaraini as his vizier, and then set out west from Ghazni to take the Kandahar region followed by Bost (Lashkar Gah), which he transformed to a militarised city.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud initiated the first of numerous invasions of North India. On 28November 1001, his army fought and defeated the army of Raja Jayapala of the Kabul Shahis at the Battle of Peshawar. In 1002 Mahmud invaded Sistan and dethroned Khalaf ibn Ahmad, ending the Saffarid dynasty. From there he decided to focus on Hindustan to the southeast, particularly the highly fertile lands of the Punjab region.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud's first campaign to the south was against an Ismaili state first established at Multan in 965 by a da'i from the Fatimid Caliphate in a bid to curry political favor and recognition with the Abbasid Caliphate; he also engaged elsewhere with the Fatimids. At this point, Jayapala attempted to gain revenge for an earlier military defeat at the hands of Mahmud's father, who had controlled Ghazni in the late 980s and had cost Jayapala extensive territory. His son Anandapala succeeded him and continued the struggle to avenge his father's suicide. He assembled a powerful confederacy that suffered defeat as his elephant turned back from the battle at a crucial moment, turning the tide in Mahmud's favor once more at Lahore in 1008 and bringing Mahmud control of the Shahi dominions of Udbandpura.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Following the defeat of the Indian Confederacy, after deciding to retaliate for their combined resistance, Mahmud then set out on regular expeditions against them, leaving the conquered kingdoms in the hands of Hindu vassals and annexing only the Punjab region. He also vowed to raid and loot the wealthy region of northwestern India every year.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: In 1001 Mahmud of Ghazni first invaded modern day Pakistan and then parts of India. Mahmud defeated, captured, and later released the Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala, who had moved his capital to Peshawar (modern Pakistan). Jayapala killed himself and was succeeded by his son Anandapala. In 1005 Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Bhatia (probably Bhera), and in 1006 he invaded Multan, at which time Anandapala's army attacked him. The following year Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukhapala, ruler of Bathinda (who had become ruler by rebelling against the Shahi kingdom). In 1008–1009, Mahmud defeated the Hindu Shahis in the Battle of Chach. In 1013, during Mahmud's eighth expedition into eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Shahi kingdom (which was then under Trilochanapala, son of Anandapala) was overthrown.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: In 1014 Mahmud led an expedition to Thanesar. The next year he unsuccessfully attacked Kashmir. The ruler of Kashmir Sangramaraja had been an ally of the Hindu Shahis against the Ghaznavids, and Mahmud wanted retribution. Antagonized by Sangramaraja's having helped Trilochanapala, Mahmud invaded Kashmir. He advanced along the Tohi river valley, planning to enter Kashmir through the Tosamaidan pass. However, his advanced was checked by the strong fort of Loharkot. After having besieged the fort for a month, Mahmud abandoned the siege and retreated, losing many of his troops on his way and almost losing his own life as well. In 1021, Mahmud again attempted to invade Kashmir, but was again not able to advance beyond the Loharkot fort. After the two failed invasion attempts, he did not attempt to invade Kashmir again.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: In 1018 Mahmud attacked Mathura and defeated a coalition of rulers there while also killing a ruler called Chandrapala. The city of Mathura was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed". In particular, Al-utbi mentioned in his work "Tarikh-e-yamini", that Mahmud Ghaznavi destroyed a "great and magnificent temple" in Mathura. According to Firishta, writing an "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India, and was consecrated to Vāsudeva-Krishna. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, "all the idols" were burnt and destroyed during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down. The Art of Mathura fell into decline thereafter.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: In 1021 Mahmud supported the Kannauj king against Chandela Ganda, who was defeated. That same year Shahi Trilochanapala was killed at Rahib and his son Bhimapala succeeded him. Lahore (modern Pakistan) was annexed by Mahmud. Mahmud besieged Gwalior, in 1023, where he was given tribute. Mahmud attacked Somnath in 1025, and its ruler Bhima I fled. The next year, he captured Somnath and marched to Kachch against Bhima I. That same year Mahmud also attacked the Jats of Jud and defeated them. Mahmud's desecration of the Somnath temple in Gujarat in 1024 CE motivated Rajput king Bhoja to lead an army against him, however after Somnath raid, Mahmud Gazhnavi chose a more dangerous route via Sindh, to avoid facing the invading powerful armies of Bhoja, he passed through a desert, where the scarcity of food and water killed a large number of his soldiers and animals, Kitabh Zainu'l Akhbar (c. 1048 CE) by 'Abd al-Hayy Gardizi,


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Christoph Baumer notes that in 1026 CE, Jats "inflicted heavy losses" on the army of Mahmud while it was on its way from Somnath to Multan. Later in 1027 CE, he avenged the attack by the Jats, who had been resisting "forced Islamisation" for the past 300 years, by ravaging their fleet in the Indus river. Even though the Jats had a bigger fleet than Mahmud, he is said to have had around 20 archers on each of his 1400 boats, stocked with "special projectiles" carrying naphtha, which he used to burn the Jats' fleet.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: The Indian kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Kannauj, and Gwalior were all conquered and left in the hands of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to neglect making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks. Since Mahmud never kept a permanent presence in the northwestern subcontinent, he engaged in a policy of destroying Hindu temples and monuments to crush any move by the Hindus to attack the Empire; Nagarkot, Thanesar, Mathura, Kannauj, Kalinjar (1023) and Somnath all submitted or were raided.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: In 1025 Mahmud raided Gujarat, plundering the Somnath temple and breaking its "jyotirlinga". He took away booty of 2 million dinars. The conquest of Somnath was followed by a punitive invasion of Anhilwara. Some historians claim that there are records of pilgrimages to the temple in 1038 that do not mention damage to the temple. However, powerful legends with intricate detail had developed regarding Mahmud's raid in the Turko-Persian literature, which "electrified" the Muslim world according to scholar Meenakshi Jain.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Historians including Thapar, Eaton, and A. K. Majumdar have questioned the iconoclastic historiography of this incident. Thapar quoted Majumdar (1956):


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: The last four years of Mahmud's life were spent contending with the influx of Oghuz and Seljuk Turks from Central Asia and the Buyid dynasty. Initially, after being repulsed by Mahmud, the Seljuks retired to Khwarezm, but Togrül and Çagrı led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1028–1029). Later, they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successors across Khorasan and Balkh and even sacked Ghazni in 1037. In 1040, at the Battle of Dandanaqan, they decisively defeated Mahmud's son, Mas'udI, resulting in Mas'ud abandoning most of his western territories to the Seljuks.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Ghor and Muhammad ibn Suri are then captured by Mahmud, made prisoner along with Muhammad ibn Suri's son, and taken to Ghazni, where Muhammad ibn Suri dies.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Under the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni, the region broke away from the Samanid sphere of influence. While he acknowledged the Abbasids as caliph as a matter of form, he was also granted the title Sultan in recognition of his independence.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Following Mahmud's recognition by the Abbasid caliphate in 999, he pledged a "jihad" and a raid on India every year. In 1005 Mahmud conducted a series of campaigns during which the Ismailis of Multan were massacred.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Modern historians such as Romila Thapar and Richard Eaton have noted that his religious policies toward Hindus were in contrast to his general image in the modern era, in that his raiding was actually "undertaken for material reasons," and not religious fanaticism.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud used his plundered wealth to finance his armies which included mercenaries. The Indian soldiers, whom Romila Thapar presumed to be Hindus, were one of the components of the army with their commander called "sipahsalar-i-Hinduwan" and lived in their own quarter of Ghazna practicing their own religion. Indian soldiers under their commander Suvendhray remained loyal to Mahmud. They were also used against a Turkic rebel, with the command given to a Hindu named Tilak according to Baihaki.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Indian historian Mohammad Habib states that there was no imposition of Jizya on "non-Muslims" during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni nor any mention of "forced conversions":


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: A. V. Williams Jackson, Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages in Columbia University has written in his book "History of India", "Mahmud vowed that every year he would wage a Holy War against the infidels of Hindustan". During the seventh year of his reign, Mahmud mintage from Lahore styled him as "Mahmud "but-shikan"". (Mahmud the breaker of idols)


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: By the end of his reign, the Ghaznavid Empire extended from Ray in the west to Samarkand in the north-east, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. Although his raids carried his forces across the Indian subcontinent, only a portion of the Punjab and of Sindh in modern-day Pakistan came under his semi-permanent rule; Kashmir, the Doab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat remained under the control of the local Hindu dynasties.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: The booty brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g. Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give descriptions of the magnificence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. He transformed Ghazni, the first centre of Persian literature, into one of the leading cities of Central Asia, patronizing scholars, establishing colleges, laying out gardens, and building mosques, palaces, and caravansaries. Mahmud brought whole libraries from Ray and Isfahan to Ghazni. He even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud patronized the notable poet Ferdowsi, who after laboring 27 years, went to Ghazni and presented the Shahnameh to him. There are various stories in medieval texts describing the lack of interest shown by Mahmud to Ferdowsi and his life's work. According to historians, Mahmud had promised Ferdowsi a dinar for every distich written in the Shahnameh (which would have been 60,000 dinars), but later retracted his promise and presented him with dirhams (20,000 dirhams), at that time the equivalent of only 200dinars. His expedition across the Gangetic plains in 1017 inspired Al-Biruni to compose his "Tarikh Al-Hind" in order to understand the Indians and their beliefs. During Mahmud's rule, universities were founded to study various subjects such as mathematics, religion, the humanities, and medicine.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: On 30 April 1030 Sultan Mahmud died in Ghazni at the age of 58. Sultan Mahmud had contracted malaria during his last invasion. The medical complication from malaria had caused lethal tuberculosis.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: The Ghaznavid Empire was ruled by his successors for 157 years. The expanding Seljuk empire absorbed most of the Ghaznavid west. The Ghorids captured Ghazni in 1150, and Mu'izz al-Din (also known as Muhammad of Ghori) captured the last Ghaznavid stronghold at Lahore in 1187.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Despite Mahmud's remarkable abilities as a military commander, he failed to consolidate his empire's conquests with subtle authority. Mahmud also lacked the genius for administration and could not build long term enduring institutions in his state during his reign.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: The military of Pakistan has named its short-range ballistic missile the Ghaznavi Missile in honour of Mahmud of Ghazni. In addition, the Pakistan Military Academy, where cadets are trained to become officers of the Pakistan Army, also gives tribute to Mahmud of Ghazni by naming one of its twelve companies Ghaznavi Company.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: The 2005 Indian Tamil-language revenge film "Ghajini" by A. R. Murugadoss, about an amnesiac businessman, is named after the sultan (whose name is pronounced "Ghajini" in Tamil) in reference to his persistent efforts despite several failures. The film was later remade in Hindi in 2008 with the same name which was also adapted as a videogame titled "Ghajini – The Game".


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Sultan Mahmud thought of himself as "the Shadow of the God on Earth", an absolute power whose will is law. He paid great attention to details in almost everything, personally overseeing the work of every department of his diwan (administration).


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud appointed all his ministers himself without advising his wazir (chief advisor) or diwan, though occasionally he had to, as his religion dictated that Muslims should consult each other on all issues. Most of the time he was suspicious of his ministers, particularly of the wazir, and the following words are widely believed to be his: "wazirs are the enemies of kings..." Sultan Mahmud had numerous spies (called ) across his empire, supervised by the special department within his diwan.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

text: Mahmud was a patron of literature, especially poetry, and he was occasionally found in the company of talented poets either in his palace or in the royal garden. He was often generous to them, paying unstintingly for their works according to their talent and worth.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Spider-Man, also known as Spider-Man: The Animated Series (Spider-Man TAS for short), is an American superhero animated television series based on the Marvel Comics superhero of the same name. The series aired on the Fox Kids Network from November 19, 1994, to January 31, 1998, for a total of five seasons comprising sixty-five episodes, and ran reruns on Toon Disney's Jetix block and on Disney XD. The series was produced by Marvel Films Animation and animated by Tokyo Movie Shinsha.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: The series follows Peter Parker, a college student at Empire State University who struggles to balance his responsibilities as the hero Spider-Man with the problems of his personal life. Parker must navigate his romantic affections for love interests Felicia Hardy and Mary Jane Watson, maintain his friendship with Harry Osborn, focus on his academic performance as Dr. Curt Connors' student, and help to support his Aunt May after the death of his Uncle Ben by working as a freelance photographer for the Daily Bugle. The Bugle is owned by loudmouth publisher J. Jonah Jameson, who often uses Parker's pictures of his alter-ego to discredit and carry out a smear campaign against Spider-Man. Parker's peers at ESU include football star Flash Thompson, popular barista Liz Allan, scientific genius Debra Whitman, and research rival Michael Morbius.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: As Spider-Man, Parker faces various supervillains that threaten New York City, including criminal masterminds such as the Kingpin and the Hobgoblin, scientific mishaps like Doctor Octopus and the Green Goblin, and the alien symbiotes Venom and Carnage. Spider-Man is occasionally aided in his fight against crime by other superheroes, including the X-Men, the Punisher, Blade, Doctor Strange, Daredevil, Iron Man, Captain America, and the Fantastic Four.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: While Fox Kids' "" animated series was being produced by Saban, "Spider-Man" was produced by the newly formed Marvel Films Animation; it was the only series that in-house studio produced, but was animated by TMS-Kyokuchi Corporation, with their subsidiary Seoul Movie helping their parent company with the show's animation (uncredited). Koko Enterprises Ltd. and Anima Sam Won did additional animation for this series (though they were also uncredited). For many years, the series was the second longest-running Marvel show created, after "X-Men", as well as the longest-running series based on Spider-Man (until "Ultimate Spider-Man" surpassed its record in 2015).


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: The show was notorious for its censorship. In some episodes, realistic guns were depicted, but only in flashbacks, such as the showing of guns being fired during a flashback about the Punisher's origins where his wife was killed in the crossfire during a crime. Rules for the production of the show included no punching, throwing through glass, putting children in jeopardy or vampires as well as no usage of the word sinister. In November 2014 podcasts, Semper clarified that the show was not censored more than any other show at the time and that every time this has been brought up to him, he feels it has been blown out of proportion; Semper said that Marvel had no creative control on the TV series because Marvel at the time was in a tough time and close to bankruptcy. In addition, Semper stated that Stan Lee had influence on the show in the first thirteen episodes. The series is currently owned and distributed by The Walt Disney Company (Marvel's parent company), which acquired all Fox Kids-related properties from News Corporation and Saban International in 2001.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Producer John Semper was the primary credited writer on the show, receiving some sort of writing credit (usually a story, co-story or co-writing credit) on 60 of the 65 produced episodes. He wrote 8 episodes solo; many of his story credits were actually adaptations of previously published comic book stories.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Mark Hoffmeier was a frequent contributor, receiving credits on 16 episodes, while Stan Berkowitz was credited on 9.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Many of the other series writers had previously worked on "", including Brynne Stephens, Marv Wolfman, Gerry Conway, Marty Isenberg and Robert N. Skir, Len Wein, and Sean Catherine Derek.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Semper watched previous "Spider-Man" adaptations for inspiration, but he was not impressed by most of them. The only previous adaptation that impressed him was the live-action "Japanese Spider-Man" (1978), which he thought was a "great" show and "goofy fun." Japanese Spider-Man's giant mecha robot influenced the final multi-part parallel universe arc where Spider-Man's wealthy alter-ego has a robot.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: To reproduce New York City's appearance, background illustrators undertook a large amount of visual research by using photo archives from above New York, particularly rooftops. Maps were consulted for references and buildings were faithfully reproduced.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: It has been reported that the animation cels depicting Manhattan's Pan Am Building (recently renamed the MetLife Building) were scrapped after being complete because the California-based art staff learned the Midtown landmark had been given a new sign more than a year earlier.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: The animation staff were directed to populate the city with cars and crowds on the street level. Semper believed that was one of the limitations of earlier Spider-Man animated projects.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Originally, Marvel Films planned to make the backgrounds completely CGI while Spider-Man swung around New York, yet due to budget constraints were forced to use traditional cel based animation while occasionally using CGI backgrounds by video game developer Kronos Digital Entertainment. As well, reuse of animation became more common as the series progressed, which also included reuse of animation involving a character speaking (these scenes were sometimes slowed down in order to better match the actor's voice to the animation).


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Marvel outsourced the show's music to distributors Saban Entertainment, who were also responsible for the music in the concurrent "X-Men" cartoon airing on Fox Kids. The theme for the series was performed by Joe Perry of the hard rock band Aerosmith, although the song was written by Shuki Levy. Levy, Haim Saban and Udi Harpaz are credited as composers of the orchestral background score. The music was conducted with a live orchestra in Israel. It was recorded in Israel due to it being inexpensive to do it there than in the U.S.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: "Spider-Man" was both highly acclaimed and commercially successful, receiving wide critical praise for the faithfulness to the source material, the portrayal of many different classic storylines from the comics, the deep focus on the titular hero's personal life, motivations and struggles and the layered character work, along with the presentation of Spider-Man's rogues gallery. It also garnered exceptionally high ratings for a Saturday morning cartoon and shortly after the premiere became the highest rated and most popular children's television show in America.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Producer John Semper Jr. clarified on his Facebook page that the show's cancellation was not due to disagreements between executive producer Avi Arad and network head Margaret Loesch but rather funding issues:


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: "Fox contracted for 65 episodes and that's exactly what we did. Fox hated Avi almost from day one, so nothing much changed there. It didn't help, but it wasn't the reason we were not picked up for more episodes. New World, who actually produced the show, had gone out of business, so there was nobody to pay for whatever costs Fox wouldn't cover. And most shows rarely even made it to 65 episodes, so the feeling was we were done and that was enough. Spider-Man wasn't 'canceled'. It ran its full course."


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Writer / Producer John Semper Jr. was nominated for an Annie Award in 1995 for Best Individual Achievement for Writing in the Field of Animation for the episode "Day of the Chameleon". "Spider-Man" was also nominated for one 1996 Image Award for Outstanding Animated/Live-Action/Dramatic Youth or Children's Series/Special.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Electronic versions of classic Spider-Man comics were released by Marvel that included narration by Christopher Daniel Barnes and featured animation and theme music from this series. Spider-Man novels inspired by selected episodes were also released. A wide variety of themed merchandise (lunch boxes, cereals, clothing, etc.) was produced. McDonald's produced a themed line of Happy Meal toys for the show. However, this paled in comparison to the extensive official toy line that ran over eight series, and included a staggering amount of play sets and vehicles and actually lasted longer than the television series itself.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Despite the fact that the show ended in 1998, the success of the live-action "Spider-Man" films have sparked more interest in new fans, allowing the series to air in reruns due to its new owners: The Walt Disney Company.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: This show was temporarily eliminated from Disney+ on April 26, 2021, but soon came back to service on the 2nd of May that same year.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: During the series' run, some episodes were released on VHS. These were from 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: In the late 1990s, another selection of VHS compilations were released by Marvel Films/New World Entertainment (these tapes were distributed in Canada by Telegenic Entertainment). These releases featured episodes edited into 70–80, 90-100 minute movies based on the particular story arc.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: To date, the only VHS and DVD releases of the series in the U.S. have been several volume sets from Buena Vista Home Entertainment that feature 4-5 episodes each.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: In the UK, Sweden, and Germany, "Clear Vision Ltd." has released all five seasons on DVD as of October 19, 2009.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Bootleg DVDs of the show have become popular among fans due to a lack of official DVD releases. The bootlegs feature all of the episodes but some of them have low video quality and watermarks. This is likely to change as the entire series becomes available in the UK. The series is currently the 9th most wanted unreleased DVD at TVShowsOnDVD.com.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Similarly to "X-Men: The Animated Series", the series inspired a number of comic books. The first one was "Spider-Man Adventures", published for 15 issues between December 1994 and February 1996, which loosely adapted the plot from the series’ episodes. It was followed by "Adventures of Spider-Man", a 12-issues series with original stories, published from April 1996 to March 1997.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: Additionally, Marvel published a second series inspired by the animated series titled "Spider-Man Magazine", that went on for 19 issues from March 1994 to March 1997. Two special issues were also published in 1995.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: The last two episodes of "Spider-Man: The Animated Series", about multiple Spider-Man characters crossing dimensions to different universes, was the first Spider-Man story involving parallel universes. This inspired the Spider-Verse, which later appeared in various Spider-Man comics, cartoons and films in the early 21st century, with most notably the animated "Spider-Verse" feature films.


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: On November 1, 2014 at the Comikaze Expo, where the show's 20th anniversary was celebrated, John Semper Jr. revealed that much of the cast and crew of "Spider-Man", himself included, had agreed to reunite for a new crowdfunded series entitled "War of the Rocket Men". In addition, in late 2014, Semper Jr started a website (cartoonspiderman.com) that features behind-the-scenes content, podcasts about the show, a link to the Facebook page that Semper regularly posts on and more. In April 2016, Semper's YouTube account posted a video in which he revealed that he had written a short story following up on the series, detailing Peter finding Mary Jane with Madame Web's help in a Victorian Age setting, referring to the story as "an autobiographical fan-fiction" in which he reminisced on what it was like writing the last episodes of the series, as well as detailing how Peter and Mary Jane would have been reunited, adding one could think of it as "the lost episode of "Spider-Man: The Animated Series"". Semper explained that he would be releasing this as a perk on a crowd-funding campaign for War of the Rocket Men. The video also featured the returning voices of Christopher Daniel Barnes and Sara Ballantine as Spider-Man/Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson respectively in an audio promo prologue entitled "Peter Finds Mary Jane".


title: Spider-Man (1994 TV series)

text: After "X-Men '97" was announced as a revival of the "X-Men" TV series by Marvel Studios for the streaming service Disney+, it marked a possibility that "Spider-Man" could be revived for Disney+ as well. In July 2022, Semper addressed this, stating that he would happily do it if he had the same creative freedom he had on the series:


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: In Greek mythology, the Rod of Asclepius (⚕; , , sometimes also spelled Asklepios), also known as the Staff of Aesculapius and as the asklepian, is a serpent-entwined rod wielded by the Greek god Asclepius, a deity associated with healing and medicine. Theories have been proposed about the Greek origin of the symbol and its implications. In modern times, it is the predominant symbol for medicine and health care, although, because of a misunderstanding concerning ⚕ and ☤, the Caduceus (the symbol of commerce) is sometimes seen in this context, although both rods, from which these symbols represent, were each given to Asclepius and to Hermes by Apollo.


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: The Rod of Asclepius takes its name from the Greek god Asclepius, a deity associated with healing and medicinal arts in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Asclepius' attributes, the snake and the staff, sometimes depicted separately in antiquity, are combined in this symbol.


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: The most famous temple of Asclepius was at Epidaurus in north-eastern Peloponnese. Another famous healing temple (or asclepeion) was located on the island of Kos, where Hippocrates, the legendary "father of medicine", may have begun his career. Other asclepieia were situated in Trikala, Gortys (Arcadia), and Pergamum in Asia.


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: In honor of Asclepius, a particular type of non-venomous snake was often used in healing rituals, and these snakes – the Aesculapian snakes – crawled around freely on the floor in dormitories where the sick and injured slept. These snakes were introduced at the founding of each new temple of Asclepius throughout the classical world. From about 300 BCE onwards, the cult of Asclepius grew very popular and pilgrims flocked to his healing temples (Asclepieia) to be cured of their ills. Ritual purification would be followed by offerings or sacrifices to the god (according to means), and the supplicant would then spend the night in the holiest part of the sanctuary – the abaton (or adyton). Any dreams or visions would be reported to a priest who would prescribe the appropriate therapy by a process of interpretation. Some healing temples also used sacred dogs to lick the wounds of sick petitioners.


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: The original Hippocratic Oath began with the invocation "I swear by Apollo the Healer and by Asclepius and by Hygieia and Panacea and by all the gods ..."


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: The serpent and the staff appear to have been separate symbols that were combined at some point in the development of the Asclepian cult. The significance of the serpent has been interpreted in many ways; sometimes the shedding of skin and renewal is emphasized as symbolizing rejuvenation, while other assessments center on the serpent as a symbol that unites and expresses the dual nature of the work of the Apothecary Physician, who deals with life and death, sickness and health. The ambiguity of the serpent as a symbol, and the contradictions it is thought to represent, reflect the ambiguity of the use of drugs, which can help or harm, as reflected in the meaning of the term "pharmakon", which meant "drug", "medicine", and "poison" in ancient Greek. However the word may become less ambiguous when "medicine" is understood as something that heals the one taking it because it poisons that which afflicts it, meaning medicine is designed to kill or drive away something and any healing happens as a result of that thing being gone, not as a direct effect of "medicine". Products deriving from the bodies of snakes were known to have medicinal properties in ancient times, and in ancient Greece, at least some were aware that snake venom that might be fatal if it entered the bloodstream could often be imbibed. Snake venom appears to have been 'prescribed' in some cases as a form of therapy.


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: The staff has also been variously interpreted. One view is that it, like the serpent, "conveyed notions of resurrection and healing", while another (not necessarily incompatible) is that the staff was a walking stick associated with itinerant physicians. Cornutus, a Greek philosopher probably active in the first century CE, in the "Theologiae Graecae Compendium" (Ch. 33) offers a view of the significance of both snake and staff:


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: In any case, the two symbols certainly merged in antiquity as representations of the snake coiled about the staff are common. It has been claimed that the snake wrapped around the staff was a species of rat snake, "Elaphe longissima", the Aesculapian snake.


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: Some commentators have interpreted the symbol as a direct representation of traditional treatment of dracunculiasis, the Guinea worm disease. The worm emerges from painful ulcerous blisters. The blisters burn, causing the patient to immerse the affected area in water to cool and soothe it. The worm senses the temperature change and discharges its larvae into the water. The traditional treatment is to slowly pull the worm out of the wound over a period of hours to weeks and wind it around a stick. The modern treatment may replace the stick with a piece of sterile gauze, but is otherwise largely identical.


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: Biblical scholars look to the Book of Numbers, in which the Nehushtan ( or ) was a brass serpent on a pole that God told Moses to erect, saying that anyone bitten [by a snake] would live if they looked at it. This Biblical account is the earliest known record of the pole/serpent combination (though the exact configuration is not known).


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: A number of organizations and services use the rod of Asclepius as their logo, or part of their logo. These include:


title: Rod of Asclepius

text: In Russia, the emblem of Main Directorate for Drugs Control features a variation with a sword and a snake on the shield.


title: Mammon

text: Mammon in the New Testament of the Bible is commonly thought to mean money, material wealth, or any entity that promises wealth, and is associated with the greedy pursuit of gain. The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke both quote Jesus using the word in a phrase often rendered in English as "You cannot serve both God and mammon."


title: Mammon

text: The word "Mammon" comes into English from post-classical Latin "mammona" "wealth", used most importantly in the Vulgate Bible (along with Tertullian's "mammonas" and pseudo-Jerome's "mammon"). This was in turn borrowed from Hellenistic Greek μαμωνᾶς, which appears in the New Testament, borrowed from Aramaic מָמוֹנָא "māmōnā", an emphatic form of the word "māmōn" "wealth, profit", perhaps specifically from the Syriac dialect. The spelling μαμμωνᾷ refers to "a Syrian deity, god of riches; Hence riches, wealth"; μαμωνᾶς is transliterated from Aramaic [ממון] and also means "wealth". However, it is not clear what the earlier history of the Aramaic form is. The word may have been present throughout the Canaanite languages: the word is unknown in Old Testament Hebrew, but has been found in the Qumran documents; post-biblical Hebrew attests to "māmōn"; and, according to St Augustine of Hippo, Punic included the word "mammon" "profit". It has been suggested that the Aramaic word "māmōn" was a loanword from Mishnaic Hebrew ממון (mamôn) meaning money, wealth, or possessions; although it may also have meant "that in which one trusts".


title: Mammon

text: According to the Textus Receptus of the New Testament, the Greek word translated "Mammon" is spelt μαμμωνᾷ in the Sermon on the Mount at Matthew 6:24, and μαμωνᾶ (from μαμωνᾶς) in the Parable of the Unjust Steward at Luke 16:9,11,13. The 27th edition of the popular Critical Text of the New Testament has μαμωνᾶ in all four places with no indication of any textual variances, thereby ignoring the Textus Receptus reading at Matthew 6:24. The Liddell and Scott Lexicon has a listing for each spelling, indicating that each occurs only in the New Testament, nowhere else in ancient and Hellenistic Greek literature. The spelling μαμμωνᾷ refers to "a Syrian deity, god of riches; Hence riches, wealth"; μαμωνᾶς is transliterated from Aramaic [ממון] and also means "wealth". The Authorised Version uses "Mammon" for both Greek spellings; John Wycliffe uses "richessis".


title: Mammon

text: The Revised Standard Version of the Bible explains it as "a Semitic word for money or riches". The International Children's Bible (ICB) uses the wording "You cannot serve God and money at the same time".


title: Mammon

text: Christians began to use "mammon" as a pejorative, a term that was used to describe gluttony, excessive materialism, greed, and unjust worldly gain.


title: Mammon

text: Early mentions of Mammon allude to the Gospels, e.g., "Didascalia", ""De solo Mammona cogitant, quorum Deus est sacculus"" (lit. "They think only of Mammon, whose God is the purse"); and Saint Augustine, ""Lucrum Punice Mammon dicitur"" (lit. ""Riches is called Mammon by the Phoenicians"" (Sermon on the Mount, ii).


title: Mammon

text: In the 4th century Cyprian and Jerome relate Mammon to greed and greed as an evil master that enslaves, and John Chrysostom even personifies Mammon as greed.


title: Mammon

text: During the Middle Ages, Mammon was commonly personified as the demon of wealth and greed. Thus Peter Lombard (II, dist. 6) says, "Riches are called by the name of a devil, namely Mammon, for Mammon is the name of a devil, by which name riches are called according to the Syrian tongue." Piers Plowman also regards Mammon as a deity. Nicholas de Lyra, commenting on the passage in Luke, says: ""Mammon est nomen daemonis"" (Mammon is the name of a demon).


title: Mammon

text: Albert Barnes in his "Notes on the New Testament" states that Mammon was a Syriac word for an idol worshipped as the god of riches, similar to Plutus among the Greeks, but he cited no authority for the statement.


title: Mammon

text: No trace, however, of any Syriac god of such a name exists, and the common literary identification of the name with a god of covetousness or avarice likely stems from Spenser's "The Faerie Queene", where Mammon oversees a cave of worldly wealth. Milton's "Paradise Lost" describes a fallen angel who values earthly treasure over all other things. Later occultist writings such as Jacques Collin de Plancy's "Dictionnaire Infernal" describe Mammon as Hell's ambassador to England. For Thomas Carlyle in "Past and Present" (1843), the "Gospel of Mammonism" became simply a metaphoric personification for the materialist spirit of the 19th century.


title: Mammon

text: Mammon is somewhat similar to the Greek god Plutus, and the Roman Dis Pater, in his description, and it is likely that he was at some point based on them; especially since Plutus appears in "The Divine Comedy" as a wolf-like demon of wealth, wolves having been associated with greed in the Middle Ages. Thomas Aquinas metaphorically described the sin of Avarice as "Mammon being carried up from Hell by a wolf, coming to inflame the human heart with Greed".


title: Mammon

text: Under the influence of the Social Gospel movement American populists, progressives and "muck-rakers" during the generation of 1880–1925 used "Mammon" with specific reference to the consolidated wealth and power of the banking and corporate institutions headquartered on Wall Street and their predatory activities nationwide.


title: Tilde

text: The tilde () or , is a grapheme with several uses. The name of the character came into English from Spanish, which in turn came from the Latin "titulus", meaning "title" or "superscription". Its primary use is as a diacritic (accent) in combination with a base letter; but for historical reasons, it is also used in standalone form within a variety of contexts.


title: Tilde

text: The tilde was originally written over an omitted letter or several letters as a scribal abbreviation, or "mark of suspension" and "mark of contraction", shown as a straight line when used with capitals. Thus, the commonly used words "Anno Domini" were frequently abbreviated to "A Dñi", with an elevated terminal with a suspension mark placed over the "n". Such a mark could denote the omission of one letter or several letters. This saved on the expense of the scribe's labor and the cost of vellum and ink. Medieval European charters written in Latin are largely made up of such abbreviated words with suspension marks and other abbreviations; only uncommon words were given in full.


title: Tilde

text: The text of the Domesday Book of 1086, relating for example, to the manor of Molland in Devon (see adjacent picture), is highly abbreviated as indicated by numerous tildes.


title: Tilde

text: On typewriters designed for languages that routinely use diacritics (accent marks), there are two possible solutions. Keys can be dedicated to precomposed characters or alternatively a dead key mechanism can be provided. With the latter, a mark is made when a dead key is typed, but unlike normal keys, the paper carriage does not move on and thus the next letter to be typed is printed under that accent. Typewriters for Spanish typically have a dedicated key for Ñ/ñ but, as Portuguese uses Ã/ã and Õ/õ, a single dead-key (rather than take two keys to dedicate) is the most practical solution.


title: Tilde

text: The tilde symbol did not exist independently as a movable type or hot-lead printing character since the type cases for Spanish or Portuguese would include sorts for the accented forms.


title: Tilde

text: The first ASCII standard (X3.64-1963) did not have a tilde. Like Portuguese and Spanish, the French, German and Scandinavian languages also needed symbols in excess of the basic 26 needed for English. The ASA worked with and through the CCITT to internationalize the code-set, to meet the basic needs of at least the Western European languages.


title: Tilde

text: Thus ISO646 was born (and the ASCII standard updated to X3.64-1967), providing the tilde and other symbols as optional characters.


title: Tilde

text: ISO646 and ASCII incorporated many of the overprinting lower-case diacritics from typewriters, including tilde. Overprinting was intended to work by putting a backspace code between the codes for letter and diacritic. However even at that time, mechanisms that could do this or any other overprinting were not widely available, did not work for capital letters, and were impossible on video displays, with the result that this concept failed to gain significant acceptance. Consequently, many of these free-standing diacritics (and the underscore) were quickly reused by software as additional syntax, basically becoming new types of syntactic symbols that a programming language could use. As this usage became predominant, type design gradually evolved so these diacritic characters became larger and more vertically centered, making them useless as overprinted diacritics but much easier to read as free-standing characters that had come to be used for entirely different and novel purposes. Most modern fonts align the plain ASCII "spacing" (free-standing) tilde at the same level as dashes, or only slightly higher.


title: Tilde

text: A similar shaped mark () is known in typography and lexicography as a swung dash: these are used in dictionaries to indicate the omission of the entry word.


title: Tilde

text: As indicated by the etymological origin of the word "tilde" in English, this symbol has been closely associated with the Spanish language. The connection stems from the use of the tilde above the letter to form the (different) letter in Spanish, a feature shared by only a few other languages, most of which are historically connected to Spanish. This peculiarity can help non-native speakers quickly identify a text as being written in Spanish with little chance of error. In addition, most native speakers, although not all, use the word to refer to their language. Particularly during the 1990s, Spanish-speaking intellectuals and news outlets demonstrated support for the language and the culture by defending this letter against globalisation and computerisation trends that threatened to remove it from keyboards and other standardised products and codes. The Instituto Cervantes, founded by Spain's government to promote the Spanish language internationally, chose as its logo a highly stylised with a large tilde. The 24-hour news channel CNN in the US later adopted a similar strategy on its existing logo for the launch of its Spanish-language version. And similarly to the National Basketball Association (NBA), the Spain men's national basketball team is nicknamed "ÑBA".


title: Tilde

text: In Spanish itself the word is used more generally for diacritics, including the stress-marking acute accent. The diacritic is more commonly called or , and is not considered an accent mark in Spanish, but rather simply a part of the letter (much like the dot over makes an character that is familiar to readers of English).


title: Tilde

text: The English language does not use the tilde as a diacritic, though it is used in some loanwords. The standalone form of the symbol is used more widely. Informally, it means "approximately", "about", or "around", such as "~30 minutes before", meaning ""approximately" 30 minutes before". It may also mean "similar to", including "of the same order of magnitude as", such as "" meaning that and are of the same order of magnitude. Another approximation symbol is the double tilde , meaning "approximately/almost equal to". The tilde is also used to indicate congruence of shapes by placing it over an symbol, thus .


title: Tilde

text: In more recent digital usage, tildes on either side of a word or phrase have sometimes come to convey a particular tone that "let[s] the enclosed words perform both sincerity and irony", which can pre-emptively defuse a negative reaction. For example, BuzzFeed journalist Joseph Bernstein interprets the tildes in the following tweet:


title: Tilde

text: as a way of making it clear that both the author and reader are aware that the enclosed phrase – "spirit of the season" – "is cliche and we know this quality is beneath our author, and we don't want you to think our author is a cliche person generally".


title: Tilde

text: In some languages, the tilde is a diacritic mark placed over a letter to indicate a change in its pronunciation:


title: Tilde

text: The tilde was firstly used in the polytonic orthography of Ancient Greek, as a variant of the circumflex, representing a rise in pitch followed by a return to standard pitch.


title: Tilde

text: Later, it was used to make abbreviations in medieval Latin documents. When an or followed a vowel, it was often omitted, and a tilde (physically, a small ) was placed over the preceding vowel to indicate the missing letter; this is the origin of the use of tilde to indicate nasalization (compare the development of the umlaut as an abbreviation of .) The practice of using the tilde over a vowel to indicate omission of an or continued in printed books in French as a means of reducing text length until the 17th century. It was also used in Portuguese and Spanish.


title: Tilde

text: The tilde was also used occasionally to make other abbreviations, such as over the letter , making , to signify the word "que" ("that").


title: Tilde

text: It is also as a small that the tilde originated when written above other letters, marking a Latin which had been elided in old Galician-Portuguese. In modern Portuguese it indicates nasalization of the base vowel: "hand", from Lat. "manu-"; "reasons", from Lat. . This usage has been adopted in the orthographies of several native languages of South America, such as Guarani and Nheengatu, as well as in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and many other phonetic alphabets. For example, is the IPA transcription of the pronunciation of the French place-name "Lyon".


title: Tilde

text: In Breton, the symbol after a vowel means that the letter serves only to give the vowel a nasalised pronunciation, without being itself pronounced, as it normally is. For example, gives the pronunciation whereas gives .


title: Tilde

text: The tilded (, ) developed from the digraph in Spanish. In this language, is considered a separate letter called "eñe" (), rather than a letter-diacritic combination; it is placed in Spanish dictionaries between the letters and . In Spanish, the word "tilde" actually refers to diacritics in general, e.g. the acute accent in "José", while the diacritic in is called "virgulilla" (). Current languages in which the tilded () is used for the palatal nasal consonant include


title: Tilde

text: In Vietnamese, a tilde over a vowel represents a creaky rising tone ("ngã"). Letters with the tilde are not considered separate letters of the Vietnamese alphabet.


title: Tilde

text: In phonetics, a tilde is used as a diacritic that is placed above a letter, below it or superimposed onto the middle of it:


title: Tilde

text: In Estonian, the symbol stands for the close-mid back unrounded vowel, and it is considered an independent letter.


title: Tilde

text: In some languages (though not generally in English), a tilde-like wavy dash may be used as punctuation (instead of an unspaced hyphen, en dash or em dash) between two numbers, to indicate a range rather than subtraction or a hyphenated number (such as a part number or model number). For example, "12~15" means "12 to 15", "~3" means "up to three", and "100~" means "100 and greater". East Asian languages almost always use this convention, but it is often done for clarity in some other languages as well. Chinese uses the wavy dash and full-width em dash interchangeably for this purpose. In English, the tilde is often used to express ranges and model numbers in electronics, but rarely in formal grammar or in type-set documents, as a wavy dash preceding a number sometimes represents an approximation (see below).