title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: The Liebeck case trial took place from August 8 to 17, 1994, before New Mexico District Court Judge Robert H. Scott. During the case, Liebeck's attorneys discovered that McDonald's required franchisees to hold coffee at . Liebeck's attorneys argued that coffee should never be served hotter than , and that a number of other establishments served coffee at a substantially lower temperature than McDonald's. The attorneys presented evidence that coffee they had tested all over the city was served at a temperature at least 20 °F (11 °C) lower than McDonald's coffee. They also presented the jury with expert testimony that coffee may produce third-degree burns (where skin grafting is necessary) in about three seconds and coffee may produce such burns in about twelve to fifteen seconds. Lowering the temperature to would increase the time for the coffee to produce such a burn to 20 seconds. Liebeck's attorneys argued that these extra seconds could provide adequate time to remove the coffee from exposed skin, thereby preventing many burns.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: McDonald's claimed that the reason for serving such hot coffee in its drive-through windows was that those who purchased the coffee typically were commuters who wanted to drive a distance with the coffee; the high initial temperature would keep the coffee hot during the trip. However, it came to light that McDonald's had carried out research finding that customers intend to consume the coffee immediately while driving.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Other documents obtained from McDonald's showed that from 1982 to 1992 the company had received more than 700 reports of people burned by McDonald's coffee to varying degrees of severity, and had settled claims arising from scalding injuries for more than $500,000. McDonald's quality control manager, Christopher Appleton, testified that this number of injuries was insufficient to cause the company to evaluate its practices. He argued that all foods hotter than constituted a burn hazard, and that restaurants had more pressing dangers to worry about. The plaintiffs argued that Appleton conceded that McDonald's coffee would burn the mouth and throat if consumed when served.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: A twelve-person jury reached its verdict on August 18, 1994. Applying the principles of comparative negligence, the jury found that McDonald's was 80 percent responsible for the incident and Liebeck was 20 percent at fault. Though there was a warning on the coffee cup, the jury decided that the warning was neither large enough nor sufficient. They awarded Liebeck $200,000 in compensatory damages, which was reduced by 20 percent to $160,000. In addition, they awarded her $2.7 million in punitive damages. According to "The New York Times", the jurors arrived at this figure from Morgan's suggestion to penalize McDonald's for two days of coffee revenues, about $1.35 million per day.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: The judge reduced punitive damages to $480,000, three times the compensatory amount, for a total of $640,000. The decision was appealed by both McDonald's and Liebeck in December 1994, but the parties settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. The "Albuquerque Journal" ran the first story of the verdict, followed by the Associated Press wire, which was picked up by newspapers around the world.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: The Liebeck case is cited by some as an example of frivolous litigation. ABC News called the case "the poster child of excessive lawsuits". Legal commentator Jonathan Turley called it "a meaningful and worthy lawsuit". McDonald's asserts that the outcome of the case was a fluke, and attributed the loss to poor communications and strategy by an unfamiliar insurer representing a franchise. Liebeck's attorney, Reed Morgan, and the Association of Trial Lawyers of America defended the result in "Liebeck" by claiming that McDonald's reduced the temperature of its coffee after the suit, although it is not clear whether McDonald's in fact had done so.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Detractors have argued that McDonald's refusal to offer more than an $800 settlement for the $10,500 in medical bills indicated that the suit was meritless and highlighted the fact that Liebeck spilled the coffee on herself rather than any wrongdoing on the company's part. They state that the vast majority of judges who consider similar cases dismiss them before they get to a jury.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Liebeck died on August 5, 2004, at age 91. According to her daughter, "the burns and court proceedings (had taken) their toll" and in the years following the settlement Liebeck had "no quality of life". She said the settlement had paid for a live-in nurse.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: In "McMahon v. Bunn Matic Corporation" (1998), Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Frank Easterbrook wrote a unanimous opinion affirming dismissal of a similar lawsuit against coffeemaker manufacturer Bunn-O-Matic, finding that hot coffee was not "unreasonably dangerous".


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: In "Bogle v. McDonald's Restaurants Ltd." (2002), a similar lawsuit in the United Kingdom failed when the court rejected the claim that McDonald's could have avoided injury by serving coffee at a lower temperature.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Since "Liebeck", major vendors of coffee, including Chick-Fil-A, Starbucks, Dunkin' Donuts, Wendy's, Burger King, hospitals, and McDonald's have been defendants in similar lawsuits over coffee-related burns. There have also been lawsuits over injuries from other hot liquids.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Two years prior to "Liebeck", a similar lawsuit was settled during the trial for $15 million due to injuries from a sink in a rented apartment.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Since "Liebeck", McDonald's has not reduced the service temperature of its coffee. McDonald's current policy is to serve coffee at , relying on more sternly worded warnings on cups made of rigid foam to avoid future liability, though it continues to face lawsuits over hot coffee. The Specialty Coffee Association of America supports improved packaging methods rather than lowering the temperature at which coffee is served. The association has successfully aided the defense of subsequent coffee burn cases. Similarly, as of 2004, Starbucks sells coffee at , and the executive director of the Specialty Coffee Association of America reported that the standard serving temperature is .


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: On June 27, 2011, HBO premiered a documentary about tort reform problems titled "Hot Coffee". A large portion of the film covered Liebeck's lawsuit. This included news clips, comments from celebrities and politicians about the case, as well as myths and misconceptions, including how many people thought she was driving when the incident occurred and thought that she suffered only minor superficial burns.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: On October 21, 2013, "The New York Times" published a Retro Report video about the media reaction and an accompanying article about the changes in coffee drinking over 20 years. "The New York Times" noted how the details of Liebeck's story lost length and context as it was reported worldwide. McDonald's rather than Liebeck was portrayed as the victim.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: An October 25 follow-up article noted that the video had more than one million views and had sparked vigorous debate in the online comments.


title: Terry Fox

text: Terrance Stanley Fox (July 28, 1958 June 28, 1981) was a Canadian athlete, humanitarian, and cancer research activist. In 1980, with one leg having been amputated due to cancer, he embarked on an east-to-west cross-Canada run to raise money and awareness for cancer research. Although the spread of his cancer eventually forced him to end his quest after 143 days and , and ultimately cost him his life, his efforts resulted in a lasting, worldwide legacy. The annual Terry Fox Run, first held in 1981, has grown to involve millions of participants in over 60 countries and is now the world's largest one-day fundraiser for cancer research; over C$850 million has been raised in his name as of September 2022.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox was a distance runner and basketball player for his Port Coquitlam high school, now named after him, and Simon Fraser University. His right leg was amputated in 1977 after he was diagnosed with osteosarcoma, though he continued to run using an artificial leg. He also played wheelchair basketball in Vancouver, winning three national championships.


title: Terry Fox

text: In 1980, he began the Marathon of Hope, a cross-country run to raise money for cancer research. He hoped to raise one dollar from each of Canada's 24 million people. He began with little fanfare from St John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, in April and ran the equivalent of a full marathon every day. Fox had become a national star by the time he reached Ontario; he made numerous public appearances with businessmen, athletes, and politicians in his efforts to raise money. He was forced to end his run outside Thunder Bay when the cancer spread to his lungs. His hopes of overcoming the disease and completing his run ended when he died nine months later.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox was the youngest person named a Companion of the Order of Canada and won the 1980 Lou Marsh Award as the nation's top sportsman. He was named Canada's Newsmaker of the Year in both 1980 and 1981 by The Canadian Press. Considered a national hero, he has had many buildings, statues, roads, and parks named in his honour across the country.


title: Terry Fox

text: Terry Fox was born on July 28, 1958, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, to Rolland and Betty Fox. Rolland was a switchman for the Canadian National Railway. Fox had an elder brother, Fred, a younger brother, Darrell, and a younger sister, Judith. Fox's maternal grandmother is Métis and Fox's younger brother Darrell has official Métis status.


title: Terry Fox

text: His family moved to Surrey, British Columbia, in 1966, then settled in Port Coquitlam in 1968. His parents were dedicated to their family, and his mother was especially protective of her children; it was through her that Fox developed his stubborn dedication to whatever task he committed to do. His father recalled that Fox was extremely competitive, noting that he hated to lose so much that he would continue at any activity until he succeeded. Fox attempted to join his school's basketball team, though struggled because of his height. His coach suggested that Fox try cross-country running, which Fox did as he wanted to impress his coach. Fox continued to improve on his basketball skills, and in grade 12 he won his high school's athlete of the year award. Fox was unsure whether he wanted to go to university, but Fox's mother convinced him to enrol at Simon Fraser University. He studied kinesiology with the intention of becoming a physical education teacher. He was also a member of the junior varsity basketball team.


title: Terry Fox

text: On November 12, 1976, Fox was driving to the family home in Port Coquitlam when he was distracted by nearby bridge construction and crashed into the back of a pickup truck. Fox injured his right knee in the crash and felt pain in December, but chose to ignore it until the end of basketball season. By March 1977, the pain had intensified and he went to a hospital, where he was diagnosed with osteosarcoma, a form of cancer that often starts near the knees. Fox believed his car accident weakened his knee and left it vulnerable to the disease, though his doctors argued there was no connection. He was told that his leg had to be amputated, he would require chemotherapy treatment, and that recent medical advances meant he had a 50-percent chance of survival. Fox learned that two years before, the figure would have been only 15 percent; the improvement in survival rates impressed on him the value of cancer research. With the help of an artificial leg, Fox was walking three weeks after the amputation. Doctors were impressed with Fox's positive outlook, stating it contributed to his rapid recovery. Fox endured sixteen months of chemotherapy and found the time he spent in the British Columbia Cancer Control Agency facility difficult as he watched fellow cancer patients suffer and die from the disease.


title: Terry Fox

text: In the summer of 1977, Rick Hansen, working with the Canadian Wheelchair Sports Association, invited Fox to try out for his wheelchair basketball team. Although he was undergoing chemotherapy treatments at the time, Fox's energy impressed Hansen. Less than two months after learning how to play the sport, Fox was named a member of the team for the national championship in Edmonton. He won three national titles with the team, and was named an all-star by the North American Wheelchair Basketball Association in 1980.


title: Terry Fox

text: The night before his cancer surgery, Fox had been given an article about Dick Traum, the first amputee to complete the New York City Marathon. The article inspired him; he embarked on a 14-month training program, telling his family he planned to compete in a marathon himself. In private, he devised a more extensive plan. His hospital experiences had made Fox angry at how little money was dedicated to cancer research. He intended to run the length of Canada in the hope of increasing cancer awareness, a goal he initially divulged only to his friend Douglas Alward.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox ran with an unusual gait, as he was required to hop-step on his good leg due to the extra time the springs in his artificial leg required to reset after each step. He found the training painful as the additional pressure he had to place on both his good leg and his stump led to bone bruises, blisters and intense pain. Fox found that after about 20 minutes of each run, he crossed a pain threshold and the run became easier.


title: Terry Fox

text: On September 2, 1979, Fox competed in a road race in Prince George. He finished in last place, ten minutes behind his closest competitor, but his effort was met with tears and applause from the other participants. Following the marathon, he revealed his full plan to his family. His mother discouraged him, angering Fox, though she later came to support the project. She recalled, "He said, 'I thought you'd be one of the first persons to believe in me.' And I wasn't. I was the first person who let him down". Fox initially hoped to raise $1 million, then $10 million, but later sought to raise $1 for each of Canada's 24 million citizens.


title: Terry Fox

text: On October 15, 1979, Fox sent a letter to the Canadian Cancer Society in which he announced his goal and appealed for funding. He stated that he would "conquer" his disability, and promised to complete his run, even if he had to "crawl every last mile". Explaining why he wanted to raise money for research, Fox described his personal experience of cancer treatment:


title: Terry Fox

text: The Cancer Society was skeptical of his success but agreed to support Fox once he had acquired sponsors and requested he get a medical certificate from a heart specialist stating that he was fit to attempt the run. Fox was diagnosed with left ventricular hypertrophy – an enlarged heart – a condition commonly associated with athletes. Doctors warned Fox of the potential risks he faced, though they did not consider his condition a significant concern. They endorsed his participation when he promised that he would stop immediately if he began to experience any heart problems.


title: Terry Fox

text: A second letter was sent to several corporations seeking donations for a vehicle and running shoes, and to cover the other costs of the run. Fox sent other letters asking for grants to buy a running leg. The Ford Motor Company donated a camper van, while Imperial Oil contributed fuel, and Adidas his running shoes. Fox turned away any company that requested he endorse their products and refused any donation that carried conditions, as he insisted that nobody was to profit from his run.


title: Terry Fox

text: The Marathon began on April 12, 1980, when Fox dipped his right leg in the Atlantic Ocean near St John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, and filled two large bottles with ocean water. He intended to keep one as a souvenir and pour the other into the Pacific Ocean upon completing his journey at Victoria, British Columbia. Fox was supported on his run by Doug Alward, who drove the van and cooked meals.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox was met with gale-force winds, heavy rain, and a snowstorm in the first days of his run. He was initially disappointed with the reception he received but was heartened upon arriving in Channel-Port aux Basques, Newfoundland and Labrador, where the town's 10,000 residents presented him with a donation of over $10,000. Throughout the trip, Fox frequently expressed his anger and frustration to those he saw as impeding the run, and he fought regularly with Alward. When they reached Nova Scotia, they were barely on speaking terms, and it was arranged for Fox's brother Darrell, then 17, to join them as a buffer.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox left the Maritimes on June 10 and faced new challenges upon entering Quebec due to his group's inability to speak French and drivers who continually forced him off the road. Fox arrived in Montreal on June 22, one-third of the way through his journey, having collected over $200,000 in donations. Fox's run caught the attention of Isadore Sharp, the founder and CEO of Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts, who lost a son to melanoma in 1978 just a year after Terry's diagnosis. Sharp gave food and accommodation at his hotels to Fox's team. When Fox was discouraged because so few people were making donations, Sharp pledged $2 a mile and persuaded close to 1,000 other corporations to do the same. Fox was convinced by the Canadian Cancer Society that arriving in Ottawa for Canada Day would aid fundraising efforts, so he remained in Montreal for a few extra days.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox crossed into Ontario on the last Saturday in June, and he was met by a brass band and thousands of residents who lined the streets to cheer him on, while the Ontario Provincial Police gave him an escort throughout the province. Despite the sweltering heat of summer, he continued to run per day. On his arrival in Ottawa, Fox met Governor General Ed Schreyer, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, and was the guest of honour at numerous sporting events in the city. In front of 16,000 fans, he performed a ceremonial kickoff at a Canadian Football League game and was given a standing ovation. Fox's journal reflected his growing excitement at the reception he had received.


title: Terry Fox

text: On July 11, Fox arrived in Toronto where a crowd of 10,000 people met Fox, who was to be honoured in Nathan Phillips Square. As he ran to the square, he was joined on the road by many people, including National Hockey League star Darryl Sittler, who presented Fox with his 1980 All-Star Game jersey. The Cancer Society estimated it collected $100,000 in donations that day alone. That evening he threw the ceremonial first pitch at Exhibition Stadium preceding a baseball game between the Toronto Blue Jays and the Cleveland Indians. As he continued through southern Ontario, he was met by Hockey Hall of Famer Bobby Orr who presented him with a cheque for $25,000. Fox considered meeting Orr the highlight of his journey.


title: Terry Fox

text: As Fox's fame grew, the Cancer Society scheduled him to attend more functions and give more speeches. Fox attempted to accommodate any request that he believed would raise money, no matter how far out of his way it took him. He bristled, however, at what he felt were media intrusions into his personal life, for example when the "Toronto Star" reported that he had gone on a date. Fox was left unsure whom he could trust in the media after negative articles began to emerge, including one by "The Globe and Mail" that highlighted tensions with his brother Darrell and claimed he was running because he held a grudge against a doctor who had misdiagnosed his condition, allegations he referred to as "trash".


title: Terry Fox

text: The physical demands of running a marathon every day took their toll on Fox's body. Apart from the rest days in Montreal taken at the request of the Cancer Society, he refused to take a day off, even on his 22nd birthday. He frequently had shin splints and an inflamed knee. He developed cysts on his stump and experienced dizzy spells. At one point, he had a soreness in his ankle that would not go away. Although he feared he had developed a stress fracture, he ran for three more days before seeking medical attention, and was then relieved to learn it was tendonitis and could be treated with painkillers. Fox rejected calls for him to seek regular medical checkups, and dismissed suggestions he was risking his future health. By late August Fox described that he was exhausted before he began the day's run. On September 1, outside Thunder Bay, he was forced to stop briefly after he had an intense coughing fit and experienced pains in his chest. He resumed running as the crowds along the highway shouted out their encouragement. A few miles later, short of breath and with continued chest pain, he asked Alward to drive him to a hospital. The next day, Fox held a tearful press conference during which he announced that his cancer had returned and spread to his lungs. He was forced to end his run after 143 days and . Fox refused offers to complete the run in his stead, stating that he wanted to complete his marathon himself.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox had raised $1.7 million (equivalent to $ million in ) when he was forced to abandon the Marathon. A week after his run ended, the CTV Television Network organized a nationwide telethon in support of Fox and the Canadian Cancer Society. Supported by Canadian and international celebrities, the five-hour event raised $10.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Among the donations were $1 million each by the governments of British Columbia and Ontario, the former to create a new research institute to be founded in Fox's name and the latter an endowment given to the Ontario Cancer Treatment and Research Foundation. Donations continued throughout the winter, and by April over $23 million had been raised (equivalent to $ million in ).


title: Terry Fox

text: Supporters and well-wishers from around the world inundated Fox with letters and tokens of support. At one point, he was receiving more mail than the rest of Port Coquitlam combined. Such was his fame that one letter addressed simply to "Terry Fox, Canada" was successfully delivered.


title: Terry Fox

text: In September 1980, Fox was invested in a special ceremony as a Companion of the Order of Canada; he was the youngest person to be so honoured. The Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia named him to the Order of the Dogwood, the province's highest award. Canada's Sports Hall of Fame commissioned a permanent exhibit, and Fox was named the winner of the Lou Marsh Award for 1980 as the nation's top athlete. He was named Canada's 1980 Newsmaker of the Year. The "Ottawa Citizen" described the national response to his marathon as "one of the most powerful outpourings of emotion and generosity in Canada's history".


title: Terry Fox

text: In the following months, Fox received multiple chemotherapy treatments, but the disease continued to spread. As his condition worsened, Canadians hoped for a miracle and Pope John Paul II sent a telegram saying that he was praying for Fox. Doctors turned to experimental interferon treatments, though their effectiveness against osteogenic sarcoma was unknown. He had an adverse reaction to his first treatment, but continued the program after a period of rest.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox was re-admitted to the Royal Columbian Hospital in New Westminster on June 19, 1981, with chest congestion and developed pneumonia. He fell into a coma and died at 4:35 a.m. PDT on June 28, 1981. The Government of Canada ordered flags across the country lowered to half mast, an unprecedented honour that was usually reserved for statesmen. Addressing the House of Commons, Trudeau said, "It occurs very rarely in the life of a nation that the courageous spirit of one person unites all people in the celebration of his life and in the mourning of his death ... We do not think of him as one who was defeated by misfortune but as one who inspired us with the example of the triumph of the human spirit over adversity".


title: Terry Fox

text: His funeral in Port Coquitlam was attended by 40 relatives and 200 guests, and broadcast on national television. Hundreds of communities across Canada also held memorial services, a public memorial service was held on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, and Canadians again overwhelmed Cancer Society offices with donations. Fox is buried at Port Coquitlam Municipal Cemetery.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox remains a prominent figure in Canadian folklore. His determination united the nation; people from all walks of life lent their support to his run and his memory inspires pride in all regions of the country. A 1999 national survey named him as Canada's greatest hero, and he finished second to Tommy Douglas in the 2004 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation program "The Greatest Canadian". Fox's heroic status has been attributed to his image as an ordinary person attempting a remarkable and inspirational feat. Others have argued that Fox's greatness derives from his audacious vision, his determined pursuit of his goal, his ability to overcome challenges such as his lack of experience and the very loneliness of his venture. As Fox's advocate on "The Greatest Canadian", media personality Sook-Yin Lee compared him to a classic hero, Phidippides, the runner who delivered the news of the Battle of Marathon before dying, and asserted that Fox "embodies the most cherished Canadian values: compassion, commitment, perseverance". She highlighted the juxtaposition between his celebrity, brought about by the unforgettable image he created, and his rejection of the trappings of that celebrity. Typically amongst Canadian icons, Fox is an unconventional hero, admired but not without flaws. An obituary in the "Canadian Family Physician" emphasized his humanity and noted that his anger – at his diagnosis, at press misrepresentations and at those he saw as encroaching on his independence – spoke against ascribing sainthood for Fox, and thus placed his achievements within the reach of all.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox refused to regard himself as disabled, and would not allow anyone to pity him, telling a Toronto radio station that he found life more "rewarding and challenging" since he had lost his leg. His feat helped redefine Canadian views of disability and the inclusion of disabled people in society. Fox's actions increased the visibility of people with disabilities, and influenced the attitudes of those with disabilities by showing disability portrayed in a positive light. Rick Hansen commented that the run challenged society to focus on ability rather than disability, writing, "What was perceived as a limitation became a great opportunity. People with disabilities started looking at things differently. They came away with huge pride".


title: Terry Fox

text: The narrative surrounding Fox has been critiqued as illustrating the media's focus on stereotyped portrayals of the heroic and extraordinary achievements of people with disabilities, rather than more mundane accomplishments. Actor Alan Toy noted "Sure, it raised money for cancer research and sure it showed the human capacity for achievement. But a lot of disabled people are made to feel like failures if they haven't done something extraordinary. They may be bankers or factory workers – proof enough of their usefulness to society. Do we have to be 'supercrips' in order to be valid? And if we're not super, are we invalid?" The media's idealization of Fox has also been critiqued for emphasizing an individualistic approach to illness and disability, in which the body is a machine to be mastered, rather than the social model of disability where societal attitudes and barriers to inclusion play a prominent role in determining who is disabled.


title: Terry Fox

text: During Fox's marathon, Sharp proposed an annual fundraising run in Fox's name; Fox agreed, but insisted that the runs be non-competitive and include any who wanted to participate. Sharp faced opposition to the project: the Cancer Society feared that a fall run would detract from its traditional April campaigns, while other charities believed that an additional fundraiser would leave less money for their causes. Sharp persisted, and he, the Four Seasons Hotels and the Fox family organized the first Terry Fox Run on September 13, 1981.


title: Terry Fox

text: Over 300,000 people took part and raised $3.5 million in the first Terry Fox Run. Schools across Canada were urged to join the second run, held on September 19, 1982. School participation has continued since, evolving into the National School Run Day. The runs, which raised over $20 million in their first six years, grew into an international event as over one million people in 60 countries took part in 1999, raising $15 million that year alone. By the Terry Fox Run's 25th anniversary, more than three million people were taking part annually. Grants from the Terry Fox Foundation, which organizes the runs, have helped Canadian scientists make numerous advances in cancer research. The Terry Fox Run is the world's largest one-day fundraiser for cancer research, and over $850 million has been raised in his name .


title: Terry Fox

text: Shortly after his death, Fox was named the Newsmaker of the Year for 1981, and Canada Post announced the production of a commemorative stamp in 1981, bypassing its traditionally held position that stamps honouring people should not be created until ten years after their deaths. British rock star Rod Stewart was so moved by the Marathon of Hope that he was inspired to write and dedicate the song "Never Give Up on a Dream" – found on his 1981 album "Tonight I'm Yours" – to Fox. Stewart also called his 1981–1982 tour of Canada the "Terry Fox Tour". In 1982 the groundwork was laid for the Terry Fox Canadian Youth Centre, a residential hostel in Ottawa for high school students to come from across Canada to spend a week learning about the country. It was set up by the Canadian Unity Council; the programme later became known as Encounters with Canada and the building was renamed the Historica Canada Centre.


title: Terry Fox

text: In 2012, Fox was inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame in the Builder category in recognition of his public service in the name of research fundraising.


title: Terry Fox

text: The Terry Fox Hall of Fame was established in 1994 to recognize individuals that have made contributions that improved the quality of life of disabled people. The Terry Fox Laboratory research centre was established in Vancouver to conduct leading edge research into the causes and potential cures for cancer.


title: Terry Fox

text: In 2005, the Royal Canadian Mint issued a special dollar coin designed by Stanley Witten to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Marathon of Hope. It was their first regular circulation coin to feature a Canadian.


title: Terry Fox

text: In 2008, Fox was named a National Historic Person of Canada, a recognition given by the Canadian government to those persons who are considered to have played a nationally significant role in the history of the country. Fox's designation was due to his status as an "enduring icon", his personal qualities, and for the manner in which the Marathon of Hope had captivated the country and resonated deeply with Canadians.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox's mother, Betty Fox, was one of eight people to carry the Olympic Flag into BC Place Stadium at the opening ceremonies of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The games saw the Terry Fox Award bestowed on Olympic athletes who embodied Fox's characteristics of determination and humility in the face of adversity.


title: Terry Fox

text: Beginning in 2015, Manitoba designated the first Monday in August, formerly known as Civic Holiday, as Terry Fox Day.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox's story was dramatized in the 1983 biographical film "The Terry Fox Story". Produced by Home Box Office, the film aired as a television movie in the United States and had a theatrical run in Canada. The film starred amputee actor Eric Fryer and Robert Duvall, and was the first film made exclusively for pay television. The movie received mixed but generally positive reviews, but was criticized by Fox's family over how it portrayed his temper. "The Terry Fox Story" was nominated for eight Genie Awards, and won five, including Best Picture and Best Actor.


title: Terry Fox

text: Rock musician Ian Thomas had written and recorded a song in response to Fox's story, "Runner", which ended up being included in the film. It also was covered by Manfred Mann's Earth Band, reaching 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1984.


title: Terry Fox

text: A second movie, titled "Terry", focused on the Marathon of Hope, was produced by the CTV Television Network in 2005. Fox was portrayed by Shawn Ashmore. He is not an amputee; digital editing was used to superimpose a prosthesis over his real leg. The film was endorsed by Fox's family, and portrayed his attitude more positively than the first movie. Canadian National Basketball Association star Steve Nash, who himself was inspired by Fox when he was a child, directed a 2010 documentary "Into the Wind", which aired on ESPN as part of its "30 for 30" series.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox was not the first person to attempt to run across Canada. Mark Kent crossed the country in 1974 as he raised money for the Canadian team at the 1976 Summer Olympics. While he lived, Fox refused to let anyone else complete the Marathon of Hope, having promised to finish it himself once he recovered. Steve Fonyo, an 18-year-old with the same form of cancer and who also had a leg amputated, sought in 1984 to duplicate Fox's run, calling his effort the "Journey for Lives". After leaving St. John's on March 31, Fonyo reached the point where Fox was forced to end his marathon at the end of November, and completed the transcontinental run on May 29, 1985. The Journey for Lives raised over $13 million for cancer research.


title: Terry Fox

text: Canadian Paralympic athlete Rick Hansen, who had recruited Fox to play on his wheelchair basketball team in 1977, was similarly inspired by the Marathon of Hope. Hansen, who first considered circumnavigating the globe in his wheelchair in 1974, began the Man in Motion World Tour in 1985 with the goal of raising $10 million towards research into spinal cord injuries. As Fonyo had, Hansen paused at the spot Fox's run ended to honour the late runner. Hansen completed his world tour in May 1987 after 792 days and ; he travelled through 34 countries and raised over $26 million.


title: Terry Fox

text: Fox is one of eight candidate finalists for having his portrait on the future $5 polymer banknotes in Canada.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The Seven Dwarfs are a group of seven fictional dwarfs that appear in the 1812 fairy tale "Snow White" and other renditions and adaptations.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The Seven Dwarfs are a group of seven dwarfs that live in a tiny cottage and work in the nearby mines, Snow White stumbles upon their house after being told by the Huntsman to flee from the Queen's kingdom.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The Seven Dwarfs return home and immediately notice someone has snuck in, because the house has been cleaned. During their loud discussion, they discover the sleeping Snow White. She wakes up and explains to them what happened. The Dwarfs take pity on her, saying: "If you will keep house for us, and cook, make the beds, wash, sew, and knit, and keep everything clean and orderly, then you can stay with us, and you shall have everything that you want." They warn her to be careful when alone at home, and to not let anyone in while they are delving in the mountains.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: When the Queen, disguised as an old peddler, ties a colorful, silk bodice onto Snow White, it causes her to faint. The Seven Dwarfs return just in time and Snow White is saved when the Dwarfs cut the lace. The Queen comes once again, this time dressed as a comb seller. She gives Snow White a poisoned comb, but the Seven Dwarfs save her again. The Queen then appears disguised as a farmer's wife and gives Snow White a poisoned apple. Snow White bites into it and falls to the ground, apparently dead. This time, the Seven Dwarfs are unable to revive the girl, because they can't find the source of Snow White's physical state and, assuming that she is dead, they place her in a glass coffin. After some time has passed, a Prince traveling through the land sees Snow White. He walks up her coffin and instantly falls in love with her, enchanted by her beauty. As the Prince transports her body back to his castle, her coffin is hit hard and a large piece of apple in her throat is released and thus revives her. The prince then marries Snow White and "they lived happily ever after".


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: As a prominent cultural portrayal, the Seven Dwarfs have been recently controversial among people with dwarfism. One critical scholar has said it "followed the conventions of the freak show and perpetuated contemporary prejudices in their constructions of people with dwarfism," portraying them as "incapable, humorous, weird, childlike," and "overly naïve, perhaps even dim-witted." In 2022, the actor Peter Dinklage criticized Disney's planned live-action remake of "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" as being responsible for "renewing damaging stereotypes", saying "You’re progressive in one way but you’re still making that fucking backward story of seven dwarves living in the cave. What the fuck are you doing, man?"


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: Others in the dwarfism community expressed different opinions. Professional wrestler Dylan Postl, better known by his ring persona Hornswoggle, voiced his disagreement with Dinklage in an interview where he, along with other dwarf actors, accused Dinklage of just virtue signalling and opined that Dinklage's condemnation of the Seven Dwarfs' portrayal, and Disney's replacement of them with anonymous "magical creatures" and portrayed by voice actors, would have deprived dwarf actors of a possible starring role in a film based on an established property, denouncing Dinklage as "hypocritical" and "selfish...trying to take roles away". Comedian Brad Williams also expressed a similar sentiment, in that while he seemed to partly agree with Dinklage by calling the portrayal "mildly offensive" (likely with irony), he stated that there are ways to work around the issue by depicting the Dwarfs as a potential love interest for Snow White and de-emphasizing the prince's role in the story, also complimenting the positive aspects of the characters: "I mean, they have jobs, you know? They got good friends. They got a house. They like to protect her [Snow White]. They're diamond miners, so they're rich. They're self-made, wealthy."


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: A Disney version of the Seven Dwarfs, also called Disney Dwarfs as a potential Disney Consumer Products/DisneyToon Studios franchise, appeared in "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", the Seven Dwarfs in this are:


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The Seven Dwarfs also appeared in "Seven Wise Dwarfs", "All Together", "The Winged Scourge", and "House of Mouse".


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In the early 2000s, DisneyToon Studios (DTS) joined Disney Consumer Products (DCP) as their internal Disney conglomerate video partner in developing the new Disney franchises. While DCP eyed other potential franchises, DisneyToon looked to the Seven Dwarfs for a male-centric franchise to counterbalance the female-centric Disney Fairies. By 2005, "The Seven Dwarfs" computer-animated sequel to "Snow White" was officially underway. Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi was one team that was given an attempt at a movie pitch, which was to follow the Dwarfs in which they trap the villain in the magic mirror and setting it up for "Snow White" movie. Given the possible demand, Buena Vista Games brought in Obsidian Entertainment, a game developer, who pitched a video game focusing on the Dwarfs' similar ancestors. DTS executives were not feeling that the two franchise launching projects were coming together well enough that they turned to Mike Disa, who worked on the "Tinker Bell" story. Disa and Evan Spiliotopoulos pitched a "The Lord of the Rings"-style epic for the dwarfs while "connecting seamlessly" with the original film, which was given permission to move forward. With interfering managers wanting a tragic back story for Dopey, Disa decided that he could not go forward. Walt Disney Animation Studios chief creative officer John Lasseter about two month later ended production on the film.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: "The 7D" is an American animated television series produced by Disney Television Animation franchise based on "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs". This series is the first Walt Disney Animation Studios classic series. The TV series details the 7D working for Queen Delightful where they protect Jollywood from the Glooms and other threats.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Descendants", "Descendants 2" and "Descendants 3", Dopey is shown to have a son named Doug (portrayed by Zachary Gibson) who can talk and becomes smitten by Evil Queen's daughter Evie. In the "Descendants" novel "The Isle of the Lost", Doc is shown to be sympathetic towards the Goblins that operate on the Isle of the Lost's Goblin Wharf where they want amnesty for their involvement with Maleficent.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Sesame Street", there were different versions of the Seven Dwarfs where each of them was made from Anything Muppets.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In the "Snow White" episode of "Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics", the Seven Dwarfs are named Sunday (voiced by Clifton Wells in the English dub), Monday (voiced by Kerrigan Mahan in the English dub), Tuesday, Wednesday (voiced by Tom Wyner in the English dub), Thursday, Friday (voiced by Michael Sorich in the English dub), and Saturday (voiced by Edward Mannix in the English dub) and are shown to be allied with a pack of wolves.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Happily Ever After", it was mentioned that the Seven Dwarfs have opened up a mine in the next kingdom. In their place is the Seven Dwarfelles (their female cousins) who have received a power based on nature to help out their boss Mother Nature.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The Dwarfelles helped Snow White on her quest to rescue the Prince from the Queen's sorcerer brother Lord Maliss.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "", the show's adaptation of "Snow White" that takes place in the American southwest depicts the Seven Dwarves as seven mystical little men who came from the north to mine turquoise. They consist of:


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Shrek", the Seven Dwarfs appear in the first film carrying Snow White's coffin. When they place the coffin on the table, Shrek says "Oh no no no no! Dead broad off the table!" One of the Dwarfs says "Where else are we supposed to put it? The bed's already been taken." Shrek promptly finds the Big Bad Wolf in his bed.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: They are seen again at the start of "Shrek 2", giving Shrek a ring engraved with "I love you" in flaming letters for Fiona (in an allusion to the One Ring from "The Lord of the Rings").


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Shrek the Third", one of them is given to Fiona as a wedding present (as a babysitter) from Snow White who says she has six more at home.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The Seven Dwarfs are seen at the end of "Scared Shrekless" when Shrek and Fiona celebrate by egging them.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Shrek The Musical", one of the dwarfs Grumpy knew that he abandoned his son Farquaad in the woods as a child after his wife The Princess and the Pea falls out of 25 mattresses. However, when the fairytale characters brought Grumpy to Farquaad's wedding, he reveals that he kicked Farquaad out because he was twenty-eight years old and living in his basement.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Mirror Mirror", the Seven Dwarfs work as Highwaymen and rob from anyone that comes down their way by wearing boots with retractable stilts that make them look taller. The Seven Dwarfs consist of:


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In the "Princesses" series by Jim C. Hines, the dwarfs are actually anthropomorphic elemental personifications, summoned by Snow to aid her based on a spell from one of her mother's books. The seven dwarfs represent Earth, Air, Fire, Water, Light, Shadow, and Magic, although the 'Magic' dwarf is essentially a spirit that just inhabits Snow and enhances her power rather than appearing on its own, with the others appearing in some form to represent their element. Although powerful fighters that will serve Snow loyally, the consequences of summoning them is that Snow must 'pay' the spirits with seven years of her life, with the result that she appears to be in her mid-thirties when she is really only in her early twenties. As a result, she has only summoned the dwarves twice, initially calling on their aid to help her defeat her mother before the series began, and summoning them again to help her and her allies defeat her mother's spirit in the first book in the series (she contemplated summoning them against to deal with the ruthless Wild Hunt in "Red Riding's Revenge", but was advised against it as the spiritual nature of the hunt meant that nobody could be sure if the dwarves could do anything against them).


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Snow White and the Huntsman", the Seven Dwarfs started out as eight dwarfs when they are encountered by Snow White and Eric the Huntsman while fleeing Queen Ravenna. The Seven Dwarfs are:


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The Dwarfs were played by actors without dwarfism who had their faces digitally transmuted onto small bodies, prompting a protest from the Little People of America.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "", Nion returns where he aids Eric the Huntsman in retrieving the Magic Mirror which was stolen before it can be sealed away. They are aided by Nion's half-brother Gryff (portrayed by Rob Brydon) who is a debt collector.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In "Once Upon a Time", the Seven Dwarfs (who started out as eight) are on the side of Snow White and go by their Disney names.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: In the first episode of the final series of "The Goodies" (which was filmed at ITV), The Goodies did a story set in a fairy tale world where they replaced three of the seven dwarfs (two of them died of exposure and another one was eaten by a gold fish). But they are later found out because of their height. The dwarfs take their names from the Disney film (Sleepy, Happy, and Grumpy) while Graeme and Bill renamed themselves to fit in (Soppy and Gwotty). Only Tim kept his name.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: "The 7D" is a prequel series to "Snow White" which stars the Seven Dwarfs, who work for Queen Delightful and help her solve any problem she has or protect the kingdom of Jollywood from Grim and Hildy Gloom. Some of the dwarfs have their roles and personalities slightly altered; Doc is an inventor, Dopey can talk to animals, Bashful has a crush on the Queen and Happy is a hyperactive, happy-go-lucky musician instead of being simply jolly.


title: Seven Dwarfs

text: The following is a list of names of the Seven Dwarfs from various adaptations of the Snow White story. Some adaptations do not name the dwarfs, have seven non-dwarfs (such as the seven Leafe Knights in the anime "Prétear - The New Legend of Snow White") or omit them altogether (as in the 1998 opera "Schneewittchen").


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Insurgencies have been ongoing in Myanmar since 1948, the year the country, then known as Burma, gained independence from the United Kingdom. The conflict has largely been ethnic-based, with several ethnic armed groups fighting Myanmar's armed forces, the Tatmadaw, for self-determination. Despite numerous ceasefires and the creation of autonomous self-administered zones in 2008, many armed groups continue to call for independence, increased autonomy, or the federalisation of the country. The conflict is the world's longest ongoing civil war, having spanned more than seven decades.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 1940, during World War II, a group of young Burmese intellectuals left for Japan to receive military training in preparation for an anti-colonial struggle against the British. This group came to be known as the Thirty Comrades, and upon returning to Burma in 1941 they established the Burma Independence Army (BIA) to fight against the Allies. Upon their capture of Rangoon in 1942, the Japanese established a puppet state, the State of Burma, and reorganised the BIA as its armed forces, the Burma National Army (BNA). Aung San, the leader of the State of Burma and one of the Thirty Comrades, became increasingly sceptical of Japan's ability to win the war as time progressed, and in mid-1944 he decided to switch sides. Japanese forces capitulated by July 1945, and the British began to negotiate Burma's independence with Aung San and other prominent Burmese leaders.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In the lead up to Burmese independence, Aung San negotiated with Chin, Kachin, and Shan leaders, and the Panglong Agreement was reached between them. The agreement promised full autonomy for the areas inhabited by the three ethnic minorities, with an option to secede from Burma ten years after independence. However, Aung San was assassinated shortly afterwards, and the Panglong Agreement was not honoured by the post-independence government under U Nu. This further strained relations between the Bamar ethnic majority and the country's many ethnic minorities.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Following Burma's independence from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948, the two largest opposition groups in the country were the communists, led by the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), and the Karen nationalists, led by the Karen National Union (KNU).


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Initially there was calm during the transitional period after independence, but on 2 April 1948, the CPB fired the first shots of the conflict in Paukkongyi, Pegu Region (present-day Bago Region). At its peak, the CPB had 15,000 fighters in 1949.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: During the post-independence period, the KNU favoured an independent state, governed by the Karen people. The proposed state would have encompassed the territories of Karen State and Karenni State (present-day Kayin State and Kayah State), in Lower Burma (Outer Myanmar). The KNU has since shifted their focus from full independence to regional autonomy, under a federal system with fair Karen representation in the government.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: After three successive parliamentary governments governed Myanmar, the Tatmadaw, led by General Ne Win, enacted a coup d'état on 2 March 1962, which ousted the parliamentary government and replaced it with a military junta. Accusations of severe human rights abuses and violations followed afterwards, and the cabinet of the parliamentary government and political leaders of ethnic minority groups were arrested and detained without trial. Around this period, other ethnic minority groups began forming larger rebel factions, such as the Kachin Independence Army, in response to the new government's refusal to adopt a federal system.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Many insurgent groups, communist and ethnonationalist alike, became increasingly receptive of the Maoist concept of a "people's war" after failed peace talks with Ne Win's government in 1963. The CPB maintained close relations with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and replicated China's Cultural Revolution. The CPB's imitation of their Chinese allies was perceived by many Burmese as an attempt by China to intrude into Burmese affairs, a sentiment which led to the violent 1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma. By the time the riots were quelled, 31 Chinese civilians had been killed and several Chinese-owned businesses had been burned down.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Both immediately after the coup and again in 1972, Ne Win held peace talks with several insurgent groups, but both times they fell apart. This was partly due to Ne Win's refusal to adopt a federal multi-party system. After negotiations failed, defectors from the Tatmadaw and ethnic insurgents walked back to their bases, with headlines across Myanmar famously reading "They have gone back" (). Private property was confiscated by the government, and the Burmese Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) was founded in 1974 to govern the country under a one-party system. Under Ne Win's 26-year dictatorship, Myanmar became an isolated hermit kingdom and one of the least developed countries in the world. In 1988, nationwide student protests resulted in the BSPP and Ne Win being ousted and replaced with a new military regime, the State Peace and Development Council.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 12 March 1988, students began demonstrating in Rangoon (present-day Yangon) against the totalitarian rule of Ne Win and his Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). The protests quickly spread across the country, and the BSPP government was eventually pressured into adopting a multi-party system. However, the BSPP government was overthrown in a military coup d'état on 18 September 1988. The military then established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) and violently cracked down on protesters, ending all demonstrations by 21 September 1988.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Authorities in Myanmar claimed that around 350 people were killed, while opposition groups claimed thousands died in the protests at the hands of the military. According to "The Economist", over 3,000 people were killed in the demonstrations. Despite its violent suppression of the 8888 Uprising, the new military junta agreed to ceasefire agreements with certain insurgent groups after the demonstrations ceased.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Aung San Suu Kyi emerged from the 8888 Uprising as a symbol of Myanmar's pro-democracy movement, leading the country's largest opposition party, the National League for Democracy (NLD). The military junta arranged a general election in 1990 to elect members of a parliament-sized constitutional committee which would draft a new constitution. The NLD won a supermajority of the seats, but the military junta, surprised by the outcome, refused to recognise the results and placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: After voiding the results of the 1990 election, the military junta consolidated its rule over Myanmar. The SLORC was abolished in 1997 and replaced with the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC), which consisted of eleven senior military officers.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In the 1990s, the Tatmadaw severely weakened ethnic insurgent groups, destroying most of their bases and strongholds.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 2006, the Tatmadaw launched a large-scale military offensive against the KNU's armed wing, the Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA). The clashes resulted in the displacement of hundreds of thousands of civilians in Kayin State. According to one estimate, approximately half a million people were displaced due to fighting between government forces and the KNU, and the forcible relocation of villages by the government.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 2007, hundreds of thousands of monks protested against the military junta's rule, and called for free elections, minority rights and the release of political prisoners in an event now known as the Saffron Revolution. The protest originally began in response to the government's removal of price subsidies for compressed natural gas.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 2009, junta forces attacked Kokang, resulting in MNDAA lost control of the area and as many as 30,000 refugees fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 2010, Tatmadaw forces clashed violently with DKBA-5, resulting in nearly 10,000 refugees fleeing to Thailand to escape the violent conflict.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The government introduced a new constitution in 2008 and instigated a period of political reforms from 2011 to 2015, with thousands of political prisoners being released, including Aung San Suu Kyi. The 2008 constitution also created five autonomous self-administered zones and one self-administered division for six ethnic minority groups. In November 2014, the NLD attempted to make amendments to the constitution, in response to a clause that made Aung San Suu Kyi ineligible to become President of Myanmar if her party won an election. These amendments however, were rejected.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 2013, large anti-Muslim riots flared up in various cities across Myanmar. The violence coincided with the rise of the Buddhist nationalist 969 Movement, led by Sayadaw U Wirathu.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: After the end of political reforms in 2015, the government began hosting a number of peace conferences in hopes of ending the conflict. However, these efforts were criticised for not addressing the main proposals made by ceasefire groups, and for excluding the country's largest insurgent groups which were still active. Critics of the government have argued that the current constitution of Myanmar grants the military too much power, and is preventing the country from achieving peace and democratic reforms. A number of politicians and activists have been killed for voicing their opposition to the military's role in the government, such as constitutional lawyer Ko Ni, who was assassinated after he called for political reforms to reduce the military's influence.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 9 October 2016, the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) launched its first attack on Burmese border posts along the Bangladesh–Myanmar border, killing nine border officers. This prompted the Tatmdaw to begin massive "clearance operations" in northern Rakhine State, which intenisified following a second large-scale attack by ARSA on 25 August 2017. The subsequent violence has sparked international outcry and was described as an ethnic cleansing by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In late November 2016, the Northern Alliance—which consists of four insurgent groups, the Arakan Army (AA), the Kachin Independence Army (KIA), the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA) and the Ta'ang National Liberation Army (TNLA)—attacked towns and border posts along the China–Myanmar border in Muse Township, northern Shan State. The insurgents captured the town of Mong Ko on 25 November 2016 and maintained control of it until they withdrew from the town on 4 December 2016 to avoid civilian casualties from airstrikes by the Myanmar Air Force.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 15 August 2019, Northern Alliance insurgents attacked a military college in Nawnghkio Township, killing 15. Further clashes occurred in the following days, with Myanmar's military warning there could be a "full-scale war" in Shan State if the Northern Alliance did not halt their attacks.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On the early morning of 1 February 2021, the civilian government led by the NLD was overthrown in a military coup d'état, and the Tatmadaw's commander-in-chief, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing, became the head of state. Aung San Suu Kyi and several other senior members of her government were arrested by the military during the coup. Mass protests followed, with demonstrators demanding the resignation of Min Aung Hlaing and the newly created State Administration Council (SAC), the release of those arrested in the coup, and the restoration of the civilian government.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Anti-coup protesters have armed themselves with slingshots, molotov cocktails, and makeshift shields. In late March 2021, it was reported that dozens of protesters had travelled to Myanmar's border areas to train under one of the country's many insurgent groups, elevating the risk of a countrywide civil war. The civilian government-in-exile, the Committee Representing the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (CRPH), has proposed the formation of a "federal armed force" to combat the military.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: One of the first instances of armed resistance by protesters occurred in and around the town of Kalay, Sagaing Region. After the Tatmadaw raided a protest camp in Kalay on 28 March 2021, protesters fought back with hunting rifles and homemade firearms. Several insurgent groups, notably the Kachin Independence Army and the Karen National Liberation Army, have also resumed or escalated their attacks against the Tatmadaw in response to the coup.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Seven signatories of the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement announced on 4 April 2021 that they had decided to join the National Unity Government, including the All Burma Student Democratic Front and the Karen National Union. Some of the groups have resumed hostilities towards the junta government.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In Mindat and Hakha, Chin State, the Chinland Defence Force began an armed resistance on 26 April 2021.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 5 May 2021, the National Unity Government declared the formation of an armed wing, the People's Defence Force (PDF), to protect its supporters from military junta attacks and as a first step towards a Federal Union Army. It clashed with the Tatmadaw in the town of Muse on 23 May, killing at least 13 members of Myanmar's security forces. Members of the Karenni People's Defence Force (KPDF) in Kayah State also clashed with the Tatmadaw near the state capital of Loikaw.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Communist Party of Burma rearmed itself and announced the creation of its new armed wing, the People's Liberation Army, in late 2021.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Mizo people of Mizoram, India, and the Chin people of Myanmar, as well as the Kuki people, are all Zo people who share a common culture and history.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 1960, the Chin Liberation Army was founded by Tun Kho Pum Baite to unify the Chin-inhabited areas, while the Mizo National Front (MNF) fought for Mizo independence. The Chin National Army (CNF) was formed in 1988. It signed a ceasefire agreement with the Chin State government in 2012. The Kuki National Army (KNA) was also founded in 1988 with the goal of creating Kuki autonomy in Myanmar and India.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Several separatist groups fighting the Indian government in Northeast India also operate from bases in Myanmar, such as the Zomi Revolutionary Army, the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), and the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN). These groups frequently cross into India via the porous border.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In June 2019, Tatmadaw troops, in coordination with the Indian Army, carried out operations against the NSCN headquarters in Taga, in the Naga Self-Administered Zone of Sagaing Region.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Kachin people are a major ethnic minority in Myanmar who mainly inhabit the mountainous northern regions of the Kachin Hills in Kachin State. Kachin regular soldiers previously formed a significant part of the Myanmar Army; however, after Ne Win's regime seized power in 1962, many Kachin soldiers defected from the military and reorganised with already active Kachin insurgents to form the Kachin Independence Army (KIA), under the Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO). Religious tensions have also been a source of conflict, as Kachin people have historically been predominantly Christian, while the majority Bamar people have been predominantly Buddhist.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Ceasefire agreements have been signed between the KIA and the government several times; most notably a ceasefire signed in 1994, that lasted for 17 years until June 2011, when government forces attacked KIA positions along the Taping River, east of Bhamo, Kachin State. As a result of the ceasefire breakdown, Kachin State has faced waves of internal displacement, with over 90,000 internally displaced people spread across over 150 camps or camp-like settings as of April 2017. Many IDP camps are located in non-government controlled areas with severely restricted access. The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) estimates that in April and May 2018, over 14,000 people were displaced from fighting between the KIA and the Tatmadaw.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Clashes between the KIA and the Tatmadaw in 2012 resulted in around 2,500 casualties (both civilian and military), 211 of whom were government soldiers. The violence resulted in the displacement of nearly 100,000 civilians and the complete or partial abandonment of 364 villages.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Government forces attacked the Kachin Independence Army's headquarters near the city of Laiza on 19 November 2014, killing at least 22 KIA insurgents, according to the government.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: N'Ban La became the KIO's chairman and the KIA's second-in-command in January 2018. Htang Gam Shawng retained his position as the KIA's commander-in-chief.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 1957, pro-independence groups in Karenni State (present-day Kayah State) founded the Karenni National Progressive Party (KNPP). An accompanying armed wing, the Karenni Army, was established shortly after to fight for the self-determination of the Karenni people. The Karenni Army and Tatmadaw have fought in the region ever since, apart from a brief three-month ceasefire in 1995. Rivals to the KNPP include the leftist Kayan New Land Party (KNLP) and Karenni National People's Liberation Front (KNPLF), both of whom signed ceasefires with the government in the 1990s.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Karenni Army's stated grievances towards the government include the government's exploitation and rapid depletion of the natural resources in the region, the forced sale of farmer's agricultural products for low prices, extortion and corruption within local authorities, forced labour, forced relocation of whole villages and farms, destruction of houses, planting of mines in civilian areas, torture, rape, extrajudicial killings, burning of villages, expropriation of food supplies and livestock, arrests without charge and exploitation of the poor. The Karenni Army is currently led by General Bee Htoo, and consists of roughly between 500 and 1,500 troops.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The conflict escalated following the 2021 military coup, with the civilian-led Karenni People's Defence Force (KPDF) opening up a new front in northern Kayah State. After Tatmadaw troops attacked and burned down several villages in the region, KPDF fighters launched an offensive against the Tatmadaw, seizing and destroying several military outposts.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Karen people of Kayin State (formerly Karen State) in eastern Myanmar are the third largest ethnic group in Myanmar, consisting of roughly 7% of the country's total population. Karen insurgent groups have fought for independence and self-determination since 1949. In 1949, the commander-in-chief of the Tatmadaw General Smith Dun, an ethnic Karen, was fired because of the rise of Karen opposition groups, which furthered ethnic tensions. He was replaced by Ne Win, a Bamar nationalist who would later rule Myanmar as a military dictator.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The government of Myanmar has been accused of using "scorched earth" tactics against Karen civilians in the past, including (but not limited to) burning down entire villages, planting land mines, using civilians as slave labour, using civilians as minesweepers and the rape and murder of Karen women. According to a report by legal firm DLA Piper, whose report was presented to the United Nations Security Council, these tactics against the Karen can be identified as ethnic cleansing. The government had however, denied these claims.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The initial aim of the Karen National Union (KNU) and its armed wing the Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA) was to create independent state for the Karen people. However, since 1976 they have instead called for a federal union with fair Karen representation and the self-determination of the Karen people.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 1995, the main headquarters and operating bases of the KNU were mostly destroyed or captured by the government, forcing the KNLA to operate from the jungles of Kayin State. Until 1995, the Thai government supported insurgents across the Myanmar–Thailand border, but soon stopped its support due to a new major economic deal with Myanmar.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The KNU signed the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) with the government of Myanmar on 15 October 2015, along with seven other insurgent groups. However, in March 2018, the government of Myanmar violated the agreement by sending 400 Tatmadaw soldiers into KNU-held territory to build a road connecting two military bases. Armed clashes erupted between the KNU and the Myanmar Army in the Ler Mu Plaw area of Hpapun District, resulting in the displacement of 2,000 people. On 17 May 2018, the Tatmadaw agreed to "temporarily postpone" their road project and to withdraw troops from the area.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The KNU resumed its fight against the Myanmar government following the 2021 military coup. On 27 April 2021, KNU insurgents captured a military base on the west bank of the Salween River, which forms Myanmar's border with Thailand. The Tatmadaw later retaliated with airstrikes on KNU positions. There were no casualties reported by either side.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Mon people have sought self-determination since Myanmar gained independence in 1948, initially under the Mon People's Front and from 1962 through the New Mon State Party (NMSP). The Mon National Liberation Army (MNLA) has been fighting government forces since 1949. It signed the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) in 2015 and has had minor skirmishes with the Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA).


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Insurgent groups of the Rakhine (formerly Arakanese), Chin, and Rohingya ethnic minorities have fought against the government for self-determination in Rakhine State since the early 1950s. The region was a stronghold of the Red Flag Communist Party until its defeat by the Tatmadaw in 1978. Its successor, the Communist Party of Arakan continued to wage an insurgency in Rakhine State until the 1990s.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Ethnic Rakhine insurgent groups, such as the Arakan Army and Arakan Liberation Army (ALA), continue to fight against the government, though major violence has been rare since political reforms and peace talks. The Arakan Army, founded in 2009, is currently the largest insurgent group in Rakhine State, with around 7,000 fighters.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 4 January 2019, around 300 Arakan Army insurgents launched pre-dawn attacks on four border police outposts—Kyaung Taung, Nga Myin Taw, Ka Htee La and Kone Myint—in northern Buthidaung Township. Thirteen members of the Border Guard Police (BGP) were killed and nine others were injured, while 40 firearms and more than 10,000 rounds of ammunition were looted. The Arakan Army later stated that it had captured nine BGP personnel and five civilians, and that three of its fighters were also killed in the attacks.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Following the attacks, the Office of the President of Myanmar held a high-level meeting on national security in the capital Naypyidaw on 7 January 2019, and instructed the Defence Ministry to increase troop deployments in the areas that were attacked and to use aircraft if necessary. Subsequent clashes between the Myanmar Army and the Arakan Army were reported in Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Kyauktaw, Rathedaung and Ponnagyun Townships, forcing out over 5,000 civilians from their homes, hundreds of whom (mostly Rakhine and Khami) have fled across the border into Bangladesh. Civilian casualties, arbitrary beatings and detentions of ethnic Rakhines, forced seizures of property, and blockage of food aid and medical relief by the Tatmadaw have also been reported.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Rohingya insurgents have been fighting against local government forces and other insurgent groups in northern Rakhine State since 1948, with ongoing religious violence between the predominantly Muslim Rohingyas and the Buddhist Rakhines fuelling the conflict.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Following the independence of Myanmar, Rohingya mujahideen fought against government forces in an attempt to secede and annex Rohingya-inhabited regions to East Pakistan. Between 1949 and 1954, the Burmese military launched several operations in order to regain control of the region. By the end of the 1950s, the mujahideen had lost most of their momentum and support, and most of their fighters had surrendered by 1961.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Ne Win's military junta turned increasingly hostile towards the Rohingyas. The authorities launched large-scale military operations in order to expel insurgents and so-called "foreigners" from Arakan, such as Operation Dragon King in 1978 and Operation Pyi Thaya in 1991


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The legal and political rights of the Rohingya people have been an underlying issue during the conflict, with spontaneous bouts of violence, such as the 2012 Rakhine State riots and the 2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim riots, periodically occurring as a result. Despite making up the majority of the population in the three northern townships of Rakhine State, the Rohingyas are frequently the targets of religiously motivated attacks. The 1982 Nationality law did not recognise the Rohingyas as an ethnic group which is native to Myanmar. As a result, the Rohingyas cannot apply for Burmese citizenship and few laws exist to protect their rights.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 9 October 2016, unidentified insurgents attacked three Burmese border posts along Myanmar's border with Bangladesh, starting a new armed conflict in northern Rakhine State. According to government officials in the border town of Maungdaw, the attackers looted several dozen firearms and ammunition from the border posts, and they also brandished knives and homemade slingshots that fired metal bolts. The attacks left nine border officers and "several insurgents" dead. On 11 October 2016, four Tatmadaw soldiers were killed on the third day of fighting. A newly emerging insurgent group, the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), claimed responsibility for the attacks a week later.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: During the early hours of 25 August 2017, ARSA insurgents launched coordinated attacks on 24 police posts and the 552nd Light Infantry Battalion army base, killing a dozen people. In response, the Tatmadaw launched "clearance operations" in northern Rakhine State, which critics argued targeted Rohingya civilians rather than insurgents. Following the violence, 200,000 civilians remained trapped in the region without adequate access to markets, livelihoods, services and medical care.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Shan people are the largest ethnic group in Shan State and the second largest in Myanmar. They were one of several ethnic groups consulted by Aung San during negotiations leading up to the Panglong Agreement, which gave the Shan leaders the option to split from Myanmar a decade after independence if they were unsatisfied with the central government. This was, however, not honoured by the post-independence government following Aung San's assassination.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Frustrated by a decade of fruitless negotiations, a group of 39 Shan led by Saw Yanda (a Shan from Yunnan, China; also known as Chao Noi, Sao Noi, and Saw Yanna) formed an armed resistance movement on 21 May 1958. It became known as the "Noom Suk Harn" (or "Noom Seik Harn"), meaning "brave young warriors". In 1960, the movement suffered an internal split between the "rough and uneducated" Saw Yanda and a group of young intellectuals, and the latter subsequently formed the Shan State Independence Army (SSIA). Aside from the remnants of the "Noom Suk Harn" and the SSIA, there was also the Shan National United Front (SNUF), which operated primarily in southern Shan State. The SSIA, the SNUF, and the Kokang Force (a local army consisting of Kokang Chinese) agreed to merge into the Shan State Army (SSA) in 1964. Sao Nang Hearn Kham, the "Mahadevi" (queen consort) of Yawnghwe, was elected chairperson of its political wing, the Shan State War Council (SSWC). The SSWC was replaced by the Shan State Progress Party (SSPP) on 16 August 1971.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In northern Shan State, the SSA came into conflict with the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), which had long been active along Burma's border with China. During the 1960s, the Burma Army began the "Ka Kew Ye" (KKY) program, which recruited ethnic armies to combat communist insurgents, and in return, they would be permitted to engage in cross-border trade on their own terms. This led to many units of the SSA defecting to the KKY militias. The SSA also worked with opium warlords such as Lo Hsing Han and Khun Sa. Internal divisions resulted in the SSA fracturing into many factions, and it collapsed in mid-1976. The SSPP later formed the pro-communist Shan State Army – North (SSA-N) to continue the insurgency. After the CPB suffered an internal mutiny and collapsed in April 1989, the SSA-N signed a ceasefire agreement with the government in exchange for autonomy over the areas it controlled (officially called "Special Region 3 of Shan State"). A splinter group led by Sai Leun which broke away from the CPB at the same time established the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA), which controls the Mong La area (Special Region 4) of Shan State.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In the 1960s, Khun Sa, a KKY militia leader, was permitted by the Burmese government to grow and trade opium in return for fighting Shan and communists insurgents. He gradually became one of the most powerful insurgent leaders in Shan State. Khun Sa was captured by the Tatmadaw after plotting with the SSA in 1969, but was later released to Thailand, where he built an army near the Burmese border and became the dominant opium warlord in the Golden Triangle. After being expelled by the Thai Army in 1982, Khun Sa returned to Burma and formed the Mong Tai Army (MTA) in 1985. In the 1990s, the MTA became the dominant Shan fighting force with peak strength of 20,000 soldiers. In 1991, Khun Sa declared the creation of an independent Shan State, with himself as president. However, some Shan nationalists in the MTA disagreed with his leadership and formed a rival Shan organisation, the Shan State National Army (SSNA). The Mong Tai Army was quickly disbanded after the mass desertion, and Khun Sa himself surrendered to the government in 1996. He was allowed to retire in Yangon and keep his large fortune.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Refusing to surrender with Khun Sa and the MTA, Lieutenant General Yawd Serk of the Shan United Revolutionary Army (SURA) led 800 soldiers under his command to central Shan State and established the Shan State Army – South (SSA-S) on 26 January 1996. He then recruited roughly a thousand more soldiers before returning to southern Shan State to establish the group's headquarters in Loi Tai Leng. The SSA-S has since become one of the largest Shan insurgent groups in Myanmar, and has around 8,000 soldiers as of 2016. Yawd Serk lead the group until his retirement on 2 February 2014. Its political wing is the Restoration Council of Shan State. The SSA-S maintains a number of bases along the Myanmar–Thailand border, and signed a ceasefire agreement with the government on 2 December 2011.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Tatmadaw launched a military offensive named Operation Perseverance () against insurgents in Shan State in 2011. During the offensive, the Tatmadaw captured territory from the NDAA and the SSA-N, with the latter being involved in most of the fighting. While this operation was officially a response to the groups' rejections of the junta's "One Nation, One Army" policy, researchers have linked it to the military's interests in the jade trade.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In October 2015, the Tatmadaw launched a military offensive to seize territory granted to the SSA-N under a previous ceasefire. The Tatmadaw used heavy artillery and airstrikes, displacing thousands of civilians.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Other ethnic armed groups in the region include the Lahu Democratic Union, the Ta'ang National Liberation Army, the Wa National Army and the Pa-O National Liberation Army, of varying sizes and affiliations.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: From the 1960s to 1989, the Kokang area in northern Shan state was controlled by the Communist Party of Burma, and after the party's armed wing disbanded in 1989 it became a special region of Myanmar under the control of the Myanmar Nationalities Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA). The MNDAA is a Kokang insurgent group active in the Kokang Self-Administered Zone in northern Shan State. The group signed a ceasefire agreement with the government in 1989, the same year it was founded, which lasted for two decades until 2009, when government troops entered MNDAA territory in an attempt to stop the flow of drugs through the area. Violence erupted again in 2015, when the MNDAA attempted to retake territory it had lost in 2009. The MNDAA clashed with government troops once again in 2017.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The MNDAA resumed its fight against the Tatmadaw in response to the 2021 coup d'état. The MNDAA and Ta'ang National Liberation Army (TNLA) have carried out several joint attacks against the Tatmadaw in Shan State.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Following the CPB's internal mutiny on 16 April 1989, ethnic Wa cadres under the command of Bao Youxiang announced their split from the party and the founding of the United Wa State Party and United Wa State Army. The UWSA signed a ceasefire agreement with the then-ruling military junta in May 1989 and has since governed parts of Shan State as the autonomous Wa State. The Burmese government has accused their Chinese counterpart of heavily supporting Wa State and the UWSA.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The People's Republic of China has long been accused of having a multifaceted role in the conflict, given its close relations with both the Myanmar government and insurgent groups active along the China–Myanmar border.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: China openly supported the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) and its pursuit of Mao Zedong Thought during the 1960s and 1970s. After the CPB's armed wing agreed to disarm in 1988, China was accused by Myanmar of continuing to support insurgent groups operating along its border, such as the United Wa State Army and Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army, the latter enjoying closer ties to China due to a common Han Chinese ethnic background.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In 2016, China pledged to support Myanmar's peace process by encouraging China-friendly insurgent groups to attend peace talks with the Burmese government and by sending more soldiers to secure its border with Myanmar. China also offered $3 million USD to fund the negotiations. However, the Burmese government has expressed suspicion over China's involvement in the peace process, due to China's alleged links to the Northern Alliance and the United Wa State Army.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: India and Myanmar share a strategic military relationship due to the overlapping insurgency in Northeast India. India has provided Myanmar's military with training, weapons, and tactical equipment. The two countries' armies have conducted joint operations against insurgents at their border since the 1990s. Myanmar has also taken an active role in finding and arresting insurgents that fled from northeast India; in May 2020 Myanmar handed over 22 insurgents, included several top commanders, to Indian authorities. Similarly, India has been one of the few countries to forcefully repatriate Rohingya refugees back to Myanmar despite global outcry.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: From 1948 to 1950, Pakistan sent aid to mujahideen in northern Arakan (present-day Rakhine State). In 1950, the Pakistani government warned their Burmese counterparts about their treatment of Muslims. In response, Burmese Prime Minister U Nu immediately sent a Muslim diplomat, Pe Khin, to negotiate a memorandum of understanding. Pakistan agreed to cease aid to the mujahideen and arrest members of the group. In 1954, mujahid leader Mir Kassem was arrested by Pakistani authorities, and many of his followers later surrendered to the Burmese government.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The International Crisis Group reported on 14 December 2016 that in interviews with the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), its leaders claimed to have links to private donors in Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. The ICG also released unconfirmed reports that Rohingya villagers had been "secretly trained" by Afghan and Pakistani fighters. In September 2017, Bangladeshi sources stated that the possibility of cooperation between Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and ARSA was "extremely high".


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In November 2013, delegations from the Burmese and Russian armed forces met in Naypyidaw and agreed to strengthen cooperation between the two, particularly in regards to the exchange of military technology. Myanmar and Russia signed a military cooperation agreement in June 2016, with Russia promising more arms and training for Myanmar's military.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Thailand had been a vocal supporter of various insurgent groups in Myanmar, condemning actions done by the then ruling military juntas and allowing weapons and ammunition to be smuggled through its border through lax enforcement. However, in 1995, the Thai government secured its border with Myanmar and stopped all logistical support going through Thailand after they signed a major economic deal with Myanmar.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began aiding Kuomintang soldiers that fled to Myanmar from China following the advance of Chinese communist forces into Yunnan in 1951. This included "Operation Paper", which involved supplying them with non-lethal aid via Thailand until 1953, when they airlifted 7,000 soldiers to Taiwan and ended the operation.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Yugoslavia became the primary arms supplier for the Burmese government beginning in 1952, when the Burmese reached out to Belgrade due to the slow and uneasy support from the United States and the United Kingdom. The two nations became very close as a result, and the Yugoslav National Army sent advisors to assist on the frontlines. The sudden strong relationship between Burma and Yugoslavia prompted concern among the Americans, who worried the Yugoslav support would strengthen Marxist ideology in the government. Ne Win, who previously sought support solely from the West, was impressed with the speed of the Burmese–Yugoslav cooperation, and travelled to Belgrade in 1953.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: As of 2019, Myanmar's military is supplied by fourteen arms companies from seven countries: China, India, Israel, North Korea, the Philippines, Russia, and Ukraine.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Despite Serbia signing a non-binding UN resolution calling for the cessation of arms sales to Myanmar following the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, hundreds of Serbian-made 80 mm rockets were sent from Belgarde to Yangon less than a week after the coup.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Vietnam has also been a vocal supporter of modernisation efforts by Myanmar's military, providing them with ammunition and military hardware. Burmese military officials have also toured Vietnam to receive military advice from their counterparts in the People's Army of Vietnam.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Dave Everett was a member of the Australian Special Air Service Regiment before leaving in 1986 and joining the Karen National Liberation Army as a mercenary. Everett fought alongside the KNLA under the alias "Steve" and trained insurgents, helping them improve their marksmanship and teaching them how to use claymore anti-personnel mines. To fund his time with the KNLA, Everett perpetrated several robberies in Australia with the help of accomplices and took piloting lessons so he could smuggle weapons into Myanmar. Everett returned to Australia a year later in 1987.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Former members of the British special forces, Australian special forces, Green berets, French Foreign Legion, and Russian Spetsnaz have also been reported fighting alongside insurgents as recently as 2012.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: A number of insurgent groups have negotiated ceasefires and peace agreements with successive governments, but most have since fallen apart.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Under the new constitutional reforms in 2011, state level and union level ceasefire agreements were made with a number of insurgent groups. Fourteen of the 17 largest rebel factions signed a ceasefire agreement with the new reformed government. All of the 14 signatories wanted negotiations in accordance with the Panglong Agreement of 1947, which granted self-determination, a federal system of government (meaning regional autonomy), religious freedom and ethnic minority rights. However, the new constitution, only had a few clauses dedicated to minority rights, and therefore, the government discussed with rebel factions using the new constitution for reference, rather than the Panglong Agreement. There was no inclusive plan or body that represented all the factions, and as a result, in resent, the KNU backed out of the conference and complained the lack of independence for each party within the ethnic bloc. However, most of the negotiations between the State Peace Deal Commission and rebel factions were formal and peaceful.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 31 March 2015, a draft of the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) was finalised between representatives from 15 different insurgent groups (all part of the Nationwide Ceasefire Coordination Team or NCCT) and the government of Myanmar. However, only eight of the 15 insurgent groups signed the final agreement on 15 October 2015. The signing was witnessed by observers and delegates from the United Nations, the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan and the United States. Two other insurgent groups later joined the agreement on 13 February 2018.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Union Peace Conference – 21st Century Panglong was held from 31 August to 4 September 2016 with several different organisations as representatives, in an attempt to mediate between the government and different insurgent groups. Talks ended without any agreement being reached. The name of the conference was a reference to the original Panglong Conference held during British rule in 1947, which was negotiated between Aung San and ethnic leaders.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The government of Myanmar has been accused of using "scorched earth" tactics against civilians, most notably in Kayin State. The accusations included burning down entire villages, planting landmines, using civilians as slave labour, using civilians as minesweepers and the rape and murder of Karen women. According to a report by legal firm DLA Piper, whose report was presented to the United Nations Security Council, these tactics against the Karen have been identified as ethnic cleansing.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Both sides have been accused of using landmines, which have caused hundreds of accidental civilian injuries and deaths. The KNU has been accused of planting landmines in rural areas, most of which have not been disarmed. The KNU claims that landmines are vital for repelling government troops because they "discourage [the Tatmadaw] from attacking civilians". However, the majority of those who fall victim to landmines planted by the KNU are local civilians and not government soldiers. Victims of landmines must travel to the Myanmar–Thailand border to seek treatment, as local hospitals and facilities lack proper equipment and funding.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Both sides have also been accused of using thousands of child soldiers, despite the fact that the government of Myanmar and seven insurgent groups signed an agreement with UNICEF in 2012, promising not to exploit children for military and political gains. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has accused both sides of continuing to use child soldiers in violation of the agreement. According to the ILO, the Tatmadaw has discharged hundreds of child soldiers since 2012; however, the ILO also estimated that at least 340 child soldiers had been recruited by the Tatmadaw between 2013 and 2014. Meanwhile, insurgent groups such as the MNDAA, SSA-S, and TNLA have reportedly press-ganged minors into their armies.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: One of the most notable cases in which child soldiers were used in Myanmar was that of twins Johnny and Luther Htoo, the leaders of God's Army, a former rebel faction. When God's Army was formed in 1997, the pair were just ten-years-old.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: On 25 July 2022, the Human Rights Watch reported that Myanmar's military junta sentenced four men to death after closed trials that fell far short of international standards. The men put to death were Phyo Zeya Thaw, Kyaw Min Yu, Hla Myo Aung and Aung Thura Zaw. These executions followed grossly unjust and politically motivated military trials.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: An estimated 130,000 people died in the conflict from 1948 to 2011. The Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED) has recorded over 30,000 deaths since 2011.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The conflict has also resulted in the displacement of a large number of civilians, many of whom have fled to neighbouring countries such as Thailand, China, India, and Bangladesh. The persecution of Rohingya people and other ethnic minorities after the 1962 coup led to the expulsion of nearly 300,000 people. The UN estimated that between 1996 and 2006, around 1 million people were internally displaced inside Myanmar, over 230,000 of whom remain displaced in the southeast of the country, and 128,000 refugees lived in temporary shelters on the Myanmar–Thailand border. In August 2007, approximately 160,000 refugees fled to nine refugee camps along the Myanmar–Thailand border and the Thai border provinces of Chiang Mai and Ratchaburi. Approximately 62% of the refugee population consisted of displaced Karen people. Humanitarian organisations such as Doctors Without Borders have since sent workers and medical support to the refugees. , an estimated 600,000 to 1 million people remain internally displaced in Myanmar.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: Over the course of the conflict, government officials in Myanmar have been accused of forcefully removing civilians living in conflict areas and confiscating their property, to repurpose them for commercial, industrial, and military projects.


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: In Rakhine State, there were around 75,000 internally displaced Rohingyas in 2012, according to Refugee International. UNICEF has reported that living conditions in Rohingya refugee camps in Rakhine State are "wholly inadequate" and lacks access to basic services. In October 2017, there were an estimated 947,000 Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. The Rohingya people have been described by the United Nations as "among the world's least wanted" and "one of the world's most persecuted minorities."


title: Internal conflict in Myanmar

text: The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre reports a total of 401,000 people internally displaced in Myanmar as of 2018, owing both to man-made and natural disasters as well as conflict and violence. This figure includes IDPs across the country, with 131,000 in Rakhine State, 97,000 in Kachin State, 50,000 in Kayin State, 40,000 in Tanintharyi Region, 27,000 in Karenni State, 22,000 in Bago Region, 18,000 in Mon State, 15,000 in Shan State and 1,300 in Chin State. Of these total displacements, IDMC estimates that approximately 42,000 people were newly displaced in 2018 by conflict and violence. Compared to 2017, the rate of new displacements was lower in Rakhine State but higher in Kachin State and northern Shan State, which together saw approximately 36,000 people displaced.