title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: Of the four children deemed too young to require seats of their own ("lap children"), one died from smoke inhalation. The NTSB added a safety recommendation to the FAA on its "List of Most Wanted Safety Improvements" in May 1999 suggesting a requirement for children under two years old to be safely restrained, which was removed in November 2006. The accident sparked a campaign led by United Flight 232's senior flight attendant, Jan Brown Lohr, for all children to have seats on aircraft.


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: The argument against requiring seats on aircraft for children under two is the higher cost to a family of having to buy a seat for the child, and this higher cost will motivate more families to drive instead of fly, and incur the much higher risk of driving (see Epidemiology of motor vehicle collisions). The FAA estimates that a regulation that all children must have a seat would equate, for every one child's life saved on an aircraft, to 60 people dying in highway accidents.


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: Though it is no longer on the "most wanted" list, providing aircraft restraints for children under two is still recommended practice by the NTSB and FAA, though it is not required by the FAA as of May 2016. The NTSB asked the International Civil Aviation Organization to make this a requirement in September 2013.


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: The accident has since become a prime example of successful crew resource management (CRM). For much of aviation's history, the captain was considered the final authority, and crews were to respect the captain's expertise without question. This began to change in the 1970s, especially after the 1978 United Airlines Flight 173 crash in Portland, Oregon, and the Tenerife airport disaster. CRM, while still considering the captain as final authority, instructs crew members to speak up when they detect a problem, and instructs captains to listen to crew concerns. United Airlines instituted a CRM class in the early 1980s. The NTSB later credited this training as valuable toward the success of United 232's crew in handling their emergency. The FAA made CRM mandatory in the aftermath of the accident.


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: Of the 296 people aboard, 112 were killed and 184 survived. Haynes later identified three factors relating to the time of day that increased the survival rate:


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: "Had any of those things not been there," Haynes said, "I'm sure the fatality rate would have been a lot higher."


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: When Haynes died in August 2019, United Airlines issued a statement thanking him for "his exceptional efforts aboard Flight UA232".


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: As with the Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 crash of a similarly sized Lockheed L-1011 in 1972, the relatively shallow angle of descent likely played a large part in the relatively high survival rate. The National Transportation Safety Board concluded that under the circumstances, "a safe landing was virtually impossible."


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: The Flight 232 Memorial was built along the Missouri River in Sioux City, Iowa, to commemorate the heroism of the flight crew and the rescue efforts the Sioux City community undertook after the crash. It features a statue of Iowa National Guard Lt. Col. Dennis Nielsen from a news photo that was taken that day while he was carrying a three-year-old to safety.


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: The odds against all three hydraulic systems failing simultaneously had previously been calculated as low as a billion to one. Yet such calculations assume that multiple failures must have independent causes, an unrealistic assumption, and similar flight control failures have indeed occurred:


title: United Airlines Flight 232

text: The disintegration of a turbine disc, leading to loss of control, was a direct cause of two major aircraft disasters in Poland:


title: Roman legion

text: The Roman legion (, ) was the largest military unit of the Roman army, composed of 5,200 infantry and 300 equites (cavalry) in the period of the Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and of 5,600 infantry and 200 auxilia in the period of the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476).


title: Roman legion

text: The size of a typical legion varied throughout the history of ancient Rome, with complements ranging from 4,200 legionaries and 300 equites (drawn from the wealthier classes – in early Rome all troops provided their own equipment) in the Republican period of Rome (the infantry were split into 10 cohorts each of four maniples of 120 legionaries), to 4,800 legionaries (in 10 cohorts of 6 centuries of 80 legionaries) during Caesar's age, to 5,280 men plus 120 auxiliaries in the Imperial period (split into 10 cohorts, nine of 480 men each, with the first cohort being double-strength at 960 men). It should be noted the above numbers are typical field strengths while "paper strength" was slightly higher (e.g. 600 and 1,200 respectively for Imperial cohorts).


title: Roman legion

text: In the early Roman Kingdom "legion" may have meant the entire Roman army, but sources on this period are few and unreliable. The subsequent organisation of legions varied greatly over time but legions were typically composed of around five thousand soldiers. During much of the republican era, a legion was divided into three lines, each of ten "maniples". In the late republic and much of the imperial period (from about 100 BC), a legion was divided into ten cohorts, each of six (or five) centuries. Legions also included a small "ala", or cavalry unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions ("limitanei") may have become even smaller. In terms of organization and function, the Republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx.


title: Roman legion

text: For most of the Roman Imperial period, the legions formed the Roman army's elite heavy infantry, recruited exclusively from Roman citizens, while the remainder of the army consisted of auxiliaries, who provided additional infantry and the vast majority of the Roman army's cavalry. (Provincials who aspired to citizenship gained it when honourably discharged from the auxiliaries.) The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions.


title: Roman legion

text: Many of the legions founded before 40 BC were still active until at least the fifth century, notably Legio V Macedonica, which was founded by Augustus in 43 BC and was in Egypt in the seventh century during the Islamic conquest of Egypt.


title: Roman legion

text: On the other hand, Legio XVII ("Seventeenth Legion"), Legio XVIII ("Eighteenth Legion") and Legio XIX ("Nineteenth Legion"), founded by Augustus around 41 BC, were destroyed by a Germanic alliance led by Arminius in the Varian Disaster (September 9, AD 9) and never raised again by the Romans thereafter.


title: Roman legion

text: Because legions were not permanent units until the Marian reforms (c. 107 BC), and were instead created, used, and disbanded again, several hundred legions were named and numbered throughout Roman history. To date, about 50 have been identified.


title: Roman legion

text: The republican legions were composed of levied men that paid for their own equipment, with emphasis placed on service to the Republic as opposed to military career. At any time there would be four consular legions (with command divided between the two ruling consuls) and in time of war extra legions could be levied.


title: Roman legion

text: Toward the end of the 2nd century BC, the Republic started to experience manpower shortages brought about by property and financial qualifications to join the army. This was in part due to consul Gaius Marius's previous reforms and a growth in the number of "Capite censi" (property-less men), which prompted him to remove the property qualifications previously required and decree that all citizens regardless of their wealth or social class were made eligible for service in the legions, with all equipment provided by the state.


title: Roman legion

text: The Roman military thus became a professional volunteer and standing army which extended service beyond Roman citizens to also the "Peregrini" (non-citizens), who could sign on as "Auxilia" (auxiliaries) and were rewarded with Roman citizenship upon completion of service and all the rights and privileges that it entailed. In the time of Augustus there were nearly 50 legions in active duty which were in various states of disorder- He regulated and reduced this number to that of about 25–35 legions, which remained as such for most of the empire's history.


title: Roman legion

text: The legions of the Republic were only conscripted in times of conflict and usually limited to 4 legions, 2 to be commanded by each Consul, though more could be levied if needed. Legionaries lacked the opportunity of a military career- They were not paid well, their primary form of income being what they could loot from the battlefield, and were simply called upon when needed and returned to their civilian lives when they were no longer required.


title: Roman legion

text: In terms of organization and function, the early Republican era military was inherited from the Etruscans and seemingly influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx.


title: Roman legion

text: After a crushing defeat at the Battle of the Allia in 387 BC the military structure was reformed. Under the Camillan system the legions were initially structured based on social class, with the poorest being the first line of the formation. The legionaries most often fought with "Hastae" (spears) and "Scuta" (large rectangular shields) in a checkered maniple formation with assistance from skirmishers. The exception to this was the "Triarii", the final line of the formation who instead fought as hoplites, using Greek "Clipei" and whose wealth could afford them "Gladii" in the case of a broken spear.


title: Roman legion

text: By the 3rd century BC, this system was seen to be inefficient. Under the new Polybian system the ranks were no longer structured by wealth, and instead by age and experience. All legionaries had their "Hastae" replaced by "Gladii", along with two "pila" which were used as an opening volley before melee. The former classes of poor legionaries, the "accensi, rorarii," and "leves" were replaced by the "velites." Unit sizes were also expanded.


title: Roman legion

text: The formation of the legion once again changed in 107 BC under the Marian reforms due to manpower shortages. Legions were turned from conscripted armies in times of conflict to active, standing forces organized by "Cohortes" as opposed to maniples. All former classes were disbanded and replaced by a main body of legionaries and its officers. Property and wealth qualifications were removed and all legionaries were equipped by the state. Legionaries were now contracted and actively trained and paid career soldiers. Non-citizens or "Peregrini" were also offered a position in the military as auxiliaries.


title: Roman legion

text: The Republican legion evolved from 3,000 men in the Roman Republic to over 5,200 men in the Roman Empire, consisting of centuries as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century AD, ten cohorts made up a Roman legion. This was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size (with six centuries at 80 men each) with the first cohort being of double strength (five double-strength centuries with 160 men each).


title: Roman legion

text: By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit, 10,000 men, was broken down into smaller units - originally temporary detachments - to cover more territory.


title: Roman legion

text: In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions ("limitanei") may have become even smaller.


title: Roman legion

text: In the period before the raising of the "legio" and the early years of the Roman Kingdom and the Republic, forces are described as being organised into "centuries" of roughly one hundred men. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them. Such independent organisation persisted until the 2nd century BC amongst light infantry and cavalry, but was discarded completely in later periods with the supporting role taken instead by allied troops. The roles of century leader (later formalised as a centurion), second in command and standard bearer are referenced in this early period.


title: Roman legion

text: Rome's early period is undocumented and shrouded in myths, but those myths tell that during the rule of Servius Tullius, the census (from Latin: "censeō" – accounting of the people) was introduced. With this all Roman able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were divided into five classes for military service based on their wealth and then organised into centuries as sub-units of the greater Roman army or "legio" (multitude). Joining the army was both a duty and a distinguishing mark of Roman citizenship; during the entire pre-Marian period the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen.


title: Roman legion

text: At some point, possibly in the beginning of the Roman Republic after the kings were overthrown, the "legio" was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two consuls. In the first years of the Republic, when warfare was mostly concentrated on raiding, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at any one time. In 494 BC, when three foreign threats emerged, the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus raised ten legions which Livy says was a greater number than had been raised previously at any one time.


title: Roman legion

text: Also, some warfare was still conducted by Roman forces outside the legionary structure, the most famous example being the campaign in 479 BC by the clan army of gens Fabia against the Etruscan city of Veii (in which the clan was annihilated). Legions became more formally organised in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions each.


title: Roman legion

text: In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular armies (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide approximately ten cohorts (auxilia were not organised into legions) to support each Roman Legion.


title: Roman legion

text: Each of these three lines was subdivided into (usually 10) chief tactical units called maniples. A maniple consisted of two centuries and was commanded by the senior of the two centurions. At this time, each century of hastati and principes consisted of 60 men; a century of triarii was 30 men. These 3,000 men (twenty maniples of 120 men, and ten maniples of 60 men), together with about 1,200 velites and 300 cavalry gave the mid Republican ("manipular") legion a nominal strength of about 4,500 men.


title: Roman legion

text: The Marian reforms (of Gaius Marius) enlarged the centuries to 80 men, and grouped them into six-century "cohorts" (rather than two-century maniples). Each century had its own standard and was made up of ten units ("contubernia") of eight men who shared a tent, a millstone, a mule and cooking pot.


title: Roman legion

text: Following the reforms of the general Marius in the 2nd century BC, the legions took on the second, narrower meaning that is familiar in the popular imagination as close-order citizen heavy infantry.


title: Roman legion

text: At the end of the 2nd century BC, Gaius Marius reformed the previously ephemeral legions as a professional force drawing from the poorest classes, enabling Rome to field larger armies and providing employment for jobless citizens of the city of Rome. However, this put the loyalty of the soldiers in the hands of their general rather than the State of Rome itself. This development ultimately enabled Julius Caesar to cross the Rubicon with an army loyal to him personally and effectively end the Republic.


title: Roman legion

text: The legions of the late Republic and early Empire are often called "Marian" legions. Following the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC, Marius granted all Italian soldiers Roman citizenship. He justified this action to the Senate by saying that in the din of battle he could not distinguish Roman from ally. This effectively eliminated the notion of allied legions; henceforth all Italian legions would be regarded as Roman legions, and full Roman citizenship was open to all the regions of Italy. At the same time, the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type based on the "Principes": armed with two heavy javelins called "pila" (singular "pilum"), the short sword called "gladius", chain mail ("lorica hamata"), helmet and rectangular shield ("scutum").


title: Roman legion

text: The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied auxiliary troops, called "Auxilia". "Auxilia" contained specialist units, engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and craftsmen, service and support personnel and irregular units made up of non-citizens, mercenaries and local militia. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry or "velites", and labourers. There was also a reconnaissance squad of 10 or more light mounted infantry called "speculatores" who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of military intelligence service.


title: Roman legion

text: As part of the Marian reforms, the legions' internal organisation was standardised. Each legion was divided into "cohorts". Prior to this, cohorts had been temporary administrative units or tactical task forces of several maniples, even more transitory than the legions themselves. Now the cohorts were ten permanent units, composed of 6 centuries and in the case of the first cohort 5 double strength centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an "optio". The cohorts came to form the basic tactical unit of the legions. Ranking within the legion was based on length of service, with the senior Centurion commanding the first century of the first cohort; he was called the "primus pilus" (First Spear), and reported directly to the superior officers (legates and tribuni). All career soldiers could be promoted to the higher ranks in recognition of exceptional acts of bravery or valour. A newly promoted junior Centurion would be assigned to the sixth century of the tenth cohort and slowly progressed through the ranks from there.


title: Roman legion

text: Every legion had a large baggage train, which included 640 mules (1 mule for every 8 legionaries) just for the soldiers' equipment. To keep these baggage trains from becoming too large and slow, Marius had each infantryman carry as much of his own equipment as he could, including his own armour, weapons and 15 days' rations, for about 25–30 kg (50–60 pounds) of load total. To make this easier, he issued each legionary a cross stick to carry their loads on their shoulders. The soldiers were nicknamed "Marius' Mules" because of the amount of gear they had to carry themselves. This arrangement allowed for the possibility for the supply train to become temporarily detached from the main body of the legion, thus greatly increasing the army's speed when needed.


title: Roman legion

text: A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 11,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries. During the Later Roman Empire, the legion was reduced in size to 1,000 to allow for easier provisioning and to expand the regions under surveillance. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered during a campaign; Julius Caesar's legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men.


title: Roman legion

text: Tactics were not very different from the past, but their effectiveness was largely improved because of the professional training of the soldiers.


title: Roman legion

text: After the Marian reforms and throughout the history of Rome's Late Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC, the threat of the legions under a demagogue was recognised. Governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. When Julius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated a constitutional crisis. This crisis and the civil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the Empire under Augustus in 27 BC.


title: Roman legion

text: Generals, during the recent Republican civil wars, had formed their own legions and numbered them as they wished. During this time, there was a high incidence of "Gemina" (twin) legions, where two legions were consolidated into a single organisation (and was later made official and put under a legatus and six duces). At the end of the civil war against Mark Antony, Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts (multiple Legio Xs for instance). For political and economic reasons, Augustus reduced the number of legions to 28 (which diminished to 25 after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, in which 3 legions were completely destroyed by the Germanics).


title: Roman legion

text: Beside streamlining the army, Augustus also regulated the soldiers' pay. At the same time, he greatly increased the number of auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the legionaries. He also created the Praetorian Guard along with a permanent navy where served the "liberti", or freed slaves.


title: Roman legion

text: The legions also became permanent at this time, and not recruited for particular campaigns. They were also allocated to static bases with permanent "castra legionaria" (legionary fortresses).


title: Roman legion

text: Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective, and were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until the strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions (hence the wry remark of the philosopher Favorinus that "It is ill arguing with the master of 30 legions"). With each legion having 5,120 legionaries usually supported by an equal number of auxiliary troops (according to Tacitus), the total force available to a legion commander during the Pax Romana probably ranged from 11,000 downwards, with the more prestigious legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to have more auxiliaries. By the time of the emperor Severus, 193–211, the auxiliaries may have composed 55 to 60% of the army, 250,000 of 447,000. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times with units making the associated force near 15,000–16,000 or about the size of a modern division.


title: Roman legion

text: Throughout the imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for a usurper or take it away. For example, the defeat of Vitellius in the Year of the Four Emperors was decided when the Danubian legions chose to support Vespasian.


title: Roman legion

text: In the empire, the legion was standardised, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was commanded by a "legatus" or "legate". Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three-year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected "military tribunes" – five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion). There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers, the "praefectus castrorum" (commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians.


title: Roman legion

text: In the Later Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and the Roman Army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elite "legiones palatinae" created by Diocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old Legions. The earliest "legiones palatinae" were the "Lanciarii", "Joviani", "Herculiani" and "Divitenses".


title: Roman legion

text: The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under Constantine II. In addition to the elite "palatini", other legions called "comitatenses" and "pseudocomitatenses", along with the "auxilia palatina", provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 25 "legiones palatinae", 70 "legiones comitatenses", 47 "legiones pseudocomitatenses" and 111 "auxilia palatina" in the field armies, and a further 47 "legiones" in the frontier armies. Legion names such as "Honoriani" and "Gratianenses" found in the Notitia suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed from "vexillationes" or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini, 73 vexillationes comitatenses; 305 other units in the Eastern limitanei and 181 in the Western limitanei. A rare instance of apparent direct continuity between the legions of the early Empire and those of the post-6th century army was "Legion V Macedonica"; created in 43 BC, recorded in the "Notitia Dignitatum" as a "legione comitatense" under the title of "Quinta Macedonica" and surviving in Egypt until the Arab conquest of 637 AD.


title: Roman legion

text: According to the late Roman writer Vegetius' "De Re Militari", each century had a ballista and each cohort had an onager, giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 Ballistae and 10 Onagers, each manned by 10 "libritors" (artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (castra) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as field artillery during battles or in support of river crossings.


title: Roman legion

text: Despite a number of organisational changes, the Legion system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It was continued within the Eastern Roman Empire until the 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor Heraclius to supply the increasing need for soldiers resulted in the Theme system. Despite this, the Eastern Roman armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar levels of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.


title: Roman legion

text: Aside from the rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the Marian reforms (104 BC) until the military reforms of Diocletian (c. 290).


title: Roman legion

text: The rank of centurion was an officer grade that held much responsibility. The most senior centurion in a legion was known as the "primus pilus" (first file or spear), who directly commanded the first century of the first cohort and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known as a "pilus prior" and was in command of his entire cohort when in battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions was followed by the five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as "primi ordines".


title: Roman legion

text: There is a story of one Centurion, Petronius Fortunatus, making rank in four years, then spending the next forty-two years in twelve different legions never once serving in the primi ordines.


title: Roman legion

text: The centuries took their titles from the old use of the legion drawn up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier. (Each century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line, although these century titles were now essentially nominal.) Each of the three lines is then sub-divided within the century into a more forward and a more rear century.


title: Roman legion

text: The Roman army maintained a complex position and grading system for its soldiers that reflected the many and varied duties of the Roman army. There were three pay grades within the rank of legionary: standard, one and a half, and twice the basic pay rate.


title: Roman legion

text: From the time of Gaius Marius onwards, legionaries received 225 "denarii" a year (equal to 900 "Sestertii"); this basic rate remained unchanged until Domitian, who increased it to 300 denarii. In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of Septimius Severus, who increased it to 500 denarii a year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also be claimed from the prisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay.


title: Roman legion

text: All legionary soldiers would also receive a "praemia" (veterans' benefits) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000 "denarii" from the time of Augustus) and/or a plot of good farmland (good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, under Caracalla, the "praemia" increased to 5,000 "denarii".


title: Roman legion

text: From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an aquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as aquilifer, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so severely mauled that it was no longer effective in combat.


title: Roman legion

text: In "Gallic War" (Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships.


title: Roman legion

text: With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, called imaginifer, whose role was to carry a pike with the "imago" (image, sculpture) of the emperor as "pontifex maximus".


title: Roman legion

text: Each legion, furthermore, had a "vexillifer" who carried a vexillum or "signum", with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion. It was common for a legion to detach some sub-units from the main camp to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried only the vexillum, and not the aquila, and were called, therefore, "vexillationes". A miniature vexillum, mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or reassignment.


title: Roman legion

text: Civilians could also be rewarded for their assistance to the Roman legions. In return for outstanding service, a citizen was given an arrow without a head. This was considered a great honour and would bring the recipient much prestige.


title: Roman legion

text: The military discipline of the legions was harsh. Regulations were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be inflicted.


title: Roman legion

text: Montesquieu wrote that "the main reason for the Romans becoming masters of the world was that, having fought successively against all peoples, they always gave up their own practices as soon as they found better ones."


title: Roman legion

text: Examples of ideas that were copied and adapted include weapons like the gladius (Iberians) and warship design (cf. Carthaginians' quinquereme), as well as military units, such as heavy mounted cavalry and mounted archers (Numidians and Parthians).


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: The second season of the American television series "The Mandalorian" stars Pedro Pascal as the title character, a bounty hunter trying to return "The Child" to his people, the Jedi. It is part of the "Star Wars" franchise, set after the events of "Return of the Jedi" (1983). The season was produced by Lucasfilm, Fairview Entertainment, and Golem Creations, with Jon Favreau serving as showrunner.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Development on a second season of "The Mandalorian" had begun by July 2019, with Favreau looking to expand the scope of the series and introduce new characters; several characters from previous "Star Wars" media appear in the season. Filming took place from October 2019 to March 2020, finishing days before the COVID-19 pandemic forced film and television productions to shut down. Post-production was completed remotely, including the recording of composer Ludwig Göransson's score.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: The eight-episode season premiered on the streaming service Disney+ on October 30, 2020, and ran until December 18, 2020. A third season has been announced.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: In July 2019, "The Mandalorian" creator and showrunner Jon Favreau confirmed that there would be a second season of the series. He had already begun writing the new season, and pre-production was underway. It consists of eight episodes. There were fewer start-up costs for the second season, allowing more of the season's budget to be allocated to each episode than has been possible during the first season. Disney CEO Bob Iger announced in February 2020 that the second season would premiere that October.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Rick Famuyiwa was returning as a director by August 2019, but Taika Waititi was not expected to return due to a scheduling conflict with his film "Next Goal Wins". A month later, Favreau said he would direct an episode of the second season, after being unable to direct any of the first due to his commitments to "The Lion King" (2019). At the end of October, Carl Weathers was confirmed to be directing for the season; Favreau had promised that Weathers could direct a second-season episode when hiring the actor to co-star in the first season. Dave Filoni had returned as director for the second season by March 2020. On May 4, "Star Wars" Day, Robert Rodriguez and Peyton Reed revealed that they had also directed episodes of the second season. Rodriguez was not originally intended to direct in the season, joining as a last-minute replacement. That June, Bryce Dallas Howard revealed that she had also returned to direct an episode of the second season.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: The season begins "very directly" after the end of the first season, with the Mandalorian protecting "The Child" and searching for its home. Favreau said the second season would introduce a larger story, with the episodes being "less isolated" than many of the first season's episodes were, though he said each episode of the second season would still have "its own flavor". He added that the new characters introduced in the second season would come with new storylines, allowing the series to begin to explore stories other than the Mandalorian's. Favreau was inspired by the multiple different storylines of "Game of Thrones", an approach that he described as "very appealing to me as an audience member".


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Pedro Pascal stars in the series as The Mandalorian. Also returning from the first season are recurring co-stars Giancarlo Esposito as Moff Gideon and Gina Carano as Cara Dune, in addition to Amy Sedaris as Peli Motto, Carl Weathers as Greef Karga, Horatio Sanz as a Mythrol, Omid Abtahi as Dr. Pershing, Ming-Na Wen as Fennec Shand, and Bill Burr as Migs Mayfeld. Filoni reprises his role as X-Wing pilot Trapper Wolf, while Paul Sun-Hyung Lee portrays the pilot Carson Teva.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: In March 2020, Rosario Dawson was reported to be appearing as Ahsoka Tano in the second season. This marks the character's first live-action appearance after previously appearing in the animated series "" and "Star Wars Rebels" and having a voice-only role in the film "" (2019); the character was voiced by Ashley Eckstein in these appearances. Dawson had previously expressed interest in taking on the role in live-action after her casting was suggested by a fan in February 2017. Also in March, Michael Biehn joined the cast as Lang, an enforcer. That May, Temuera Morrison was set to reprise his role as Boba Fett in the second season. Morrison portrayed Boba's father Jango Fett in "" (2002), and went on to provide the voice of Boba in various "Star Wars" media. Before Morrison's involvement was confirmed, the character briefly appeared in the first-season episode "". Also in May, Katee Sackhoff was revealed to be reprising her role of Bo-Katan Kryze in the second season after previously voicing the character in "The Clone Wars" and "Rebels", and Timothy Olyphant was revealed to be in the season as well. He portrays Cobb Vanth, a character from the "" novels who wears Boba Fett's armor. In September 2020, Mercedes Varnado was revealed to have been cast in the season; she appears as the Mandalorian Koska Reeves, a member of the Nite Owls. In the season finale, the character Luke Skywalker appears along with his droid R2-D2; Mark Hamill reprises his role from the "Star Wars" films, digitally de-aged to portray a younger version of Skywalker, with Max Lloyd Jones serving as an on-set body double for the character. Additionally, Matthew Wood reprises his role as Bib Fortuna from "" (1999).


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: The capabilities of Industrial Light & Magic's StageCraft technology were increased from season one, with the "volume" set also expanded for the season. Filming for the season began on October 7, 2019, once again using the working title "Huckleberry". Favreau directed the season premiere. There was "heightened secrecy" surrounding the second season, with actors only receiving scripts for the episodes they were in and being brought to set in hooded cloaks. Additionally, many of the cast and crew were unaware that the Jedi that appears in the final episode of the season would be Luke Skywalker. As he did for the first season, "Star Wars" creator George Lucas visited the set while Filoni was directing for the second season.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Sam Hargrave served as second unit director for the season. Hargrave said Favreau was "looking for someone... who has experience with action" and that he "wanted to build on" what was done in season one, while bringing in "a new perspective and [taking] it to another level" for season two. Pascal was able to portray the Mandalorian more on set this season than the last, when his other commitments resulted in stunt doubles Brendan Wayne and Lateef Crowder portraying the character at times; Both Wayne and Crowder returned for the season. Additional filming took place on location in Simi Valley, California for sequences in "".


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Filming for the season wrapped on March 8, 2020. This was described as "fortuitous" as it was just four days before film and television productions around the world were shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic still impacted post-production for the season.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Composer Ludwig Göransson was able to take advantage of the emotional attachment that the audience developed with his musical themes during the first season, which gave him the ability to "immediately give them what they want, or play the themes with different harmonies or different instrumentation, and people will instantly recognize it". Göransson uses the series' main theme "in a lot of new and different iterations" in the second season. He explained that the Mandalorian's theme was primarily played on the recorder during the first season to emphasize his "lone man's journey", but was played on guitar in some flashbacks to the character's childhood. In the second season, the theme is primarily played on electric guitar to show the character's new confidence and relationship with Grogu. Göransson uses an Ibanez eight-string electric guitar for this.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Göransson introduces new musical themes for each episode in the season, with new sounds and ideas, as each episode has a different genre, setting, and characters. He uses a "rock 'n' roll, heavy metal mood" in "Chapter 9: The Marshal" as an homage to the music Ennio Morricone wrote for Sergio Leone's Western films. "Chapter 10: The Passenger" prominently features Göransson's theme for Grogu, which he wrote during development on the first season. It is played on a Fender Rhodes electric piano, which Göransson compared to John Williams' use of the glockenspiel and celeste in the "Star Wars" films to create a "storybook or magical feeling". For Bo-Katan's introduction in "Chapter 11: The Heiress", Göransson used distorted synthesizer sounds to create an industrial sound that matched the character's "speed and energy". His theme for Boba Fett also uses distorted sounds, inspired by sound effects that Rodriguez added to his initial cut of "Chapter 14: The Tragedy". The first season does not feature any references to Williams' original themes, but there were a lot of conversations between Göransson and the producers about how to "flirt with the "Star Wars" themes a little bit" in the second season, leading to several inclusions: Göransson references Williams' theme for Yoda in "Chapter 13: The Jedi" when that character is mentioned, and he reprises Williams' theme for The Force when Skywalker appears in "Chapter 16: The Rescue". He also uses Kevin Kiner's theme for Ahsoka Tano from "Star Wars: The Clone Wars" for scenes with that character.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: The biggest challenge for the season's post-production team was recording Göransson's orchestral score during the COVID-19 pandemic. The series was one of the first to use the 20th Century Fox scoring stage when it allowed recordings again. Thirty string players were recorded there for the first seven episodes, with the players wearing masks and spaced six feet apart. The final episode increased the string players to forty, while also adding over a dozen brass and woodwind players. To comply with health regulations and musician union rules, the strings were recorded on separate days from the brass and woodwinds. Additional musicians were recorded remotely and combined with the scoring stage recordings, as well as recordings of Göransson playing the guitar, recorder, piano, bass, rock drums, and synthesizers. Recording took place from July to September 2020.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: Unlike the first season, where an album of music was released for each episode, Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack for the second season in two volumes: music from "Chapter 9" through "Chapter 12" was released on November 20, 2020, with a second soundtrack for "Chapter 13" through "Chapter 16" released on December 18.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: The first trailer for the season was released on September 15, 2020, while a special look trailer debuted on October 19, 2020, during "Monday Night Football". Merchandise for the season was revealed each Monday from October 26 to December 21, 2020, as part of the "Mando Mondays" initiative.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 93% approval rating with an average score of 8.5/10 based on 450 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "With fan favorites and fresh faces galore both in front of and behind the camera, "The Mandalorian"s sophomore season solidifies its place as one of "Star Wars"s most engaging and exciting sagas." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: "The Mandalorian" became the first Disney+ show to make an appearance on Nielsen's top 10 list, placing number three in the week of October 26, with a total of 1 billion minutes streamed that week, just behind shows like "The Office" and "The Queen’s Gambit". The show became the most watched program in November, reaching 29% of viewers, beating "The Queen’s Gambit" at around 20%. In the week of December 14, the show audience increased more and managed to finally reach number 1 in the Nielsen ratings, beating "The Office" with a total of 1.3 billion streams.


title: The Mandalorian (season 2)

text: In December 2020, it was announced that a special, "Disney Gallery: The Mandalorian – Making of Season Two", would premiere on December 25, 2020. The hour-long special features interviews with the cast and crew of "The Mandalorian" and behind-the-scenes footage for all eight episodes of season two. A second special, "The Making of the Season 2 Finale", was released on August 25, 2021, exploring the process behind featuring a de-aged Hamill in the finale.


title: Rhinovirus

text: The rhinovirus (from the "nose", , "of the nose", and the ) is the most common viral infectious agent in humans and is the predominant cause of the common cold. Rhinovirus infection proliferates in temperatures of 33–35 °C (91–95 °F), the temperatures found in the nose. Rhinoviruses belong to the genus "Enterovirus" in the family "Picornaviridae".


title: Rhinovirus

text: The three species of rhinovirus (A, B, and C) include around 160 recognized types (called serotypes) of human rhinovirus that differ according to their surface antigens. They are lytic in nature and are among the smallest viruses, with diameters of about 30 nanometers. By comparison, other viruses, such as smallpox and vaccinia, are around ten times larger at about 300 nanometers, while flu viruses are around 80–120 nm.


title: Rhinovirus

text: In 1953, when a cluster of nurses developed a mild respiratory illness, Winston Price, from the Johns Hopkins University, took nasal passage samples and isolated the first rhinovirus, which he called the JH virus, named after Johns Hopkins. His findings were published in 1956.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Rhinoviruses may be spread via airborne aerosols, respiratory droplets and from fomites (contaminated surfaces), including direct person-to-person contact.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Rhinoviruses are spread worldwide and are the primary cause of the common cold. Symptoms include sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and cough; sometimes accompanied by muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headache, muscle weakness, or loss of appetite. Most sinus findings are reversible consistent with a self-limited viral process typical of rhinovirus colds. Fever and extreme exhaustion are more usual in influenza. Children may have six to twelve colds a year. In the United States, the incidence of colds is higher in the autumn and winter, with most infections occurring between September to April. The seasonality may be due to the start of the school year and to people spending more time indoors thereby increasing the chance of transmission of the virus. Lower ambient temperatures, especially outdoors, may also be a factor given that rhinoviruses preferentially replicate at 32 °C (89 °F) as opposed to 37 °C (98 °F). Variant pollens, grasses, hays and agricultural practices may be factors in the seasonality as well as the use of chemical controls of lawn, paddock and sportsfields in schools and communities. The changes in temperature, humidity and wind patterns seem to be factors. It is also postulated that poor housing, overcrowding and unsanitary conditions related to poverty are relevant factors in the transmission of 'common cold'.


title: Rhinovirus

text: The primary route of entry for human rhinoviruses is the upper respiratory tract (mouth and nose). Rhinovirus A and B use "major" ICAM-1 (Inter-Cellular Adhesion Molecule 1), also known as CD54 (Cluster of Differentiation 54), on respiratory epithelial cells, as receptors to bind to. Some subgroups under A and B uses the "minor" LDL receptor instead. Rhinovirus C uses cadherin-related family member 3 (CDHR3) to mediate cellular entry. As the virus replicates and spreads, infected cells release distress signals known as chemokines and cytokines (which in turn activate inflammatory mediators). Cell lysis occurs at the upper respiratory epithelium.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Infection occurs rapidly, with the virus adhering to surface receptors within 15 minutes of entering the respiratory tract. Just over 50% of individuals will experience symptoms within 2 days of infection. Only about 5% of cases will have an incubation period of less than 20 hours, and, at the other extreme, it is expected that 5% of cases would have an incubation period of greater than four and a half days.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Human rhinoviruses preferentially grow at 32 °C (89 °F), notably colder than the average human body temperature of 37 °C (98 °F); hence the virus's tendency to infect the upper respiratory tract, where respiratory airflow is in continual contact with the (colder) extrasomatic environment.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Rhinovirus C, unlike the A and B species, may be able to cause severe infections. This association disappears after controlling for confounders. Duly, amongst infants infected with symptomatic respiratory illness in low-resource areas, there appears to be no association between rhinovirus species and disease severity.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Rhinovirus was formerly classified as a genus of the family "Picornaviridae". The 39th Executive Committee (EC39) of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) met in Canada during June 2007 with new taxonomic proposals. In April 2008, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses voted and ratified the following changes:


title: Rhinovirus

text: The merge is based on the grounds that the two "genera" of viruses are not significantly different in a virological sense. They have identical genome organizations and particle structures, and the phylogeny is not always monophyletic.


title: Rhinovirus

text: In July 2009, the ICTV voted and ratified a proposal to add a third species, "Human rhinovirus C" to the genus "Enterovirus".


title: Rhinovirus

text: There have been a total of 215 taxonomic proposals, which have been approved and ratified since the 8th ICTV Report of 2005.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Human rhinovirus serotype names are of the form HRV-"Xn" where "X" is the rhinovirus species (A, B, or C) and "n" is an index number. Species A and B have used the same index, while Species C has a separate index. Valid index numbers are as follows:


title: Rhinovirus

text: Rhinoviruses have single-stranded positive sense RNA genomes of between 7200 and 8500 nt in length. At the 5' end of the genome is a virus-encoded protein and, as in mammalian mRNA, there is a 3' poly-A tail. Structural proteins are encoded in the 5' region of the genome and non structural at the 3' end. This is the same for all picornaviruses. The viral particles themselves are not enveloped and are dodecahedral in structure.


title: Rhinovirus

text: The viral proteins are translated as a single long polypeptide, which is cleaved into the structural and nonstructural viral proteins.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Human rhinoviruses are composed of a capsid that contains four viral proteins, VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4. VP1, VP2, and VP3 form the major part of the protein capsid. The much smaller VP4 protein has a more extended structure, and lies at the interface between the capsid and the RNA genome. There are 60 copies of each of these proteins assembled as an icosahedron. Antibodies are a major defense against infection with the epitopes lying on the exterior regions of VP1-VP3.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Interferon-alpha used intranasally was shown to be effective against human rhinovirus infections. However, volunteers treated with this drug experienced some side effects, such as nasal bleeding, and began developing tolerance to the drug. Subsequently, research into the treatment was abandoned.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Pleconaril is an orally bioavailable antiviral drug being developed for the treatment of infections caused by picornaviruses. This drug acts by binding to a hydrophobic pocket in VP1, and stabilizes the protein capsid to such an extent that the virus cannot release its RNA genome into the target cell. When tested in volunteers, during the clinical trials, this drug caused a significant decrease in mucus secretions and illness-associated symptoms. Pleconaril is not currently available for treatment of human rhinoviral infections, as its efficacy in treating these infections is under further evaluation.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Other substances such as Iota-Carrageenan may form a basis for the creation of drugs to combat the human rhinovirus.


title: Rhinovirus

text: In asthma, human rhinoviruses have been recently associated with the majority of asthma exacerbations for which current therapy is inadequate. Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) has a central role in airway inflammation in asthma, and it is the receptor for 90% of Human rhinoviruses. Human rhinovirus infection of airway epithelium induces ICAM-1.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Desloratadine and loratadine are compounds belonging to the new class of H1-receptor blockers. Anti-inflammatory properties of antihistamines have been recently documented, although the underlying molecular mechanisms are not completely defined. These effects are unlikely to be mediated by H1-receptor antagonism and suggest a novel mechanism of action that may be important for the therapeutic control of virus-induced asthma exacerbations.


title: Rhinovirus

text: In 2018, a new series of anti-rhinoviral compounds were reported by researchers at Imperial College London and colleagues at the University of York and the Pirbright Institute. These molecules target human "N"-myristoyltransferase, an enzyme in the host cell which picornavirus requires in order to assemble its viral capsid, and thus generate an infectious virion. The lead compound in this series, IMP-1088, very potently inhibited host myristoylation of viral capsid protein and prevented infectious virus formation, rescuing the viability of cells in culture which had been exposed to a variety of rhinovirus serotypes, or to related picornaviruses including poliovirus and foot-and-mouth-disease virus. Because these compounds target a host factor, they are broadly active against all serotypes, and it is thought to be unlikely that they can be overcome by resistance mutations in the virus.


title: Rhinovirus

text: There are no vaccines against these viruses as there is little-to-no cross-protection between serotypes. At least 99 serotypes of human rhinoviruses affecting humans have been sequenced. However, a study of the VP4 protein has shown it to be highly conserved among many serotypes of human rhinovirus, opening up the potential for a future pan-serotype human rhinovirus vaccine. A similar result was obtained with the VP1 protein. Like VP4, VP1 also occasionally "pokes" out of the viral particle, making it available to neutralizing antibodies. Both peptides have been tested on rabbits, resulting in successful generation of cross-serotype antibodies.


title: Rhinovirus

text: The successful introduction of human ICAM-1 into mice has removed a major roadblock in creating an animal model for RV vaccination.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Prevention of Rhinovirus is very challenging as there are no official or approved vaccines or preventative measures for Rhinovirus. The lack of data and knowledge of Rhinovirus poses obstacles to the development of a vaccine. Better understanding and study have been promoted in recent years in order to provide treatment and prevention for one of the most common human viruses. These challenges include over 100 unique Rhinovirus serotypes with recent discoveries of even more, a lack of data indicating the most common strains of HRV in the human population, and a lack of understanding of the antigenic differences between Rhinovirus serotypes along with limited studies including animal models of HRV infection and pathogenesis. Rhinovirus research has typically been neglected as it occurs most synonymously as the common cold. Recent attention to the effects of viruses on the immunocompromised have brought more attention to researching this very common infection. Currently, the treatment for Rhinovirus is typically only for those in palliative care as a large portion of the population is able to recover from a Rhinovirus infection.


title: Rhinovirus

text: However, Rhinovirus can pose a life threatening risk to those that have immunocompromising conditions, such as those with asthma who appear to be at greater risk of severe infections from Rhinovirus, as it poses to exacerbate symptoms of asthma. Treatments for those with asthma have been progressed as IFN-, a cytokine modulator shown to attenuate stronger symptoms of asthma onset by a Rhinovirus infection. Despite the increasing risk it poses to those with preexisting conditions, Rhinovirus has itself demonstrated an ability to act similar to an attenuated virus for stronger respiratory infection caused by other viruses. It has the ability, in milder infections, to promote antiviral immunity in the upper respiratory tract against other viruses such as Influenza and SARS-CoV-2. Rhinovirus has a mutation rate similar to that of Influenza which, along with SARS-COV2, has a vaccine treatment. Rate of mutation is not what poses an issue to Rhinovirus vaccination. Rhinovirus genome has a high rate of variability in human circulation, even occurring with genomic sequences that differ up to 30%. Recent studies have identified conserved regions of the Rhinovirus genome; this, along with an adjuvanted polyvalent Rhinovirus vaccine, shows potential for future development in vaccine treatment.


title: Rhinovirus

text: Human rhinovirus can remain activated for up to three hours outside of a human host. Once the virus is contracted, a person is most contagious within the first three days. Preventative measures such as regular vigorous handwashing with soap and water may aid in avoiding infection. Avoiding touching the mouth, eyes, and nose, the most common entry points for rhinovirus may also aid in prevention. Droplet precautions, which take the form of a surgical mask and gloves, are the method used in major hospitals.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Yakuza: Like a Dragon is a role-playing video game developed by Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio and published by Sega. The first mainline title in the "Yakuza" franchise developed as a turn-based RPG, it was released in Japan and Asia for PlayStation 4 on January 16, 2020. The western release of the game for PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S on November 10, 2020 included new costumes, the English audio track and some previously paid DLC. This version was then released in Asia under the subtitle International on February 25, 2021 for Windows and Xbox platforms. The game was released worldwide for PlayStation 5 on March 2, 2021, and a version for Amazon Luna launched on December 10, 2021.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: In contrast to previous "Yakuza" games that focused on the life of Kazuma Kiryu, a man trying to lead a normal life after leaving the yakuza lifestyle, "Like a Dragon" instead introduces a new protagonist named Ichiban Kasuga. After being imprisoned for 18 years only to then be betrayed by his former boss, Ichiban goes on a personal quest to become a "hero" and uncover the reason for his betrayal alongside his companions. "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" received positive reviews from both players and critics who enjoyed the narrative, characters, gameplay, unique take on the JRPG sub-genre, and presentation.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" is the last game to use "Yakuza" name outside of Japan, and the first to use the Japanese title worldwide (albeit as a subtitle). It is set to be followed up by two games: a side story "Like a Dragon Gaiden: The Man Who Erased His Name" in 2023, and the next mainline installment "Like a Dragon 8" in 2024.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Similar to previous games in the "Yakuza" series, side-quests (known as sub-stories in-game) can be taken up by the player to gain additional rewards and players are also able to enjoy the various side activities around the map such as karaoke. A new side-activity introduced in this game is Dragon Kart, which is similar to other kart racing games in terms of its gameplay.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: A major departure from previous "Yakuza" games is the battle system. Instead of the real-time action beat 'em up mechanics of previous games, "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" features a real-time turn-based RPG type combat, with a four-person battle team. However, unlike typical turn-based RPGs, characters may use nearby surrounding items such as bicycles to attack enemies (if the items are near the enemies) or may kick surrounding items to their target if there is an interactive item in the environment on the way to the enemy, an aspect that returns from the previous "Yakuza" games. Players can also call on various party assists to strengthen the party or defeat enemies, with more assists added as the story progresses or through the completion of sub-stories. Players can still continue exploring the world after completing the game. A new game plus mode with additional difficulty settings exclusive to this mode was released as paid downloadable content for the Japanese version of the game, but it comes as a standard feature in the Western release.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Complementing the new combat system are Jobs, a form of character classes similar to other RPGs. Players can change any party member's job to better fit the party's playstyle. Currently, there are two jobs that can only be obtained via paid downloadable content.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: The game is set in 2019, three years after the events of "". For the first time in the "Yakuza" series, the focus shifts away from Tokyo and the game's fictional recreation of Kabukichō, called Kamurochō. Instead, most of the gameplay takes place in the Yokohama district of Isezaki Ijincho, which is based on Yokohama's real-life Isezakichō district. However, Kamurochō and the Osaka district Sotenbori (another area from previous "Yakuza" games, based on the real-life Dōtonbori district) are featured in the game. Yokohama's criminal underworld consists of three interconnected factions known as the Ijin Three: the Chinese-Japanese gang Yokohama Liumang, the Korean-Japanese Geomijul mafia, an offshoot of the Jingweon Mafia, and the local "yakuza" organization, the Seiryu Clan.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" is also the first main series game not to have Kazuma Kiryu as its protagonist. Its lead character is Ichiban Kasuga, a low-ranking member of the Arakawa Family, a subsidiary of the Kanto-based Tojo Clan. Mandatory playable characters who join Ichiban's party include Yu Nanba, a homeless ex-nurse; ex-detective Koichi Adachi, who suspects a corrupt connection between the Arakawa Family and the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department; hostess bar mama Saeko Mukoda, an employee of soapland proprietor Nonomiya; Geomijul operative Joon-gi Han, the body double of the Jingweon Mafia leader of the same name from "Yakuza 6"; and Liumang leader Tianyou Zhao. Eri Kamataki appears as a character of the same name, the chief executive officer of Ichiban Confections who recruits Ichiban to help turn her company around as part of the business management minigame. She may be recruited as an optional party member once the player reaches the first milestone objective within the minigame.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Important non-player characters include Masumi Arakawa, the patriarch or "oyabun" of the Arakawa Family; Masato Arakawa, Arakawa's son who falsified his identity to become Ryo Aoki, the upstart Governor of Tokyo; Jo Sawashiro, Arakawa's long serving right-hand man; Souta Kume, a fanatical member of Bleach Japan, a political movement that seeks to cleanse Japan of its 'grey zones' (e.g. prostitution, illegal immigration, organized crime etc.) and protege of Aoki; Seong-hui, the head of the Geomijul; Ryuhei Hoshino, chairman of the Seiryu Clan; and Yosuke Tendo, an opportunistic Omi Alliance member and disgraced former professional boxer. Several recurring franchise characters can be temporarily summoned, once recruited, to assist the party during battle, including Kiryu, Goro Majima, and Taiga Saejima.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: In 2001, Arakawa persuades Ichiban to confess to a murder that Sawashiro allegedly committed, to protect the latter's reputation. 18 years later, Ichiban is released from jail but learns from Adachi that Arakawa became the Omi Alliance's de facto leader. Adachi also tells Ichiban that Arakawa bribed the Kamurocho police into ignoring the subsequent Omi takeover of Kamurocho, as well as how Ichiban's brother Masato died. Seeking to expose the truth together, they crash an Omi Alliance meeting held by Arakawa. Adachi is arrested for trespassing whilst Ichiban is shot by Arakawa.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Three days later, a homeless man named Nanba heals Ichiban's wounds after discovering his body in Ijincho. Nanba sees a counterfeit bill in Ichiban's pocket and tells him that he is safe from the Omi Alliance because Ijincho is hostile territory. Ichiban and Nanba meet Adachi, where they agree to work for Nonomiya to make extra money. Nonomiya is murdered, which alerts Saeko, one of his employees. The party discover that his killer was Mabuchi, a lieutenant of the Liumang. They also uncover the Liumang's collaboration with the Geomijul mafia and Seiryu Clan in running a money counterfeiting scheme. This money is used by Yutaka Ogikubo, a high-profile politician, to bribe the local police into effectively preserving peace. The Liumang catch the group investigating the scheme and turns them over to Mabuchi. Mabuchi reveals that he deliberately engineered the prior events so that he can frame the party as warmongering Seiryu Clan members.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Joon gi-han, the second-in-command of the Geomijul, saves the party from Mabuchi. Mabuchi nonetheless executes two Seiryu Clan members to provoke further retaliation. Ichiban's party head to the Geomijul HQ so that they can find proof of Mabuchi's guilt and convince the other Ijincho gangs to not war against each other. Seong-hui, the leader of Geomijul, suddenly reveals to everyone that Nanba pretended to be homeless so that he could investigate his brother's disappearance after the latter tried to expose the money counterfeiting scheme. She rallies the Geomijul and Liumang into executing Nanba, prompting him to seek refuge in the HQ of Bleach Japan, co-founded by Ryo Aoki, who Ichiban realizes is actually Masato. Two years before Ichiban's release, Aoki, with the help of Bleach Japan, cleansed Kamurocho of the yakuza. However, the police were afraid of a power vacuum, so Aoki ordered the Omi Alliance to take over with Arakawa's help. As a current candidate to the governor of Tokyo, Aoki seeks to win the support of Ijincho by undermining the Yokohama underworld, which he did by bribing Mabuchi into provoking a civil war.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: The Omi Alliance invade the Geomijul HQ. Ichiban's party defeats them. The Geomijul burns evidence of the entire money counterfeiting scheme so that Ogikubo's reputation is not damaged during the election season. Zhao, the leader of the Liumang, vows to spare Nanba if they could save the Geomijul from the Omi. Touched by Zhao's solidarity, the Geomijul warm up to Ichiban's party, and by extension Nanba, with Joon-gi han joining them. Zhao also joins them. Meanwhile, Aoki employs his right-hand man Kume into running for candidacy as Yokohama's regional representative. At the advice of Hoshino, the chairman of the Seiryu Clan, Ichiban runs as an independent candidate to stop Aoki's plans. Hoshino also tells Ichiban that Arakawa never intended to kill him. After the shooting, Arakawa placed the counterfeit bill in his pocket, given to him by Hoshino, so that Ichiban could visit Hoshino on his behalf. Hoshino had previously killed Arakawa's father for stealing the counterfeit money, with Arakawa eventually forgiving him; his decision to hand the bill back to Hoshino even though Arakawa had the power to expose it was evidence.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Tipped off by a former compatriot, Ichiban learns that Arakawa pretended to work for the Omi Alliance the entire time. In Osaka, Arakawa, along with Daigo Dojima and Masaru Watase, the chairmen of the Tojo Clan and Omi Alliance respectively, formally disband their organizations to stop Aoki from using them as pawns. This prompts an Omi loyalist to attack Watase until Kazuma Kiryu, who is now Watase's anonymous bodyguard, intervenes. Ichiban reconciles with Arakawa and learns that Aoki was the one who committed the murder 18 years ago. Aoki orders the leaders of the Omi loyalists to kill Arakawa. He also discovers the circumstances behind Ichiban's candidacy and as such, orders Sawashiro to kill Hoshino. Kiryu tells Ichiban's party, based on intel provided by , that Aoki has dispatched assassins after Sawashiro is put in jail because the latter planned to expose Aoki's guilt. Ichiban's party stops them. Returning to Kamurocho, Ichiban's party arranges a hoax about incriminating evidence in the Millennium Tower to lure Aoki. They film Aoki's verbal intent to murder, publicly leak the video and later defeat him. Aoki's popularity wanes as Ichiban tearfully begs him to start over. Before Aoki turns himself in, Kume fatally stabs him, outraged by his hypocrisy.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Some time later, the evidence found in Arakawa's headquarters leads to the arrest of all Kamurocho officials that accepted his bribe money. Ichiban attends the funeral for Arakawa and Aoki, and decides to remain in Ijincho after turning down Daigo's job offer for a security firm staffed by ex-"yakuza" in Osaka.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: The game was initially announced on August 26, 2017, alongside "" and "Yakuza Online". During development, the project was code-named "Shin Ryu ga Gotoku", meaning "New Like a Dragon" or "Like a New Dragon," or "Shin-Yakuza" in English. Sega announced that the game's story was completed at the end of May 2019. Sega received permission from "Dragon Quest" series creator Yuji Horii to mention "Dragon Quest" in the game, which was Ichiban's favorite video game. Series creator Toshihiro Nagoshi said that the new style of logo was done to reflect Ichiban Kasuga's differing personality compared to Kazuma Kiryu. Sega staff explained in a 2019 interview that they wanted to try a different style of gameplay, but that if it is badly received, they intend to return to real-time combat for future games. The game's main theme, , was performed by Shonan no Kaze, who previously performed the main theme of "Yakuza 0" and "", and Yasutaka Nakata.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: The game is the first mainline "Yakuza" title to receive an English dub since the original "Yakuza" in 2005. Alongside the English dub, as in "Judgment", it also features dual English subtitle sets: one with the Japanese audio with English subtitles matching the Japanese translation, and the other matching the English dub. Localizations in French, German, Italian, and Spanish focus on the Japanese audio, regardless of the selected voice language. The International release in Japan and Asia, as well as the Western release via an update, has dual audio and eleven subtitle language, adding Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese and Korean to the previous five languages (French, German, Italian, Spanish, Russian and Portuguese are only available in the Western release on PS5; all other versions have all languages present regardless of region). For the first time in the series, karaoke songs in the English dub are sung in English by the English voice cast, with the English versions displaying the English lyrics (on all languages) and the Japanese versions displaying the Japanese romaji lyrics (only when the language set to English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese or Russian; Japanese kanji lyrics when set to Japanese; Traditional Chinese lyrics when set to Traditional Chinese; Simplified Chinese lyrics when set to Simplified Chinese; Korean lyrics when set to Korean), unlike the "Yakuza Remastered Collection", in which lyrics between the Japanese kanji and romaji and English translation can be toggled. Darryl Kurylo and Bill Farmer reprise their roles from the original "Yakuza" as Kazuma Kiryu and Makoto Date, respectively. Matthew Mercer replaces Mark Hamill as Goro Majima, David Hayter replaces John DiMaggio as Osamu Kashiwagi (credited as "The Bartender"), and Isaac C. Singleton Jr. replaces Gary Anthony Williams as Gary Buster Holmes.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: The game was released in Japan on January 16, 2020, for PlayStation 4, with the Traditional Chinese and Korean versions being released on the same day. It was released worldwide for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and the Xbox Series X/S on November 10, 2020. It was released for Windows on the same day, but purchase of the Windows version of the game was blocked in various countries and territories in East Asia and Southeast Asia. A PlayStation 5 version was released on March 2, 2021. A version for Amazon Luna was made available on December 10, 2021.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Although the game's release for the Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S and PC in Japan was originally announced in November 2020 as "postponed indefinitely:, the game was released for the platforms in Japan and Asia on February 25, 2021. This version of the game was titled "International", as it contains some features introduced with the worldwide release, such as the English audio track option, the additional costume sets, and the New Game Plus downloadable content included. This version was also released in the region for the PlayStation 5 on March 2, 2021, the same day as its worldwide release. Anyone who makes the purchase of the PS5 version can unlock the "Legends Costume Set" for free.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: RGG Studios reported that they're working on making the necessary changes to correct errors for buyers who purchased the free PS4 to PS5 upgrade.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" received positive reviews from critics, ending up with "generally favorable reviews" according to Metacritic. Critics praised the game's new take on the Yakuza series alongside the characters, but criticized the turn-based battles as being repetitive towards the end of the game.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: In a positive review for Game Informer, Jeff Cork praised the new protagonist writing, "Without the weight of half a dozen or so games and their associated histories on his shoulders, Kasuga is a blank slate for this new Yokohama adventure. Kasuga certainly has goals and motivations... but the fact that he’s such a small figure in this world creates an exhilarating feeling of freedom". Cork also enjoyed the game's job system saying that it "holds a satisfying amount of depth" and allows for unique party combinations.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Jordan Devore of Destructoid disliked the long animations in combat, "Early on, I had a fun enough time watching these chaotic and slightly out-of-control scenes unfold. They didn't drag on. But at a certain point, I got so sick of waiting for Ichiban and co. to run up and actually perform their attacks". Additionally, Devore wrote that, "Put another way, "Like a Dragon"s turn-based combat is fine, but fine can only go so far when hours-long brick walls force you to stop and grind for XP so you can stand a reasonable chance against beefy boss encounters."


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: Yahtzee Croshaw of The Escapist called "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" the third best game of 2020, praising it for turning around the "Yakuza" franchise "with its fun characters and greater lean into the inherent silliness of the franchise." In his review of the game he commended it for how "a likeable protagonist and a bit more of a lean into the usual wackiness it has successfully charmed the nurses into keeping the life support machine plugged in. Every "Yakuza" game is basically a loose box of disconnected toys, but for the record, this is a particularly nice box with some choice toys. Like, Legos and "Masters of the Universe"."


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" was the best selling print game during its first 4 days on sale in Japan, with 300,000 copies sold. By March 2020, a total of 450,000 digital and physical copies had been sold in Japan and Asia.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" was awarded a Japan Game Awards Award for Excellence in the Future Division at the Tokyo Game Show 2019.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" was also nominated in The Game Awards 2020 for Best RPG category, but lost to "Final Fantasy VII Remake", and received a nomination for Ultimate Game of the Year at the Golden Joystick Awards., along with Role-Playing Game of the Year at the 24th Annual Dice Awards.


title: Yakuza: Like a Dragon

text: "Yakuza: Like a Dragon" was also awarded with a PlayStation Partner Awards Partner Award for achieving "particularly noteworthy results". Other awards included Hilarious Humor at the Dreamies, and OUTSTANDING Game, Franchise Role Playing at the 2020 NAVGTR Awards where it was also nominated in seven other categories.


title: William Jackson Harper

text: William Fitzgerald Harper (born February 8, 1980), known professionally as William Jackson Harper, is an American actor and playwright. He is best known for his role as Chidi Anagonye on the NBC comedy "The Good Place" (2016–2020), for which he was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. In 2022, he starred in a lead role in the comedy mystery series "The Resort".


title: William Jackson Harper

text: William Fitzgerald Harper was born on February 8, 1980, in Dallas, Texas. Harper grew up in Garland, Texas, and attended Lakeview Centennial High School. He graduated from the College of Santa Fe in 2003. Harper chose the stage name "William Jackson Harper" when registering for the Actors' Equity Association; most variations of "William Harper" were already in use, and he thought that "Fitzgerald" was too long. He then decided to honor his mother by using her maiden name, "Jackson", as his stage middle name.


title: William Jackson Harper

text: Harper made his NY stage debut in the 2006 Vital Theatre Company production of "Full Bloom", a play about teenagers coming to terms with their sexuality. In 2008 he performed in Manhattan Theatre Club's production of Lynn Nottage's play, "Ruined", which won the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. From 2009 to 2011, he played Danny Rebus in the PBS series "The Electric Company". In 2010 he appeared in the Public Theater's mobile unit production of Shakespeare's "Measure for Measure", and in 2011 returned for "Titus Andronicus", this time at the Anspacher Theater. He starred as Marty Boy in debut of "The Total Bent", a musical composed by Stew and Heidi Rodewald, that premiered at The Public Theater in 2012. The show was later reworked around Ato Blankson-Wood. Harper made his Broadway debut in 2014, cast as James Harrison and Stokely Carmichael in "All the Way". He and Carrie Coon co-starred in the 2015 Melissa James Gibson play, "Placebo" at Playwrights Horizon Theater.


title: William Jackson Harper

text: In 2016, Harper was cast on the NBC comedy "The Good Place". Before landing the role of Chidi Anagonye, he considered quitting acting. Harper did not learn about the show's real premise until after he was cast. His performance has received critical praise. In 2017, in between filming the show's first and second seasons, he had a leading role in Zoe Kazan's "After the Blast" at Lincoln Center's Claire Tow Theatre.


title: William Jackson Harper

text: In 2018, Harper's play "Travisville" had its world premiere at Ensemble Studio Theatre. In an interview with Bloomberg News, he revealed that the play was inspired by the displacement of a poor Black community that was situated near the grounds of the Texas State Fair in Dallas. The same year, he appeared in the sci-fi film "They Remain".


title: William Jackson Harper

text: In 2019, he starred in two critically acclaimed films, playing Josh in the film "Midsommar" and James Ross in "Dark Waters". Also that year, he voiced John Mercer Langston in season one of the Airship podcast "1865", which details the weeks immediately following the assassination of US President Abraham Lincoln.


title: William Jackson Harper

text: It was announced in April 2020 that he would narrate the Marvel audio book series, "Black Panther: Sins of the King," and in November 2020, that he would star in season 2 of the HBO Max anthology series, "Love Life".


title: William Jackson Harper

text: In October 2022, it was revealed that Harper joined the cast of "", set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The film is scheduled to be released on February 17, 2023.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Hybrid Theory is the debut studio album by American rock band Linkin Park, released on October 24, 2000, through Warner Bros. Records. Recorded at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood, California, and produced by Don Gilmore, the album's lyrical themes deal with problems lead vocalist Chester Bennington experienced during his adolescence, including drug abuse and the constant fighting and divorce of his parents. "Hybrid Theory" takes its title from the previous name of the band as well as the concept of music theory and combining different styles. This is also the only album on which bassist Dave Farrell does not play.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Four singles were released from "Hybrid Theory": "One Step Closer", "In the End", "Crawling" and "Papercut", all of them being responsible for launching Linkin Park into mainstream popularity. While "In the End" was the most successful of the four, all of the singles in the album remain some of the band's most successful songs to date. Although "Runaway", "Points of Authority", and "My December" from the special edition bonus disc album were not released as singles, they were minor hits on alternative rock radio stations thanks to the success of all of the band's singles and the album; "Runaway" has also made several appearances on radio stations.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Generally receiving positive reviews from critics upon its release, "Hybrid Theory" became a strong commercial success. Peaking at number two on the US "Billboard" 200, it is certified 12× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It also reached the top 10 in 15 other countries and has sold 27 million copies worldwide, making it the best-selling debut album since Guns N' Roses's "Appetite for Destruction" (1987) and the best-selling rock album of the 21st century. At the 44th Grammy Awards, it won Best Hard Rock Performance for "Crawling".


title: Hybrid Theory

text: In 2002, Linkin Park released the remix album "Reanimation". It included the songs of "Hybrid Theory" remixed and reinterpreted by nu metal and underground hip hop artists. Contributors to the album included Black Thought, Pharoahe Monch, Jonathan Davis, Stephen Carpenter, and Aaron Lewis. The sound of later Linkin Park albums would involve experimentation with classical instruments such as strings and piano, both of which, along with the same elements of electronica from "Hybrid Theory", are prominently included in the band's second studio album, "Meteora".


title: Hybrid Theory

text: On August 13, 2020, Warner Records announced a re-release of "Hybrid Theory" for its 20th anniversary. A previously unreleased demo song, "She Couldn't", was put out at the same time.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Linkin Park was founded in 1996 as the rap rock band Xero: lead guitarist Brad Delson, vocalist and rhythm guitarist Mike Shinoda, drummer Rob Bourdon, turntablist Joe Hahn, lead vocalist Mark Wakefield and bassist Dave Farrell (who subsequently left to tour with Tasty Snax). In 1999, after Wakefield's departure, lead vocalist Chester Bennington joined the five members of Xero and the band was renamed Hybrid Theory. Bennington's previous band, Grey Daze, had recently disbanded, so his lawyer recommended him to Jeff Blue, vice president of A&R coordination for Zomba, who at the time was seeking a lead vocalist for Xero. Blue sent Bennington two tapes of Xero's unreleased recordings — one with vocals by former Xero member Mark Wakefield, and the other with only the instrumental tracks — asking for his "interpretation of the songs". Bennington wrote and recorded new vocals over the instrumentals and sent the tapes back to Blue. As Delson recalls, "[Bennington] really was kind of the final piece of the puzzle [...] We didn't see anything close to his talent in anybody else." After Bennington joined, the group first renamed itself to Hybrid Theory and released a self-titled EP. Legal complications with Welsh electronic music group Hybrid prompted a second name change, thus deciding on "Linkin Park". Throughout 1999, Linkin Park was a regular act at the Los Angeles club, The Whisky.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: The music that would ultimately become the "Hybrid Theory" album was first produced by Linkin Park in 1999 as a nine-track demo tape. The band sent this tape to various recording companies and played forty-two different showcases for recording industry representatives, including performances for Los Angeles promoter and impresario, Mike Galaxy's showcase at The Gig on Melrose. However, they were initially turned down by most of the major labels and several independent record labels. The band was signed by Warner Bros. Records in 1999, due in large part to the constant recommendations of Jeff Blue, who had joined the label after resigning from Zomba.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Despite initial difficulties in finding a producer willing to take charge of the debut album of a newly signed band, Don Gilmore ultimately agreed to head up the project, with Andy Wallace hired as the mixer. Recording sessions, which mostly involved re-recording the songs off the demo tape, began at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood, California in March 2000 and lasted four months. Shinoda's rapping sections in most of the songs were significantly altered from the original, while most choruses remained largely unchanged. Due to the absence of Dave Farrell and Kyle Christener, who took part in the 1999 extended play, the band hired Scott Koziol and Ian Hornbeck as stand-in bassists; Delson also played bass throughout most of the album. The Dust Brothers provided additional beats for the track "With You".


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Bennington and Shinoda wrote the lyrics of "Hybrid Theory" based in part on early demos with Mark Wakefield. Shinoda characterized the lyrics as interpretations of universal feelings, emotions, and experiences, and as "everyday emotions you talk about and think about." Bennington later described the songwriting experience to "Rolling Stone" in early 2002:


title: Hybrid Theory

text: The music of "Hybrid Theory" draws from diverse inspirations. Bennington's singing style is influenced by acts such as Depeche Mode and Stone Temple Pilots, while the riffs and playing techniques of guitarist Brad Delson are modeled after Deftones, Guns N' Roses, U2, and The Smiths. The lyrical content of the songs primarily touches upon the problems that Bennington encountered during his childhood, including constant and excessive drug and alcohol abuse, the divorce of his parents, isolation, disappointments, and the aftermath feelings of failed relationships. Stylistically, the album has been described as nu metal, rap metal, rap rock, alternative metal, alternative rock, and hard rock.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: The album eventually produced four singles. "One Step Closer", the album's second track and first single, was gradually recorded in increments after Linkin Park struggled with "Runaway", and features a guitar riff and electronic percussion in the introduction transitioning into a bridge with distortion-heavy guitars and aggressive drums. It is also famous for the "Shut up when I'm talkin' to you!" refrain screamed by Bennington one minute and 48 seconds into the song. The music video for "One Step Closer" was shot in a Los Angeles subway and became an instant hit, eventually receiving heavy rotation on MTV and other music television networks. Stand-in bassist Scott Koziol is shown performing with the band in the video.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: The second single was "Crawling", which Bennington described as "about feeling like I had no control over myself in terms of drugs and alcohol."


title: Hybrid Theory

text: "Papercut" was the album's third single, and its lyrics describe paranoia. The music video for "Papercut" features the band performing in a hallway opposite a completely dark room on the walls of which are scribbled the song's lyrics. Various supernatural themes are present in the video, and special effects are used to create eerie renditions, such as the "stretching" of Shinoda's fingers and the "melting" of Bourdon's face.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: The fourth and final single to come from "Hybrid Theory" was "In the End", released on October 9, 2001. The song prominently features a signature piano riff performed by Shinoda. His rapping also dominates the verses of the song and is later joined by Bennington's vocals in the chorus. The music video for "In the End" was shot at various stops along the 2001 Ozzfest tour and was directed by Nathan "Karma" Cox and the band's DJ Joe Hahn, who would go on to direct many of Linkin Park's future videos (the two also directed the music video for "Papercut"). Although the background for the "In the End" video was filmed in a California desert, the band itself performed on a studio stage in Los Angeles, with prominent CGI effects and compositing being used to create the finished version. Performing on a studio stage allowed Hahn and Cox to set off water pipes above the stage near the end and drench the band.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: "Points of Authority", the fourth track on the album, has its own music video that can be found on" Frat Party at the Pankake Festival", the band's first DVD. Drummer Rob Bourdon describes the recording process of the song: "Brad wrote this riff, then went home. Mike decided to cut it up into different pieces and rearranged them on the computer [...] Brad had to learn his own part from the computer." Regarding the song, Delson praised Shinoda's skill, describing him as "a genius" and "Trent Reznor-talented". On live performances of the song, when Shinoda raps the line, "Forfeit the game" verse for the third time in the song, Bennington would rap the verse along with Mike.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: With "Hybrid Theory" being Linkin Park's first album, Mike Shinoda, who had worked as a graphic designer before becoming a professional musician, has stated that the band had looked through books for inspiration on how to present themselves for the first time. The result was a winged-soldier which Shinoda illustrated himself. According to Chester Bennington, the idea of the soldier with dragonfly wings was to describe the blending of hard and soft musical elements by the use of the jaded looks of the soldier and frail touches of the wings. The art style was largely influenced by stencil graffiti, including early works by Banksy. The cover also features scrambled lyrics of the album's songs within the background, though the lyrics of "One Step Closer" are the most prominent.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Following the success of "Hybrid Theory", Linkin Park received invitations to perform at various rock concerts and tours, including Ozzfest, the Family Values Tour, KROQ-FM's Almost Acoustic Christmas, and the band's self-created tour, Projekt Revolution, which was headlined by Linkin Park and featured other bands such as Cypress Hill and Adema. During this time, Linkin Park reunited with their original bassist, Dave "Phoenix" Farrell. The band kept an online journal on their official website throughout their 2001 and 2002 touring regime, in which each band member made a respective notation. Although the notes are no longer on their website, they are available on fansites. Linkin Park played 324 shows in 2001.


title: Hybrid Theory

text: "Hybrid Theory" received generally positive reviews from critics. Mike Ross of Jam! praised the album as an effective fusion of hip hop and heavy metal music and deemed Linkin Park "one of the finest new rap metal bands". Stephanie Dickison of "PopMatters" wrote that they are "a far more complex and talented group than the hard rock boy bands of late" and "will continue to fascinate and challenge music's standard sounds." "Q" magazine commented that the band had given "angst-ridden rock... an effective electronic spin". Johan Wippsson from "Melodic" complimented Don Gilmore's production and described "Hybrid Theory" as "destructive and angry but always with a well controlled melodic feeling all over." "The Village Voice"s Robert Christgau gave the album a rating and cited "Papercut" and "Points of Authority" as highlights; he quipped, "the men don't know what the angry boys understand".


title: Hybrid Theory

text: In a more critical assessment, William Ruhlmann of AllMusic found that on "Hybrid Theory", Linkin Park sound "like a Johnny-come-lately to an already overdone musical style." "NME" critic Noel Gardner said that it was a "decent" album in need of editing, writing that "otherwise damn fine soaring emo-crunchers like 'With You' and 'A Place for My Head' are pointlessly jazzed up with tokenistic scratching". "Rolling Stone"s Matt Diehl felt that the album "works in spots" and the band "knows its way around a hook", but panned Bennington and Shinoda's "corny, boilerplate-aggro lyrics".


title: Hybrid Theory

text: Reviewing "Hybrid Theory" in 2006, Tyler Fisher of Sputnikmusic perceived a lack of musical variety on the record, but concluded that it "stands as a defining mainstream album at the turn of the century, and for good reason." Writing for "Stylus Magazine" the following year, Ian Cohen found that while the album is "almost completely forgettable" outside of its singles, it "was strangely fresh for mainstream rock radio, particularly placed in relief of its ugly post-grunge peers and the staunch revivalism of the Strokes/White Stripes front." "Pitchfork"s Gabriel Szatan was more enthusiastic in a 2020 review; he wrote that "all the band's sharpest tendencies meshed and their less attractive aesthetic impulses were suppressed" on "Hybrid Theory", while crediting the band with helping to normalize discussion of mental health "within pop, rock, rap, and every genre along the heavy axis". Luke Morton of "Kerrang!" argued that it is "not hyperbolic to say that "Hybrid Theory" is one of the most important rock albums of all time."


title: Hybrid Theory

text: At the 44th Grammy Awards in 2002, Linkin Park won Best Hard Rock Performance for their song "Crawling". Additional nominations for Best New Artist and Best Rock Album lost out to Alicia Keys and "All That You Can't Leave Behind" by U2. "Hybrid Theory" found itself in several "must have" lists that were compiled by various music publications, networks, and other media. In 2012, "Rock Sound" named "Hybrid Theory" the best modern classic album of the last 15 years. In 2013, "Loudwire" ranked it at No. 10 in its Best Hard Rock Debut Albums list. Some of the more prominent of these lists to feature "Hybrid Theory" are shown below:


title: Hybrid Theory

text: "Hybrid Theory" debuted at number 16 on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 50,000 copies in its first week. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) five weeks after its release. In 2001, the album had sold 4.8 million copies in the United States, making it the best-selling album of the year, and it was estimated that the album continued selling 100,000 copies per week in early 2002. Throughout the following years, the album continued to sell at a fast pace and was eventually certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005 for shipment of ten million copies in the United States; in 2017, it was awarded another level of platinum status for a total of 11× Platinum. In 2001 the album was the second best-selling album globally, selling 8.5 million copies. To date, the album has sold 27 million copies worldwide, which makes it the best selling debut album of the 21st century. As of September 2020, the album has been certified 12x Platinum (Diamond) and has sold 10.5 million copies in the United States per Nielsen SoundScan.