title: J. M. Barrie

text: In 1919 he was elected Rector of the University of St Andrews for a three-year term. In 1922 he delivered his celebrated Rectorial Address on Courage at St Andrews, and visited University College Dundee with Earl Haig to open its new playing fields, with Barrie bowling a few balls to Haig. He served as Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh from 1930 to 1937.


title: J. M. Barrie

text: Barrie was the only person to receive the Freedom of Kirriemuir in a ceremony on 7 June 1930 in Kirriemuir Town Hall where he was presented with a silver casket containing the freedom scroll. The casket was made by silversmiths Brook & Son in Edinburgh in 1929 and is decorated with images of sites in Kirriemuir which held significant memories for Barrie: Kirriemuir Townhouse, Strathview, Window in Thrums, the statue of Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens and the Barrie Cricket Pavilion. The casket is on display in the Kirrimuir Gateway to the Glens Museum in the Kirriemuir Town House.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Mod, from the word modernist, is a subculture that began in London and spread throughout Great Britain and elsewhere, eventually influencing fashions and trends in other countries, and continues today on a smaller scale. Focused on music and fashion, the subculture has its roots in a small group of stylish London-based young men in the late 1950s who were termed "modernists" because they listened to modern jazz.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Elements of the mod subculture include fashion (often tailor-made suits); music (including soul, rhythm and blues, ska and mainly jazz) and motor scooters (usually Lambretta or Vespa). In the mid-1960s, the subculture listened to power pop rock groups with mod following, such as the Who and Small Faces, after the peak Mod era. The original mod scene was associated with amphetamine-jazz fuelled all-night dancing at clubs.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: During the early to mid-1960s, as mod grew and spread throughout the UK, certain elements of the mod scene became engaged in well-publicised clashes with members of a rival subculture: rockers. The mods and rockers conflict led sociologist Stanley Cohen to use the term "moral panic" in his study about the two youth subcultures, which examined media coverage of the mod and rocker riots in the 1960s.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: By 1965, conflicts between mods and rockers began to subside and mods increasingly gravitated towards pop art and psychedelia. London became synonymous with fashion, music, and pop culture in these years, a period often referred to as "Swinging London". During this time, mod fashions spread to other countries and became popular in the United States and elsewhere—with mod now viewed less as an isolated subculture, but emblematic of the larger youth culture of the era.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: As mod became more cosmopolitan during the "Swinging London" period, some working class "street mods" splintered off, forming other groups such as what eventually became known as skinheads. There was a mod revival in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s, which attempted to replicate the "scooter" period look and styles of the early to mid-1960s. It was followed by a similar mod revival in North America in the early 1980s, particularly in southern California.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: The term "mod" derives from "modernist", a term used in the 1950s to describe modern jazz musicians and fans. This usage contrasted with the term "trad", which described traditional jazz players and fans. The 1959 novel "Absolute Beginners" describes modernists as young modern jazz fans who dress in sharp modern Italian clothes. The novel may be one of the earliest examples of the term being written to describe young British style-conscious modern jazz fans. This usage of the word "modernist" should not be confused with "modernism" in the context of literature, art, design and architecture. From the mid-to-late 1960s onwards, the mass media often used the term "mod" in a wider sense to describe anything that was believed to be popular, fashionable or modern.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Paul Jobling and David Crowley argued that the definition of "mod" can be difficult to pin down, because throughout the subculture's original era, it was "prone to continuous reinvention." They claimed that since the mod scene was so pluralist, the word "mod" was an umbrella term that covered several distinct sub-scenes. Terry Rawlings argued that mods are difficult to define because the subculture started out as a "mysterious semi-secret world", which the Who's manager Peter Meaden summarised as "clean living under difficult circumstances."


title: Mod (subculture)

text: George Melly wrote that mods were initially a small group of clothes-focused English working class young men insisting on clothes and shoes tailored to their style, who emerged during the modern jazz boom of the late 1950s. Early mods watched French and Italian art films and read Italian magazines to look for style ideas. They usually held semi-skilled manual jobs or low grade white-collar positions such as a clerk, messenger or office boy. According to Dick Hebdige, mods created a parody of the consumer society that they lived in.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: According to Hebdige, by around 1963, the mod subculture had gradually accumulated the identifying symbols that later came to be associated with the scene, such as scooters, amphetamine pills and R&B music. While clothes were still important at that time, they could be ready-made. Dick Hebdige wrote the term "mod" covered a number of styles including the emergence of Swinging London, though to him it defined Melly's working class clothes-conscious teenagers living in London and south England in the early to mid-1960s.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Mary Anne Long argued that "first hand accounts and contemporary theorists point to the Jewish upper-working or middle-class of London’s East End and suburbs." Simon Frith asserted that the mod subculture had its roots in the 1950s beatnik coffee bar culture, which catered to art school students in the radical Bohemian scene in London. Steve Sparks, whose claim is to be one of the original mods, agrees that before mod became commercialised, it was essentially an extension of the beatnik culture: "It comes from ‘modernist’, it was to do with modern jazz and to do with Sartre" and existentialism. Sparks argued that "Mod has been much misunderstood ... as this working-class, scooter-riding precursor of skinheads."


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Coffee bars were attractive to British youth because, in contrast to typical pubs, which closed at about 11pm, they were open until the early hours of the morning. Coffee bars had jukeboxes, which in some cases reserved space in the machines for the customers' own records. In the late 1950s, coffee bars were associated with jazz and blues, but in the early 1960s, they began playing more R&B music. Frith noted that although coffee bars were originally aimed at middle-class art school students, they began to facilitate an intermixing of youth from different backgrounds and classes. At these venues, which Frith called the "first sign of the youth movement", young people met collectors of R&B and blues records.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: As the mod subculture grew in London during the early-to-mid-1960s, tensions could arise between the mods, often riding highly decorated motor scooters, and their main rivals, the rockers, a British subculture who favoured rockabilly, early rock'n'roll, motorcycles and leather jackets, and considered the mods effeminate, because of their interest in fashion. Violent clashes could ensue between the two groups. This period was later immortalised by songwriter Pete Townshend, in the Who's 1973 concept album, "Quadrophenia".


title: Mod (subculture)

text: However, after 1964, clashes between the two groups largely subsided, as mod expanded and came to be accepted by the larger youth generation throughout the UK as a symbol of all that was new. During this time London became a mecca for rock music, with popular bands such as the Who and Small Faces appealing to a largely mod audience, as well as the preponderance of hip fashions, in a period often referred to as Swinging London.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: As numerous British rock bands of the mid-1960s began to adopt a mod look and following, the scope of the subculture grew beyond its original confines and the focus began to change. By 1966, proletarian aspects of the scene in London had waned as fashion and pop-culture elements continued to grow, not only in England, but elsewhere.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: This period, portrayed by Alberto Sordi's film in "Thank you very much", and in Michelangelo Antonioni's 1966 film "Blowup," was typified by pop art, Carnaby Street boutiques, live music, and discothèques. Many associate this era with fashion model Twiggy, miniskirts, and bold geometrical patterns on brightly coloured clothes. During these years, it exerted a considerable influence on the worldwide spread of mod.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: As mod was going through transformation in England, it became all the rage in the United States and around the world, as many young people adopted its look. However, the worldwide experience differed from that of the early scene in London in that it was based mainly on the pop culture aspect, influenced by British rock musicians. By now, mod was thought of more as a general youth-culture style rather than as a separate subgroup amongst different contentious factions.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: American musicians, in the wake of the British Invasion, adopted the look of mod clothes, longer hairstyles, and Beatle boots. The exploitation documentary "Mondo Mod" provides a glimpse at mod's influence on the Sunset Strip and West Hollywood scene of late 1966. Mod increasingly became associated with psychedelic rock and the early hippie movement, and by 1967 more exotic looks, such as Nehru jackets and love beads came into vogue. Its trappings were reflected on popular American TV shows such as "Laugh-In" and "The Mod Squad".


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Dick Hebdige argued that the subculture lost its vitality when it became commercialised and stylised to the point that mod clothing styles were being created "from above" by clothing companies and by TV shows like "Ready Steady Go!", rather than being developed by young people customising their clothes and combining different fashions.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: As psychedelic rock and the hippie subculture grew more popular in the United Kingdom, much of mod, for a time, seemed intertwined with those movements. However, after 1968 it dissipated, as tastes began to favor a less style-conscious, denim and tie-dyed look, along with a decreased interest in nightlife. Bands such as the Who and Small Faces began to change and, by the end of the decade, moved away from mod. Additionally, the original mods of the early 1960s were coming to the age of marriage and child-rearing, which meant many of them no longer had the time or money for their youthful pastimes of club-going, record-shopping, and buying clothes.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Some street-oriented mods, usually of lesser means, sometimes referred to as "hard mods," remained active well into the late 1960s, but tended to become increasingly detached from the Swinging London scene and the burgeoning hippie movement. By 1967, they considered most of the people in the Swinging London scene to be "soft mods" or "peacock mods", as styles, there, became increasingly extravagant, often featuring highly ruffled, brocaded, or laced fabrics in Day-Glo colours.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Many of the hard mods lived in the same economically depressed areas of South London as West Indian immigrants, so these mods favoured a different kind of attire, that emulated the rude boy look of Trilby hats and too-short trousers. These "aspiring 'white negros listened to Jamaican ska and mingled with black rude boys at West Indian nightclubs like Ram Jam, A-Train and Sloopy's. Hebdige claimed that the hard mods were drawn to black culture and ska music in part because the educated, middle-class hippie movement's drug-orientated and intellectual music did not have any relevance for them. He argued that the hard mods were attracted to ska because it was a secret, underground, non-commercialised music that was disseminated through informal channels such as house parties and clubs.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: By the end of the 1960s, the hard mods had become known as skinheads, who, in their early days, would be known for the same love of soul, rocksteady and early reggae. Because of their fascination with black culture, the early skinheads were, except in isolated situations, largely devoid of the overt racism and fascism that would later become associated with whole wings of the movement in the mid to late 1970s. The early skinheads retained basic elements of mod fashion—such as Fred Perry and Ben Sherman shirts, Sta-Prest trousers and Levi's jeans—but mixed them with working class-orientated accessories such as braces and Dr. Martens work boots. Hebdige claimed that as early as the Margate and Brighton brawls between mods and rockers, some mods were seen wearing boots and braces and sporting close cropped haircuts (for practical reasons, as long hair was a liability in industrial jobs and street fights).


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Mods and ex-mods were also part of the early northern soul scene, a subculture based on obscure 1960s and 1970s American soul records. Some mods evolved into, or merged with, subcultures such as individualists, stylists, and scooterboys.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: A mod revival started in the late 1970s in the United Kingdom, with thousands of mod revivalists attending scooter rallies in locations such as Scarborough and the Isle of Wight. This revival was partly inspired by the 1979 film "Quadrophenia", which explores the original 1960s movement, and by mod-influenced bands such as the Jam, Secret Affair, the Lambrettas, Purple Hearts, the Specials and the Chords, who drew on the energy of new wave music.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: The British mod revival was followed by a revival in North America in the early 1980s, particularly in Southern California, led by bands such as the Untouchables. The mod scene in Los Angeles and Orange County was partly influenced by the 2 Tone ska revival in England, and was unique in its racial diversity, with black, white, Hispanic and Asian participants. The 1990s Britpop scene featured noticeable mod influences on bands such as Oasis, Blur, Ocean Colour Scene and the Bluetones. Popular 21st century musicians Miles Kane and Jake Bugg are also followers of the mod subculture.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Dick Hebdige argued that when trying to understand 1960s mod culture, one has to try and "penetrate and decipher the mythology of the mods". Terry Rawlings argued that the mod scene developed when British teenagers began to reject the "dull, timid, old-fashioned, and uninspired" British culture around them, with its repressed and class-obsessed mentality and its "naffness". Mods rejected the "faulty pap" of 1950s pop music and sappy love songs. They aimed at being "cool, neat, sharp, hip, and smart" by embracing "all things sexy and streamlined", especially when they were new, exciting, controversial or modern. Hebdige claimed that the mod subculture came about as part of the participants' desire to understand the "mysterious complexity of the metropolis" and to get close to black culture of the Jamaican rude boy, because mods felt that black culture "ruled the night hours" and that it had more streetwise "savoir faire". Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss argued that at the "core of the British Mod rebellion was a blatant fetishising of the American consumer culture" that had "eroded the moral fiber of England." In doing so, the mods "mocked the class system that had gotten their fathers nowhere" and created a "rebellion based on consuming pleasures".


title: Mod (subculture)

text: The influence of British newspapers on creating the public perception of mods as having a leisure-filled club-going lifestyle can be seen in a 1964 article in the "Sunday Times". The paper interviewed a 17-year-old mod who went out clubbing seven nights a week and spent Saturday afternoons shopping for clothes and records. However, few British teens and young adults would have had the time and money to spend this much time going to nightclubs. Paul Jobling and David Crowley argued that most young mods worked 9 to 5 at semi-skilled jobs, which meant that they had much less leisure time and only a modest income to spend during their time off.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Paul Jobling and David Crowley called the mod subculture a "fashion-obsessed and hedonistic cult of the hyper-cool" young adults who lived in metropolitan London or the new towns of the south. Due to the increasing affluence of post-war Britain, the youths of the early 1960s were one of the first generations that did not have to contribute their money from after-school jobs to the family finances. As mod teens and young adults began using their disposable income to buy stylish clothes, the first youth-targeted boutique clothing stores opened in London in the Carnaby Street and King's Road districts. The streets' names became symbols of, one magazine later stated, "an endless frieze of mini-skirted, booted, fair-haired angular angels". Newspaper accounts from the mid-1960s focussed on the mod obsession with clothes, often detailing the prices of the expensive suits worn by young mods, and seeking out extreme cases such as a young mod who claimed that he would "go without food to buy clothes".


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Two youth subcultures helped pave the way for mod fashion by breaking new ground: the beatniks, with their Bohemian image of berets and black turtlenecks, and the Teddy Boys, from whom mod fashion inherited its "narcissistic and fastidious [fashion] tendencies" and the immaculate dandy look. The Teddy Boys paved the way for making male interest in fashion socially acceptable. Prior to the Teddy Boys, male interest in fashion in Britain was often associated with underground homosexuals' subculture and dressing style.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Jobling and Crowley argued that for working class mods, the subculture's focus on fashion and music was a release from the "humdrum of daily existence" at their jobs. Jobling and Crowley noted that while the subculture had strong elements of consumerism and shopping, mods were not passive consumers; instead they were very self-conscious and critical, customising "existing styles, symbols and artefacts" such as the Union flag and the Royal Air Force roundel, and putting them on their jackets in a pop art-style, and putting their personal signatures on their style. Mods adopted new Italian and French styles in part as a reaction to the rural and small-town rockers, with their 1950s-style leather motorcycle clothes and American greaser look.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Male mods adopted a smooth, sophisticated look that included tailor-made suits with narrow lapels (sometimes made of mohair), thin ties, button-down collar shirts, wool or cashmere jumpers (crewneck or V-neck), Chelsea or Beatle boots, loafers, Clarks desert boots, bowling shoes, and hairstyles that imitated the look of French "Nouvelle Vague" film actors. A few male mods went against gender norms by using eye shadow, eye-pencil or even lipstick. Mods chose scooters over motorbikes partly because they were a symbol of Italian style and because their body panels concealed moving parts and made them less likely to stain clothes with oil or road dust. Many mods wore ex-military parkas while driving scooters in order to keep their clothes clean.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Many female mods dressed androgynously, with short haircuts, men's trousers or shirts, flat shoes, and little makeup — often just pale foundation, brown eye shadow, white or pale lipstick and false eyelashes. Miniskirts became progressively shorter between the early and mid-1960s. As female mod fashion became more mainstream, slender models like Jean Shrimpton and Twiggy began to exemplify the mod look. Maverick fashion designers emerged, such as Mary Quant, who was known for her miniskirt designs, and John Stephen, who sold a line named "His Clothes" and whose clients included bands such as Small Faces. The television programme "Ready Steady Go!" helped spread awareness of mod fashions to a larger audience. Mod-culture continues to influence fashion, with the ongoing trend for mod-inspired styles such as 3-button suits, Chelsea boots and mini dresses. The Mod Revival of the 1980s and 1990s led to a new era of mod-inspired fashion, driven by bands such as Madness, the Specials and Oasis. The popularity of the This Is England film and TV series also kept mod fashion in the public eye. Today's mod icons include Miles Kane (frontman of the Last Shadow Puppets), cyclist Bradley Wiggins and Paul Weller, 'The ModFather'.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: The early mods listened to the "sophisticated smoother modern jazz" of musicians such as Miles Davis, Charlie Parker, Dave Brubeck and the Modern Jazz Quartet, as well as the American rhythm and blues (R&B) of artists such as Bo Diddley and Muddy Waters. The music scene of the Mods was a mix of modern jazz, R&B, psychedelic rock and soul. Terry Rawlings wrote that mods became "dedicated to R&B and their own dances." Black American servicemen, stationed in Britain during the early part of the Cold War, brought over R&B and soul records that were unavailable in Britain, and they often sold these to young people in London. Starting around 1960, mods embraced the off-beat, Jamaican ska music of artists such as the Skatalites, Owen Gray, Derrick Morgan and Prince Buster on record labels such as Melodisc, Starlite and Bluebeat.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: The original mods gathered at all-night clubs such as The Flamingo and The Marquee in London to hear the latest records and show off their dance moves. As the mod subculture spread across the United Kingdom, other clubs became popular, including Twisted Wheel Club in Manchester.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: The British R&B/rock bands the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds and the Kinks all had mod followings, and other bands emerged that were specifically mod-orientated. These included the Who, Small Faces, the Creation, the Action, the Smoke and John's Children. The Who's early promotional material tagged them as playing "maximum rhythm and blues", and a name change in 1964 from The Who to The High Numbers was an attempt to cater even more to the mod market. After the commercial failure of the single "Zoot Suit/I'm the Face", the band changed its name back to The Who. Although the Beatles dressed like mods for a while (after dressing like rockers earlier), their beat music was not as popular as British R&B among mods.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: A notable part of the mod subculture was recreational amphetamine use, which was used to fuel all-night dances at clubs. Newspaper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at 5 a.m. with dilated pupils. Some mods consumed a combined amphetamine/barbiturate called Drinamyl, nicknamed "purple hearts". Due to this association with amphetamines, Pete Meaden's "clean living" aphorism about the mod subculture may seem contradictory, but the drug was still legal in Britain in the early 1960s, and mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness, which they viewed as different from the intoxication caused by alcohol and other drugs. Andrew Wilson argued that for a significant minority, "amphetamines symbolised the smart, on-the-ball, cool image" and that they sought "stimulation not intoxication ... greater awareness, not escape" and "confidence and articulacy" rather than the "drunken rowdiness of previous generations."


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Wilson argued that the significance of amphetamines to the mod culture was similar to that of LSD and cannabis within the subsequent hippie counterculture. Dick Hebdige argued that mods used amphetamines to extend their leisure time into the early hours of the morning and as a way of bridging the gap between their hostile and daunting everyday work lives and the "inner world" of dancing and dressing up in their off-hours.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Many mods drove motor scooters, usually Vespas or Lambrettas. Scooters were a practical and affordable form of transportation for 1960s teens, since until the early 1970s, public transport stopped relatively early in the night. For teens with low-paying jobs, scooters were cheaper and easier to park than cars, and they could be bought through newly available hire purchase plans.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Mods also treated scooters as a fashion accessory. Italian scooters were preferred due to their clean-lined, curving shapes and gleaming chrome, with sales driven by close associations between dealerships and clubs, such as the Ace of Herts.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: For young mods, Italian scooters were the "embodiment of continental style and a way to escape the working-class row houses of their upbringing". Mods customised their scooters by painting them in "two-tone and candyflake and overaccessorized [them] with luggage racks, crash bars, and scores of mirrors and fog lights". Some mods added four, ten, or as many as 30 mirrors to their scooters. They often put their names on the small windscreen. They sometimes took their engine side panels and front bumpers to electroplating shops to get them covered in highly reflective chrome.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Hard mods (who later evolved into the skinheads) began riding scooters more for practical reasons. Their scooters were either unmodified or cutdown, which was nicknamed a "skelly". Lambrettas were cutdown to the bare frame, and the unibody (monocoque)-design Vespas had their body panels slimmed down or reshaped.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: After the seaside resort brawls, the media began to associate Italian scooters with violent mods. Much later, writers described groups of mods riding scooters together as a "menacing symbol of group solidarity" that was "converted into a weapon". With events like the 6 November 1966, "scooter charge" on Buckingham Palace, the scooter, along with the mods' short hair and suits, began to be seen as a symbol of subversion.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Stuart Hall and Tony Jefferson argued in 1993 that compared to other youth subcultures, the mod scene gave young women high visibility and relative autonomy. They wrote that this status may have been related both to the attitudes of the mod young men, who accepted the idea that a young woman did not have to be attached to a man, and to the development of new occupations for young women, which gave them an income and made them more independent. Hall and Jefferson noted the increasing number of jobs in boutiques and women's clothing stores, which, while poorly paid and lacking opportunities for advancement, gave young women disposable income, status and a glamorous sense of dressing up and going into town to work.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Hall and Jefferson argued that the presentable image of female mod fashions meant it was easier for young mod women to integrate with the non-subculture aspects of their lives (home, school and work) than for members of other subcultures. The emphasis on clothing and a stylised look for women demonstrated the "same fussiness for detail in clothes" as their male mod counterparts.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss claimed that the emphasis in the mod subculture on consumerism and shopping was the "ultimate affront to male working-class traditions" in the United Kingdom, because in the working-class tradition, shopping was usually done by women. They argued that British mods were "worshipping leisure and money ... scorning the masculine world of hard work and honest labour" by spending their time listening to music, collecting records, socialising, and dancing at all-night clubs.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: In early-1960s Britain, the two main youth subcultures were mods and rockers. Mods were described in 2012 as "effeminate, stuck-up, emulating the middle classes, aspiring to a competitive sophistication, snobbish, [and] phony", and rockers as "hopelessly naive, loutish, [and] scruffy", emulating the motorcycle gang members in the film "The Wild One", by wearing leather jackets and riding motorcycles. Dick Hebdige claimed in 2006 that the "mods rejected the rocker's crude conception of masculinity, the transparency of his motivations, his clumsiness"; the rockers viewed the vanity and obsession with clothes of the mods as immasculine.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Scholars debate how much contact the two subcultures had during the 1960s. Hebdige argued that mods and rockers had little contact with each other because they tended to come from different regions of England (mods from London and rockers from rural areas), and because they had "totally disparate goals and lifestyles". Mark Gilman, however, claimed that both mods and rockers could be seen at football matches.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: John Covach wrote that in the United Kingdom, rockers were often engaged in brawls with mods. BBC News stories from May 1964 stated that mods and rockers were jailed after riots in seaside resort towns on the south and east coasts of England, such as Margate, Brighton, Bournemouth and Clacton. The "mods and rockers" conflict was explored as an instance of "moral panic" by sociologist Stanley Cohen in his study "Folk Devils and Moral Panics", which examined media coverage of the mod and rocker riots in the 1960s. Although Cohen acknowledged that mods and rockers had some fights in the mid-1960s, he argued that they were no different from the evening brawls that occurred between non-mod and non-rocker youths throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, both at seaside resorts and after football games.


title: Mod (subculture)

text: Newspapers of the time were eager to describe the mod and rocker clashes as being of "disastrous proportions", and labelled mods and rockers as "sawdust Caesars", "vermin" and "louts". Newspaper editorials fanned the flames of hysteria, such as a "Birmingham Post" editorial in May 1964 which warned that mods and rockers were "internal enemies" in the United Kingdom who would "bring about disintegration of a nation's character". The magazine "Police Review" argued that the mods and rockers' purported lack of respect for law and order could cause violence to "surge and flame like a forest fire". As a result of this media coverage, two British Members of Parliament travelled to the seaside areas to survey the damage, and MP Harold Gurden called for a resolution for intensified measures to control youth hooliganism. One of the prosecutors in the trial of some of the Clacton brawlers argued that mods and rockers were youths with no serious views, who lacked respect for law and order.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Bridget Jones's Diary is a 2001 romantic comedy film directed by Sharon Maguire and written by Richard Curtis, Andrew Davies, and Helen Fielding. A co-production of the United Kingdom, United States and France, it is based on Fielding's 1996 novel of the same name, which is a reinterpretation of Jane Austen's 1813 novel "Pride and Prejudice". The adaptation stars Renée Zellweger as Bridget Jones, a 32-year-old British single woman, who writes a diary which focuses on the things she wishes to happen in her life. However, her life changes when two men vie for her affection, portrayed by Colin Firth and Hugh Grant. Jim Broadbent and Gemma Jones appear in supporting roles. Production began in August 2000 and ended in November 2000, and took place largely on location in London and the home counties.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: "Bridget Jones's Diary" premiered on 4 April 2001 in the United Kingdom and was released to theatres on 13 April 2001 simultaneously in the United Kingdom and in the United States. It grossed over $280 million worldwide and received positive reviews, with critics highlighting Zellweger's titular performance, which garnered her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Over the years, it has been hailed as part of the English pop culture, with Bridget Jones being cited as a British cultural icon.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: The success of the film spawned a "Bridget Jones" franchise with two equally successful sequels being released, "" (2004) and "Bridget Jones's Baby" (2016).


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Bridget Jones is 32, single, engagingly imperfect, and worried about her weight. She works as a publicity assistant at a publishing company in London where her main focus is fantasizing about her boss, Daniel Cleaver.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: At her parents' New Year party, Bridget is introduced to Mark Darcy, a childhood acquaintance and handsome barrister, son of her parents' friends. Mark calls Bridget foolish and vulgar, and she thinks he is arrogant and rude. Overhearing Mark grumble to his mother about her attempt to set him up with "a verbally incontinent spinster who smokes like a chimney, drinks like a fish, and dresses like her mother", Bridget forms the New Year's resolution to turn her life around. She begins keeping a diary to chronicle her attempts to stop smoking, stop drinking, lose weight, and find her Mr. Right.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Bridget and Daniel begin to flirt heavily at work, ahead of an important book launch, at which Bridget bumps into Mark and his glamorous and haughty colleague Natasha. Bridget leaves with Daniel and they have dinner, despite Daniel's notorious reputation as a womaniser. Daniel tells Bridget that he and Mark were formerly friends but as Mark slept with his fiancée, they now hate each other. Bridget and Daniel start dating.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Bridget is invited to a family party, originally a "Tarts & Vicars" costume party, so she ties it into a mini-break weekend with Daniel. They spend the day before the party at a country inn where Mark and Natasha are also staying. The morning of the party, Daniel says he must return to London for work and leaves Bridget dressed as a Playboy bunny to endure the party alone. When she returns to London and drops in on Daniel, she discovers his American colleague, Lara naked in his flat. Bridget cuts ties with him and immediately searches for a new career. She lands a new job in television, and when Daniel pleads with her to stay, she declares that she would "rather have a job wiping Saddam Hussein's arse".


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Bridget attends a friend's long-standing dinner party, where she is the only unaccompanied person. Once again she crosses paths with Mark and Natasha. He privately confesses to Bridget that, despite her faults, he likes her "just as you are". Sometime later, he allows Bridget an exclusive TV interview in a landmark legal case which boosts her career and allows her to see him differently.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Bridget begins to develop feelings for Mark, and when she misguidedly and somewhat disastrously, attempts to cook her own birthday dinner party, he comes to her rescue. After a happy dinner celebration with Bridget's friends and Mark, a drunken Daniel arrives and temporarily monopolises Bridget's attention. Mark leaves, but returns to challenge Daniel and they fight in the street, eventually smashing through a window of a Greek restaurant. The fight eventually ends, with Bridget chiding Mark and he leaving, but after a self-serving appeal from Daniel, she rejects him as well.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Bridget's mother, Pamela, has left Bridget's father Colin and begun an affair with perma-tanned shopping channel presenter Julian. When the affair ends, she returns to the Jones's family home and off-handedly reveals that Mark and Daniel's falling-out resulted from Daniel (then Mark's best friend at Cambridge University) sleeping with Mark's wife which Mark walked in on, not the other way around.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: At the Darcys' ruby wedding anniversary party the same day, Bridget confesses her feelings for Mark, only to learn that he and Natasha have accepted jobs in New York and are on the verge of an engagement, according to Mark's father. Bridget interrupts the toast with an emotionally moving speech that peters out as she realises the hopelessness of her position. Although her words have an effect on Mark, he still flies to New York. Bridget's friends rally to repair her broken heart with a surprise trip to Paris, but as they are about to leave, Mark appears at Bridget's flat.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Just as they are about to kiss for the first time, Bridget flies to her bedroom to change into sexier underwear. Mark peeks at her diary, reads her earlier unflattering opinions of him, and leaves. Bridget, realizing what he has read and fearing she has lost him again, runs outside after him in the snow in her tigerskin-print underwear and a thin cardigan, but doesn't find him. Disheartened, she is about to return home when he reappears, she apologises and he presents her with a new diary, "to make a fresh start". They kiss in the snow-covered street.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Andrew Davies, screenwriter of the 1995 television adaptation of "Pride and Prejudice", collaborated on the screenplays for the 2001 and 2004 "Bridget Jones" films and Crispin Bonham-Carter, who played Mr. Bingley in that adaptation, appeared in a minor roles. The self-referential in-joke between the projects convinced Colin Firth to accept the role of Mark Darcy, as it gave him an opportunity to ridicule and liberate himself from his "Pride and Prejudice" character.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Actresses who were considered for the role of Bridget Jones were Helena Bonham Carter, Cate Blanchett, Emily Watson, Rachel Weisz (who was considered too beautiful for the role), and Cameron Diaz. Toni Collette declined the role because she was on Broadway starring in "The Wild Party" at the time. Kate Winslet was also considered, but, at 24, the producers decided she was too young.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Zellweger's casting in late May 2000 concluded a two-year search. Producer Eric Fellner explained that she "brings enormous character and conviction to the part". Maguire said of Zellweger, "I saw in Renee a gift few people have, that she was able to straddle comedy and emotion." Zellweger worked on her accent with Barbara Berkery, who had helped Gwyneth Paltrow for "Shakespeare in Love". She also gained 20 pounds (9 kg) for the part. To prepare for the role, Zellweger worked at the producers' request at London book publishers Picador as a trainee in the publicity department. Before the film was released, a considerable amount of controversy surrounded the casting of the American Zellweger as what some saw as a quintessentially British heroine. However, her performance, including her south-eastern English accent, is widely considered to be of a high standard.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: In July 2000, the leading male roles were given to Colin Firth and Hugh Grant. The director of the film, Sharon Maguire, is one of Fielding's friends, on whom the film's character "Shazzer" (English slang for Sharon) was reportedly based. In the film, Shazzer is played by Sally Phillips.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Principal photography began on 1 August 2000 and concluded on 5 November 2000. The crew spent six weeks shooting in and around London. Locations used included Shad Thames where Bridget and Daniel have their first date, the Royal Courts of Justice, St Pancras railway station and Tower Bridge. Scenes were filmed at Stoke Park in Buckinghamshire where Bridget and Daniel ventured to for their mini-break. Wrotham Park in Hertfordshire served as the Darcys' home. Stansted Airport doubled as JFK Airport in New York, while Syon House in Brentford featured as the venue for the anniversary party. The crew filmed for four days at Snowshill in Gloucestershire which featured as the home of Bridget Jones's family. After six weeks of shooting on location, the crew moved to Shepperton Studios in Surrey.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: "Bridget Jones's Diary" grossed $71.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $210.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $282 million, against a production budget of $25 million.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: The film made $10.7 million in its opening weekend, finishing third. Dropping just 5.7% in its second weekend, the film made $10.2 million and finished first the following weekend.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 80% based on 162 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Though there was controversy over the choice of casting, Zellweger's Bridget Jones is a sympathetic, likable, funny character, giving this romantic comedy a lot of charm." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 66 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Critic Roger Ebert gave the film out of 4 possible stars, writing: "Made against all odds into a funny and charming movie that understands the charm of the original, and preserves it."


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Renée Zellweger was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress, the Empire Award for Best Actress, the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, the MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (shared with Colin Firth), the Satellite Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, the Teen Choice Award for Choice Chemistry (shared with Hugh Grant), the Teen Choice Award for Choice Liplock (shared with Grant), and the Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Colin Firth won the European Film Awards Audience Award for Best Actor and the European Film Award – Jameson People's Choice Award – Best Actor and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and the Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Hugh Grant won the Evening Standard British Film Awards' Peter Sellers Award for Comedy and was nominated for the Empire Award for Best British Actor, the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, and the European Film Award – Jameson People's Choice Award – Best Actor.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Richard Curtis, Andrew Davies, and Helen Fielding were nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: The film was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best British Film, the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, and the Satellite Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: The film's soundtrack was composed by Patrick Doyle. It also features two hit songs that were released as singles, "Out of Reach" by Gabrielle and "It's Raining Men" by Geri Halliwell. The single became Halliwell's fourth consecutive number-one hit single in UK Singles Chart and it became her most successful solo single to date. "Feels Like Sex", another song from the album was originally slated as the lead single, but after "It's Raining Men" was offered to Halliwell, the song was released as the first single, and was added to "Scream if You Wanna Go Faster".


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Halliwell's version received positive reviews by music critics, experienced international success and hit the top ten in over two dozen countries around the world, going to number one in several of them, although it did not fare as well on the American charts. However, in the United Kingdom, "It's Raining Men" debuted at number-one on the UK Singles Chart and stayed there for two weeks. It became Halliwell's fourth consecutive number-one single in the UK, selling 155,000 units in its first week and 80,000 in its second week. Overall the single went on to sell 440,000 copies in Britain alone, becoming the 13th best seller of 2001 and Halliwell's most successful single worldwide.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: The song was a big success in France where it was certified "Diamond" by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP). With this song, Geri Halliwell won the "International Song of the Year" award at the 2002 NRJ Music Awards in France. A remix of the song, The Almighty Mix from the Toshiba-EMI series "Dance Mania", volume 20 was also featured in the 2002 Japanese video games, DDRMAX2 Dance Dance Revolution 7thMix and Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME. This version of the song was used as the theme song in the advertisements for New Talent Singing Awards Vancouver Audition 2003. In July 2006 the song entered at seventy-nine on the Mexican Digital Sales Chart, spending two weeks inside the Top 100.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Halliwell was inspired by the 1980 film "Fame" for the video. She said, "I was just watching Fame on video and I thought what a great excuse". During the video she also does ballet.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: The film was released on both VHS and DVD in 2001 with the UK VHS release containing over 35 minutes of bonus material which includes: Deleted Scenes, Exclusive Interviews, Bridget's Guide to "Getting It Right". There was also a UK VHS of "The Making of Bridget Jones". In 2011, a Blu-ray of the film was released. A Collector's Edition of the film was released in 2004 on DVD with new bonus material including; The Bridget Phenomenon, The Young And The Mateless, Portrait Of The Makeup Artist, Domestic and International TV Spots, Bridget Jones's Diary Reviews and A Guide to Bridget Britishism.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: Fielding has stated in many interviews that her novel was based upon both Jane Austen's work "Pride and Prejudice" and its popular 1995 BBC adaptation. This was also reflected in the decision to cast Colin Firth as Darcy, since he played Mr. Darcy in the BBC adaptation of "Pride and Prejudice". This is not the film's only connection to that serial – the screenplay was co-written by Andrew Davies, who had written the adaptation of Austen's novel for the BBC.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: The film version is currently being adapted into a musical, set to hit London's West End, although no date has been set. British musician Lily Allen has written the score and lyrics, and Stephen Daldry, best known for his Tony award-winning work on the West End and Broadway productions of "Billy Elliot", will be directing, joined by his co-worker Peter Darling, who will serve as choreographer.


title: Bridget Jones's Diary

text: An official cast for the production has not yet been announced, but workshops for the show have already begun with television actress and star of "Legally Blonde", Sheridan Smith, in the title role.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The (Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various times through the centuries. The encyclopaedia is maintained by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 contributors. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition. Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Printed for 244 years, the "Britannica" was the longest running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in the Scottish capital of Edinburgh, as three volumes. The encyclopaedia grew in size: the second edition was 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition (1801–1810) it had expanded to 20 volumes. Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the "Britannica" shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. In 1933, the "Britannica" became the first encyclopaedia to adopt "continuous revision", in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule. In March 2012, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The 15th edition has a three-part structure: a 12-volume of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the ; readers are advised to study the outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles. Over 70 years, the size of the "Britannica" has remained steady, with about 40 million words on half a million topics. Though published in the United States since 1901, the "Britannica" has for the most part maintained British English spelling.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Since 1985, the "Britannica" had four parts: the , the , the , and a two-volume index. The "Britannica" articles are found in the and , which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from 2 to 310 pages and having references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors. The articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the . The articles are meant both as authoritative, well-written articles on their subjects and as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere. The longest article (310 pages) is on the United States, and resulted from the merger of the articles on the individual states. A 2013 "Global Edition" of "Britannica" contained approximately forty thousand articles.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Information can be found in the "Britannica" by following the cross-references in the and ; however, these are sparse, averaging one cross-reference per page. Hence, readers are recommended to consult instead the alphabetical index or the , which organizes the "Britannica" contents by topic.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The core of the is its "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge. Accordingly, the Outline is consulted by the "Britannica" editors to decide which articles should be included in the and . The Outline is also intended to be a study guide, to put subjects in their proper perspective, and to suggest a series of "Britannica" articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth. However, libraries have found that it is scarcely used, and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopaedia. The also has color transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the "Britannica".


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Taken together, the and comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images. The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, listing the 228,274 topics covered in the "Britannica", together with 474,675 subentries under those topics. The "Britannica" generally prefers British spelling over American; for example, it uses "colour" (not "color"), "centre" (not "center"), and "encyclopaedia" (not "encyclopedia"). However, there are exceptions to this rule, such as "defense" rather than "defence". Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as "Color: "see" Colour."


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Since 1936, the articles of the "Britannica" have been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of them considered for revision each year. According to one Britannica website, 46% of its articles were revised over the past three years; however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of the articles were revised.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The alphabetization of articles in the and follows strict rules. Diacritical marks and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as "1812, War of" are alphabetized as if the number had been written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of"). Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things. Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England, listed in "Britannica" as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are alphabetized as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are organized alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version. This was announced as a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution. The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990 when 120,000 sets were sold, but it dropped to 40,000 in 1996. 12,000 sets of the 2010 edition were printed, of which 8,000 had been sold . By late April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica's online store. , a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is sold on the online store.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: "Britannica Junior" was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed "Britannica Junior Encyclopædia" in 1963. It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: A British "Children's Britannica" edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960. Its contents were determined largely by the eleven-plus standardized tests given in Britain. Britannica introduced the "Children's Britannica" to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: "My First Britannica" is aimed at children ages six to 12, and the "Britannica Discovery Library" is for children aged three to six (issued 1974 to 1991).


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: There have been, and are, several abridged "Britannica" encyclopaedias. The single-volume "Britannica Concise Encyclopædia" has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume "Britannica"; there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese and Vietnamese. "Compton's by Britannica", first published in 2007, incorporating the former "Compton's Encyclopedia", is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has published annually a "Book of the Year" covering the past year's events. A given edition of the "Book of the Year" is named in terms of the year of its publication, though the edition actually covers the events of the previous year. The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as "Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard" (Wiley, 2006).


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD" contains over 100,000 articles. This includes regular "Britannica" articles, as well as others drawn from the "Britannica Student Encyclopædia", and the "Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia." The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: "Britannica" Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly. It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from "The New York Times" and the BBC. , roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites. , subscriptions were available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis. Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business. Beginning in early 2007, the "Britannica" made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia. Users will be able to send a question via text message, and AskMeNow will search "Britannica" 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query. Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones are also planned.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: On 3 June 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica's online content (in the spirit of a wiki), with editorial oversight from Britannica staff, was announced. Approved contributions would be credited, though contributing automatically grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. perpetual, irrevocable license to those contributions.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online "Britannica" website from the public. The published edition of the encyclopaedia will not be affected by the changes. Individuals wishing to edit the "Britannica" website will have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content. All edits submitted will be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff. Contributions from non-academic users will sit in a separate section from the expert-generated "Britannica" content, as will content submitted by non-"Britannica" scholars. Articles written by users, if vetted and approved, will also only be available in a special section of the website, separate from the professional articles. Official "Britannica" material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K-12 market. On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopedia as an iPad app. In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus more on its online version.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a Google Chrome extension, Britannica Insights, which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online in a sidebar for Google Search results. The Britannica sidebar does not replace Google's sidebar and is instead placed above Google's sidebar. Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The print version of the "Britannica" has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey. Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus. Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: While "Britannica" authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Leon Trotsky, as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov, some have been criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911 the historian George L. Burr wrote:


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: in the fifteenth edition of "Britannica", Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as "Britannica's" Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938), Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991), and Robert McHenry (1992–1997). Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor. Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The 2007 editorial staff of the "Britannica" included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the and some sections of the .


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica" has an editorial board of advisors, which includes 12 distinguished scholars: non-fiction author Nicholas Carr, religion scholar Wendy Doniger, political economist Benjamin M. Friedman, Council on Foreign Relations President Emeritus Leslie H. Gelb, computer scientist David Gelernter, Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive scientist Donald Norman, musicologist Don Michael Randel, Stewart Sutherland, Baron Sutherland of Houndwood, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Propædia" and its "Outline of Knowledge" were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J. Adler. Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d. 1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Mark Van Doren (d. 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned articles.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In January 1996, the "Britannica" was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra, who serves as its current chair of the board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Inc., was created to develop digital versions of the "Britannica"; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Inc. was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses. In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership of the two companies. Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on the "Britannica" Board of Directors.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the "Britannica's" Board of Directors. Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the "Britannica" brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Under Safra's ownership, the company has experienced financial difficulties and has responded by reducing the price of its products and implementing drastic cost cuts. According to a 2003 report in the "New York Post", the "Britannica" management has eliminated employee 401(k) accounts and encouraged the use of free images. These changes have had negative impacts, as freelance contributors have waited up to six months for checks and the "Britannica" staff have gone years without pay rises.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In the fall of 2017, Karthik Krishnan was appointed global chief executive officer of the Encyclopædia Britannica Group. Krishnan brought a varied perspective to the role based on several high-level positions in digital media, including RELX (formerly known as Reed Elsevier, and one of the constituents of the FTSE 100 Index) and Rodale, in which he was responsible for "driving business and cultural transformation and accelerating growth".


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Taking the reins of the company as it was preparing to mark its 250th anniversary and define the next phase of its digital strategy for consumers and K-12 schools, Krishnan launched a series of new initiatives in his first year.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: First was Britannica Insights, a free, downloadable software extension to the Google Chrome browser that served up edited, fact-checked Britannica information with queries on search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Its purpose, the company said, was to "provide trusted, verified information" in conjunction with search results that were thought to be increasingly unreliable in the era of misinformation and "fake news."


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The product was quickly followed by Britannica School Insights, which provided similar content for subscribers to Britannica's online classroom solutions, and a partnership with YouTube in which verified Britannica content appeared on the site as an antidote to user-generated video content that could be false or misleading.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Krishnan, himself an educator at New York University's Stern School of Business, believes in the "transformative power of education" and set steering the company toward solidifying its place among leaders in educational technology and supplemental curriculum. Krishnan aimed at providing more useful and relevant solutions to customer needs, extending and renewing Britannica's historical emphasis on "Utility", which had been the watchword of its first edition in 1768.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Krishnan also is active in civic affairs, with organizations such as the Urban Enterprise Initiative and Urban Upbound, whose board he serves on.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: As the "Britannica" is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the "Encyclopaedia of Mathematics" or the "Dictionary of the Middle Ages", which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the "Britannica" main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, "Rees's Cyclopædia" and Coleridge's "Encyclopædia Metropolitana". In the 20th century, successful competitors included "Collier's Encyclopedia", the "Encyclopedia Americana", and the "World Book Encyclopedia". Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the "Britannica" was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English-language encyclopaedia, especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors. The print version of the "Britannica" was significantly more expensive than its competitors.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Since the early 1990s, the "Britannica" has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of Web search engines, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books, MIT's release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine. In general, the Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated. In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the "Britannica" has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust. Eventually, the "Britannica" turned to focus more on its online edition.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively. A well-known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the 1993 "Britannica" with two comparable encyclopaedias, "Collier's Encyclopedia" and the "Encyclopedia Americana". For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan—and letter grades of A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency. In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between B− and B+, chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994. In the accuracy category, the "Britannica" received one "D" and seven "A"s, "Encyclopedia Americana" received eight "A"s, and "Collier's" received one "D" and seven "A"s; thus, "Britannica" received an average score of 92% for accuracy to "Americana"s 95% and "Collier's" 92%. In the timeliness category, "Britannica" averaged an 86% to "Americana"'s 90% and "Collier's" 85%.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In 2013, the President of Encyclopædia Britannica announced that after 244 years, the encyclopedia would cease print production and all future editions would be entirely digital.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The most notable competitor of the "Britannica" among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was "Encarta", now discontinued, a modern, multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: "Funk & Wagnalls", "Collier's" and the "New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia". "Encarta" was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006. Both occupied the same price range, with the "2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate" CD or DVD costing US$40–50 and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45. The "Britannica" contains 100,000 articles and "Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus" (US only), and offers Primary and Secondary School editions. "Encarta" contained 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language and homework tools, a US and UK dictionary, and a youth edition. Like "Encarta", the "Britannica" has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences; the United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary. Like the "Britannica", "Encarta" was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed free.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The main online alternative to "Britannica" is Wikipedia. The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike "Britannica", Wikipedia is a not-for-profit and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The 699 printed articles are generally written by identified contributors, and the roughly 65,000 printed articles are the work of the editorial staff and identified outside consultants. Thus, a "Britannica" article either has known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most of the "Britannica" contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates. By contrast, the articles of Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise: most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials. It is for this lack of institutional vetting, or certification, that former "Britannica" editor-in-chief Robert McHenry notes his belief that Wikipedia cannot hope to rival the "Britannica" in accuracy.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In 2005, the journal "Nature" chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer review. The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side but were not told which article came from which site. "Nature" got back 42 usable reviews.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In the end, the journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site. It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in "Britannica", an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for "Britannica".


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Although "Britannica "was revealed as the more accurate encyclopedia, with fewer errors, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in its rebuttal called "Nature"'s study flawed and misleading and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a "Britannica" yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from "Compton's Encyclopedia" (called the "Britannica Student Encyclopedia" on the company's website).


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: "Nature" defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of "Britannica", it used whatever relevant material was available on "Britannica"s website. Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of "Britannica UK" said: In a January 2016 press release, "Britannica" called Wikipedia "an impressive achievement."


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Since the 3rd edition, the "Britannica" has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence. The 3rd and the 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States, beginning with "Dobson's Encyclopaedia". On the release of the 14th edition, "Time" magazine dubbed the "Britannica" the "Patriarch of the Library". In a related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the "Britannica" was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor." References to the "Britannica" can be found throughout English literature, most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League". The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at the bicentennial of the "Britannica".


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica" has a reputation for summarising knowledge. To further their education, some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire "Britannica", taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so. When Fat'h Ali became the Shah of Persia in 1797, he was given a set of the "Britannica's" 3rd edition, which he read completely; after this feat, he extended his royal title to include "Most Formidable Lord and Master of the ". Writer George Bernard Shaw claimed to have read the complete 9th edition—except for the science articles—and Richard Evelyn Byrd took the "Britannica" as reading material for his five-month stay at the South Pole in 1934, while Philip Beaver read it during a sailing expedition. More recently, A.J. Jacobs, an editor at "Esquire" magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book, "". Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author C. S. Forester and Amos Urban Shirk, an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The CD/DVD-ROM version of the "Britannica", "Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite", received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers. On 15 July 2009, was awarded a spot as one of "Top Ten Superbrands in the UK" by a panel of more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Topics are chosen in part by reference to the "Outline of Knowledge". The bulk of the "Britannica" is devoted to geography (26% of the ), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%). A complementary study of the found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%. Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of coverage [of the "Britannica"] are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia."


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica" does not cover topics in equivalent detail; for example, the whole of Buddhism and most other religions is covered in a single article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity, comprising nearly half of all religion articles. However, the "Britannica" has been lauded as the "least" biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: On rare occasions, the "Britannica" has been criticized for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, military decorations, and the French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies. Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the and . Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a "qualified failure...[that] cares more for juggling its format than for preserving." More recently, reviewers from the American Library Association were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 , along with the article on psychology.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Some very few "Britannica"-appointed contributors are mistaken. A notorious instance from the "Britannica's" early years is the rejection of Newtonian gravity by George Gleig, the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical element of fire. The "Britannica" has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics, as it did with William Robertson Smith's articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate (1875).


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica" has received criticism, especially as editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the "Britannica", and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years). For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book, "The Myth of the Britannica", the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work. It is still difficult to keep the "Britannica" current; one recent critic writes, "it is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision", noting that the longer articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter articles. Information in the is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other. The bibliographies of the articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In 2005, 12-year-old schoolboy Lucian George found several inaccuracies in the "Britannica"s entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In 2010, an inaccurate entry about the Irish Civil War was discussed in the Irish press following a decision of the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Writing about the 3rd edition (1788–1797), "Britannica"s chief editor George Gleig observed that "perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan, and embracing such a variety of subjects." In March 2006, the "Britannica" wrote, "we in no way mean to imply that "Britannica" is error-free; we have never made such a claim" (although in 1962 Britannica's sales department famously said of the 14th edition "It is truth. It is unquestionable fact.") The sentiment is expressed by its original editor, William Smellie:


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: However, Jorge Cauz (president of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.) asserted in 2012 that ""Britannica" [...] will always be factually correct."


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Edinburgh, Scotland printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The present owner of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. is Jacqui Safra, a Brazilian billionaire and actor. Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, "Encarta" and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias. To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the "Britannica", reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has promoted spin-off reference works.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica" has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions (see the Table below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. The 15th underwent massive reorganization in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Throughout history, the "Britannica" has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material. In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge. The history of the "Britannica" can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management, or reorganization of the dictionary.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the "Britannica" was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others. The "Britannica" was first published between December 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh as the "Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan". In part, it was conceived in reaction to the French "Encyclopédie" of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (published 1751–72), which had been inspired by Chambers's "Cyclopaedia" (first edition 1728). It went on sale 10 December.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica" of this period was primarily a Scottish enterprise, and it is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment. In this era, the "Britannica" moved from being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one young editor—William Smellie—to a 20-volume set written by numerous authorities. Several other encyclopaedias competed throughout this period, among them editions of Abraham Rees's "Cyclopædia" and Coleridge's "Encyclopædia Metropolitana" and David Brewster's "Edinburgh Encyclopædia".


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the "Britannica" was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably Macvey Napier, others were attracted by the "Britannica's" reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief. Dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all "Britannicas". After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith. No biographies of living persons were included. James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science. However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the "Britannica" faced financial difficulties.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the "Britannica" was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work, and is still praised for excellence; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on its perfection.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the "Britannica" was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the "Britannica"; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision. This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions. Powell developed new educational products that built upon the "Britannica"s reputation.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In 1943, Sears donated the to the University of Chicago. William Benton, then a vice president of the university, provided the working capital for its operation. The stock was divided between Benton and the university, with the university holding an option on the stock. Benton became chairman of the board and managed the "Britannica" until his death in 1973. Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the "Britannica" until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago. In 1968, near the end of this era, the "Britannica" celebrated its bicentennial.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In the fourth era (1974–94), the "Britannica" introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the , the , and the . Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of "Britannica" from 1965), the "Britannica" sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the and ) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition. In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised until the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the "New Encyclopædia Britannica", although it has also been promoted as "Britannica 3".


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: On 9 March 1976 the US Federal Trade Commission entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online. In 1996, the "Britannica" was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Inc., developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the "Britannica" name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: "Britannica"s final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set. "Britannica Global Edition" was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes, as well as over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners. Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain and sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had. The following is "Britannica"s description of the work:


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the "Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't", an encyclopedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format. It was "Britannica"'s first encyclopedia for children since 1984.


title: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: The "Britannica" was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States. Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth, King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to William Howard Taft, President of the United States of America." The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, Dwight David Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth the Second." Consistent with this tradition, the 2007 version of the current 15th edition was "dedicated by permission to the current President of the United States of America, George W. Bush, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II", while the 2010 version of the current 15th edition is "dedicated by permission to Barack Obama, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II."


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: Boiling Point is a 2021 British drama film directed by Philip Barantini and starring Stephen Graham, Vinette Robinson, Ray Panthaki and Hannah Walters. It is a one-shot film set in a restaurant kitchen. It is an expansion of a 2019 short film of the same name, also directed by Barantini and starring Graham. It was originally planned to record eight takes of the film, but it was only possible to film half of these before a COVID lockdown led to the end of the shoot.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: The film premiered at the 55th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival on 23 August 2021. It was released in the United Kingdom on 7 January 2022. The film was met with critical acclaim. At the 75th British Academy Film Awards, the film received four nominations: Outstanding British Film, Outstanding Debut by a British Writer, Director or Producer (writer James Cummings and producer Hester Ruoff), Best Actor in a Leading Role (Graham) and Best Casting (Carolyn Mcleod).


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: A sequel series for the BBC has been confirmed, with Graham, Robinson and Walters reprising their roles. Philip Barantini will direct the first two episodes and James Cummings will return as writer.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: Andy Jones is Head Chef of "Jones & Sons", an upmarket restaurant in London. Andy is embarrassed to learn that his restaurant has been downgraded from a 5 star Health and Safety rating to 3 stars following an inspection. After the inspector leaves, Andy reprimands the kitchen staff for their lack of thoroughness. Front of house Beth holds a short meeting to discuss the evening's service being overbooked. She also mentions that they have a marriage proposal on one table and a booking for celebrity chef Alastair Skye, for whom Andy previously worked, plus his guest for the evening, a known food critic.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: During dinner service, conflict begins to brew in the kitchen and dining room. Beth annoys the kitchen staff with micro-management, a black waitress is treated with hostility by an aggressive guest (in contrast to her white colleague), a young pastry chef is revealed to be self-harming, a pregnant kitchen porter spars with a lazy and disrespectful co-worker, and the new cold chef Camille, who is from France, struggles with the language barrier. Tension grows until Beth demands the already-stressed chef Carly make off-menu items to appease "influencer" guests; Carly finally blows up at her, telling her that she is failing the restaurant with her lack of ability. Beth retreats to the toilets in tears, admitting to her father on the phone that she does not think the job is right for her. Andy serves Alastair's table, where Alistair reveals that Andy owes him £200,000 and wants the payment in full to cover his private losses. Andy explains that he does not have the money to pay him back. Alistair offers to work together again and to split Andy's 30% ownership of the restaurant with him.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: Things then take a turn for the worse when a guest suffers a severe allergic reaction, which Camille had inadvertently caused. Taking advantage of the situation, Alastair informs Andy that Carly should take the fall or else the restaurant as well as their potential partnership will fail. After the guest is picked up by an ambulance, the kitchen staff and Beth meet at the back of kitchen to work out the cause of the allergic reaction. They conclude that it was in fact Andy's fault the food was contaminated; he had instructed Camille to use a bottle containing walnut oil for the garnish earlier. This culminates in one of the chefs, Freeman, lambasting Andy for his constant lateness and mistakes as well as his rampant alcoholism. A fight nearly breaks out between Andy and Freeman, which Carly prevents.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: The staff return to work and Andy then reveals to Carly that Alastair wanted him to lay the blame on her, which leads to Carly quitting. Andy goes to his office, where he drinks vodka and snorts a white powder (which may be heroin or cocaine). He calls his ex-wife, and asks her to tell his son he loves him, and that he will go to rehab. After ending the call, Andy throws away the drugs and alcohol and starts to return to the kitchen before collapsing. The staff's voices can be heard calling his name.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: In the United Kingdom, the film earned $107,525 from fifty-three theaters in its opening weekend. The film went on to gross $1,142,493 worldwide.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: The film received critical acclaim. At the 2021 British Independent Film Awards, "Boiling Point" was nominated for eleven awards and won four — including Best Supporting Actress for Vinette Robinson, Best Casting, Best Cinematography, and Best Sound.


title: Boiling Point (2021 film)

text: Glenn Kenny of "The New York Times" noted in regards to the film's one-shot nature that, "when [the camera] trails a restaurant worker taking out the trash, the viewer knows they're not being removed from the central action just to observe labor — there's a plot point to be ticked."