title: History of television

text: By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air. While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year. Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result. Scrambling also led to the development of pay-per-view events. On November 1, 1988, NBC began scrambling its C-band signal but left its K band signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising. Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band. ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local network affiliates. The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison. A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years.


title: History of television

text: Satellite television had also developed in Europe but it initially used low power communication satellites and it required dish sizes of over . On December 11, 1988 Luxembourg launched Astra 1A, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe. This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in K band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm). The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market.


title: History of television

text: In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellite. The relatively strong transmissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the Hughes DirecTV and Dish Network satellite television systems.


title: History of television

text: On March 4, 1996, EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar 1 satellite. EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of channels available on Dish Network to 170. These systems provided better pictures and stereo sound on 150-200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to digital television transmission using the DigiCipher conditional access system.


title: History of television

text: In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of DBS services such as PrimeStar and DirecTV had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early 1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent K band) are higher in both frequency and power (due to improvements in the solar panels and energy efficiency of modern satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the digital modulation methods now used require less signal strength at the receiver than analog modulation methods. Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the K band, but only 24 in the C band, and several digital subchannels can be multiplexed (MCPC) or carried separately (SCPC) on a single transponder. Advances in noise reduction due to improved microwave technology and semiconductor materials have also had an effect. However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is rain fade where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.


title: History of television

text: Internet television (Internet TV), (online television) or IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable and satellite, although internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters.


title: History of television

text: Internet television should not to be confused with Smart TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Smart television refers to the TV set that has an inbuilt operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.


title: History of television

text: A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using cathode ray tubes. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as VHS and later DVD, as well as for early home computers and videogame consoles. In the late 2000s flat panel television incorporating liquid-crystal displays largely replaced cathode ray tubes. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of high-definition display (720p, 1080p or 2160p) and can also play content from a USB device.


title: History of television

text: Mechanical televisions were commercially sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom, United States, and Soviet Union. The earliest commercially made televisions sold by Baird called Televisors in the UK in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a neon tube behind a mechanically spinning disk (patented by German engineer Paul Nipkow in 1884) with a spiral of apertures first mass-produced television set, selling about a thousand units.


title: History of television

text: The first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in France (1936), Britain (1936), and the United States (1938). The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 (). An estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S. before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. Television usage in the western world skyrocketed after World War II with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the drop in television prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962. In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, color television had come into wide use. In Britain, BBC1, BBC2 and ITV were regularly broadcasting in color by 1969.


title: History of television

text: By the late 2000s, CRT display technology was largely supplanted worldwide by flat-panel displays such as LCD. Flat-panel television, especially LCD, has become the dominant form of television since the early 2010s.


title: History of television

text: The first national live television broadcast in the U.S. took place on September 4, 1951, when President Harry Truman's speech at the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco was transmitted over AT&T's transcontinental cable and microwave radio relay system to broadcast stations in local markets.


title: History of television

text: The first live coast-to-coast commercial television broadcast in the U.S. took place on November 18, 1951, during the premiere of CBS's "See It Now", which showed a split-screen view of the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City and the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco.


title: History of television

text: The Eurovision Song Contest held yearly from 1956 by the European Broadcasting Union was launched, among other goals, with the aim to make technical improvements in the field of simultaneous sharing of TV signals across main national European broadcasters, a technical challenge by that time. It is the longest-running annual international televised music competition.


title: History of television

text: In 1958, the CBC completed the longest television network in the world, from Sydney, Nova Scotia to Victoria, British Columbia.


title: History of television

text: Reportedly, the first continuous live broadcast of a "breaking" news story in the world was conducted by the CBC during the Springhill mining disaster, which began on October 23, 1958.


title: History of television

text: The development of cable television and satellite television in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged companies to target programming toward specific audiences. It also enabled the rise of subscription television channels, such as Home Box Office (HBO) and Showtime in the U.S., and Sky Television in the U.K.


title: Iblis

text: Iblis (), alternatively known as Eblīs, is the leader of the devils () in Islam. According to the Quran, Iblis was thrown out of heaven, after he refused to prostrate himself before Adam. Regarding the origin and nature of Iblis, there are two different viewpoints.


title: Iblis

text: In the first version, before Iblis was cast down from heaven, he used to be a high-ranking angel ("Karub") called Azazil, appointed by God to obliterate the original disobedient inhabitants of the earth, who were replaced with humans, as more obedient creatures. After Iblis objected to God's decision to create a successor (), he was punished by being relegated and cast down to earth as a (devil). In the alternative account, God created Iblis from the fires beneath the seventh earth. Worshipping God for thousands of years, Iblis ascended to the surface, whereupon, thanks to his pertinacious servitude, he rose until he reached the company of angels in the seventh heaven. When God created Adam and ordered the angels to bow down, Iblis, being a jinn created from fire, refused, and disobeyed God, leading to his downfall.


title: Iblis

text: In the Islamic tradition, Iblis is often identified with ("the Devil"), often known by the epithet (). is usually applied to Iblis in order to denote his role as the tempter, while is his proper name. Some Sufi Muslims hold a more ambivalent role for Iblis, considering him not simply as the Devil but also as "the true monotheist", while preserving the term exclusively for evil forces.


title: Iblis

text: The name "Iblīs" () may have been derived from the Arabic verbal root (with the broad meaning of "remain in grief") or "(", "he despaired"). This is the major opinion among Arab scholars. His personal name was accordingly Azazil:


title: Iblis

text: Some Muslim teachers, such as al-Jili, relate this name to "talbis" meaning confusion, because God's command confused him.


title: Iblis

text: Another possibility is that it is derived from Ancient Greek "()", via a Syriac intermediary, which is also the source of the English word 'devil'. Yet another possibility relates this name to the "bene Elohim" (Sons of God), who had been identified with fallen angels in the early centuries, but had been singularized under the name of their leader.


title: Iblis

text: However, there is no general agreement on the root of the term. The name itself could not be found before the Quran in Arab literature, but can be found in Kitab al Magall, a Christian apocryphal work written in Arabic.


title: Iblis

text: In Islamic traditions, "Iblīs" is known by many alternative names or titles, such as "Abū Murrah" (Arabic: أَبُو مُرَّة, "Father of Bitterness") as the name stems from the word ""murr"" - meaning "bitter", ‘"aduww Allāh" or ‘"aduwallah" (Arabic: عُدُوّ الله, "enemy or foe" of God) and "Abū Al-Harith" (Arabic: أَبُو الْحَارِث, "the father of the plowmen"). He is also known by the nickname ""Abū Kardūs"" (Arabic: أَبُو كَرْدُوس), which may mean "Father who piles up, crams or crowds together".


title: Iblis

text: Iblis may either be a fallen angel or a jinni or something entirely unique. This lack of final specification arises from the Quran itself, while Iblis is included into the command addressed to the angels and apparently among them, it is said he was "from the jinn" in Surah , whose exact meaning is debated by both Western academics and Islamic scholars. The motif of prostrating angels with one exception among them already appeared in early Christian writings and apocalyptic literature. For this reason, one might assume Iblis was intended to be an angel. Samael might be the midrashic counterpart of Iblis. Both, created from fire, oppose God's new creation out of envy. In objection to the Quran relating Iblis to the jinn, some scholars argue this to be unlikely the general opinion of the Quran. Paul Eichler argues that, especially when the Quran calls Iblis a "jinni", his creation from fire is not mentioned, while when his creation from fire is mentioned, the connection between Iblis' fire and the fire of the jinn is absent. Whenever the Quran speaks about the creation of jinn, their fire is described with special attributes (like "smokeless"), whereas Iblis' fire is never described in such a manner throughout the Quran. In Ancient Near Eastern traditions, not only jinn, but also angels, such as a Seraph, have been associated with fire. Others proposed that "jinni" might have been a later interpolation, when both jinn and Iblis have been merged into the same category of evil spirits. Jacques Waardenburg argues, that Iblis' might have been considered an angel first, but appears to be a jinni in later Surahs. Whereas Satan has been known to be an angel in the Judeo-Christian tradition, Muhammad would have depicted Satan as a jinni, as a result of syncretism between monotheism and Arabian paganism, drawing a line between the angels on God's side and the jinn on the side of the pagans. The sharp distinction between angels and Iblis is supported by the later theological doctrine of angelic infallibility. While the angels possess no free will, it is necessary for Iblis to be an entity apart, and Iblis being a jinni explains his downfall. Otherswise, it has been argued that supernatural creatures in early Islamic tradition were not expected to commit or reject sin. Accordingly, Iblis could not be distinguished from angels by exercising free will in Islam's early stage, and Iblis would originally be depicted as created as a "rebellious angel".


title: Iblis

text: Theology ("Kalām") discusses Iblis' role in the Quran and matters of free-will. Some, especially the Muʿtazila, emphasize free-will and that Iblis freely chose to disobey. Others assert that Iblis was predestined by God to disobey. By that, God shows his entire spectrum of attributes (for example; his "wiliness") in the Quran, but also teaches humankind the consequences of sin and disobedience. Al-Damiri reports, most "mufassir" do not regard disobedience alone to be the reason for Iblis' punishment, but attributing injustice to God by objecting God's order.


title: Iblis

text: According to most scholars, Iblis is a mere creature and thus cannot be the cause or creator of evil in the world; in his function as a devil, he is seen only as a tempter who takes advantage of humanity's weaknesses and self-centeredness and leads them away from God's path. Iblis and his fellow devils can only operate with God's permission. The existence of evil has been created by God himself. The idea that God and the devil are two opposing and independent principles, has been rejected by Muslim theologians, like Maturidi, as part of pre-Islamic Iranian beliefs.


title: Iblis

text: Iblis also features as the progenitor of the devils, and thus referred to as the "father of the devils" ("abū al-shayāṭīn").


title: Iblis

text: Iblis is mentioned 11 times in the Quran by name, nine times related to his refusal against God's command to prostrate himself before Adam. The term "Shaytan" is more prevalent, although Iblis is sometimes referred to as Shaytan; the terms are not interchangeable. The different fragments of Iblis's story are scattered across the Quran. In the aggregate, the story can be summarised as follows:


title: Iblis

text: When God created Adam, He ordered the angels to bow before the new creation. All of the angels bowed down, but Iblis refused to do so. He argued that since he was created from fire, he is superior to humans, who were made from clay-mud, and that he should not prostrate himself before Adam. As punishment for his haughtiness, God banished Iblis from heaven and condemned him to hell. Later, Iblis requested the ability to try to mislead Adam and his descendants. God granted his request but also warned him that he would have no power over God's servants.


title: Iblis

text: There are different opinions regarding the proper meaning of "among the jinni" in the Quran. Apart from the Quranic narrative, Islamic exegesis offers two different accounts of Iblis's origin: according to one, he was a noble angel, to the other he was an ignoble jinn, who worked his way up to heaven. Some also consider him to be merely the ancestor of jinn, who was created in heaven, but fell due to his disobedience, as Adam slipped from paradise when he sinned. It might be this moment, Iblis turned into a jinn, but has been an angel created from fire before.


title: Iblis

text: According to exegetes of the Quran ("tafsir"), such as ibn Abbas, Tabari Ash'ari, Al-Tha`labi, Al-Baydawi and Mahmud al-Alusi Iblis was an angel in origin. Razi describes Iblis as "one of the closest angels" ("muqarrabun"). According to a tradition attributed to ibn Abbas and ibn Masud, in case of Iblis, the term "jinn" is used in reference to "jannah" (heaven). Accordingly, Iblis was a guardian and of a sub-category of "fiery angels". These angels, created from fire ("nar"), are to be distinguished by both the angels of mercy, created from light ("nur"), and the earthly jinn, created from "smokeless fire" ("marijin min nar"). Tabarsi argued that, if Iblis were a jinni, he couldn't become a custodian of paradise among the angels. Şaban Ali argues that identifying Iblis as a jinni is a mistranslation. He states, instead of "was one of the jinn", the proper translation would be, analogous to Surah 2:34, "became one of the jinn" and that Iblis has been an angel first, but became a jinn when he becomes an unbeliever. The transformation of Iblis from angelic into demonic is used, by advocates of Iblis' angelic origin, as reminder of God's capacity to reverse something even on an ontological level. It is both a warning and a reminder that the special gifts given by God can also be taken away by Him.Tabari goes further in his Quran commentary, and argues against objections made against Iblis' angelic origin:


title: Iblis

text: "There is nothing objectionable in that God should have created the categories of His angels from all kinds of things that He had created: He created some of them from light, some of them from fire, and some of them from what He willed apart from that. There is thus nothing in God's omitting to state what He created His angels from, and in His stating what He created Iblis from, which necessarily implies that Iblis is outside of the meaning of [angel], for it is possible that He created a category of His angels, among whom was Iblis, from fire, and even that Iblis was unique in that He created him, and no other angels of His, from the fire of the Samum.


title: Iblis

text: Likewise, he cannot be excluded from being an angel by fact that he had progeny or offspring, because passion and lust, from which the other angels were free, was compounded in him when God willed disobedience in him. As for God's statement that he was <one of the jinn>, it is not to be rejected that everything which hides itself (ijtanna) from the sight is a 'Jinn', as stated before, and Iblis and the angels should then be among them because they hide themselves from the eyes of the sons of Adam."


title: Iblis

text: On the other hand, scholars arguing that the term "jinni" refers to jinn, and not a category of angels, don't need to explain Iblis' origin from fire, but they need to explain Iblis' stay among the angels. Examples of famous scholars who rejected Iblis' angelic origin are Hasan of Basra, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ibn Taimiyya, Ibn Kathir and Sayyid Qutb. This view is also attributed to the majority Mu'tazilah. They famously emphasize free will, and thus cannot argue that Iblis's has been predestined to fall, therefore his sin is necessary a result of rebellion against God's law, thus implying free will. This view was also popularized by Salafi scholars (such as Muhammad Al-Munajjid, who promulgated his view on IslamQA.info and Umar Sulaiman Al-Ashqar, in his famous "Islamic Creed Series") in recent times.


title: Iblis

text: There are two viewpoints regarding this matter. Hasan of Basra argues that Iblis has been the first of the jinn, and thus, like Adam, been created in paradise. However, when he sinned, he and his progeny were cast out. Ibn Kathir on the other hand, follows the narrative that jinn have lived before Adam on earth, but, unlike ibn Abbas, argues that Iblis was not of the angels battling the jinn, but a jinni himself. Accordingly, Iblis was once an ordinary jinni but, due to his piety and constant worship, elevated among the angels. He explains Iblis' jinnic origin as follows:


title: Iblis

text: "When Allah commanded the angels to prostrate before Adam, Iblis was included in this command. Although Iblis was not an angel, he was trying - and pretending - to imitate the angels' behavior and deeds, and this is why he was also included in the command to the angels to prostrate before Adam. Satan was criticized for defying that command, (. . .)


title: Iblis

text: When matters crucial every vessel leaks that which to contains and is betrayed by its true nature. Iblis used to do, what the angels did and resembled them in their devotion and worship, so he was included when they were addressed, but he disobeyed and went what he was told to do. So Allah points out here that he was one of the Jinn, he was created from fire, as He says elsewhere."


title: Iblis

text: Many scholars also point out to the doctrine of angelic infallibility, arguing that Iblis could not have been an angel therefore. However, this view is contested and depends on exegetical decisions on Quranic verses, both about the nature of angels and the meaning of free will. While Hasan al Basri is known for exempting angels from all deficits, Abu Hanifa is reported as distinguishing between obedient angels, disobedient angels such as Harut and Marut and unbelievers among the angels, like Iblis. For some, Iblis' disobedience is part of God's will. God would have created Iblis, differing from the other angels, from fire, installing a rebellious nature in him, so he will rebel and be endowed with the task to seduce humans, just as other angels are endowed with different tasks corresponding to their nature.


title: Iblis

text: While the Quran sentences Iblis to hell, interpreters are undecided if Iblis is already in hell, or will be thrown into hell after the Judgement Day. Some sources describe him and his host of devils as the first who enter hell to dwell therein forever, while according to others, he is already in hell. Due to the devils' creation from fire, some authors suggest they do not burn in hell, but will suffer in from intense cold ("Zamhareer"), instead of fire. Alternatively, Iblis is killed before the Judgement Day. Among Shia Muslims, the idea prevails that the Mahdi will kill Iblis. In manuals about Islamic eschatology, when Iblis is the last one on earth, the angels of divine justice will seize and kill him.


title: Iblis

text: Yet others argue, that Iblis does not act upon free-will, but as an instrument of God. When Iblis is cast down to hell, he were sent to "Sijjin", and didn't ask God to spare him from punishment in hell, but requested a chance to redeem himself by proving that he is right and leading humans into sin. Accordingly God makes him a tempter for humanity as long as his punishment endures. Ibn Arabi writes in his "Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya" that Iblis and the devils (here: evil jinn) will say after hell ceases to be on the last day, their deeds were prescribed by God and thus not to be blamed when they tempted someone to sin. Since, according to , Iblis is cursed until Day of Judgement, some writers considered Iblis being redeemable after the world perished. His abode in hell could be a merely temporary place, lasting from his fall until the Judgement Day; and after his assignment as a tempter is over, he might return to God as one of the most cherished angels. His final salvation develops from the idea that Iblis is only an instrument of God's anger, not due to his meritorious personality. Attar compares Iblis's damnation and salvation to the situation of Benjamin, since both were accused to show people a greater meaning, but were finally not condemned.


title: Iblis

text: Sufism developed another perspective on Iblis, integrating him into a greater cosmological scheme. Iblis often became, along with Muhammed, one of the two true monotheists and God's instrument for punishment and deception. Therefore, some Sufis hold, Iblis refused to bow to Adam because he was devoted to God alone and refused to bow to anyone else. Yet not all Sufis agree with Iblis' redemption.


title: Iblis

text: By weakening the evil in the Satanic figure, dualism is also degraded, that corresponds with the later Sufi cosmology of unity of existence rejecting dualistic tendencies. The belief in dualism or that "evil" is caused by something else than God, even if only by one's own will, is regarded as "shirk" by some Sufis. For Iblis' preference to be damned to hell rather than prostrating himself before someone else other than the "Beloved" (here referring to God), Iblis also became an example for unrequited love.


title: Iblis

text: Among some Sufis, a positive perspective of Iblis' refusal developed, arguing that Iblis was forced to decide between God's command ("amr") and will ("irāda"). Accordingly, Iblis refused to bow to Adam because he was devoted to God alone and refused to bow to anyone else. Thus Iblis would have followed the true will of God, by disobeying his command. This belief is also known as "Satan's monotheism" ("tawḥīd-i Iblīs").


title: Iblis

text: A famous narration about an encounter between Moses and Iblis on the slopes of Sinai, told by Mansur al-Hallaj, Ruzbihan Baqli and Abū Ḥāmid Ghazzali, emphasizes the nobility of Iblis. Accordingly, Moses asks Iblis why he refused God's order. Iblis replied that the command was actually a test. Then Moses replied, obviously Iblis was punished by being turned from an angel to a devil. Iblis responds, his form is just temporary but his love towards God remains the same.


title: Iblis

text: For Ahmad Ghazali, Iblis was the paragon of lovers in self sacrifice for refusing to bow down to Adam out of pure devotion to God. Ahmad Ghazali's student Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir was among the Sunni Muslim mystics who defended Iblis, asserted that evil was also God's creation, Sheikh Adi argued that if evil existed without the will of God then God would be powerless and a powerless being can't be God.


title: Iblis

text: Although in the Quran, Iblis appears only with his fall and intention to mislead God's creation, another role, as the gatekeeper of the divine essence, developed, probably based on the oral reports of the Sahaba. In some interpretations, Iblis is associated with "light" that misleads people. Hasan of Basra was quoted as saying: "If Iblis were to reveal his light to mankind, they would worship him as a god." Additionally, based on Iblis' role as "keeper of heaven" and "ruler of earth", Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani stated, Iblis represents the "Dark light" that is the earthen world, standing in opposite to the Muhammadan Light that represents the heavens. As such, Iblis would be the treasurer and judge to differentiate between the sinners and the believers. Quzat Hamadani traces back his interpretation to Sahl al-Tustari and Shayban Ar-Ra'i who in return claim to derive their opinions from Khidr. Quzat Hamadani relates his interpretation of "Iblis' light" to the "shahada": Accordingly, people whose service for God is just superficial, are trapped within the circle of "la ilah" (the first part of "shahada" meaning "there is no God") just worshipping their "nafs" (bodily urges) rather than God. Only those who are worthy to leave this circle can pass Iblis towards the circle of "illa Allah", the "Divine presence".


title: Iblis

text: However, not all Sufis are in agreement with a positive depiction of Iblis. In Ibn Ghanim's retelling of the encounter between Iblis and Moses, Iblis does not truly offer an excuse for his disobedience. Instead, Iblis' arguments brought forth against Moses are nothing but a sham and subtly deception to make Sufis doubt the authenticity of their own spiritual path. Ruzbihan Baqli, too, seems to be critical of Iblis', asserting that his apologetics are mere inventions to claim innocence. In this context, Al-Baqli calls Iblis the master of religious deception and father of lies.


title: Iblis

text: In Rumi's Masnavi Book 2, Iblis wakes Mu'awiya up for prayer. Doubting any good intentions from Satan, Mu'awiya starts arguing with Iblis and asking him about his true intentions. Iblis uses several arguments to proof his own innocence: being a former archangel who would never truly abandon God; being merely a tempter who just brings forth the evil in the sinners, to distinguish them from true believers, but is not evil himself; God's omnipotence and that Iblis' sin ultimate results in God's judgement. Mu'awiya fails to stand against Iblis with reason and seeks refuge in God. Finally, Iblis confesses, he only woke him up, for missing a prayer and causing Mu'awiya to repent, would bring him closer to God than praying. Rumi rejects the idea of "Satan's monotheism" ("tawḥīd-i Iblīs") asserted by many other Sufis, as his argument, that Iblis was an angel first, doesn't protect him from his disobedience.


title: Iblis

text: Rumi views Iblis as the manifestation of the great sins of haughtiness and envy. He states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam." For Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, Iblis represents the principle of "one-eyed" intellect; he only saw the outward earthly form of Adam, but was blind to the Divine spark hidden in him, using an illicit method of comparison.


title: Iblis

text: Hasan of Basra holds that Iblis was the first who used "analogy", comparing himself to someone else, this causing his sin. Therefore, Iblis also represents humans' psyche moving towards sin or shows how love can cause envy and anxiety.


title: Iblis

text: Most stories regarding Iblis consider him to be involved in a battle between angels and jinn. However, versions differ on whether Iblis was one of the angels or of the jinn during the battle.


title: Iblis

text: As a jinn, Iblis is supposed to have lived on earth before the creation of humans. When the angels arrived to battle the jinn, they took prisoners, among them Iblis, and were carried to heaven. Since he, unlike the other jinn, was pious, the angels were impressed by his nobility, and Iblis was allowed to join the company of angels and elevated to their rank. Although he got the outer appearance of an angel, he was still a jinn in essence, and thus able to disobey God later. He was then sentenced to hell forever, but God granted him a favor for his former worship, that is to take revenge on humans by attempting to mislead them until the Day of Judgment.


title: Iblis

text: Traditions considering Iblis being an angel, often describe him as an archangel (malak al-muqarrab), called Azazil. According to this story, Azazil/Iblis was the leader and "Imam" (teacher) of the angels, and became a guardian of heaven. At the same time, he was the closest to the Throne of God. God gave him authority over the lower heavens and the earth. When God sent the angels to earth to battle the jinn, Azazil/Iblis and his army drove the jinn to the edge of the world, Mount Qaf.


title: Iblis

text: Knowing about the corruption of the former earthen inhabitants, Iblis protested, when he was instructed to prostrate himself before the new earthen inhabitant, that is Adam. He assumed that the angels who "praise God's glory day and night" are superior in contrast to the mud-made humans and their bodily flaws. He even regarded himself superior in comparison to the other angels, since he was (one of those) created from fire. However, he was degraded and sentenced to hell ("Sijjin"), by God for his arrogance.


title: Iblis

text: Iblis is said to had four wings. After he was cursed, his form turned from that of an angel into a devil. God transformed his neck to that of a pig, and his head into that of a camel. His eyes are stretched all over his face, and canines the fangs of a boar. From his beard, only seven hairs grow.


title: Iblis

text: After he was cast out from among the angels, God made him able to beget children. God aroused hatred within Iblis, so that a spark of fire emanated from him. From this spark of fire (samum), God created Iblis' wife. In other traditions, God made Iblis hermaphrodite, and Iblis begot offspring by himself alone.


title: Iblis

text: According to the Stories of the Prophets, to enter the abode of Adam in garden Eden, Iblis uses the biblical serpent to sneak in. The garden is watched by an angelic guardian. He invents a plan to trick him and approaches a peacock and tells him that all creatures are destined to die and thus the peacock's beauty will perish. But if he gets the fruit of eternity, he could make every creature immortal. Therefore, the peacock persuades the serpent to slip Iblis into the Garden, by carrying him in his mouth. In similar narration, Iblis is warded off by Riḍwan's burning sword for 100 years. Then he found the serpent. He says since he was one of the first cherub, he will one day return to God's grace and promises to show gratitude if the serpent does him a favor. In both narratives, in the Garden, Iblis speaks through the serpent to Adam and Eve, and tricks them into eating from the forbidden tree.


title: Iblis

text: Modern Muslims accuse the Yazidis of devil-worship for venerating the peacock. The image of the biblical serpent might derive from Gnostic and Jewish oral tradition circulating in the Arabian Peninsula,


title: Iblis

text: Iblis is perhaps one of the most well-known individual supernatural entities and was depicted in multiple visual representations like the Quran and Manuscripts of Bal‘ami’s ‘Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari. Iblis was a unique individual, described as both a pious jinn and at times an angel before he fell from God's grace when he refused to bow before the prophet Adam. After this incident, Iblis turned into a "shaytan". In visual appearance, Iblis was depicted in "On the Monstrous in the Islamic Visual Tradition" by Francesca Leoni as a being with a human-like body with flaming eyes, a tail, claws, and large horns on a grossly disproportionate large head.


title: Iblis

text: Illustrations of Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced, a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban. In one painting, however, Iblis wears a traditional Islamic head covering. The turban probably refers to a narration of Iblis' fall: there he wore a turban, then he was sent down from heaven. Many other pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. Here, he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil. Iblis and his cohorts ("div" or "shayatin") are often portrayed in Turko-Persian art as bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by a short skirt. Similar to European arts, who took traits of pagan deities to depict devils, they depicted such demons often in a similar fashion to that of Hindu-deities.


title: Iblis

text: During the early Abbaside period, Iblis might have been an inspirational figure, some sort of musical patron, for anti-religious poets and hedonists, such as al-Walid. In Muslim culture, it is said some people had befriended Iblis as a muse. Hilal al-Kufi (end of the seventh century) was nicknamed "companion of Iblis" ("sahib Iblis"). Abu al-Fadl Muhammad al Tabasi frequently invokes Iblis (or Azazil) and his progeny in his Medieval encyclopedia of magic. Iblis is further said to approach dying people to tempt them away from Islam in exchange for their life. According to the Islamic Book of the Dead, Iblis in disguise approaches a thirsty man with a cup of water, but only handing him water over, if he testifies "two gods", "no one formed the universe" or "the Messenger, peace be upon him, lied".


title: Iblis

text: In Vathek by the English novelist William Beckford, first composed in French (1782), the protagonists enter the underworld, presented as the domain of Iblis. At the end of their journey, they meet Iblis in person, who is described less in the monstrous image of Dante's Satan, but more of a young man, whose regular features are tarnished, his eyes showing both pride and despair and his hair resembling whose of an angel of light.


title: Iblis

text: In Muhammad Iqbal's poetry, Iblis is critical about overstressed obedience, which caused his downfall. But Iblis is not happy about humanity's obedience towards himself either; rather he longs for humans who resist him, so he might eventually prostrate himself before the perfect human, which leads to his salvation.


title: Iblis

text: Egyptian novelist Tawfiq al-Hakim's "al-Shahid" (1953) describes the necessity of Iblis's evil for the world, telling about a fictional story, Iblis seeking repentance. He consults the Pope and the chief Rabbi. Both reject him and he afterward visits the grand mufti of Al-Azhar Mosque, telling him he wants to embrace Islam. The grand mufti, however, rejects Iblis as well, realizing the necessity of Iblis' evilness. Regarding the absence of Iblis' evil, as causing most of the Quran to be obsolete. After that Iblis goes to heaven to ask Gabriel for intercession. Gabriel too rejects Iblis and explains the necessity for Iblis's curse. Otherwise, God's light could not be seen on earth. Whereupon Iblis descends from heaven shouting out: "I am a martyr!". Al-Hakim's story has been criticized as blasphemous by several Islamic scholars. Salafi scholar Abu Ishaq al-Heweny stated: "I swear by God it would never cross the mind, at all, that this absolute "kufr" reaches this level, and that it gets published as a novel".


title: Addiction

text: Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to engage in certain behaviors, one of which is the usage of a drug, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters brain function in ways that perpetuate craving, and weakens (but does not completely negate) self-control. This phenomenon – drugs reshaping brain function – has led to an understanding of addiction as a brain disorder with a complex variety of psychosocial as well as neurobiological (and thus involuntary) factors that are implicated in addiction's development. Classic signs of addiction include compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli, "preoccupation" with substances or behavior, and continued use despite negative consequences. Habits and patterns associated with addiction are typically characterized by immediate gratification (short-term reward), coupled with delayed deleterious effects (long-term costs).


title: Addiction

text: Examples of drug (or more generally, substance) addictions include alcoholism, marijuana addiction, amphetamine addiction, cocaine addiction, nicotine addiction, opioid addiction, and eating or food addiction. Alternatively, behavioural addictions may include gambling addiction, internet addiction, video game addiction, pornography addiction and sexual addiction. The only behavioral addiction recognized by the DSM-5 and the ICD-10 is gambling addiction. With the introduction of the ICD-11 gaming addiction was appended. The term "addiction" is frequently misused when referring to other compulsive behaviors or disorders, particularly dependence, in news media. An important distinction between drug addiction and dependence is that drug dependence is a disorder in which cessation of drug use results in an unpleasant state of withdrawal, which can lead to further drug use. Addiction is the compulsive use of a substance or performance of a behavior that is independent of withdrawal. Addiction can occur in the absence of dependence, and dependence can occur in the absence of addiction, although the two often occur together.


title: Addiction

text: Drug addiction, also known as substance use disorders, is a chronic and relapsing brain disorder that features drug seeking and drug abuse, despite their harmful effects. This form addiction changes brain circuitry such that the brain's reward system is compromised, causing functional consequences to stress management and self-control. Damage to the functions of the organs involved can persist throughout a lifetime and can cause death, if untreated. Substances involved with drug addiction include; alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, opioids, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamines, and even foods with high fat and sugar content. Drug addictions can begin experimentally in social contexts, can arise from use of prescribed medications or a variety of other measures.


title: Addiction

text: Reviews of preclinical studies indicate that long-term frequent and excessive consumption of high fat or sugar foods can produce an addiction. Similarly to addictive drugs, foods high in fat and sugar trigger the brain's reward/pleasure centers, such that the individual may desire the same foods to an increasing degree over time. The signals sent when consuming highly palatable foods have the ability to counteract the body's signals for fullness, leading to persistent cravings. Those who show signs of food addiction may develop food tolerances, in which they eat more, despite the food becoming less satisfactory.


title: Addiction

text: Chocolate is a food that can cause a food addiction. Chocolate's sweet flavor and pharmacological ingredients is known to create a strong craving or feel 'addictive' by the consumer. A person who has a strong liking for chocolate may refer to themselves as a chocoholic. Chocolate is not yet formally recognized by the DSM-5 as a diagnosable addiction.


title: Addiction

text: The Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS), version 2.0, is the current standard measure for assessing whether an individual exhibits signs and symptoms of food addiction. It was developed in 2009 at Yale University on the hypothesis that foods high in fat, sugar, and salt have addictive-like effects which contribute to problematic eating habits. The YFAS is designed to address 11 substance-related and addictive disorders (SRADs) using a 35-item questionnaire, based on the diagnostic criteria for SRADs as per DSM-5. A potential food addiction diagnosis is predicted by the presence of at least 2 out of 11 SRADs and a significant impairment to daily activities.


title: Addiction

text: The term "behavioral addiction" refers to a compulsion to engage in a natural reward – which is a behavior that is inherently rewarding (i.e., desirable or appealing) – despite adverse consequences. Preclinical evidence has demonstrated that marked increases in the expression of ΔFosB through repetitive and excessive exposure to a natural reward induces the same behavioral effects and neuroplasticity as occurs in a drug addiction.


title: Addiction

text: Addiction can exist in the absence of psychotropic drugs, which was popularized by Peele. These are termed behavioural addictions. Such addictions may be passive or active, but they commonly contain reinforcing features, which are found in most addictions. Sexual behavior, eating, gambling, playing video games, and shopping are all associated with compulsive behaviors in humans and have also been shown to activate the mesolimbic pathway and other parts of the reward system. Based upon this evidence, sexual addiction, gambling addiction, video game addiction, and shopping addiction are classified accordingly.


title: Addiction

text: Sexual addiction involves an engagement in excessive, compulsive, or otherwise problematic sexual behaviour that persists despite negative physiological, psychological, social, and occupational consequences. Sexual addiction may also be referred to as hypersexuality or compulsive sexual behavior disorder. The DSM-5 does not recognize sexual addiction as a clinical diagnosis. Hypersexuality disorder and internet addiction disorder were among proposed additions to the DSM-5, but were later rejected due to the insufficient evidence available in support of the existence of these disorders as discrete mental health conditions. Reviews of both clinical research in humans and preclinical studies involving ΔFosB have identified compulsive sexual activity – specifically, any form of sexual intercourse – as an addiction (i.e., sexual addiction). Moreover, reward cross-sensitization between amphetamine and sexual activity, meaning that exposure to one increases the desire for both, has been shown to occur preclinically and clinically as a dopamine dysregulation syndrome; ΔFosB expression is required for this cross-sensitization effect, which intensifies with the level of ΔFosB expression.


title: Addiction

text: Gambling provides a natural reward that is associated with compulsive behavior. There is evidence from functional neuroimaging that gambling activates the reward system and the mesolimbic pathway in particular. It is known that dopamine is involved in learning, motivation, as well as the reward system. The exact role of dopamine in gambling addiction has been debated. Suggested roles for D2, D3, and D4 dopamine receptors, as well as D3 receptors in the substantia nigra have been found in rat and human models, showing a correlation with the severity of the gambling behavior. This in turn was linked with greater dopamine release in the dorsal striatum.


title: Addiction

text: Research has shown that gambling addictions are linked with comorbidities such as mental health disorders, substance abuse, or even personality disorders. There have been studies that show a high prevalence of alcohol use disorder and drug use disorder in compulsive gamblers.


title: Addiction

text: Gambling addiction has been associated with some personality traits, including: harm avoidance, low self direction, decision making and planning insufficiencies, impulsivity, as well as sensation seeking individuals. Although some personality traits can be linked with gambling addiction, there is no general description of gambling addicted individuals.


title: Addiction

text: Internet addiction is not a medically recognized addictive disorder. Debate over the classification of problematic internet use considers whether it should be thought of as a behavioural addiction, an impulse control disorder, or an obsessive-compulsive disorder. Others argue that internet addiction should be considered a symptom of an underlying mental health condition and not a disorder in itself. Internet addiction is described as excessive use of the internet for nonessential reasons unrelated to occupational or academic requirements. Problematic internet use may include a preoccupation with the internet and/or digital media, excessive time spent using the internet despite resultant distress in the individual, increase in the amount of internet use required to achieve the same desired emotional response, loss of control over one's internet use habits, withdrawal symptoms, and continued problematic internet use despite negative consequences to one's work, social, academic, or personal life.


title: Addiction

text: Studies conducted in the United States, Asia, and Europe have identified Internet addiction prevalence rates ranging in value from 1% to 18%, with the adolescent population having high rates compared to other age groups. However, prevalence rates have been difficult to establish due to a lack of universally accepted diagnostic criteria, a lack of diagnostic instruments demonstrating cross-cultural validity and reliability, and existing controversy surrounding the validity of labelling problematic internet use as an addictive disorder.


title: Addiction

text: People with Internet addiction are likely to have a comorbid psychiatric disorder. Comorbid diagnoses identified alongside internet addiction include affective mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.


title: Addiction

text: Video game addiction is characterized by the World Health Organization as excessive gaming behavior, potentially prioritized over other interests, despite the negative consequences that may arise, for a period of at least 12 months. In May 2019, the World Health Organization introduced gaming disorder in the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases. Video game addiction has been shown to be more prevalent in males than females, higher by 2.9 times. It has been suggested that people of younger ages are more prone to become addicted to video games. This may be due to video games being relatively new, hence the higher prevalence in younger groups. People with certain personalities may be more susceptible to gaming addictions, however, there have been conflicting results on this topic.


title: Addiction

text: Shopping addiction, or compulsive buying disorder (CBD), is the excessive urge to shop or spend, potentially leading to unwanted consequences. These consequences can have serious impacts, such as increased consumer debt, negatively affected relationships, increased risk of illegal behavior, and suicide attempts. Shopping addiction occurs worldwide and has shown a 5.8% prevalence in the United States. Similar to other behavioural addictions, a study has found CBD can be linked to mood disorders, substance use disorders, eating disorders, and other disorders involving a lack of control.


title: Addiction

text: The addictions neuroclinical assessment is used to diagnose addiction disorders. This tool measures 3 different domains. The three neurofunctional domains include, executive function, incentive salience, and negative emotionality. The executive function domain includes processes that are involved in organizing behaviour towards future goals. Some of these processes include attention, response inhibition, behavioural flexibility, working memory, and planning. These are processes that would be disrupted in addiction. The second domain, incentive salience, is the psychological process which can change we perceive stimuli. In the case of addiction, making the stimuli attractive. The last domain involved in this assessment is negative emotionality. The increase in negative emotional responses has been commonly found with individuals with addictions. Researchers have considered that the excessive consumption of substances may be due to this negative effect, in hopes of reducing it.


title: Addiction

text: This is a screening and assessment tool in one, assessing commonly used substances. This tool allows for a simple diagnosis, eliminating the need for several screening and assessment tools, as it includes both TAPS-1 and TAPS-2, screening and assessment tools respectively. The screening component asks about the frequency of use of the specific substance (tobacco, alcohol, prescription medication, and other). If an individual screens positive, then the second component begins. This dictates the risk level of the substance.


title: Addiction

text: The CRAFFT is an efficient and effective screening tool that is used universally in different medical centres. This tool is used to identify substance use, substance related driving risk, and addictions amongst youth. This tool utilizes a set of questions for different scenarios. In the case of a specific combination of answers, different question sets can be used to yield a more accurate answer. After the questions, the DSM-5 criteria are used to identify the likelihood of the person having substance use disorder. After these tests are done, the clinician is to give the "5 RS" of brief counselling.


title: Addiction

text: The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) is a self-reporting tool that measures problematic substance use. Responses to this test are recorded as yes or no answers, and scored as a number between 0 and 28. Drug abuse or dependence, are indicated by a cut off score of 6. There are currently three versions of this screening tool, DAST-28, DAST-20, and DAST-10. Each of these instruments are copyrighted by Dr. Harvey A. Skinner.


title: Addiction

text: The Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST) is an interview-based questionnaire consisting of 8 questions developed by the World Health Organization. The questions ask about lifetime use; frequency of use; urge to use; frequency of health, financial, social, or legal problems related to use; failure to preform duties; if anyone has raised concerns over use; attempts to limit or moderate use; and use by injection.


title: Addiction

text: Personality theories of addiction are psychological models that associate personality traits or modes of thinking (i.e., affective states) with an individual's proclivity for developing an addiction. Data analysis demonstrates that there is a significant difference in the psychological profiles of drug users and non-users and the psychological predisposition to using different drugs may be different. Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include an affect dysregulation model of positive and negative psychological affects, the reinforcement sensitivity theory model of impulsiveness and behavioral inhibition, and an impulsivity model of reward sensitization and impulsiveness.


title: Addiction

text: Cognitive control and stimulus control, which is associated with operant and classical conditioning, represent opposite processes (i.e., internal vs external or environmental, respectively) that compete over the control of an individual's elicited behaviors. Cognitive control, and particularly inhibitory control over behavior, is impaired in both addiction and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Stimulus-driven behavioral responses (i.e., stimulus control) that are associated with a particular rewarding stimulus tend to dominate one's behavior in an addiction.


title: Addiction

text: Cognitive control is the intentional selection of thoughts, behaviours, and emotions, based on our environment. It has been shown that drugs alter the way our brains function, and its structure. Cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and impulse control, are affected by drugs. These effects promote drug use, as well as hinder the ability to abstain from it. The increase in dopamine release is prominent in drug use, specifically in the ventral striatum and the nucleus accumbens. Dopamine is responsible for producing pleasurable feelings, as well driving us to perform important life activities. There is a significant increase in this reward system with drugs, causing a large increase in dopamine signalling, leading to reward seeking behaviour, and in turn motivating drug use. This promotes the development of a maladaptive drug to stimulus relationship. As such, early drug use leads to these maladaptive associations, later affecting cognitive processes, which are needed to successfully abstain from them.


title: Addiction

text: There are a number of genetic and environmental risk factors for developing an addiction, that vary across the population. Genetic and environmental risk factors each account for roughly half of an individual's risk for developing an addiction; the contribution from epigenetic risk factors to the total risk is unknown. Even in individuals with a relatively low genetic risk, exposure to sufficiently high doses of an addictive drug for a long period of time (e.g., weeks–months) can result in an addiction. Adverse childhood events are associated with negative health outcomes, such as substance use disorder. Studies show that childhood abuse or exposure to violent crime was positively related to developing a mood or anxiety disorder, as well as a substance dependence risk.


title: Addiction

text: Genetic factors, along with environmental (e.g., psychosocial) factors, have been established as significant contributors to addiction vulnerability. Studies done on 350 hospitalized drug-dependent patients showed that over half met the criteria for alcohol abuse, with a role of familial factors being prevalent. Epidemiological studies estimate that genetic factors account for 40–60% of the risk factors for alcoholism. Similar rates of heritability for other types of drug addiction have been indicated by other studies, specifically in genes that encode the Alpha5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor. Knestler hypothesized in 1964 that a gene or group of genes might contribute to predisposition to addiction in several ways. For example, altered levels of a normal protein due to environmental factors may change the structure or functioning of specific brain neurons during development. These altered brain neurons could affect the susceptibility of an individual to an initial drug use experience. In support of this hypothesis, animal studies have shown that environmental factors such as stress can affect an animal's genetic expression.


title: Addiction

text: In humans, twin studies into addiction have provided some of the highest-quality evidence of this link, with results finding that if one twin is affected by addiction, the other twin is likely to be as well, and often to the same substance. Further evidence of a genetic component is research findings from family studies which suggest that if one family member has a history of addiction, the chances of a relative or close family developing those same habits are much higher than one who has not been introduced to addiction at a young age.


title: Addiction

text: However, the data implicating specific genes in the development of drug addiction is mixed for most genes. Many addiction studies that aim to identify specific genes focus on common variants with an allele frequency of greater than 5% in the general population; however, when associated with disease, these only confer a small amount of additional risk with an odds ratio of 1.1–1.3 percent; this has led to the development the rare variant hypothesis, which states that genes with low frequencies in the population (<1%) confer much greater additional risk in the development of the disease.


title: Addiction

text: Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are used to examine genetic associations with dependence, addiction, and drug use; however, these studies rarely identify genes from proteins previously described via animal knockout models and candidate gene analysis. Instead, large percentages of genes involved in processes such as cell adhesion are commonly identified. The important effects of endophenotypes are typically not capable of being captured by these methods. Genes identified in GWAS for drug addiction may be involved either in adjusting brain behavior prior to drug experiences, subsequent to them, or both.


title: Addiction

text: Environmental risk factors for addiction are the experiences of an individual during their lifetime that interact with the individual's genetic composition to increase or decrease his or her vulnerability to addiction. For example, after the nationwide outbreak of COVID-19, more people quit (vs. started) smoking; and smokers, on average, reduced the quantity of cigarettes they consumed. More generally, a number of different environmental factors have been implicated as risk factors for addiction, including various psychosocial stressors. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) cites lack of parental supervision, the prevalence of peer substance use, drug availability, and poverty as risk factors for substance use among children and adolescents. The brain disease model of addiction posits that an individual's exposure to an addictive drug is the most significant environmental risk factor for addiction. However, many researchers, including neuroscientists, indicate that the brain disease model presents a misleading, incomplete, and potentially detrimental explanation of addiction.


title: Addiction

text: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are various forms of maltreatment and household dysfunction experienced in childhood. The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has shown a strong dose–response relationship between ACEs and numerous health, social, and behavioral problems throughout a person's lifespan, including substance use disorder. Children's neurological development can be permanently disrupted when they are chronically exposed to stressful events such as physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, physical or emotional neglect, witnessing violence in the household, or a parent being incarcerated or having a mental illness. As a result, the child's cognitive functioning or ability to cope with negative or disruptive emotions may be impaired. Over time, the child may adopt substance use as a coping mechanism, particularly during adolescence. A study of 900 court cases involving children who experienced abuse found that a vast amount of them went on to have some form of addiction in their adolescence or adult life. This pathway towards addiction that is opened through stressful experiences during childhood can be avoided by a change in environmental factors throughout an individual's life and opportunities of professional help. If one has friends or peers who engage in drug use favorably, the chances of them developing an addiction increases. Family conflict and home management is also a cause for one to become engaged in alcohol or other drug use.


title: Addiction

text: Adolescence represents a period of unique vulnerability for developing an addiction. In adolescence, the incentive-rewards systems in the brain mature well before the cognitive control center. This consequentially grants the incentive-rewards systems a disproportionate amount of power in the behavioral decision-making process. Therefore, adolescents are increasingly likely to act on their impulses and engage in risky, potentially addicting behavior before considering the consequences. Not only are adolescents more likely to initiate and maintain drug use, but once addicted they are more resistant to treatment and more liable to relapse.


title: Addiction

text: Most individuals are exposed to and use addictive drugs for the first time during their teenage years. In the United States, there were just over 2.8 million new users of illicit drugs in 2013 (~7,800 new users per day); among them, 54.1% were under 18 years of age. In 2011, there were approximately 20.6 million people in the United States over the age of 12 with an addiction. Over 90% of those with an addiction began drinking, smoking or using illicit drugs before the age of 18.


title: Addiction

text: Individuals with comorbid (i.e., co-occurring) mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or post-traumatic stress disorder are more likely to develop substance use disorders. The cites early aggressive behavior as a risk factor for substance use. A study by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that there is a "definite connection between mental illness and the use of addictive substances" and a majority of mental health patients participate in the use of these substances: 38% alcohol, 44% cocaine, and 40% cigarettes.


title: Addiction

text: Epigenetics is the study of stable phenotypic changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence. Illicit drug use has been found to cause epigenetic changes in DNA methylation, as well as chromatin remodelling. The epigenetic state of chromatin may pose as a risk for the development of substance addictions. It has been found that emotional stressors, as well as social adversities may lead to an initial epigenetic response, which causes an alteration to the reward-signalling pathways. This change may predispose one to experience a positive response to drug use.


title: Addiction

text: Epigenetic genes and their products (e.g., proteins) are the key components through which environmental influences can affect the genes of an individual; they also serve as the mechanism responsible for transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, a phenomenon in which environmental influences on the genes of a parent can affect the associated traits and behavioral phenotypes of their offspring (e.g., behavioral responses to environmental stimuli). In addiction, epigenetic mechanisms play a central role in the pathophysiology of the disease; it has been noted that some of the alterations to the epigenome which arise through chronic exposure to addictive stimuli during an addiction can be transmitted across generations, in turn affecting the behavior of one's children (e.g., the child's behavioral responses to addictive drugs and natural rewards).


title: Addiction

text: The general classes of epigenetic alterations that have been implicated in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance include DNA methylation, histone modifications, and downregulation or upregulation of microRNAs. With respect to addiction, more research is needed to determine the specific heritable epigenetic alterations that arise from various forms of addiction in humans and the corresponding behavioral phenotypes from these epigenetic alterations that occur in human offspring. Based upon preclinical evidence from animal research, certain addiction-induced epigenetic alterations in rats can be transmitted from parent to offspring and produce behavioral phenotypes that decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction. More generally, the heritable behavioral phenotypes that are derived from addiction-induced epigenetic alterations and transmitted from parent to offspring may serve to either increase or decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction.


title: Addiction

text: Addiction is a disorder of the brain's reward system developing through transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms as a result of chronically high levels of exposure to an addictive stimulus (e.g., eating food, the use of cocaine, engagement in sexual activity, participation in high-thrill cultural activities such as gambling, etc.) over extended time. DeltaFosB (ΔFosB), a gene transcription factor, is a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions. Two decades of research into ΔFosB's role in addiction have demonstrated that addiction arises, and the associated compulsive behavior intensifies or attenuates, along with the overexpression of ΔFosB in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens. Due to the causal relationship between ΔFosB expression and addictions, it is used preclinically as an addiction biomarker. ΔFosB expression in these neurons directly and positively regulates drug self-administration and reward sensitization through positive reinforcement, while decreasing sensitivity to aversion.


title: Addiction

text: Chronic addictive drug use causes alterations in gene expression in the mesocorticolimbic projection. The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB, cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because the overexpression of ΔFosB in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for many of the neural adaptations and behavioral effects (e.g., expression-dependent increases in drug self-administration and reward sensitization) seen in drug addiction. ΔFosB expression in nucleus accumbens D1-type medium spiny neurons directly and positively regulates drug self-administration and reward sensitization through positive reinforcement while decreasing sensitivity to aversion. ΔFosB has been implicated in mediating addictions to many different drugs and drug classes, including alcohol, amphetamine and other substituted amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, methylphenidate, nicotine, opiates, phenylcyclidine, and propofol, among others. ΔJunD, a transcription factor, and G9a, a histone methyltransferase, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression. Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression (via viral vector-mediated gene transfer) or G9a expression (via pharmacological means) reduces, or with a large increase can even block, many of the neural and behavioral alterations that result from chronic high-dose use of addictive drugs (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).


title: Addiction

text: ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce gene expression of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state through ΔFosB overexpression. Consequently, ΔFosB is the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards (i.e., behavioral addictions) as well; in particular, ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess bidirectional cross-sensitization effects that are mediated through ΔFosB. This phenomenon is notable since, in humans, a dopamine dysregulation syndrome, characterized by drug-induced compulsive engagement in natural rewards (specifically, sexual activity, shopping, and gambling), has also been observed in some individuals taking dopaminergic medications.


title: Addiction

text: ΔFosB inhibitors (drugs or treatments that oppose its action) may be an effective treatment for addiction and addictive disorders.


title: Addiction

text: The release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens plays a role in the reinforcing qualities of many forms of stimuli, including naturally reinforcing stimuli like palatable food and sex. Altered dopamine neurotransmission is frequently observed following the development of an addictive state. In humans and lab animals that have developed an addiction, alterations in dopamine or opioid neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens and other parts of the striatum are evident. Studies have found that use of certain drugs (e.g., cocaine) affect cholinergic neurons that innervate the reward system, in turn affecting dopamine signaling in this region.


title: Addiction

text: Understanding the pathways in which drugs act and how drugs can alter those pathways is key when examining the biological basis of drug addiction. The reward pathway, known as the mesolimbic pathway, or its extension, the mesocorticolimbic pathway, is characterized by the interaction of several areas of the brain.


title: Addiction

text: Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter of the reward system in the brain. It plays a role in regulating movement, emotion, cognition, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. Natural rewards, like eating, as well as recreational drug use cause a release of dopamine, and are associated with the reinforcing nature of these stimuli. Nearly all addictive drugs, directly or indirectly, act upon the brain's reward system by heightening dopaminergic activity.


title: Addiction

text: Excessive intake of many types of addictive drugs results in repeated release of high amounts of dopamine, which in turn affects the reward pathway directly through heightened dopamine receptor activation. Prolonged and abnormally high levels of dopamine in the synaptic cleft can induce receptor downregulation in the neural pathway. Downregulation of mesolimbic dopamine receptors can result in a decrease in the sensitivity to natural reinforcers.


title: Addiction

text: Drug seeking behavior is induced by glutamatergic projections from the prefrontal cortex to the nucleus accumbens. This idea is supported with data from experiments showing that drug seeking behavior can be prevented following the inhibition of AMPA glutamate receptors and glutamate release in the nucleus accumbens.


title: Addiction

text: Reward sensitization is a process that causes an increase in the amount of reward (specifically, incentive salience) that is assigned by the brain to a rewarding stimulus (e.g., a drug). In simple terms, when reward sensitization to a specific stimulus (e.g., a drug) occurs, an individual's "wanting" or desire for the stimulus itself and its associated cues increases. Reward sensitization normally occurs following chronically high levels of exposure to the stimulus. ΔFosB (DeltaFosB) expression in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens has been shown to directly and positively regulate reward sensitization involving drugs and natural rewards.


title: Addiction

text: "Cue-induced wanting" or "cue-triggered wanting", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that people with addictions exhibit. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding stimuli with drug consumption triggers an associative learning process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as conditioned positive reinforcers of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as drug cues). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can transfer to the primary reinforcer (e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.


title: Addiction

text: Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess a bidirectional reward cross-sensitization effect that is mediated through ΔFosB. In contrast to ΔFosB's reward-sensitizing effect, CREB transcriptional activity decreases user's sensitivity to the rewarding effects of the substance. CREB transcription in the nucleus accumbens is implicated in psychological dependence and symptoms involving a lack of pleasure or motivation during drug withdrawal.


title: Addiction

text: Altered epigenetic regulation of gene expression within the brain's reward system plays a significant and complex role in the development of drug addiction. Addictive drugs are associated with three types of epigenetic modifications within neurons. These are (1) histone modifications, (2) epigenetic methylation of DNA at CpG sites at (or adjacent to) particular genes, and (3) epigenetic downregulation or upregulation of microRNAs which have particular target genes. As an example, while hundreds of genes in the cells of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) exhibit histone modifications following drug exposure – particularly, altered acetylation and methylation states of histone residues – most other genes in the NAc cells do not show such changes.


title: Addiction

text: The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) uses the term "substance use disorder" to refer to a spectrum of drug use-related disorders. The DSM-5 eliminates the terms "abuse" and "dependence" from diagnostic categories, instead using the specifiers of "mild", "moderate" and "severe" to indicate the extent of disordered use. These specifiers are determined by the number of diagnostic criteria present in a given case. In the DSM-5, the term "drug addiction" is synonymous with "severe substance use disorder".


title: Addiction

text: The DSM-5 introduced a new diagnostic category for behavioral addictions; however, problem gambling is the only condition included in that category in the fifth edition. Internet gaming disorder is listed as a "condition requiring further study" in the DSM-5.


title: Addiction

text: Past editions have used physical dependence and the associated withdrawal syndrome to identify an addictive state. Physical dependence occurs when the body has adjusted by incorporating the substance into its "normal" functioning – i.e., attains homeostasis – and therefore physical withdrawal symptoms occur upon cessation of use. Tolerance is the process by which the body continually adapts to the substance and requires increasingly larger amounts to achieve the original effects. Withdrawal refers to physical and psychological symptoms experienced when reducing or discontinuing a substance that the body has become dependent on. Symptoms of withdrawal generally include but are not limited to body aches, anxiety, irritability, intense cravings for the substance, dysphoria, nausea, hallucinations, headaches, cold sweats, tremors, and seizures. During acute physical opioid withdrawal, symptoms of restless legs syndrome are common and may be profound. This phenomenon originated the colloquial term "kicking the habit".


title: Addiction

text: Medical researchers who actively study addiction have criticized the DSM classification of addiction for being flawed and involving arbitrary diagnostic criteria.


title: Addiction

text: The eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases, commonly referred to as ICD-11, conceptualizes diagnosis somewhat differently. ICD-11 first distinguishes between problems with psychoactive substance use ("Disorders due to substance use") and behavioral addictions ("Disorders due to addictive behaviours"). With regard to psychoactive substances, ICD-11 explains that the included substances initially produce "pleasant or appealing psychoactive effects that are rewarding and reinforcing with repeated use, [but] with continued use, many of the included substances have the capacity to produce dependence. They also have the potential to cause numerous forms of harm, both to mental and physical health." Instead of the DSM-5 approach of one diagnosis ("Substance Use Disorder") covering all types of problematic substance use, ICD-11 offers three diagnostic possibilities: 1) Episode of Harmful Psychoactive Substance Use, 2) Harmful Pattern of Psychoactive Substance Use, and 3) Substance Dependence.


title: Addiction

text: Abuse liability, which is also known as addiction liability, is the tendency to use drugs in a non-medical situation. This is typically for euphoria, mood changing, or sedation. Abuse liability is used when the person using the drugs wants something that they otherwise can not obtain. The only way to obtain this is through the use of drugs. When looking at abuse liability there are a number of determining factors in whether the drug is abused. These factors are: the chemical makeup of the drug, the effects on the brain, and the age, vulnerability, and the health (mental and physical) of the population being studied. There are a few drugs with a specific chemical makeup that leads to a high abuse liability. These are: cocaine, heroin, inhalants, marijuana, MDMA (ecstasy), methamphetamine, PCP, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones (bath salts), nicotine (e.g. tobacco), and alcohol.


title: Addiction

text: According to a review, "in order to be effective, all pharmacological or biologically based treatments for addiction need to be integrated into other established forms of addiction rehabilitation, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, individual and group psychotherapy, behavior modification strategies, twelve-step programs, and residential treatment facilities."


title: Addiction

text: A biosocial approach to the treatment of addiction brings to the fore the social determinants of illness and wellbeing and considers the dynamic and reciprocal relationships that exist for, and influence, the individual's experience.


title: Addiction

text: The work of A.V. Schlosser (2018) aims to pronounce the individual lived experiences of women receiving medication-assisted treatment (e.g., methadone, naltrexone, burprenorphine) in a long-term rehabilitation setting, through a twenty month long ethnographic fieldwork investigation. This person-centred research shows how the experiences of these women "emerge from stable systems of inequality based in intersectional gender, race, and class marginalization entangled with processes of intra-action."


title: Addiction

text: Viewing addiction treatment through this lens also highlights the importance of framing clients' own bodies as "social flesh." As Schlosser (2018) points out, "client bodies" as well as the "embodied experiences of self and social belonging emerge in and through the structures, temporalities, and expectations of the treatment centre."


title: Addiction

text: Further challenges and embodied tensions have the potential to arise as a result of the dynamics inherent in the patient-provider relationship, in addition to the experience of being "alienated from their own bodies, psyches and sociality's when sedated on medications in treatment."


title: Addiction

text: Biotechnologies currently make up a large portion of the future treatments for addiction. To name a few, deep-brain stimulation, agonist/antagonist implants and hapten conjugate vaccines. Vaccinations against addiction specifically overlaps with the belief that memory plays a large role in the damaging effects of addiction and relapses. Hapten conjugate vaccines are designed to block opioid receptors in one area, while allowing other receptors to behave normally. Essentially, once a high can no longer be achieved in relation to a traumatic event, the relation of drugs to a traumatic memory can be disconnected and therapy can then play a role in treatment.


title: Addiction

text: A meta-analytic review on the efficacy of various behavioral therapies for treating drug and behavioral addictions found that cognitive behavioral therapy (e.g., relapse prevention and contingency management), motivational interviewing, and a community reinforcement approach were effective interventions with moderate effect sizes.


title: Addiction

text: Clinical and preclinical evidence indicate that consistent aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g., marathon running), actually prevents the development of certain drug addictions and is an effective adjunct treatment for drug addiction, and for psychostimulant addiction in particular. Consistent aerobic exercise magnitude-dependently (i.e., by duration and intensity) reduces drug addiction risk, which appears to occur through the reversal of drug induced addiction-related neuroplasticity. One review noted that exercise may prevent the development of drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system. Aerobic exercise decreases drug self-administration, reduces the likelihood of relapse, and induces opposite effects on striatal dopamine receptor D (DRD2) signaling (increased DRD2 density) to those induced by addictions to several drug classes (decreased DRD2 density). Consequently, consistent aerobic exercise may lead to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment for drug addiction.


title: Addiction

text: Alcohol, like opioids, can induce a severe state of physical dependence and produce withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens. Because of this, treatment for alcohol addiction usually involves a combined approach dealing with dependence and addiction simultaneously. Benzodiazepines have the largest and the best evidence base in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal and are considered the gold standard of alcohol detoxification.


title: Addiction

text: Pharmacological treatments for alcohol addiction include drugs like naltrexone (opioid antagonist), disulfiram, acamprosate, and topiramate. Rather than substituting for alcohol, these drugs are intended to affect the desire to drink, either by directly reducing cravings as with acamprosate and topiramate, or by producing unpleasant effects when alcohol is consumed, as with disulfiram. These drugs can be effective if treatment is maintained, but compliance can be an issue as alcoholic patients often forget to take their medication, or discontinue use because of excessive side effects. According to a Cochrane Collaboration review, the opioid antagonist naltrexone has been shown to be an effective treatment for alcoholism, with the effects lasting three to twelve months after the end of treatment.


title: Addiction

text: A 2013 review on cannabinoid addiction noted that the development of CB1 receptor agonists that have reduced interaction with β-arrestin 2 signalling might be therapeutically useful., there has been some evidence of effective pharmacological interventions for cannabinoid addiction, however, none have been approved yet.


title: Addiction

text: Another area in which drug treatment has been widely used is in the treatment of nicotine addiction, which usually involves the use of nicotine replacement therapy, nicotinic receptor antagonists, or nicotinic receptor partial agonists. Examples of drugs that act on nicotinic receptors and have been used for treating nicotine addiction include antagonists like bupropion and the partial agonist varenicline. A 2019 review looking at the partial agonist cytisine, names it an effective, and affordable cessation treatment for smokers. When access to varenicline and nicotine replacement therapy is limited (due to availability or cost), cytisine is considered the first line of treatment for smoking cessation.


title: Addiction

text: Physical dependence is treated using replacement drugs such as suboxone or subutex (both containing the active ingredients buprenorphine) and methadone. Although these drugs perpetuate physical dependence, the goal of opiate maintenance is to provide a measure of control over both pain and cravings. Use of replacement drugs increases the addicted individual's ability to function normally and eliminates the negative consequences of obtaining controlled substances illicitly. Once a prescribed dosage is stabilized, treatment enters maintenance or tapering phases. In the United States, opiate replacement therapy is tightly regulated in methadone clinics and under the DATA 2000 legislation. In some countries, other opioid derivatives such as dihydrocodeine, dihydroetorphine and even heroin are used as substitute drugs for illegal street opiates, with different prescriptions being given depending on the needs of the individual patient. Baclofen has led to successful reductions of cravings for stimulants, alcohol, and opioids, and also alleviates alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Many patients have stated they "became indifferent to alcohol" or "indifferent to cocaine" overnight after starting baclofen therapy. Some studies show the interconnection between opioid drug detoxification and overdose mortality.


title: Addiction

text: , there is no effective pharmacotherapy for any form of psychostimulant addiction. Reviews from 2015, 2016, and 2018 indicated that TAAR1-selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions; however, , the only compounds which are known to function as TAAR1-selective agonists are experimental drugs.


title: Addiction

text: Research indicates that vaccines which utilize anti-drug monoclonal antibodies can mitigate drug-induced positive reinforcement by preventing the drug from moving across the blood–brain barrier; however, current vaccine-based therapies are only effective in a relatively small subset of individuals. , vaccine-based therapies are being tested in human clinical trials as a treatment for addiction and preventive measure against drug overdoses involving nicotine, cocaine, and methamphetamine.


title: Addiction

text: The new study shows, that the vaccine may also save lives during a drug overdose. In this instance, the idea is that the body will respond to the vaccine by quickly producing antibodies to prevent the opioids from accessing the brain.


title: Addiction

text: Since addiction involves abnormalities in glutamate and GABAergic neurotransmission, receptors associated with these neurotransmitters (e.g., AMPA receptors, NMDA receptors, and GABA receptors) are potential therapeutic targets for addictions. N-acetylcysteine, which affects metabotropic glutamate receptors and NMDA receptors, has shown some benefit in preclinical and clinical studies involving addictions to cocaine, heroin, and cannabinoids. It may also be useful as an adjunct therapy for addictions to amphetamine-type stimulants, but more clinical research is required.


title: Addiction

text: Current medical reviews of research involving lab animals have identified a drug class – class I histone deacetylase inhibitors – that indirectly inhibits the function and further increases in the expression of accumbal ΔFosB by inducing G9a expression in the nucleus accumbens after prolonged use. These reviews and subsequent preliminary evidence which used oral administration or intraperitoneal administration of the sodium salt of butyric acid or other class I HDAC inhibitors for an extended period indicate that these drugs have efficacy in reducing addictive behavior in lab animals that have developed addictions to ethanol, psychostimulants (i.e., amphetamine and cocaine), nicotine, and opiates; however, few clinical trials involving humans with addictions and any HDAC class I inhibitors have been conducted to test for treatment efficacy in humans or identify an optimal dosing regimen.


title: Addiction

text: Gene therapy for addiction is an active area of research. One line of gene therapy research involves the use of viral vectors to increase the expression of dopamine D2 receptor proteins in the brain.


title: Addiction

text: Due to cultural variations, the proportion of individuals who develop a drug or behavioral addiction within a specified time period (i.e., the prevalence) varies over time, by country, and across national population demographics (e.g., by age group, socioeconomic status, etc.).


title: Addiction

text: The prevalence of alcohol dependence is not as high as is seen in other regions. In Asia, not only socioeconomic factors but also biological factors influence drinking behavior.


title: Addiction

text: The overall prevalence of smartphone ownership is 62%, ranging from 41% in China to 84% in South Korea. Moreover, participation in online gaming ranges from 11% in China to 39% in Japan. Hong Kong has the highest number of adolescents reporting daily or above Internet use (68%). Internet addiction disorder is highest in the Philippines, according to both the IAT (Internet Addiction Test) – 5% and the CIAS-R (Revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale) – 21%.


title: Addiction

text: The prevalence of substance use disorder among Australians was reported at 5.1% in 2009. In 2019 the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare conducted a national drug survey that quantified drug use for various types of drugs and demographics. The national found that in 2019, 11% of people over 14 years old smoke daily; that 9.9% of those who drink alcohol, which equates to 7.5% of the total population age 14 or older, may qualify as alcohol dependent; that 17.5% of the 2.4 million people who used cannabis within the last year may have hazardous use or a dependence problem; and that 63.5% of about 300000 recent users of meth and amphetamines were at risk for developing problem use.


title: Addiction

text: In 2015, the estimated prevalence among the adult population was 18.4% for heavy episodic alcohol use (in the past 30 days); 15.2% for daily tobacco smoking; and 3.8% for cannabis use, 0.77% for amphetamine use, 0.37% for opioid use, and 0.35% for cocaine use in 2017. The mortality rates for alcohol and illicit drugs were highest in Eastern Europe.


title: Addiction

text: Based upon representative samples of the US youth population in 2011, the lifetime prevalence of addictions to alcohol and illicit drugs has been estimated to be approximately 8% and 2–3% respectively. Based upon representative samples of the US adult population in 2011, the 12 month prevalence of alcohol and illicit drug addictions were estimated at 12% and 2–3% respectively. The lifetime prevalence of prescription drug addictions is currently around 4.7%.


title: Addiction

text: Another review listed estimates of lifetime prevalence rates for several behavioral addictions in the United States, including 1–2% for compulsive gambling, 5% for sexual addiction, 2.8% for food addiction, and 5–6% for compulsive shopping. A systematic review indicated that the time-invariant prevalence rate for sexual addiction and related compulsive sexual behavior (e.g., compulsive masturbation with or without pornography, compulsive cybersex, etc.) within the United States ranges from 3–6% of the population.


title: Addiction

text: According to a 2017 poll conducted by the Pew Research Center, almost half of US adults know a family member or close friend who has struggled with a drug addiction at some point in their life.


title: Addiction

text: In 2019, opioid addiction was acknowledged as a national crisis in the United States. An article in "The Washington Post" stated that "America's largest drug companies flooded the country with pain pills from 2006 through 2012, even when it became apparent that they were fueling addiction and overdoses."


title: Addiction

text: The National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions found that from 2012 to 2013 the prevalence of Cannabis use disorder in U.S. adults was 2.9%.


title: Addiction

text: A Statistics Canada Survey in 2012 found the lifetime prevalence and 12-month prevalence of substance use disorders were 21.6%, and 4.4% in those 15 and older. Alcohol abuse or dependence reported a lifetime prevalence of 18.1% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%. Cannabis abuse or dependence reported a lifetime prevalence of 6.8% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%. Other drug abuse or dependence has a lifetime prevalence of 4.0% and a 12-month prevalence of 0.7%. Substance use disorder is a term used interchangeably with a drug addiction.


title: Addiction

text: In Ontario, Canada between 2009 and 2017, outpatient visits for mental health and addiction increased from 52.6 to 57.2 per 100 people, emergency department visits increased from 13.5 to 19.7 per 1000 people and the number of hospitalizations increased from 4.5 to 5.5 per 1000 people. Prevalence of care needed increased the most amongst the 14-17 age group overall.


title: Addiction

text: The realities of opioid use and opioid use disorder in Latin America may be deceptive if observations are limited to epidemiological findings. In the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime report, although South America produced 3% of the world's morphine and heroin and 0.01% of its opium, prevalence of use is uneven. According to the Inter-American Commission on Drug Abuse Control, consumption of heroin is low in most Latin American countries, although Colombia is the area's largest opium producer. Mexico, because of its border with the United States, has the highest incidence of use.


title: Addiction

text: The etymology of the term "addiction" throughout history has been often misunderstood and has taken on various meanings associated with the word. An example is the usage of the word in the religious landscape of early modern Europe. "Addiction" at the time meant "to attach" to something, giving it both positive and negative connotations. The object of this attachment could be characterized as "good or bad". However, the meaning of addiction during the early modern period was mostly associated with positivity and goodness; during this early modern and highly religious era of Christian revivalism and Pietistic tendencies, it was seen as a way of "devoting oneself to another".


title: Addiction

text: Modern research on addiction has led to a better understanding of the disease with research studies on the topic dating back to 1875, specifically on morphine addiction. This furthered the understanding of addiction being a medical condition. It wasn't until the 19th century that addiction was seen and acknowledged in the Western world as a disease, being both a physical condition and mental illness. Today, addiction is understood both as a biopsychosocial and neurological disorder that negatively impacts those who are affected by it, most commonly associated with the use of drugs and excessive use of alcohol. The understanding of addiction has changed throughout history, which has impacted and continues to impact the ways it is medically treated and diagnosed.


title: Addiction

text: In contemporary modern English "-holic" is a suffix that can be added to a subject to denote an addiction to it. It was extracted from the word alcoholism (one of the first addictions to be widely identified both medically and socially) (correctly the root "wikt:alcohol" plus the suffix "-ism") by misdividing or rebracketing it into "alco" and "-holism". There are correct medico-legal terms for such addictions: dipsomania is the medico-legal term for alcoholism; other examples are in this table: