title: Closed-circuit television

text: The Cheshire figure is regarded as more dependable than a previous study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of "UrbanEye" published in 2002. Based on a small sample in Putney High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolated the number of surveillance cameras in Greater London to be around 500,000 and the total number of cameras in the UK to be around 4,200,000. According to their estimate the UK has one camera for every 14 people. Although it has been acknowledged for several years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed, it has been widely quoted. Furthermore, the figure of 500,000 for Greater London is often confused with the figure for the police and local government operated cameras in the City of London, which was about 650 in 2011.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: The "CCTV User Group" estimated that there were around 1.5 million private and local government CCTV cameras in city centres, stations, airports, and major retail areas in the UK.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Research conducted by the Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research and based on a survey of all Scottish local authorities, identified that there are over 2,200 public space CCTV cameras in Scotland.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Project SCRAM is a policing effort by the Halton Regional Police Service to register and help consumers understand the complex issues of privacy and safety that confront households when dealing with installations of home security systems. "The SCRAM program enables community members to voluntarily identify and register their residential video surveillance equipment through a simple, secure, confidential, online form." It has not been extended to commercial businesses. A wide-ranging effort to provide registration and monitoring of home security and systems. "Security camera registration and monitoring is a community-based crime prevention opportunity and investigative tool that enlists the help of residents and can help prevent crime on three levels. Residential video surveillance cameras can deter criminals from entering the area, can prevent crimes from occurring and help solve crimes by providing valuable evidence to the police."


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In South Africa due to the high crime rate CCTV surveillance is widely prevalent but the country has been slow to implement the latest technology e.g. the first IP camera was released in 1996 by Axis Communications but IP cameras didn't arrive in South Africa till 2008. To regulate the number of suppliers in 2001 the Private Security Industry Regulation Act was passed requiring all security companies to be registered with the Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority (PSIRA).


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In Latin America, the CCTV market is growing rapidly with the increase of property crime. Installation of CCTV camera is increasing day by day and the crime is somewhat controlled.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: The number of CCTV cameras equipped with facial biometrics in Moscow's public surveillance network is set to grow by 70 times from the current 1,500 to 105,000 by the end of the year. The CCTV system in Moscow can now recognize faces using an algorithm based on neural networks. City camera recordings are analyzed in real-time. Faces on the screen are scanned and can be checked against several databases, such as the police database, to identify a suspect. This analytical system can also help police recreate a suspect's movements around the city. The system searches for related recordings from various CCTV cameras and identifies the same face from several sightings. The Moscow network includes 160,000 CCTV cameras and 95 percent of residential buildings. By the end of the year, residents will be able to install CCTV cameras on private buildings themselves while connecting them to the unified video observation system. This year, over 3,500 cameras have been connected to the General Centre for Data Storage and Processing. This includes cameras in entrance halls, schools and kindergartens, at MCC stations, stadiums, public transport stops and bus terminals, and in parks. Video recordings are used to solve 70 percent of offenses and crimes. The cameras also help monitor utility services. A department spokesperson added that Moscow has one of the largest security systems in the world with such a comprehensive identification system


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Proponents of CCTV cameras argue that cameras are effective at deterring and solving crime, and that appropriate regulation and legal restrictions on surveillance of "public" spaces can provide sufficient protections so that an individual's right to privacy can reasonably be weighed against the benefits of surveillance. However, anti-surveillance activists have held that there is a right to privacy in public areas. Furthermore, while it is true that there may be scenarios wherein a person's right to public privacy can be both reasonably and justifiably compromised, some scholars have argued that such situations are so rare as to not sufficiently warrant the frequent compromising of public privacy rights that occurs in regions with widespread CCTV surveillance. For example, in her book "Setting the Watch: Privacy and the Ethics of CCTV Surveillance", Beatrice von Silva-Tarouca Larsen argues that CCTV surveillance is ethically permissible only in "certain restrictively defined situations", such as when a specific location has a "comprehensively documented and significant criminal threat".


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In the United States, the Constitution does not explicitly include the right to privacy although the Supreme Court has said several of the amendments to the Constitution implicitly grant this right. Access to video surveillance recordings may require a judge's writ, which is readily available. However, there is little legislation and regulation specific to video surveillance.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: All countries in the European Union are signatories to the European Convention on Human Rights which protects individual rights including the right to privacy. The EU's Data Protection Directive regulates access to personal data including CCTV recordings. This directive is translated into the national law of each country within the European Union.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In the United Kingdom the Data Protection Act 1998 imposes legal restrictions on the uses of CCTV recordings and mandates the registration of CCTV systems with the Data Protection Agency. In 2004, the successor to the Data Protection Agency, the Information Commissioner's Office clarified that this required registration of all CCTV systems with the Commissioner, and prompt deletion of archived recordings. However, subsequent case law (Durant vs. FSA) limited the scope of the protection provided by this law, and not all CCTV systems are currently regulated.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: A 2007 report by the UK Information Commissioner's Office, highlighted the need for the public to be made more aware of the growing use of surveillance and the potential impact on civil liberties. In the same year, a campaign group claimed the majority of CCTV cameras in the UK are operated illegally or are in breach of privacy guidelines. In response, the Information Commissioner's Office rebutted the claim and added that any reported abuses of the Data Protection Act are swiftly investigated. Even if there are some concerns arising from the use of CCTV such as involving privacy, more commercial establishments are still installing CCTV systems in the UK.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In 2012, the UK government enacted the Protection of Freedoms Act which includes several provisions related to controlling and restricting the collection, storage, retention, and use of information about individuals. Under this Act, the Home Office published a code of practice in 2013 for the use of surveillance cameras by government and local authorities. The aim of the code is to help ensure their use is "characterised as surveillance by consent, and such consent on the part of the community must be informed consent and not assumed by a system operator. Surveillance by consent should be regarded as analogous to policing by consent."


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In Canada, the use of video surveillance has grown very rapidly. In Ontario, both the "municipal" and "provincial" versions of the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act outline very specific guidelines that control how "images" and "information" can be gathered by this method and or released.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In Sweden, the use of CCTV in public spaces is regulated both nationally and via GDPR (the European privacy act). The national legislation requires permits for public operators (except for law-enforcement agencies since 1 January 2020) to install CCTV in spaces that allow access to the general public. In an opinion poll commissioned by Lund University in August 2017, the general public of Sweden were asked to choose one measure that would ensure their need for privacy when subject to CCTV-operation in public spaces: 43% favored regulation in the form of clear routines for managing, storing and distributing image material generated from surveillance cameras, 39% favored regulation in the form of clear signage informing that camera surveillance in public spaces is present, 2% favored regulation in the form of having permits restricting the use of surveillance cameras during certain times of day/week, 10% favored regulation in the form of having restrictive policies for issuing permits for surveillance cameras in public spaces, and 6% were unsure or did not know.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Video content analysis, also referred to as video analytics, is the capability of automatically analyzing video to detect and determine temporal events not based on a single image, but rather object classification. In the last decade, improved VCA features have been developed. Beyond recognizing specific shapes and colors, VCA applications now can analyze more complex scenarios.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Advanced VCA applications can accurately classify object types based on their shape and motion behavior and they can also measure object speed. Some video analytics applications can be used to virtually apply rules to designated areas. These rules can relate to access control. For example, they can describe which objects can enter into a specific area, when they are allowed to enter or within what circumstances. Virtually applied rules can also relate to various motion situations. VCA based CCTV systems can be set to detect anomalies in a crowd, for instance a person moving in the opposite direction in which they are normally expected (e.g. debarking from a plane at an airport or exiting through an entrance in a subway).


title: Closed-circuit television

text: There are different approaches to implementing VCA technology. Data may be processed on the camera itself (edge processing) or by a centralized server. Both approaches have their pros and cons.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: To many, the development of CCTV in public areas, linked to computer databases of people's pictures and identity, presents a serious breach of civil liberties. Critics fear such technology will lead to the loss of anonymity in public places.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: There is a cost in the retention of the images produced by CCTV systems. The amount and quality of data stored on storage media is subject to compression ratios, images stored per second, image size and is affected by the retention period of the videos or images. DVRs store images in a variety of proprietary file formats. Recordings may be retained for a preset amount of time and then automatically archived, overwritten or deleted, the period being determined by the organisation that generated them.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: A growing branch in CCTV is "internet protocol" cameras (IP cameras). It is estimated that 2014 was the first year that IP cameras outsold analog cameras. IP cameras use the Internet Protocol (IP) used by most Local Area Networks (LANs) to transmit video across data networks in digital form. IP can optionally be transmitted across the public internet, allowing users to view their cameras remotely on a computer or phone via an internet connection. For professional or public infrastructure security applications, IP video is restricted to within a private network or VPN. IP cameras are considered part of the Internet of Things (IoT) and have many of the same benefits and security risks as other IP-enabled devices.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Main types of IP cameras include: fixed cameras, pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) cameras and multi-sensor cameras. Fixed cameras' resolution can vary based on the application area, but typically does not exceed 20 MP. The main feature of a PTZ is its remote directional and optical zoom capability. With multi-sensor cameras, wider areas can be monitored and hundreds of megapixel resolution can be achieved.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Industrial video surveillance systems use network video recorders to support IP cameras. These devices are responsible for the recording, storage, video stream processing and alarm management.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Since 2008, IP video surveillance manufacturers can use a standardized network interface (ONVIF) to support compatibility between systems.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: The city of Chicago operates a networked video surveillance system which combines CCTV video feeds of government agencies with those of the private sector, installed in city buses, businesses, public schools, subway stations, housing projects etc. Even homeowners are able to contribute footage. It is estimated to incorporate the video feeds of a total of 15,000 cameras.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: The system is used by Chicago's Office of Emergency Management in case of an emergency call: it detects the caller's location and instantly displays the real-time video feed of the nearest security camera to the operator, not requiring any user intervention. While the system is far too vast to allow complete real-time monitoring, it stores the video data for use as evidence in criminal cases.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Many consumers are turning to wireless security cameras for home surveillance. Wireless cameras do not require a video cable for video/audio transmission, simply a cable for power. Wireless cameras are also easy and inexpensive to install but lack the reliability of hard-wired cameras. Previous generations of wireless security cameras relied on analogue technology; modern wireless cameras use digital technology which delivers crisper audio, sharper video, and a secure and interference-free signal.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: In Wiltshire, UK, 2003, a pilot scheme for what is now known as "Talking CCTV" was put into action; allowing operators of CCTV cameras to order offenders to stop what they were doing, ranging from ordering subjects to pick up their rubbish and put it in a bin to ordering groups of vandals to disperse. In 2005, Ray Mallon, the mayor and former senior police officer of Middlesbrough implemented "Talking CCTV" in his area.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Other towns have had such cameras installed. In 2007 several of the devices were installed in Bridlington town centre, East Riding of Yorkshire.


title: Closed-circuit television

text: Due to the widespread implementation of surveillance cameras, glasses are being built which can defeat CCTV cameras. In December 2016 a form of anti-CCTV and facial recognition sunglasses called 'reflectacles' were invented by a custom-spectacle-craftsman based in Chicago named Scott Urban. They reflect infrared and, optionally, visible light which makes the user's face a white blur to cameras. The project easily surpassed its funding goal of $28,000 and reflectacles became commercially available in June 2017.


Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events (also simply known as A Series of Unfortunate Events) is a 2004 American adventure black comedy film directed by Brad Silberling from a screenplay by Robert Gordon, based on the first three novels of the book series "A Series of Unfortunate Events": "The Bad Beginning" (1999), "The Reptile Room" (1999), and "The Wide Window" (2000), by Lemony Snicket (the pen name of American author Daniel Handler). It stars Jim Carrey, Liam Aiken, Emily Browning, Timothy Spall, Catherine O'Hara, Billy Connolly, Cedric the Entertainer, Luis Guzmán, Jennifer Coolidge, and Meryl Streep, and Jude Law as the voice of Lemony Snicket.


title: Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events

text: Nickelodeon Movies purchased the film rights to Handler's book series in 2000 and soon began development of a film with Barry Sonnenfeld attached to direct. Handler adapted the screenplay and courted Carrey for Count Olaf. Sonnenfeld left over budget concerns in January 2003 and Brad Silberling took over. Robert Gordon rewrote Handler's script, and principal photography started in November 2003. The film was entirely shot using sound stages and backlots at Paramount Pictures and Downey Studios.


text: "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" was released theatrically in the U.S. on December 17, 2004, by Paramount Pictures. It received positive reviews from critics, with many praising its production values and performances (particularly Carrey's performance), while some criticized its comical tone and short length. The film grossed $211 million worldwide. At the 77th Academy Awards, it won the Academy Award for Best Makeup and received nominations for Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, and Best Original Score.


text: In a clock tower, investigator Lemony Snicket begins writing a documentation of the whereabouts of the Baudelaire children: 14-year-old inventor Violet, her 12-year-old bibliophile brother Klaus, and their mordacious baby sister Sunny. One day, the children are orphaned when a mysterious fire destroys their mansion, killing their parents. Mr. Poe, the family banker, manages their affairs and leaves them in the care of Count Olaf, a nefarious stage actor intent upon obtaining their family fortune, which will remain in the custody of the bank until Violet turns eighteen. He forces them to do heavy chores and belittles them.


text: Driving back from the court where Olaf has legally obtained custody of the children, he stops to go into a general store, leaving them locked in the car parked on train tracks with a train heading toward them. They divert the train by building a device to remotely activate the railroad switch. Mr. Poe arrives and takes them away, thinking that Olaf was allowing Sunny to drive.


text: The orphans are taken to their uncle, Dr. Montgomery Montgomery, an eccentric but kind herpetologist, but Olaf arrives disguised as his assistant "Stephano". The orphans attempt to warn Monty, but he believes he is after the Incredibly Deadly Viper, a giant misnomer python, in his laboratory. Monty is discovered dead shortly after, his death blamed on the viper. They are almost placed in Stephano's care by Mr. Poe, but Sunny proves his guilt by showing the snake is harmless and he escapes.


text: Mr. Poe leaves them with their Aunt Josephine, a grammar-obsessed widow with panphobia. Olaf appears, disguised as a sea captain named "Captain Sham", to meddle with their plans again. One day, Josephine is not at the house, leaving an apparent suicide note entrusting them to Captain Sham. Klaus deduces that Olaf forced her to forge the note, but she left a hidden message revealing her location. They sail to the cave where she is hiding and rescue her but attract leeches. Olaf appears and takes the children, leaving Josephine to be eaten by the leeches. Mr. Poe finds him with the children, and Olaf pretends to have rescued them. Mr. Poe is fooled and gives the children back to him.


text: Olaf plans a play titled "The Marvelous Marriage", starring Violet and him as a bride and groom. Klaus's suspicions reveal that he is planning to take advantage of the play to really marry Violet in an attempt to get the fortune, using legally recognized vows and a bona fide justice of the peace. He locks Sunny up in a birdcage, threatening to drop her to her death if Violet refuses to take part in the play.


text: Klaus escapes and finds a hidden tower in Olaf's house, where he discovers a large window with a set of lenses that, if positioned correctly, can focus the rays of the sun. He realizes that Olaf used it to set fire to the Baudelaire mansion. Using the window, Klaus manages to burn the marriage certificate, leading to Olaf's arrest, but he escapes later on.


text: Violet, Klaus, and Sunny are taken to visit the charred remains of their old home one last time. A lost letter from their parents finally arrives, and inside is a spyglass announcing their family's secret society. Snicket finishes writing his documentation and hides the papers in the clock tower for his publisher to find. He concludes that despite the siblings' recent unfortunate events, they have each other. Mr. Poe drives the Baudelaires to their next home.


text: Handler initially viewed Count Olaf as a James Mason type. Carrey was not familiar with the book series when he was cast, but he became a fan of the series. "Handler's books are just a bold and original way to tell a children's story," he said. Carrey was also attracted to the role despite self-parody concerns. Silberling was open to Carrey's idea of improvisation for various scenes, especially the Stephano and Captain Sham alter egos. To make his prosthetic makeup more comfortable and easier to apply, Carrey shaved his head bald for the part. His inspiration for Olaf's voice was combining the voices of Orson Welles and Bela Lugosi.


text: Emily Browning was cast as Violet Baudelaire when she auditioned at a casting call in Australia. She was sent Handler's original script when Barry Sonnenfeld was planning to direct, and screen tested for the part using an English accent. Browning became a fan of the books after reading Handler's original script. The actress was not cast until Silberling took over, then her character's accent was changed to American.


text: Nickelodeon Movies purchased the film rights to the "A Series of Unfortunate Events" novel series in May 2000. Paramount Pictures, owner of Nickelodeon Movies, agreed to co-finance, along with Scott Rudin. Various directors, including Terry Gilliam and Roman Polanski, were interested in making the film. One of Handler's favorite candidates was Guy Maddin. In June 2002, it was announced that Barry Sonnenfeld was hired to direct. He was chosen because he previously collaborated with Rudin and because of his black comedy directing style from "The Addams Family", "Addams Family Values" and "Get Shorty". Sonnenfeld referred to the "Lemony Snicket" novels as his favorite children's stories. The director hired Handler to write the script with the intention of making "Lemony Snicket" a musical, and cast Carrey as Count Olaf in September 2002.


text: The film suffered setbacks in development in December 2002. Rudin left "Unfortunate Events" over budget concerns. While Sonnenfeld and Carrey remained, Sonnenfeld admitted he was skeptical of Paramount's $100 million budget. The studio decided that changing the shoot from Hollywood to Wilmington, North Carolina, would be less expensive. The April 2003 start date was also pushed back. Paramount eventually settled the situation in January 2003 by enlisting help from DreamWorks Pictures to co-finance the film, but Sonnenfeld vacated the director's position. Rudin and Sonnenfeld had no involvement with the film afterward, but were credited as executive producers. Carrey remained with approval over the hiring of the next director.


text: Brad Silberling signed on to direct in February 2003. He was not familiar with the series when he was first approached. He quickly read the first three novels and was excited that "Hollywood was taking a chance to put over $100 million to adapt these inventive children's books onto screen". Handler, who wrote eight drafts of the script for Sonnenfeld, was replaced by Robert Gordon in May 2003. Handler approved of the changes that were made to his screenplay. "I was offered credit on the film for screenwriting by the Writers Guild of America", Handler continued, "but I didn't take it because I didn't write it. I felt like it would be an insult to the guy who did."


text: Filming was set to begin in October 2003, but was pushed back. Principal photography for "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" began on November 10, 2003, using the sound stages and backlot at Paramount Studios in Hollywood. Silberling avoided using too many digital or chroma key effects because he wanted the younger actors to feel as if they were working in a realistic environment. Olaf's mansion occupied two sound stages, while the graveyard and the ruins of the Baudelaire mansion were constructed on the Paramount back lot. After 21 weeks of shooting at Paramount, production then moved to Downey Studios, a former NASA facility in Downey, California, for eight more weeks. Downey housed the circular railroad crossing set complete with forced perspective scenery, as well as a newly constructed water tank complete with over one million gallons of water. The water tank was instrumental in filming scenes set at Briny Beach, Lake Lachrymose, Damocles Dock and Curdled Cave. Filming for "A Series of Unfortunate Events" ended on May 29, 2004.


text: Silberling, production designer Rick Heinrichs and costume designer Colleen Atwood all aimed for the film's setting to be ambiguous, giving it a "timeless" feel. Heinrichs also added steampunk designs to the period. To contribute to the setting, Silberling hired Emmanuel Lubezki as the cinematographer because he was impressed with the trio's work on "Sleepy Hollow".


text: Lubezki compared the cinematic similarities to "Sleepy Hollow", notably the monochromatic look of both films. He also chose a specific color palette backdrop for "A Series of Unfortunate Events". "The story is very episodic, so we picked a different color scheme for each section. For example, Count Olaf's house has a lot of greens, blacks and grays; the house of Uncle Monty has a lot of greens and browns and a bit of yellow; and the house of Aunt Josephine has blues and blacks." The railroad crossing set was constructed on a cyclorama, which was the most ambitious set piece for the art department on using elements of "in house" special effects and matte paintings.


text: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), supervised by Stefen Fangmeier, created the film's 505 visual effects shots. The filmmakers used as few digital effects as possible, though the train and smoke for the railroad crossing scene were created entirely by computer animation. ILM also used color grading techniques for the Lake Lachrymose scene, which required complete animation for the leeches. The digital animators studied footage of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season to accurately depict Hurricane Herman, which was ILM's most ambitious use of computer-generated imagery (CGI) for the film. Nexus Productions designed the opening "Littlest Elf" animated sequence by modeling it after stop-motion animation and completing it with computer animation. The snakes at Monty's house were a combination of real snakes and animatronics. The animatronics, primarily the Incredibly Deadly Viper, were used as reference models that ILM later enhanced using CGI. Because working with infants was sometimes risky in producing a film, four scenes involving Sunny Baudelaire required CGI with motion capture technology. Among these are the shot of Sunny hanging on to a table by her teeth, catching a spindle with her mouth and the scene where she is entangled with the Incredibly Deadly Viper. Animation supervisor Colin Brady used his baby daughter for motion capture recording. Kevin Yagher designed a remote-controlled animatronic of Sunny.


text: In October 2002, Nickelodeon Movies hired Activision (which actually had a partnership with DreamWorks) to create the film's tie-in video game. The agreement also included options for sequels. Silberling delivered his first cut of the film to the studio in August 2004. Fearing his original version was "too dark", Paramount and DreamWorks conducted test screenings. The film was then reedited over family-friendliness concerns. Given its December release, the film's marketing campaign was criticized as a deliberately anti-holiday comedy with taglines like "Taking the cheer out of Christmas" and "Mishaps. Misadventures. Mayhem. Oh Joy." The premiere of" Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" was held at the Cinerama Dome on December 13, 2004. A tent display on Vine Street was decorated with pieces from the film's sets.


text: "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" was released on DVD and VHS on April 26, 2005. A Portuguese-labeled All-Region Blu-ray was released in 2012 and then an American Region A Blu-ray was released on September 9, 2014. The film was re-released on DVD on January 24, 2017.


text: "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" grossed $118.6 million in the United States and Canada and $92.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $211.5 million, against a budget of $140 million.


text: The film was released in the United States and Canada on December 17, 2004, on 4,400 screens at 3,620 theaters, earning $30.1 million in its opening weekend and finishing first at the box office. In its second weekend the film fell to second behind "Meet the Fockers", grossing $12.6 million. It was the highest-grossing film under the Nickelodeon Movies banner until "The Last Airbender" surpassed it.


text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 72% based on 162 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Although it softens the nasty edges of its source material, "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" is a gothic visual treat, and it features a hilariously manic turn from Jim Carrey as the evil Count Olaf." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


text: Robert K. Elder of the "Chicago Tribune" praised Rick Heinrichs's production design and Carrey's balanced performance as a scene stealer, calling the film "exceptionally clever, hilariously gloomy and bitingly subversive." Desson Thomson of "The Washington Post" reasoned over a fellow film-goer's characterization of Count Olaf, "Olaf is a humorless villain in the book. He's not amusing like Carrey at all. To which I would counter: If you can't let Carrey be Carrey, put someone boring and less expensive in the role. In his various disguises he's rubbery, inventive and improvisationally inspired. I particularly liked his passing imitation of a dinosaur." Ty Burr, in "The Boston Globe", observed, "Director Brad Silberling has essentially made a Tim Burton movie without the weird shafts of adolescent pain. At the same time, Silberling's not a hack like Chris Columbus, and "Snicket" has more zip and inspired filmcraft than the first two "Harry Potter" films. The film's no masterpiece, but at least you're in the hands of people who know what they're doing. The movie, like the books, flatters children's innate sense that the world is "not" a perfect place and that anyone who insists otherwise is trying to sell you something. How you deal with the cognitive dissonance of a $125 million Hollywood picture telling you this is up to you. At least there are no Lemony Snicket Happy Meals. Yet." Internet reviewer James Berardinelli felt that "the film is first and foremost a fantasy, but there are dark currents running just beneath the surface. I give Silberling credit for not allowing them to swallow the film. "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" manages to remain witty throughout." Roger Ebert gave a mixed review: "Jim Carrey is over the top as Count Olaf, but I suppose a character named Count Olaf is over the top by definition. I liked the film, but I'll tell you what. I think this one is a tune-up for the series, a trial run in which they figure out what works and what needs to be tweaked. The original "Spider-Man" was a disappointment, but the same team came back and made "Spider-Man 2", the best superhero movie ever made." Scott Foundas of "Variety" gave a negative review, criticizing the filmmakers for sacrificing the story line in favor of visual elements such as set design and cinematography. He wrote, ""A Series of Unfortunate Events" suggests what "Mary Poppins" might have looked like had Tim Burton directed it. Not surprisingly, Burton's longtime production designer Rick Heinrichs was responsible for the sets, while ace Emmanuel Lubezki (Burton's "Sleepy Hollow") contributed the expressionistic lighting schemes."


text: Paramount Pictures, DreamWorks Pictures, and Nickelodeon Movies hoped that the film would become a series like the "Harry Potter" film series. Carrey thought his character would be good as the basis for a film franchise since it would allow him to dive into a new role, though he said he didn't "have a deal" for a sequel. In May 2005, producer Laurie MacDonald said ""Lemony Snicket" is still something Paramount is interested in pursuing and we're going to be talking with them more."


text: In October 2008, Handler said that "a sequel does seem to be in the works. Paramount has had quite a few corporate shakeups, which has led to many a delay. Of course, many, many plans in Hollywood come to naught, but I'm assured that another film will be made. Someday. Perhaps." In June 2009, Silberling confirmed he still talked about the project with Handler, and suggested the sequel be a stop motion film, with each film in a new medium, due to the young lead actors having grown too old to continue their roles, saying, "In an odd way, the best thing you could do is actually have Lemony Snicket say to the audience, 'Okay, we pawned the first film off as a mere dramatization with actors. Now, I'm afraid I'm going to have to show you the real thing.'"


text: In November 2014, Netflix announced its plans for a television adaptation of the entire novel series. The series stars Neil Patrick Harris, Malina Weissman, Louis Hynes and Presley Smith, with Patrick Warburton as Lemony Snicket. The series, also titled "A Series of Unfortunate Events", premiered on January 13, 2017. The first season consisted of eight episodes, and adapts the first four books of the series. "A Series of Unfortunate Events" season two was released on March 30, 2018, and contains 10 episodes, adapting books five through nine of the novel series. The third and final season was released on January 1, 2019, and adapts the four remaining books in seven episodes.


text: A video game based on the film was released in 2004 by Activision for the PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, and Microsoft Windows. The player plays as all three orphans at points in the game.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: Oksana Petrovna Grigorieva (; born 23 February 1970) is a Russian singer-songwriter and pianist. She studied music in Moscow and completed conservatoire studies in Kazan, before moving to London. After studying music at the Royal Academy of Music, she moved to the United States, with periods spent living in New York City and Los Angeles, California. She taught music in the U.S., and patented a technique of teaching musical notation to children.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: Grigorieva gained attention as a songwriter in 2006, after a song that she wrote, "Un día llegará", became popular on the Josh Groban album "Awake". In 2009, Grigorieva's album "Beautiful Heartache" was released; the actor and director Mel Gibson, with whom she was romantically involved and had a child, served as executive producer. The following year, the couple had a widely publicized falling-out that eventually involved highly public legal proceedings and acrimony.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: Grigorieva was born Oksana Petrovna Chernukha in Saransk, Mordovian ASSR in 1970. Her parents were both music professors. She grew up in Ukraine and Russia, and at the age of 15 moved to Moscow to attend university to learn piano. She said of the experience learning music as a child, "Diplomas were everything. It wasn't unusual for students to play ten hours a day. Our skin would start to crack. We'd literally have bleeding fingers." Grigorieva finished conservatoire studies in Kazan.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: She moved to London where she continued her studies and taught music to others. Grigorieva studied music at the Royal College of Music. While in London she worked as a model; having been spotted by photographer Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield. Grigorieva noted, "In order to support myself I started to model. I did a lot of it, print, mostly. I've always looked after myself. I've never been dependent on anyone financially." In the U.K. she worked under the name Sacha Chernuha before changing it to Oksana Grigorieva. Grigorieva subsequently moved to the United States, and spent time living in New York City and Los Angeles, California. She taught music in the U.S., and patented a technique of teaching musical notation to children. Grigorieva composed and performed music, and produced works for theatre and advertisements.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: Grigorieva gained attention as a songwriter in 2006, after the song that she wrote, "Un día llegará" (Translated from Spanish: A Day Will Come), became popular on the Josh Groban album, "Awake". "Las Vegas Review-Journal" highlighted "Un día llegará" in particular in a review of Groban's album "Awake", commenting, "Groban's most effective tunes tend to be his most unadorned, when he favors understatement over ostentation, such as on the flickering piano ballad 'Lullaby' or the tremulous slow burn of 'Un día llegará,' with its touches of flamenco guitar." Prior to singing "Un día llegará" at a 2007 live performance, the song was "endorsed as a beauty" by Groban, in a statement to his fans. In a review of "Awake", the "Philippine Daily Inquirer" called "Un día llegará" an "outstanding track". Fred Shuster of "Los Angeles Daily News" reviewed the album, and commented, "The gorgeous 'Un día llegará,' opening with a sweep of guitar, sets the mood for romantic highlights to come".


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: In 2009, Grigorieva's music album "Beautiful Heartache" was released; Mel Gibson paying for her music career at the time served as executive producer. The album includes 11 tracks, and features a cover of the Russian song "Dark Eyes" and a collaboration with Charlie Midnight. "Beautiful Heartache" was marketed as "grown-up, piano-led pop, heavy on classical motifs". Save for the song "Say My Name", which was co-written with Gibson, Grigorieva wrote the entire album on her own. "Say My Name" was included in the 2010 film "Edge of Darkness". "ABC News" reported that "Beautiful Heartache" garnered the singer "rave reviews" from music critics. "Reuters" commented of the album, "'Beautiful Heartache' features a collection of wistful love songs, blending shimmering string arrangements with pop and jazz-influenced arrangements that showcase Grigorieva's soulful voice." In a review of the album, Jack Foley of "IndieLondon" gave it a rating of 4 out of 5, and observed, "throughout, she displays a keen ear for melody, for honest emotional simplicity and classic values. She’s well worth taking the time to check out".


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: In December 2012 it was revealed Grigorieva was taking a detour into hip hop and dance music, scheduled for release in 2013.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: Grigorieva was married in 1989 for three months to Russian lawyer Igor Baranov. In 1992, she married British artist Nicholas Rowland. She had a relationship with James Bond actor Timothy Dalton; Grigorieva met Dalton in 1995 while she was employed as a translator for filmmaker Nikita Mikhalkov. Dalton and Grigorieva had a son together (born August 1997) named Alexander. Their relationship ended in 2003.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: Starting in 2007, Grigorieva was romantically involved with actor Mel Gibson, and their daughter Lucia was born on 30 October 2009. The couple separated in April 2010. In June 2010, Grigorieva obtained a restraining order against Gibson, after stating he had physically assaulted her. Gibson was barred from coming near Grigorieva or their daughter. In July 2010, Gibson was identified as a possible suspect in a domestic violence investigation initiated after detectives spoke in Malibu to Grigorieva. Grigorieva and Gibson were involved in a child custody dispute involving their daughter in a confidential court case.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: In 2010, Gibson offered a settlement worth approximately $15 million, but it was refused by Grigorieva. In May 2011, Oksana Grigorieva dropped claims of domestic abuse against Gibson. In August 2011, Grigorieva settled with Gibson and was awarded $750,000, joint legal custody, and a house in Sherman Oaks, California to live in until their daughter Lucia turns 18, at which point the house will be sold and the proceeds turned into a trust fund for Lucia. In 2013, Grigorieva sued her attorneys, accusing them of advising her to sign a bad agreement, including one with Gibson that states that if she takes legal action against him, her previous settlement will be compromised. In 2014 a judge ruled that Oksana had violated a confidentiality clause due to a conversation she had on the Howard Stern Radio Show where Gibson was mentioned; she lost half of her $750,000 award.


title: Oksana Grigorieva

text: Grigorieva has been involved in charity work with Chernobyl Children's Project International in Belarus.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Decompression sickness (abbreviated DCS; also called divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, and caisson disease) is a medical condition caused by dissolved gases emerging from solution as bubbles inside the body tissues during decompression. DCS most commonly occurs during or soon after a decompression ascent from underwater diving, but can also result from other causes of depressurisation, such as emerging from a caisson, decompression from saturation, flying in an unpressurised aircraft at high altitude, and extravehicular activity from spacecraft. DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death. DCS often causes air bubbles to settle in major joints like knees or elbows, causing individuals to bend over in excruciating pain, hence its common name, the bends. Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day, and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all. The classification of types of DCS according to symptoms has evolved since its original description in the 19th century. The severity of symptoms varies from barely noticeable to rapidly fatal.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures, and contracting the condition has become uncommon. Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it, and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to monitor their ascent speed. If DCS is suspected, it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber. Where a chamber is not accessible within a reasonable time frame, in-water recompression may be indicated for a narrow range of presentations, if there are suitably skilled personnel and appropriate equipment available on site. Diagnosis is confirmed by a positive response to the treatment. Early treatment results in a significantly higher chance of successful recovery.


title: Decompression sickness

text: DCS is classified by symptoms. The earliest descriptions of DCS used the terms: "bends" for joint or skeletal pain; "chokes" for breathing problems; and "staggers" for neurological problems. In 1960, Golding "et al." introduced a simpler classification using the term "Type I ('simple')" for symptoms involving only the skin, musculoskeletal system, or lymphatic system, and "Type II ('serious')" for symptoms where other organs (such as the central nervous system) are involved. Type II DCS is considered more serious and usually has worse outcomes. This system, with minor modifications, may still be used today. Following changes to treatment methods, this classification is now much less useful in diagnosis, since neurological symptoms may develop after the initial presentation, and both Type I and Type II DCS have the same initial management.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The term dysbarism encompasses decompression sickness, arterial gas embolism, and barotrauma, whereas decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism are commonly classified together as decompression illness when a precise diagnosis cannot be made. DCS and arterial gas embolism are treated very similarly because they are both the result of gas bubbles in the body. The U.S. Navy prescribes identical treatment for Type II DCS and arterial gas embolism. Their spectra of symptoms also overlap, although the symptoms from arterial gas embolism are generally more severe because they often arise from an infarction (blockage of blood supply and tissue death).


title: Decompression sickness

text: While bubbles can form anywhere in the body, DCS is most frequently observed in the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles. Joint pain ("the bends") accounts for about 60% to 70% of all altitude DCS cases, with the shoulder being the most common site for altitude and bounce diving, and the knees and hip joints for saturation and compressed air work. Neurological symptoms are present in 10% to 15% of DCS cases with headache and visual disturbances being the most common symptom. Skin manifestations are present in about 10% to 15% of cases. Pulmonary DCS ("the chokes") is very rare in divers and has been observed much less frequently in aviators since the introduction of oxygen pre-breathing protocols. The table below shows symptoms for different DCS types.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Although onset of DCS can occur rapidly after a dive, in more than half of all cases symptoms do not begin to appear for at least an hour. In extreme cases, symptoms may occur before the dive has been completed. The U.S. Navy and Technical Diving International, a leading technical diver training organization, have published a table that documents time to onset of first symptoms. The table does not differentiate between types of DCS, or types of symptom.


title: Decompression sickness

text: DCS is caused by a reduction in ambient pressure that results in the formation of bubbles of inert gases within tissues of the body. It may happen when leaving a high-pressure environment, ascending from depth, or ascending to altitude. A closely related condition of bubble formation in body tissues due to isobaric counterdiffusion can occur with no change of pressure.


title: Decompression sickness

text: DCS is best known as a diving disorder that affects divers having breathed gas that is at a higher pressure than the surface pressure, owing to the pressure of the surrounding water. The risk of DCS increases when diving for extended periods or at greater depth, without ascending gradually and making the decompression stops needed to slowly reduce the excess pressure of inert gases dissolved in the body. The specific risk factors are not well understood and some divers may be more susceptible than others under identical conditions. DCS has been confirmed in rare cases of breath-holding divers who have made a sequence of many deep dives with short surface intervals, and may be the cause of the disease called taravana by South Pacific island natives who for centuries have dived by breath-holding for food and pearls.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Even when the change in pressure causes no immediate symptoms, rapid pressure change can cause permanent bone injury called dysbaric osteonecrosis (DON). DON can develop from a single exposure to rapid decompression.


title: Decompression sickness

text: When workers leave a pressurized caisson or a mine that has been pressurized to keep water out, they will experience a significant reduction in ambient pressure. A similar pressure reduction occurs when astronauts exit a space vehicle to perform a space-walk or extra-vehicular activity, where the pressure in their spacesuit is lower than the pressure in the vehicle.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The original name for DCS was "caisson disease". This term was introduced in the 19th century, when caissons under pressure were used to keep water from flooding large engineering excavations below the water table, such as bridge supports and tunnels. Workers spending time in high ambient pressure conditions are at risk when they return to the lower pressure outside the caisson if the pressure is not reduced slowly. DCS was a major factor during construction of Eads Bridge, when 15 workers died from what was then a mysterious illness, and later during construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, where it incapacitated the project leader Washington Roebling. On the other side of the Manhattan island during construction of the Hudson River Tunnel contractor's agent Ernest William Moir noted in 1889 that workers were dying due to decompression sickness and pioneered the use of an airlock chamber for treatment.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The most common health risk on ascent to altitude is not decompression sickness but altitude sickness, or acute mountain sickness (AMS), which has an entirely different and unrelated set of causes and symptoms. AMS results not from the formation of bubbles from dissolved gasses in the body but from exposure to a low partial pressure of oxygen and alkalosis. However, passengers in unpressurized aircraft at high altitude may also be at some risk of DCS.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Altitude DCS became a problem in the 1930s with the development of high-altitude balloon and aircraft flights but not as great a problem as AMS, which drove the development of pressurized cabins, which coincidentally controlled DCS. Commercial aircraft are now required to maintain the cabin at or below a pressure altitude of even when flying above . Symptoms of DCS in healthy individuals are subsequently very rare unless there is a loss of pressurization or the individual has been diving recently. Divers who drive up a mountain or fly shortly after diving are at particular risk even in a pressurized aircraft because the regulatory cabin altitude of represents only 73% of sea level pressure.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Generally, the higher the altitude the greater the risk of altitude DCS but there is no specific, maximum, safe altitude below which it never occurs. There are very few symptoms at or below unless patients had predisposing medical conditions or had dived recently. There is a correlation between increased altitudes above and the frequency of altitude DCS but there is no direct relationship with the severity of the various types of DCS. A US Air Force study reports that there are few occurrences between and and 87% of incidents occurred at or above . High-altitude parachutists may reduce the risk of altitude DCS if they flush nitrogen from the body by pre-breathing pure oxygen.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Although the occurrence of DCS is not easily predictable, many predisposing factors are known. They may be considered as either environmental or individual. Decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism in recreational diving are associated with certain demographic, environmental, and dive style factors. A statistical study published in 2005 tested potential risk factors: age, gender, body mass index, smoking, asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, previous decompression illness, years since certification, dives in the last year, number of diving days, number of dives in a repetitive series, last dive depth, nitrox use, and drysuit use. No significant associations with risk of decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism were found for asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, smoking, or body mass index. Increased depth, previous DCI, larger number of consecutive days diving, and being male were associated with higher risk for decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism. Nitrox and drysuit use, greater frequency of diving in the past year, increasing age, and years since certification were associated with lower risk, possibly as indicators of more extensive training and experience.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The following individual factors have been identified as possibly contributing to increased risk of DCS:


title: Decompression sickness

text: Depressurisation causes inert gases, which were dissolved under higher pressure, to come out of physical solution and form gas bubbles within the body. These bubbles produce the symptoms of decompression sickness. Bubbles may form whenever the body experiences a reduction in pressure, but not all bubbles result in DCS. The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is described by Henry's Law, which indicates that when the pressure of a gas in contact with a liquid is decreased, the amount of that gas dissolved in the liquid will also decrease proportionately.


title: Decompression sickness

text: On ascent from a dive, inert gas comes out of solution in a process called "outgassing" or "offgassing". Under normal conditions, most offgassing occurs by gas exchange in the lungs. If inert gas comes out of solution too quickly to allow outgassing in the lungs then bubbles may form in the blood or within the solid tissues of the body. The formation of bubbles in the skin or joints results in milder symptoms, while large numbers of bubbles in the venous blood can cause lung damage. The most severe types of DCS interrupt — and ultimately damage — spinal cord function, leading to paralysis, sensory dysfunction, or death. In the presence of a right-to-left shunt of the heart, such as a patent foramen ovale, venous bubbles may enter the arterial system, resulting in an arterial gas embolism. A similar effect, known as ebullism, may occur during explosive decompression, when water vapour forms bubbles in body fluids due to a dramatic reduction in environmental pressure.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The main inert gas in air is nitrogen, but nitrogen is not the only gas that can cause DCS. Breathing gas mixtures such as trimix and heliox include helium, which can also cause decompression sickness. Helium both enters and leaves the body faster than nitrogen, so different decompression schedules are required, but, since helium does not cause narcosis, it is preferred over nitrogen in gas mixtures for deep diving.


title: Decompression sickness

text: There is some debate as to the decompression requirements for helium during short-duration dives. Most divers do longer decompressions; however, some groups like the WKPP have been experimenting with the use of shorter decompression times by including deep stops. The balance of evidence as of 2020 does not indicate that deep stops increase decompression efficiency.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Any inert gas that is breathed under pressure can form bubbles when the ambient pressure decreases. Very deep dives have been made using hydrogen-oxygen mixtures (hydrox), but controlled decompression is still required to avoid DCS.


title: Decompression sickness

text: DCS can also be caused at a constant ambient pressure when switching between gas mixtures containing different proportions of inert gas. This is known as isobaric counterdiffusion, and presents a problem for very deep dives. For example, after using a very helium-rich trimix at the deepest part of the dive, a diver will switch to mixtures containing progressively less helium and more oxygen and nitrogen during the ascent. Nitrogen diffuses into tissues 2.65 times slower than helium but is about 4.5 times more soluble. Switching between gas mixtures that have very different fractions of nitrogen and helium can result in "fast" tissues (those tissues that have a good blood supply) actually increasing their total inert gas loading. This is often found to provoke inner ear decompression sickness, as the ear seems particularly sensitive to this effect.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The location of micronuclei or where bubbles initially form is not known. The most likely mechanisms for bubble formation are tribonucleation, when two surfaces make and break contact (such as in joints), and heterogeneous nucleation, where bubbles are created at a site based on a surface in contact with the liquid. Homogeneous nucleation, where bubbles form within the liquid itself is less likely because it requires much greater pressure differences than experienced in decompression. The spontaneous formation of nanobubbles on hydrophobic surfaces is a possible source of micronuclei, but it is not yet clear if these can grow large enough to cause symptoms as they are very stable.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Once microbubbles have formed, they can grow by either a reduction in pressure or by diffusion of gas into the gas from its surroundings. In the body, bubbles may be located within tissues or carried along with the bloodstream. The speed of blood flow within a blood vessel and the rate of delivery of blood to capillaries (perfusion) are the main factors that determine whether dissolved gas is taken up by tissue bubbles or circulation bubbles for bubble growth.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The primary provoking agent in decompression sickness is bubble formation from excess dissolved gases. Various hypotheses have been put forward for the nucleation and growth of bubbles in tissues, and for the level of supersaturation which will support bubble growth. The earliest bubble formation detected is subclinical intravascular bubbles detectable by doppler ultrasound in the venous systemic circulation. The presence of these "silent" bubbles is no guarantee that they will persist and grow to be symptomatic.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Vascular bubbles formed in the systemic capillaries may be trapped in the lung capillaries, temporarily blocking them. If this is severe, the symptom called "chokes" may occur. If the diver has a patent foramen ovale (or a shunt in the pulmonary circulation), bubbles may pass through it and bypass the pulmonary circulation to enter the arterial blood. If these bubbles are not absorbed in the arterial plasma and lodge in systemic capillaries they will block the flow of oxygenated blood to the tissues supplied by those capillaries, and those tissues will be starved of oxygen. Moon and Kisslo (1988) concluded that "the evidence suggests that the risk of serious neurological DCI or early onset DCI is increased in divers with a resting right-to-left shunt through a PFO. There is, at present, no evidence that PFO is related to mild or late onset bends. Bubbles form within other tissues as well as the blood vessels. Inert gas can diffuse into bubble nuclei between tissues. In this case, the bubbles can distort and permanently damage the tissue. As they grow, the bubbles may also compress nerves, causing pain. Extravascular or autochthonous bubbles usually form in slow tissues such as joints, tendons and muscle sheaths. Direct expansion causes tissue damage, with the release of histamines and their associated affects. Biochemical damage may be as important as, or more important than mechanical effects.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Bubble size and growth may be affected by several factors - gas exchange with adjacent tissues, the presence of surfactants, coalescence and disintegration by collision. Vascular bubbles may cause direct blockage, aggregate platelets and red blood cells, and trigger the coagulation process, causing local and downstream clotting.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Arteries may be blocked by intravascular fat aggregation. Platelets accumulate in the vicinity of bubbles. Endothelial damage may be a mechanical effect of bubble pressure on the vessel walls, a toxic effect of stabilised platelet aggregates and possibly toxic effects due to the association of lipids with the air bubbles. Protein molecules may be denatured by reorientation of the secondary and tertiary structure when non-polar groups protrude into the bubble gas and hydrophilic groups remain in the surrounding blood, which may generate a cascade of pathophysiological events with consequent production of clinical signs of decompression sickness.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The physiological effects of a reduction in environmental pressure depend on the rate of bubble growth, the site, and surface activity. A sudden release of sufficient pressure in saturated tissue results in a complete disruption of cellular organelles, while a more gradual reduction in pressure may allow accumulation of a smaller number of larger bubbles, some of which may not produce clinical signs, but still cause physiological effects typical of a blood/gas interface and mechanical effects. Gas is dissolved in all tissues, but decompression sickness is only clinically recognised in the central nervous system, bone, ears, teeth, skin and lungs.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Necrosis has frequently been reported in the lower cervical, thoracic, and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord. A catastrophic pressure reduction from saturation produces explosive mechanical disruption of cells by local effervescence, while a more gradual pressure loss tends to produce discrete bubbles accumulated in the white matter, surrounded by a protein layer. Typical acute spinal decompression injury occurs in the columns of white matter. Infarcts are characterised by a region of oedema, haemorrhage and early myelin degeneration, and are typically centred on small blood vessels. The lesions are generally discrete. Oedema usually extends to the adjacent grey matter. Microthrombi are found in the blood vessels associated with the infarcts.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Following the acute changes there is an invasion of lipid phagocytes and degeneration of adjacent neural fibres with vascular hyperplasia at the edges of the infarcts. The lipid phagocytes are later replaced by a cellular reaction of astrocytes. Vessels in surrounding areas remain patent but are collagenised. Distribution of spinal cord lesions may be related to vascular supply. There is still uncertainty regarding the aetiology of decompression sickness damage to the spinal cord.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Dysbaric osteonecrosis lesions are typically bilateral and usually occur at both ends of the femur and at the proximal end of the humerus Symptoms are usually only present when a joint surface is involved, which typically does not occur until a long time after the causative exposure to a hyperbaric environment. The initial damage is attributed to the formation of bubbles, and one episode can be sufficient, however incidence is sporadic and generally associated with relatively long periods of hyperbaric exposure and aetiology is uncertain. Early identification of lesions by radiography is not possible, but over time areas of radiographic opacity develop in association with the damaged bone.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Diagnosis of decompression sickness relies almost entirely on clinical presentation, as there are no laboratory tests that can incontrovertibly confirm or reject the diagnosis. Various blood tests have been proposed, but they are not specific for decompression sickness, they are of uncertain utility and are not in general use.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Decompression sickness should be suspected if any of the symptoms associated with the condition occurs following a drop in pressure, in particular, within 24 hours of diving. In 1995, 95% of all cases reported to Divers Alert Network had shown symptoms within 24 hours. This window can be extended to 36 hours for ascent to altitude and 48 hours for prolonged exposure to altitude following diving. An alternative diagnosis should be suspected if severe symptoms begin more than six hours following decompression without an altitude exposure or if any symptom occurs more than 24 hours after surfacing. The diagnosis is confirmed if the symptoms are relieved by recompression. Although MRI or CT can frequently identify bubbles in DCS, they are not as good at determining the diagnosis as a proper history of the event and description of the symptoms.


title: Decompression sickness

text: There is no gold standard for diagnosis, and DCI experts are rare. Most of the chambers open to treatment of recreational divers and reporting to Diver's Alert Network see fewer than 10 cases per year, making it difficult for the attending doctors to develop experience in diagnosis. A method used by commercial diving supervisors when considering whether to recompress as first aid when they have a chamber on site, is known as the "test of pressure". The diver is checked for contraindications to recompression, and if none are present, recompressed. If the symptoms resolve or reduce during recompression, it is considered likely that a treatment schedule will be effective. The test is not entirely reliable, and both false positives and false negatives are possible, however in the commercial diving environment it is often considered worth treating when there is doubt, and very early recompression has a history of very high success rates and reduced number of treatments needed for complete resolution and minimal sequelae.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Symptoms of DCS and arterial gas embolism can be virtually indistinguishable. The most reliable way to tell the difference is based on the dive profile followed, as the probability of DCS depends on duration of exposure and magnitude of pressure, whereas AGE depends entirely on the performance of the ascent. In many cases it is not possible to distinguish between the two, but as the treatment is the same in such cases it does not usually matter.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Other conditions which may be confused with DCS include skin symptoms "cutis marmorata" due to DCS and skin barotrauma due to dry suit squeeze, for which no treatment is necessary. Dry suit squeeze produces lines of redness with possible bruising where the skin was pinched between folds of the suit, while the mottled effect of "cutis marmorata" is usually on skin where there is subcutaneous fat, and has no linear pattern.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Transient episodes of severe neurological incapacitation with rapid spontaneous recovery shortly after a dive may be attributed to hypothermia, but may be symptomatic of short term CNS involvement, which may have residual problems or relapses. These cases are thought to be under-diagnosed.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Inner ear decompression sickness (IEDCS) can be confused with inner ear barotrauma (IEBt), alternobaric vertigo, caloric vertigo and reverse squeeze. A history of difficulty in equalising the ears during the dive makes ear barotrauma more likely, but does not always eliminate the possibility of inner ear DCS, which is usually associated with deep, mixed gas dives with decompression stops. Both conditions may exist concurrently, and it can be difficult to distinguish whether a person has IEDCS, IEBt, or both.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Numbness and tingling are associated with spinal DCS, but can also be caused by pressure on nerves (compression neurapraxia). In DCS the numbness or tingling is generally confined to one or a series of dermatomes, while pressure on a nerve tends to produce characteristic areas of numbness associated with the specific nerve on only one side of the body distal to the pressure point. A loss of strength or function is likely to be a medical emergency. A loss of feeling that lasts more than a minute or two indicates a need for immediate medical attention. It is only partial sensory changes, or paraesthesias, where this distinction between trivial and more serious injuries applies.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Large areas of numbness with associated weakness or paralysis, especially if a whole limb is affected, are indicative of probable brain involvement and require urgent medical attention. Paraesthesias or weakness involving a dermatome indicate probable spinal cord or spinal nerve root involvement. Although it is possible that this may have other causes, such as an injured intervertebral disk, these symptoms indicate an urgent need for medical assessment. In combination with weakness, paralysis or loss of bowel or bladder control, they indicate a medical emergency.


title: Decompression sickness

text: To prevent the excess formation of bubbles that can lead to decompression sickness, divers limit their ascent rate—the recommended ascent rate used by popular decompression models is about per minute—and follow a decompression schedule as necessary. This schedule may require the diver to ascend to a particular depth, and remain at that depth until sufficient inert gas has been eliminated from the body to allow further ascent. Each of these is termed a "decompression stop", and a schedule for a given bottom time and depth may contain one or more stops, or none at all. Dives that contain no decompression stops are called "no-stop dives", but divers usually schedule a short "safety stop" at , depending on the training agency or dive computer.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The decompression schedule may be derived from decompression tables, decompression software, or from dive computers, and these are generally based upon a mathematical model of the body's uptake and release of inert gas as pressure changes. These models, such as the Bühlmann decompression algorithm, are modified to fit empirical data and provide a decompression schedule for a given depth and dive duration using a specified breathing gas mixture.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Since divers on the surface after a dive may still have excess inert gas in their bodies, decompression from any subsequent dive before this excess is eliminated needs to modify the schedule to take account of the residual gas load from the previous dive. This will result in a shorter allowable time under water without obligatory decompression stops, or an increased decompression time during the subsequent dive. The total elimination of excess gas may take many hours, and tables will indicate the time at normal pressures that is required, which may be up to 18 hours.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Decompression time can be significantly shortened by breathing mixtures containing much less inert gas during the decompression phase of the dive (or pure oxygen at stops in of water or less). The reason is that the inert gas outgases at a rate proportional to the difference between the partial pressure of inert gas in the diver's body and its partial pressure in the breathing gas; whereas the likelihood of bubble formation depends on the difference between the inert gas partial pressure in the diver's body and the ambient pressure. Reduction in decompression requirements can also be gained by breathing a nitrox mix during the dive, since less nitrogen will be taken into the body than during the same dive done on air.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Following a decompression schedule does not completely protect against DCS. The algorithms used are designed to reduce the probability of DCS to a very low level, but do not reduce it to zero. The mathematical implications of all current decompression models are that provided that no tissue is ingassing, longer decompression stops will decrease decompression risk, or at worst not increase it. Efficient decompression requires the diver to ascend fast enough to establish as high a decompression gradient, in as many tissues, as safely possible, without provoking the development of symptomatic bubbles. This is facilitated by the highest acceptably safe oxygen partial pressure in the breathing gas, and avoiding gas changes that could cause counterdiffusion bubble formation or growth. The development of schedules that are both safe and efficient has been complicated by the large number of variables and uncertainties, including personal variation in response under varying environmental conditions and workload, attributed to variations of body type, fitness and other risk factors.


title: Decompression sickness

text: One of the most significant breakthroughs in the prevention of altitude DCS is oxygen pre-breathing. Breathing pure oxygen significantly reduces the nitrogen loads in body tissues by reducing the partial pressure of nitrogen in the lungs, which induces diffusion of nitrogen from the blood into the breathing gas, and this effect eventually lowers the concentration of nitrogen in the other tissues of the body. If continued for long enough, and without interruption, this provides effective protection upon exposure to low-barometric pressure environments. However, breathing pure oxygen during flight alone (ascent, en route, descent) does not decrease the risk of altitude DCS as the time required for ascent is generally not sufficient to significantly desaturate the slower tissues.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Pure aviator oxygen which has moisture removed to prevent freezing of valves at altitude is readily available and routinely used in general aviation mountain flying and at high altitudes. Most small general aviation aircraft are not pressurized, therefore oxygen use is an FAA requirement at higher altitudes.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Although pure oxygen pre-breathing is an effective method to protect against altitude DCS, it is logistically complicated and expensive for the protection of civil aviation flyers, either commercial or private. Therefore, it is currently used only by military flight crews and astronauts for protection during high-altitude and space operations. It is also used by flight test crews involved with certifying aircraft, and may also be used for high-altitude parachute jumps.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Astronauts aboard the International Space Station preparing for extra-vehicular activity (EVA) "camp out" at low atmospheric pressure, , spending eight sleeping hours in the Quest airlock chamber before their spacewalk. During the EVA they breathe 100% oxygen in their spacesuits, which operate at , although research has examined the possibility of using 100% O at in the suits to lessen the pressure reduction, and hence the risk of DCS.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Recompression on air was shown to be an effective treatment for minor DCS symptoms by Keays in 1909. Evidence of the effectiveness of recompression therapy utilizing oxygen was first shown by Yarbrough and Behnke, and has since become the standard of care for treatment of DCS. Recompression is normally carried out in a recompression chamber. At a dive site, a riskier alternative is in-water recompression.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Oxygen first aid has been used as an emergency treatment for diving injuries for years. Particularly if given within the first four hours of surfacing, it increases the success of recompression therapy as well as decreasing the number of recompression treatments required. Most fully closed-circuit diving rebreathers can deliver sustained high concentrations of oxygen-rich breathing gas and could be used as a means of supplying oxygen if dedicated equipment is not available.


title: Decompression sickness

text: It is beneficial to give fluids, as this helps reduce dehydration. It is no longer recommended to administer aspirin, unless advised to do so by medical personnel, as analgesics may mask symptoms. People should be made comfortable and placed in the supine position (horizontal), or the recovery position if vomiting occurs. In the past, both the Trendelenburg position and the left lateral decubitus position (Durant's maneuver) have been suggested as beneficial where air emboli are suspected, but are no longer recommended for extended periods, owing to concerns regarding cerebral edema.


title: Decompression sickness

text: All cases of decompression sickness should be treated initially with the highest available concentration of oxygen until hyperbaric oxygen therapy (100% oxygen delivered in a hyperbaric chamber) can be provided. Mild cases of the "bends" and some skin symptoms may disappear during descent from high altitude; however, it is recommended that these cases still be evaluated. Neurological symptoms, pulmonary symptoms, and mottled or marbled skin lesions should be treated with hyperbaric oxygen therapy if seen within 10 to 14 days of development. Early recompression has a history of better outcomes and less treatment being needed.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Normobaric oxygen administered at as close to 100% as practicable is known to be beneficial based on observed bubble reduction and symptom resolution. For this reason diver training in oxygen administration, and a system for administering a high percentage of inspired oxygen at quantities sufficient for plausible evacuation scenarios is desirable. Where oxygenation may be compromised the administration rate should be adjusted to ensure that the best practicable supplementation is maintained until supplies can be replenished.


title: Decompression sickness

text: A horizontal position is preferable during evacuation if possible, with the recovery position recommended for unconscious divers, as there is evidence that inert gas washout is improved in horizontal subjects, and that large arterial bubbles tend to distribute towards the head in upright positions. A head down position is thought to be harmful in DCS.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Oral hydration is recommended in fully conscious persons, and fluids should ideally be isotonic, without alcohol, carbonation or caffeine, as diving is known to cause dehydration, and rehydration is known to reduce post-dive venous gas emboli.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Intravascular rehydration is recommended if suitably competent responders are present. Glucose free isotonic crystalloid solutions are preferred. Case evidence shows that aggressive rehydration can be life-saving in severe cases.


title: Decompression sickness

text: If there are no contraindications, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug along with hyperbatic oxygen is likely to improve rate of recovery. Corticosteroids, pentoxyphylline, aspirin, lidocaine and nicergoline have been used in early management of DCS, but there is insufficient evidence on their effectiveness.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Divers should be kept comfortably warm, but not overheated, as warm subjects are known to eliminate gas more quickly, but overheating aggravates neurological injury.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Observational evidence shows that outcomes after recompression are likely to be better after immediate recompression, which is only possible when on-site recompression is possible, although the 2004 workshop on decompression came to the conclusion that for cases with mild symptoms, a delay before recompression is unlikely to cause any worsening of long-term outcomes.


title: Decompression sickness

text: In more serious cases recompression should be done as soon as safely possible. There is some evidence that delays longer than six hours result in slower or less complete recovery, and the number of treatments required may be increased.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Exposing a case of decompression sickness to reduced ambient pressure will cause the bubbles to expand if not constrained by a rigid local tissue environment. This can aggravate the symptoms, and should be avoided if reasonably practicable. If a diver with DCS is transported by air, cabin pressure should be kept as close to sea level atmospheric pressure as possible, preferably not more than 150 m, either by cabin pressurisation or by remaining at low altitude throughout the flight. The risk of deterioration at higher altitudes must be considered against the risk of deterioration if not transported. Some divers with symptoms or signs of mild decompression sickness may be evacuated by pressurised commercial airliner for further treatment after a surface interval of at least 24 hours. The 2004 workshop considered it unlikely for this to cause a worse outcome. Most experience has been for short flights of less than two hours. There is little known about the effects of longer flights. Where possible, pre-flight and in-flight oxygen breathing at the highest available percentage is considered best practice. Similar precautions apply to surface transport through higher altitudes.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Recompression and hyperbaric oxygen administered in a recompression chamber is recognised as the definitive treatment for DCI, but when there is no readily available access to a suitable hyperbaric chamber, and if symptoms are significant or progressing, in-water recompression (IWR) with oxygen is a medically recognised option where a group of divers including the symptomatic diver already have relevant training and equipment that provides a sufficient understanding of the associated risks and allows the involved parties to collectively accept responsibility for a decision to proceed with IWR.


title: Decompression sickness

text: In-water recompression (IWR) or underwater oxygen treatment is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness by returning the diver underwater to help the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a procedure that exposes the diver to significant risk which should be compared with the risk associated with the other available options. Some authorities recommend that it is only to be used when the time to travel to the nearest recompression chamber is too long to save the victim's life, others take a more pragmatic approach, and accept that in some circumstances IWR is the best available option. The risks may not be justified for case of mild symptoms likely to resolve spontaneously, or for cases where the diver is likely to be unsafe in the water, but in-water recompression may be justified in cases where severe outcomes are likely, if conducted by a competent and suitably equipped team.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Carrying out in-water recompression when there is a nearby recompression chamber or without suitable equipment and training is never a desirable option. The risk of the procedure is due to the diver suffering from DCS being seriously ill and may become paralysed, unconscious or stop breathing while under water. Any one of these events is likely to result in the diver drowning or asphyxiating or suffering further injury during a subsequent rescue to the surface. This risk can be reduced by improving airway security by using surface supplied gas and a helmet or full-face mask.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Several schedules have been published for in-water recompression treatment, but little data on their efficacy is available.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The decision of whether or not to attempt IWR is dependent on identifying the diver whose condition is serious enough to justify the risk, but whose clinical condition does not indicate that the risk is unacceptable. The risk may not be justified for mild DCI, if spontaneous recovery is probable whether the diver is recompressed or not, and surface oxygen is indicated for these cases. However, in these cases the risk of the recompression is also low, and early abandonment is also unlikely to cause further harm.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Some signs of decompression illness which suggest a risk of permanent injury are nevertheless considered contraindications for IWR. Hearing loss and vertigo displayed in isolation with no other symptoms of DCI can have been caused by inner ear barotrauma rather than DCI, and inner ear barotrauma is generally considered a contraindication for recompression. Even when caused by DCI, vertigo can make in-water treatment hazardous if accompanied by nausea and vomiting. A diver with a deteriorating level of consciousness or with a persisting reduced level of consciousness should also not be recompressed in-water nor should a diver who does not want to go back down, or with a history of oxygen toxicity in the preceding dives, or any physical injury or incapacitation which may make the procedure unsafe.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The duration of recompression treatment depends on the severity of symptoms, the dive history, the type of recompression therapy used and the patient's response to the treatment. One of the more frequently used treatment schedules is the US Navy Table 6, which provides hyperbaric oxygen therapy with a maximum pressure equivalent to of seawater (2.8 bar P) for a total time under pressure of 288 minutes, of which 240 minutes are on oxygen and the balance are air breaks to minimise the possibility of oxygen toxicity.


title: Decompression sickness

text: A multiplace chamber is the preferred facility for treatment of decompression sickness as it allows direct physical access to the patient by medical personnel, but monoplace chambers are more widely available and should be used for treatment if a multiplace chamber is not available or transportation would cause significant delay in treatment, as the interval between onset of symptoms and recompression is important to the quality of recovery. It may be necessary to modify the optimum treatment schedule to allow use of a monoplace chamber, but this is usually better than delaying treatment. A US Navy treatment table 5 can be safely performed without air breaks if a built-in breathing system is not available. In most cases the patient can be adequately treated in a monoplace chamber at the receiving hospital.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Treatment and management may vary depending on the grade or form of decompression sickness and the treating facility or organization. First aid at altitude is oxygen at the highest practicable concentration and earliest and largest practicable reduction in cabin altitude.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Ground-level 100% oxygen therapy is suggested for 2 hours following type-1 decompression sickness that occurs at altitude, if it resolves upon descent. In more severe cases, hyperbaric oxygen therapy following standard recompression protocols is indicated. Decompression sickness in aviation most commonly follows flights in non-pressurized aircraft, flights with cabin pressure fluctuations, or in individuals who fly after diving. Cases have also been reported after the use of altitude chambers. These are relatively rare clinical events.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Immediate treatment with 100% oxygen, followed by recompression in a hyperbaric chamber, will in most cases result in no long-term effects. However, permanent long-term injury from DCS is possible. Three-month follow-ups on diving accidents reported to DAN in 1987 showed 14.3% of the 268 divers surveyed had ongoing symptoms of Type II DCS, and 7% from Type I DCS. Long-term follow-ups showed similar results, with 16% having permanent neurological sequelae.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Long term effects are dependent on both initial injury, and treatment. While almost all cases will resolve more quickly with treatment, milder cases may resolve adequately over time without recompression, where the damage is minor and the damage is not significantly aggravated by lack of treatment. In some cases the cost, inconvenience, and risk to the patient may make it appropriate not to evacuate to a hyperbaric treatment facility. These cases should be assessed by a specialist in diving medicine, which can generally be done remotely by telephone or internet.


title: Decompression sickness

text: For joint pain, the likely tissues affected depend on the symptoms, and the urgency of hyperbaric treatment will depend largely on the tissues involved.


title: Decompression sickness

text: The incidence of decompression sickness is rare, estimated at 2.8 to 4 cases per 10,000 dives, with the risk 2.6 times greater for males than females. DCS affects approximately 1,000 U.S. scuba divers per year. In 1999, the Divers Alert Network (DAN) created "Project Dive Exploration" to collect data on dive profiles and incidents. From 1998 to 2002, they recorded 50,150 dives, from which 28 recompressions were required — although these will almost certainly contain incidents of arterial gas embolism (AGE) — a rate of about 0.05%.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Around 2013, Honduras had the highest number of decompression-related deaths and disabilities in the world, caused by unsafe practices in lobster diving among the indigenous Miskito people, who face great economic pressures. At that time it was estimated that in the country over 2000 divers had been injured and 300 others had died since the 1970s.


title: Decompression sickness

text: In the United States, it is common for medical insurance not to cover treatment for the bends that is the result of recreational diving. This is because scuba diving is considered an elective and "high-risk" activity and treatment for decompression sickness is expensive. A typical stay in a recompression chamber will easily cost several thousand dollars, even before emergency transportation is included. As a result, groups such as Divers Alert Network (DAN) offer medical insurance policies that specifically cover all aspects of treatment for decompression sickness at rates of less than $100 per year.


title: Decompression sickness

text: In the United Kingdom, treatment of DCS is provided by the National Health Service. This may occur either at a specialised facility or at a hyperbaric centre based within a general hospital.


title: Decompression sickness

text: Animals may also contract DCS, especially those caught in nets and rapidly brought to the surface. It has been documented in loggerhead turtles and likely in prehistoric marine animals as well. Modern reptiles are susceptible to DCS, and there is some evidence that marine mammals such as cetaceans and seals may also be affected. AW Carlsen has suggested that the presence of a right-left shunt in the reptilian heart may account for the predisposition in the same way as a patent foramen ovale does in humans.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Morarji Ranchhodji Desai (29 February 1896 – 10 April 1995) was an Indian independence activist and politician who served as the 4th Prime Minister of India between 1977 to 1979 leading the government formed by the Janata Party. During his long career in politics, he held many important posts in government such as Chief Minister of Bombay State, Home Minister, Finance Minister and 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of India.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Following the death of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, Desai was a strong contender for the position of Prime Minister, only to be defeated by Indira Gandhi in 1966. He was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister (as Minister of Finance) in Indira Gandhi's cabinet, until 1969. When Indian National Congress split in 1969 he became a part of the INC (O). After the controversial emergency was lifted in 1977, the political parties of the opposition fought together against the Congress (I), under the umbrella of the Janata Party, and won the 1977 election. Desai was elected Prime Minister, and became the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India.


title: Morarji Desai

text: On the international scene, Desai holds international fame for his peace activism and created efforts to initiate peace between two rival South Asian states, Pakistan and India. After India's first nuclear test in 1974, Desai helped restore friendly relations with China and Pakistan, and vowed to avoid armed conflict such as Indo-Pakistani war of 1971. He was honoured with the highest civilian award of Pakistan, the Nishan-e-Pakistan on 19 May 1990.


title: Morarji Desai

text: He is the oldest person to hold the office of prime minister, at the age of 81, in the history of Indian politics. He subsequently retired from all political posts, but continued to campaign for the Janata Party in 1980. He was conferred with India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna. He died at the age of 99 in 1995.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Morarji Desai was born into a Gujarati Anavil Brahmin family. His father's name is Ranchhodji Nagarji Desai and his mother's name is Vajiaben Desai. He was born in Bhadeli village, Bulsar district, Bombay Presidency, British India (present-day Valsad district, Gujarat, India) on 29 February 1896, the eldest of eight children. His father was a school teacher.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Desai underwent his primary schooling in The Kundla School (now called J.V. Modi school), Savarkundla and later joined Bai Ava Bai High School, Valsad.


title: Morarji Desai

text: . Desai resigned as deputy collector of Godhra in May 1930 after being found guilty of going soft on Hindus during the riots of 1927–28 there.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Desai then joined the freedom struggle under Mahatma Gandhi and joined the civil disobedience movement against British rule in India. He spent many years in jail during the freedom struggle and owing to his sharp leadership skills and tough spirit, he became a favourite amongst freedom-fighters and an important leader of the Indian National Congress in the Gujarat region. When provincial elections were held in 1934 and 1937, Desai was elected and served as the Revenue Minister and Home Minister of the Bombay Presidency. He was also the first political leader to support the liberties of sexual minorities.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Before the independence of India, he became Bombay's Home Minister and was later elected Chief Minister of Bombay state in 1952. It was a period when movements for linguistic states were on the rise, particularly in South India. Bombay was a bi-lingual state, home to Gujarati-speaking and Marathi-speaking people. Since 1956, activist organisation Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti led a movement for a Marathi-speaking state of Maharashtra. Desai was opposed to such movements, including the Mahagujarat Movement led by Indulal Yagnik demanding a new state of Gujarat. Desai proposed that the metropolitan Mumbai be made a Union territory. His logic was that a separate development region would suit the city's cosmopolitan nature, with citizens from diverse settings across various linguistic, cultural, and religious backgrounds living there for generations. The movement led to violence across the city and state, and Desai ordered the police to open fire on the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti demonstrators who had gathered at Flora Fountain. The protesters were led by Senapati Bapat. In the carnage that followed, 105 protesters, were killed. The issue escalated and is believed to have forced the Central Government to agree to two separate states based on language. After the formation of the present State of Maharashtra, Bombay, now Mumbai became its state capital. Flora Fountain was renamed "Hutatma Chowk" ("Martyrs' Square" in English) to honour the people killed in the firing. Later Desai moved to Delhi when he was inducted as finance Minister in the cabinet of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Desai was socially conservative, pro-business, and in favour of free enterprise reforms, as opposed to Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's socialistic policies.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Rising in Congress leadership, as a fierce nationalist with anti-corruption leanings, Desai was at odds with Prime Minister Nehru and his allies, and with Nehru's age and health failing, he was considered as a possible contender for the position of Prime Minister.


title: Morarji Desai

text: In 1964 after prime minister's Nehru's death, Desai was outflanked in the leadership contest by the Nehru's protege, Lal Bahadur Shastri. Desai was invited but did not join the short lived Shastri cabinet.


title: Morarji Desai

text: In early 1966, the unexpected passing away of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri after only 18 months in power made Desai once again a contender for the top position. However, he was defeated by Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, in the Congress party leadership election by a big margin.


title: Morarji Desai

text: Desai served as Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister of India in the Indira Gandhi government until July 1969 when Prime Minister Gandhi took the finance portfolio from him but asked him to serve as the deputy prime minister. However, to save his self-respect, Desai tendered his resignation from the Gandhi cabinet. Gandhi also nationalized the fourteen largest banks in India at the same time.


title: Morarji Desai

text: When the Congress party split in 1969, Desai joined the Indian National Congress (Organisation) faction of the party, whereas Indira Gandhi formed a new faction called Indian National Congress (Requisitionists). Alternatively, the two factions of Desai and Indira were called Syndicate and Indicate respectively. The 1971 general elections to the Indian parliament were won by Indira Gandhi's faction in a landslide. Desai, however, was elected as a member of the Lok Sabha or lower house of Parliament. Desai went on indefinite hunger strike on 12 March 1975 to support Nav Nirman movement of Gujarat.


title: Morarji Desai

text: In 1975, Indira Gandhi was convicted of electoral fraud by the Allahabad High Court, after opponents alleged she had used government civil servants and equipment during the campaign for the 1971 General Elections. During the subsequent Emergency rule in 1975–77, Desai and other opposition leaders were jailed by the Indira Gandhi government as part of a massive crackdown.