title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In 2019, the Passat NMS program was split into two as the North American one continued being produced on an older platform while the Chinese Passat moved on to the MQB platform, meaning that Volkswagen currently markets three models of the Passat globally. The North American Passat was phased out after the 2022 model year.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The first generation Passat launched in 1973 in two- and four-door sedan and three- and five-door versions. Externally all four shared styling by Giorgetto Giugiaro. The first generation Passat was a fastback variant of the mechanically identical Audi 80 sedan, introduced a year earlier. A five-door station wagon was introduced in 1974, which in North American markets was sold as an Audi Fox. In Europe, the Passat was equipped with two rectangular, two round 7-inch, or four round 5.5-inch headlights depending on specification. The Passat was one of the most modern European family cars at the time, and was intended as a replacement for the ageing Volkswagen Type 3 and Type 4. The only other European cars of its size to feature front-wheel drive and a hatchback were the Renault 16 and Austin Maxi.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat originally featured the four-cylinder OHC 1.3-litre () and 1.5-litre (/) petrol engines also used in the Audi 80—longitudinally mounted with front-wheel drive, in Audi tradition, with either a four-speed manual transmission or three-speed automatic. It had a MacPherson strut front suspension with a solid axle/coil spring setup at the rear.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The SOHC 1.5-litre was enlarged to 1.6-litre in August 1975 with unchanged power ratings and slightly higher torque ratings. In July 1978, the Passat Diesel became available, equipped with the VW Golf's 1.5-litre diesel (), followed in February 1979 by the Passat GLI with a fuel-injected version of the 1.6-litre engine.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The range received a facelift in 1977 (launched 1978 outside Europe) with revised interior and revised exterior with repositioned indicators and depending on model, either four round or two rectangular headlights.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In North America, the car was marketed as the Volkswagen Dasher. The three-door hatchback, four-door sedan, and a station wagon model launched in North America for and during the 1974 model year. Sole available engine was a carburetted 1.5-litre inline-four developing (or in 1975), supplanted from model year 1976 by a Bosch fuel-injected 1.6-litre four . North American cars were equipped with single DOT standard headlights.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In 1978, the Dasher received a facelift along the lines of the European Passat, with quad sealed beam headlights and big polyurethane covered bumpers. The trim was also upgraded and the ride softened. 1979 saw the introduction of the 1.5-litre diesel engine, which produced just 48 PS (35 kW) in the car. 0–100 km/h time for the Diesel was 19.4 seconds, 6.2 seconds slower than the gasoline (petrol) engine. All gasoline engines were dropped for North America in 1981, in preparation for the next generation.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In Brazil, the Passat B1 was produced from June 1974 until 1988. Since the Audi 80 was not marketed in Brazil, the Passat received the Audi's different front-end treatment after a facelift for 1979. Originally with a 1.5-litre engine, during its long life cycle many improvements from the B2 platform were later introduced, like its 1.6 and 1.8-litre engines, a Brazil-specific face-lift in 1985, and a five-speed gearbox. A sports version, named Passat TS 1.6 and later Passat GTS 1.8 Pointer was also introduced.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The second generation Passat launched in 1981. The platform, named B2, was once again based on the corresponding version of the Audi 80, which had been launched in 1978. The B2 Passat was slightly longer.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In addition to the Passat hatchbacks and Variants (estate/wagon), there was also a conventional three-box saloon, which until the 1985 facelift was sold as the Volkswagen Santana in Europe. In the United States, the Passat/Santana was sold as the Volkswagen Quantum, available in three-door hatchback, four-door sedan, and a wagon model, but the five-door hatchback was never sold there and the three-door hatchback was dropped after less than two years. The four-wheel drive Syncro wagon version was introduced in October 1984, initially only with the more powerful five-cylinder engine.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat/Santana was also produced and commercialized in China, Mexico, South America and South Africa, too. In Mexico, it was marketed from 1984 to 1988 as VW Corsar and Corsar Variant (the 4-door saloon and 5-door wagon, respectively). In Argentina, from 1987 to 1991 as the VW Carat. In Brazil, the wagon model was badged VW Quantum. The Passat saloon and estate were produced in South Africa for the local market until 1987.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Like the previous generation, the B2 Passat was mainly sold with four-cylinder petrol and diesel engines. Unlike its predecessor, however, top-of the line versions received five-cylinder Audi or VW engines of 1.9–2.2 litres. In addition to four- and five-speed manuals and three-speed automatic gearboxes, the Passat/Santana was also available with the 4+E transmission. This, also called the "Formel E" had a particularly long top gear, which combined with a freewheeling mechanism, provided better gas mileage. An automatic stop/start was also available in some markets. The four-wheel-drive system used in the Passat Variant Syncro shared the mechanics of the Audi 80 and not the Volkswagen Golf Syncro. The Syncro's bottom plate was almost entirely different, requiring a transmission tunnel, a relocated gas tank and no spare tire well (to make room for the complex rear axle assembly). Only the more popular estate was reengineered.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In 1985, the range received a slight facelift, consisting of new, larger bumpers, interior retouches, a new front grille and new taillights on the hatchback versions. The three-door hatchback was discontinued, while the Santana nameplate was dropped in Europe. The saloon's front end was now the same as the hatchback and estate.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: On 31 March 1988, production ended (although Syncro models continued in production until June) with 3,345,248 built in Germany. World production totaled approximately 4.5 million units.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The third generation Passat was introduced in March 1988 in Europe, 1990 in North America, and 1995 in South America. The lack of a grille made the car's front end styling reminiscent of older, rear-engined Volkswagens, such as the 411, and also doubled as a modern styling trend. The styling was developed from the 1981 aerodynamic (cd 0.25) Auto 2000 concept car.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: At the time, it was the first transverse engine layout Passat to be built on a Volkswagen-designed platform, rather than sharing one with an Audi saloon. The car, although designated B3 in Volkswagen's platform nomenclature, was based largely on the A platform as used for the smaller Golf model, but was stretched in all directions, and therefore had no connection with the B3 series Audi 80, launched two years earlier. Many components are shared directly between these vehicles. This generation of Passat was sold as a four-door saloon or a five-door estate, with the Passat not being sold as a hatchback from this point onwards. It was marketed under the Passat name in all markets; in North America, this was a first.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The fuel-injected petrol engines gave better performance and refinement than the carburettor units previously used. They were mounted transversely, and the floorpan was engineered to accept Volkswagen's 'Syncro' four-wheel drive system. Engine options were the 2.0-litre 16-valve engine in the GL model, 1.8-litre engine in the CL model (not available in North America, all CLs, GLs, and GLSs had the 2.0 16v), The 1.8 8v 112 bhp PB engine from the Golf GTi was also used in the Passat GT model. Volkswagen's new 2.8-litre VR6 engine (also used in the Golf and Corrado) in the GLX/GLS model (introduced in 1991 in Europe and 1992 in North America), and the G60 engine (only available on the Syncro model in Canada for the North American market). The VR6 engine gave the top-of-the-range Passat a top speed of . The 1.9-litre and the 1.6-litre diesel engine were also available as options.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The B3 Passat was heavily facelifted in 1993, and despite being designated B4, it was not an all-new model. The facelift revised external body panels except for the roof and glasshouse, with most obvious exterior change seeing the reintroduction of a grille to match the style of the other same-generation Volkswagen models of the era, such as the Mk3 Golf and Jetta. The interior was mildly updated and included safety equipment, such as dual front airbags and seat belt pretensioners, although the basic dashboard design remained unchanged. The grille was introduced to give the front end a more aggressive appearance, as the previous model looked too 'passive'.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The car was available with a Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine – an inline four-cylinder 1.9-litre turbodiesel, generating at 3,750 rpm and of torque at 1,900 rpm. It carried a US EPA fuel efficiency rating for the sedan of highway. Combined with a reserve option fuel tank, the B4 TDI wagon had an 1800+ km (1200+ mi) range on a single tank of fuel. The B4 TDI wagon saw less than 1,000 sales in the US during its 1996 to 1997 lifespan.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: An all-new Passat, based on the Volkswagen Group B5 platform, was launched in February 1997 in Continental Europe and the United Kingdom, and 1998 in North America. Its PL45 platform was shared with the first-generation "Typ 8D" Audi A4, which was unveiled two years earlier, and saw a return to the Passat sharing its longitudinal engine layout platform with Audi's equivalent model for the first time since the second-generation (B2) Passat of 1981, which shared its platform with the second-generation "Typ 81" Audi 80/Audi 90 (the A4 is the successor to the Audi 80 line).


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat introduced a new design language, first seen on the Concept 1 concept car, for the latest generation of Volkswagens, such as the Mk4 Golf, Bora and Polo Mk4. Aerodynamic work gave the B5 Passat a coefficient of drag of 0.27 (saloon model).


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The car featured a fully independent four-link front suspension; and a semi-independent torsion beam for front-wheel-drive models or a fully independent suspension on the 4motion 4WD models. 4WD was introduced in 1997 as an option for the 1.8-litre, 2.8-litre V6, 1.9-litre TDI, 2.0-litre TDI and 2.5-litre V6 TDI engines, using a second-generation Torsen T-2 based 4WD system to minimise loss of traction. The 1.8-litre petrol engine in the Passat and Audi A4 has a lower oil capacity than transverse applications of the same engine ( in transverse, longitudinal), and may suffer from oil sludge problems as a result, if not changed at regular intervals with fully synthetic oils. Four transmission options were available: a 5-speed manual transmission, a 6-speed manual transmission (codename 01E), a 4-speed automatic transmission and a 5-speed automatic transmission with tiptronic.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The 1.6-litre petrol engine had been dropped by 1999, leaving the 1.8-litre 20-valve as the entry-level engine.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The B5.5 Passat began production in late 2000, with styling and mechanical revisions, including revised projector-optic headlights, bumpers, tail lights, and chrome trim.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: A 4.0-litre W8 engine producing was introduced in 2001 in a luxury version of the car that included standard 4motion all-wheel drive. This engine was intended to be a test bed for Volkswagen Group's new W engine technology, which would later make an appearance on the W12 in the Phaeton, Audi A8, and Bentley Continental GT, and the W16 engine in the Bugatti Veyron. The engine was discontinued in 2004.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The B6 debuted at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2005, and launched in Europe in the summer of 2005 for the 2006 model year. Unlike its predecessor, the B6 Passat no longer shared its platform with Audi's equivalent model (the Audi A4). Based on a modified version of the Mk5 Golf's PQ35 platform (PQ46), the B6 featured a transverse rather than longitudinal engine layout of its predecessor, like the previous B3 and B4 generations, which were related to the A2 (Golf) platform. The PQ46 platform provided increased torsional rigidity.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The transverse-engine layout of the four-wheel drive version, marketed as 4motion, dictated a switch from the Torsen centre differential of the B5, to the Haldex Traction multi-plate clutch. The change to the Haldex system also changes the handling closer to a front-wheel drive car. Compared to the Torsen, the Haldex can direct torque more unequally to the front wheels (from 100:0 to 50:50 front-to-rear bias), thus providing a wider bias range than the 75:25 to 25:75 of the B5 Passat. Haldex is a reactive-type system, behaving as a front-wheel-drive vehicle until slippage is detected, at which point up to a maximum of 50% of the torque can be transmitted to the rear axle. See the Audi-related quattro (four-wheel-drive system) article for more information.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Fuel Stratified Injection is used in every petrol engined version of the Passat, ranging from 1.4 to 3.6 litres (the 1.6-litre DOHC can reach in 11.4 seconds, and for manual transmission versions), but the multi-valve 2.0-litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel is the most sought after version in Europe (available in both and variants). In the US market, a 2.0-litre turbocharged I4 is the base engine, or a 3.6-litre VR6 engine as the upgrade, with six-speed manual (only available on the base 2.0-litre turbocharged model) and automatic transmissions. As of the 2009 model year, the VR6 engine and 4motion option were no longer available in the US on the Passat sedan and wagon, but are available on the Passat CC.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In February 2008, the 2.0 FSI was replaced with the new Audi-developed 1.8-litre TSI engine and 6-speed automatic transmission. The 1.8-litre T is rated at and and accelerates from 0–100 km/h in 8.6 seconds, reaching a top speed of . At the same time the 2.0-litre TDI engine from the Audi range, incorporating common rail injection technology superseded the existing 2.0 litre TDI units. The common rail technology uses less fuel and is quieter in operation. This engine is part of the wider Volkswagen Group policy for engine sharing.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat Estate won overall winner of Practical Caravans "Towcar of the Year Awards 2008" for its array of towing features such as its Trailer Stability Programme.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In Asia, the PQ46 Passat was released by FAW-VW as the Magotan, after Volkswagen's other joint venture Shanghai Volkswagen had decided to continue using the B5 platform for the Passat and the Passat Lingyu (long-wheelbase Passat). Since August 2010, the wagon version of Passat B6 will be offered in Asia, which is a fully imported model. But this car is simply called Volkswagen Variant in China, in order not to refer the name "Passat" or "Magotan".


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Exclusive to Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand was a limited edition Passat R36, which featured a 3.6-litre V6 engine. This version of the Passat put out 300 hp, and featured dual exhaust tips, an aggressive front bonnet, and All Wheel Drive.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The CC ("Comfort Coupé") is a 4-door coupé version of the Passat. It debuted at the 2008 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. Originally aimed at competing with the similarly styled Mercedes CLS, the Passat CC intends to be more stylish and luxurious than the previously released Passat B6. In the US, the name Passat was dropped, and the car was being sold as just CC. Some options specific to the CC include hands-free parking, lane-departure prevention, intelligent cruise control, and adaptive suspension. Engines offered in the CC mirror those of the regular Passat, with options of the base 2.0 litre turbocharged four-cylinder, or the optional 3.6-litre VR6, which includes 4-motion all-wheel drive.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Chinese-made CC was released by FAW-VW on 15 July 2010. Two engine options are provided: 1.8 litre T and 2.0 litre T.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Volkswagen facelifted the Passat CC in late 2011 for the 2012 year, with styling updates akin to those of the larger Phaeton. For the updated model, Volkswagen has dropped the Passat name for all markets, now matching the Volkswagen CC branding used since 2008 in North America.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The B6 Passat was facelifted by Klaus Bischoff and Walter de Silva and was unveiled at the Paris Motor Show in September 2010. Although designated "B7" by VW enthusiasts, the car is not an all-new model. The facelift resulted in new external body panels except for the roof and glasshouse, with the prominent changes to the grille and headlights. Overall height and width dimensions are unchanged from the B6 Passat, while length increases by 4 mm. New features include Adaptive Chassis Control (DCC), Dynamic Light Assist glare-free high beams, a fatigue detection system and an automatic "city emergency braking" system. It arrived at dealerships in January 2011.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The interior featured minor detail changes from the B6, although the basic dashboard design remained unchanged.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In India, the B6 version is likely to be replaced with the B7 version. The new model will be exclusive to the Indian market, and at least 100 mm longer than the European B7.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In China, the FAW-VW-built Magotan will also be replaced by a long-wheelbase version of the Passat B7. The new model will be exclusive to the Chinese market, and at least 100 mm longer than the European B7. Engines available for Magotan B7L are ranging from 1.4-litre T, 1.8-litre T to 2.0-litre T, a special-developed EA390 3.0-litre VR6 FSI engine is opted for the top model.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In Malaysia, Volkswagen Global had authorised DRB-HICOM for assembly in the Pekan facility beginning 2011. The Passat was the best-selling model of Volkswagen Malaysia in 2012 and 2013.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In October 2010, Volkswagen presented at the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show the Passat Alltrack. The Passat Alltrack bridges the gap between the passenger VW range and the SUV range comprising the Tiguan and Touareg. The Passat Alltrack was aimed at competing with Subaru Outback, which created a new market niche. They (Alltrack & Outback) both bear resemblance in ride height and external body kit.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat Alltrack has raised ground clearance from 135 to 165 mm which improves approach angle from 13.5 to 16 degrees, departure angle from 11.9 to 13.6 degrees and ramp angle from 9.5 to 12.8 degrees when compared to the standard Passat wagon.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Passat Alltrack is the only VW in the passenger range to offer 4Motion with off-road driving programme, the off-road system works in conjunction with the ABS, electronic differential lock (EDL), DSG & hill descent assist system to control the vehicle in an off-road expedition.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The engine range of the Passat Alltrack consists of two 2.0 litre TDI with outputs of 103 kW/140 hp & 125 kW/170 hp and two petrol engines, 1.8-litre producing 118 kW/160 hp and 2.0 litre TSI producing 155 kW/207 hp. The TDI models come standard with BlueMotion Technology packages with Stop/Start system and battery regeneration mode for recovering braking energy. The two lesser powered engine variants 2.0 litre TDI and 1.8-litre TSI are only available in front wheel drive format with a manual 6 speed transmission. The rest of the range with 4Motion has a 6 speed DSG automated manual transmission, except the 2.0 litre TDI with 103 kW/140 hp has an option of 6 speed manual.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In 2012 at the New York Auto Show, VW showed a Passat Alltrack with 2.0 litre TDI 125 kW/170 hp under Alltrack Concept nameplate to gauge response for a future market in the off-road wagon segment.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: A driverless version of the Passat Wagon finished second in the 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge. In spring 2015, Swiss telecommunications company Swisscom tested the driverless Volkswagen Passat on the streets of Zurich.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The eighth generation model of the Passat was introduced in November 2014 in Continental Europe and in January 2015 in the United Kingdom as a four-door saloon and estate. Following other Volkswagen Group passenger vehicles such as the Volkswagen Golf Mk7, it is based on a stretched variant of the MQB platform, a modular automobile construction platform designed for transverse, front-engined cars. To reduce weight, lightweight materials such as aluminium and vacuum-formed steel have been utilised. According to the chairman of the board of Volkswagen, Martin Winterkorn, the B8 is "a premium car without the premium price", indicating that the Passat nameplate was moved to the small car segment, as opposed to the previous generation models that were conceived as large family cars, although some auto journalists have criticised this strategy since it effectively puts the Passat in competition with the Audi A6.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat was introduced with a great number of advanced driver-assistance systems, including a semi-automatic parking system, emergency driver assistant, which will automatically take control of the vehicle if the driver has suffered a medical emergency, autonomous cruise control system for highway speeds up to 210 km/h, a collision avoidance system with pedestrian monitoring and variable ratio steering marketed as "progressive steering" which will adjust the steering gear ratios in relation to the current speed.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The engine line-up of the Passat B7 was re-introduced with this generation with slightly increased power outputs, variable displacement for the 1.4-litre TSI petrol engine and two selective catalytic reduction (SCR) diesel engines, with one being twin-turbocharged. A plug-in hybrid, the Passat GTE, with an updated battery pack from the Golf GTE and Audi A3 Sportback e-tron is scheduled for launch in mid-2015 in the United Kingdom with sales commencing in 2016.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Led by new chief of design Walter de Silva and VW's acquisition of coachbuilder Bertone, the 2015 Passat won the 2015 European Car of the Year award.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat B8 continues to be sold in China under the name Magotan; this version has an 80 mm longer wheelbase.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat Lingyu is a restyled version of the first generation Škoda Superb for the Chinese market. Manufactured by SAIC Volkswagen, the Passat Lingyu was introduced in 2005, succeeding the Passat B5. The car was designed by Istanbul-born car designer Murat Günak. In 2009, a facelifted version was introduced as the Passat New Lingyu (Xinlingyu). Production lasted until 2011 and replaced by the Passat NMS.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Volkswagen built 20 examples of a fuel-cell Passat Lingyu in mid-2008 to be presented at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: The Passat branched into two models starting from 2011: one marketed in Europe, right-hand drive markets, and in China as the Magotan, and the other known as the Passat NMS that is manufactured for the North American and Chinese market. The NMS is more downscale compared to the European Passat to achieve a lower price point and penetrate the mainstream mid-size sedan market. The Passat NMS model was split again in 2019 as the Chinese version moved on to the MQB platform, while the North American model continued to use its same platform.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Known as the New Midsize Sedan (NMS) before its unveiling in January 2011, this model was designed for the North American market, replacing the B6 Passat sedan and wagon. At its introduction, the Passat NMS was part of Volkswagen Group's strategy to sell over 800,000 vehicles per year in the North American market. The Passat NMS is marketed in the North America, South Korea, Middle East, and China, with no plans for a wagon/estate version. North American, Middle Eastern and South Korean models are manufactured at its Chattanooga Assembly Plant.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: In China, the new model is built by SAIC-Volkswagen in its Nanjing factory and is marketed as a more upscale model with some interior and exterior differences to the North American model, such as wood-trimmed steering wheel, rear air vents, and LED accented headlights. It was sold alongside models such as the long-wheelbase version of the European Passat known as the Magotan and a B5 Passat-based Passat Lingyu.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: A revised Passat for the North American market was released in 2019 as a 2020 model. The 2020 Volkswagen Passat NMS featured revised styling and added standard safety and technology features, which include a suite of standard driver assistance technologies and a 6.33-inch glass-covered touchscreen infotainment system with next-generation VW CarNet 4G LTE in-vehicle telematics. The 2019 features a carryover 174-horsepower, 2.0-liter TSI I4 gasoline engine and six-speed automatic transmission. Following the 2022 model year, Volkswagen discontinued the Passat in North America due to slow sales.


title: Volkswagen Passat

text: Revealed on October 12, 2018 by SAIC Volkswagen, the Chinese market 2019 Passat replaces the Passat NMS in China. Despite the high resemblance between the Chinese and North American Passats, they are completely different models based on different platforms. The Chinese market 2019 Passat is built on the newer Volkswagen Group MQB platform together with third generation Magotan, which is a long-wheelbase version of the European B8 Passat. Trim levels are known as the 280TSI, 330TSI and 380TSI. 280TSI models receive the 1.4-litre EA211 engine, while 330TSI and 380TSI models receive the 2.0-litre EA888 engine. All models are available with 7-speed DSG gearbox as standard.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Schizoaffective disorder (SZA, SZD or SAD) is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal thought processes and an unstable mood. This diagnosis is made when the person has symptoms of both schizophrenia (usually psychosis) and a mood disorder: either bipolar disorder or depression. The main criterion for a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is the presence of psychotic symptoms for at least two weeks without any mood symptoms present. Schizoaffective disorder can often be misdiagnosed when the correct diagnosis may be psychotic depression, bipolar I disorder, schizophreniform disorder, or schizophrenia. It is imperative for providers to accurately diagnose patients, as treatment and prognosis differ greatly for most of these diagnoses.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: There are three forms of schizoaffective disorder: bipolar (or manic) type (marked by symptoms of schizophrenia and mania), depressive type (marked by symptoms of schizophrenia and depression), and mixed type (marked by symptoms of schizophrenia, depression, and mania). Common symptoms of the disorder include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech and thinking. Auditory hallucinations, or "hearing voices", are most common. The onset of symptoms usually begins in adolescence or young adulthood. On a ranking scale of symptom progression of mental health issues relating to the schizophrenic spectrum, schizoaffective disorder falls between mood disorders and schizophrenia in regards to severity, with other disorders included on the ranking as well depending on symptoms. Schizoaffective disorder and other disorders on the schizophrenic spectrum are evaluated as a psychotic disorder in the DSM-V, so the line between psychotic or not psychotic begins at a mood disorder, as being considered not psychotic, and schizoaffective disorder along with other disorders of the schizophrenia spectrum, as being considered psychotic.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Genetics (researched in the field of genomics); problems with neural circuits; chronic early, and chronic or short-term current environmental stress appear to be important causal factors. No single isolated organic cause has been found, but extensive evidence exists for abnormalities in the metabolism of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), dopamine, and glutamic acid in people with schizophrenia, psychotic mood disorders, and schizoaffective disorder. People with schizoaffective disorder are likely to have co-occurring conditions, including anxiety disorders and substance use disorders.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: While a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is rare in the general population, it is considered a common diagnosis among psychiatric disorders. Though schizoaffective disorder and schizophrenia are often thought of as mood disorders, DSM-V criteria classifies them as psychotic disorders. Diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is based on DSM-V criteria as well as the presence of various symptoms such as mania, depression, and schizophrenia.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The mainstay of current treatment is antipsychotic medication combined with mood stabilizer medication or antidepressant medication, or both. There is growing concern by some researchers that antidepressants may increase psychosis, mania, and long-term mood episode cycling in the disorder. When there is risk to self or others, usually early in treatment, hospitalization may be necessary. Psychiatric rehabilitation, psychotherapy, and vocational rehabilitation are very important for recovery of higher psychosocial function. As a group, people with schizoaffective disorder that were diagnosed using DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria (which have since been updated) have a better outcome, but have variable individual psychosocial functional outcomes compared to people with mood disorders, from worse to the same. Outcomes for people with DSM-5 diagnosed schizoaffective disorder depend on data from prospective cohort studies, which have not been completed yet. The DSM-5 diagnosis was updated because DSM-IV criteria resulted in overuse of the diagnosis; that is, DSM-IV criteria led to many patients being misdiagnosed with the disorder. DSM-IV prevalence estimates were less than one percent of the population, in the range of 0.5–0.8 percent; newer DSM-5 prevalence estimates are not yet available.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Schizoaffective disorder is defined by "mood disorder-free psychosis" in the context of a long-term psychotic and mood disorder. Psychosis must meet criterion A for schizophrenia which may include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking and speech or behavior and negative symptoms. Both delusions and hallucinations are classic symptoms of psychosis. Delusions are false beliefs which are strongly held despite evidence to the contrary. Beliefs should not be considered delusional if they are in keeping with cultural beliefs. Delusional beliefs may or may not reflect mood symptoms (for example, someone experiencing depression may or may not experience delusions of guilt). Hallucinations are disturbances in perception involving any of the five senses, although auditory hallucinations (or "hearing voices") are the most common. Negative symptoms include alogia (lack of speech), blunted affect (reduced intensity of outward emotional expression), avolition (lack of motivation), and anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure). Negative symptoms can be more lasting and more debilitating than positive symptoms of psychosis.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Mood symptoms are of mania, hypomania, mixed episode, or depression, and tend to be episodic rather than continuous. A mixed episode represents a combination of symptoms of mania and depression at the same time. Symptoms of mania include elevated or irritable mood, grandiosity (inflated self-esteem), agitation, risk-taking behavior, decreased need for sleep, poor concentration, rapid speech, and racing thoughts. Symptoms of depression include low mood, apathy, changes in appetite or weight, disturbances in sleep, changes in motor activity, fatigue, guilt or feelings of worthlessness, and suicidal thinking.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: DSM-5 states that if a patient only experiences psychotic symptoms during a mood episode, their diagnosis is Mood Disorder with Psychotic Features and not Schizophrenia or Schizoaffective Disorder. If the patient experiences psychotic symptoms without mood symptoms for longer than a two-week period, their diagnosis is either Schizophrenia or Schizoaffective Disorder. If mood disorder episodes are present for the majority and residual course of the illness and up until the diagnosis, the patient can be diagnosed with Schizoaffective Disorder.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: A combination of genetic and environmental factors are believed to play a role in the development of schizoaffective disorder.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Viewed broadly then, biological and environmental factors interact with a person's genes in ways which may increase or decrease the risk for developing schizoaffective disorder; exactly how this happens (the biological mechanism) is not yet known. Schizophrenia spectrum disorders, of which schizoaffective disorder is a part, have been increasingly linked to advanced paternal age at the time of conception, a known cause of genetic mutations. The physiology of people diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder appears to be similar, but not identical, to that of those diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; however, human neurophysiological function in normal brain and mental disorder syndromes is not fully understood.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: While there are various medications and treatment options for those with schizoaffective disorder, this disorder can affect a person for their entire lifespan. In some cases, this disorder can affect a person's ability to have a fulfilling social life and they may also have trouble forming bonds or relationships with others. Schizoaffective disorder is also more likely to occur in women and begins at a young age.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: A clear causal connection between substance use and psychotic spectrum disorders, including schizoaffective disorder, has been difficult to prove. In the specific case of cannabis (marijuana), however, evidence supports a link between earlier onset of psychotic illness and cannabis use. The more often cannabis is used, particularly in early adolescence, the more likely a person is to develop a psychotic illness, with frequent use being correlated with double the risk of psychosis and schizoaffective disorder. A 2009 Yale review stated that in individuals with an established psychotic disorder, cannabinoids can exacerbate symptoms, trigger relapse, and have negative consequences on the course of the illness. While cannabis use is accepted as a contributory cause of schizoaffective disorder by many, it remains controversial, since not all young people who use cannabis later develop psychosis, but those who do use cannabis have an increased odds ratio of about 3. Certain drugs can imitate symptoms of schizophrenia (which is known to have similar symptoms to schizoaffective disorder). This is important to note when including that substance-induced psychosis should be ruled out when diagnosing patients so that patients are not misdiagnosed.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Though the pathophysiology of schizoaffective disorder remains unclear, studies suggest that dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin may be factors in the development of the disorder.White matter and Grey Matter reductions in the right lentiform nucleus, left superior temporal gyrus, and right precuneus, and other areas in the brain are also characteristic of schizoaffective disorder. Deformities in white matter have also been found to worsen with time in individuals with schizoaffective disorder. Due to its role in emotional regulation, researchers believe that the hippocampus is also involved in the progression of schizoaffective disorder. Specifically, psychotic disorders (such as schizoaffective disorder) have been associated with lower hippocampal volumes. Moreover, deformities in the medial and thalamic regions of the brain have been implicated as contributing factors to the disorder as well.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Psychosis as a symptom of a psychiatric disorder is first and foremost a diagnosis of exclusion. So a new-onset episode of psychosis "cannot" be considered to be a symptom of a psychiatric disorder until other relevant and known medical causes of psychosis are excluded, or ruled out. Many clinicians improperly perform, or entirely miss this step, introducing avoidable diagnostic error and misdiagnosis.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: An initial assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination. Although no biological laboratory tests exist which confirm schizoaffective disorder, biological tests should be performed to exclude psychosis associated with or caused by substance use, medications, toxins or poisons, surgical complications, or other medical illnesses. Since non-medical mental health practitioners are not trained to exclude medical causes of psychosis, people experiencing psychosis should be referred to an emergency department or hospital.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Delirium should be ruled out, which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness, indicating other underlying factors which includes medical illnesses. Excluding medical illnesses associated with psychosis is performed by using blood tests to measure:


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Blood tests are not usually repeated for relapse in people with an established diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder, unless there is a specific "medical" indication. These may include serum BSL if olanzapine has previously been prescribed, thyroid function if lithium has previously been taken to rule out hypothyroidism, liver function tests if chlorpromazine has been prescribed, CPK levels to exclude neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and a urinalysis and serum toxicology screening if substance use is suspected. Assessment and treatment may be done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to self or others.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Because psychosis may be precipitated or exacerbated by common classes of psychiatric medications, such as antidepressants, ADHD stimulant medications, and sleep medications, prescribed medication-induced psychosis should be ruled out, particularly for first-episode psychosis. This is an essential step to reduce diagnostic error and to evaluate potential medication sources of further patient harm. Regarding prescribed medication sources of patient harm, Yale School of Medicine Professor of Psychiatry Malcolm B. Bowers, Jr, MD wrote:


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Illicit drugs aren't the only ones that precipitate psychosis or mania—prescribed drugs can too, and in particular, some psychiatric drugs. We investigated this and found that about 1 in 12 psychotic or manic patients in an inpatient psychiatric facility are there due to antidepressant-induced psychosis or mania. That's unfortunate for the field [of psychiatry] and disastrous for some of our patients.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Substance-induced psychosis should also be ruled out. Both substance- and medication-induced psychosis can be excluded to a high level of certainty while the person is psychotic, typically in an emergency department, using both a


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Some dietary supplements may also induce psychosis or mania, but cannot be ruled out with laboratory tests. So a psychotic person's family, partner, or friends should be asked whether he or she is currently taking any dietary supplements.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Schizoaffective disorder can only be diagnosed among those who have undergone a clinical evaluation with a psychiatrist. The criterion includes mental and physical symptoms such as, hallucinations or delusions, and depressive episodes. There are also links to bad hygiene and a troubled social life for those with schizoaffective disorder. Research has failed to conclusively demonstrate a positive relationship between schizoaffective disorder and substance abuse. There are several theorized causations for the onset of Schizoaffective disorder, including, genetics, general brain function, like chemistry, and structure, and stress.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Only after these relevant and known causes of psychosis have been ruled out can a psychiatric differential diagnosis be made. A mental health clinician will incorporate family history, observation of a psychotic person's behavior while the person is experiencing active symptoms, to begin a psychiatric differential diagnosis. Diagnosis also includes self-reported experiences, as well as behavioral abnormalities reported by family members, friends, or significant others. Mistakes in this stage include:


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The most widely used criteria for diagnosing schizoaffective disorder are from the American Psychiatric Association's "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5".


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder definition was plagued by problems of being inconsistently (or unreliably) used on patients; when the diagnosis is made, it does not stay with most patients over time, and it has questionable diagnostic validity (that is, it does not describe a distinct disorder, nor predict any particular outcome). These problems have been slightly reduced (or "modestly improved") in the DSM-5 according to Carpenter.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: When psychotic symptoms are confined to an episode of mania or depression (with or without mixed features), the diagnosis is that of a “psychotic” mood disorder, namely either psychotic bipolar disorder or psychotic major depression. Only when psychotic states persist in a sustained fashion for two weeks or longer without concurrent affective symptoms is the diagnosis schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder or schizophrenia.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The second cardinal guideline in the DSM-5 diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is one of timeframe.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: If the schizoaffective diagnosis is used less often, other diagnoses (like psychotic mood disorders and schizophrenia) are likely to be used more often; but this is hypothetical until real-world data arrive. Validity problems with the diagnosis remain and await further work in the fields of psychiatric genetics, neuroimaging, and cognitive science that includes the overlapping fields of cognitive, affective, and social neuroscience, which may change the way schizoaffective disorder is conceptualized and defined in future versions of the DSM and ICD.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Schizoaffective disorder shares a high level of comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders, specifically anxiety disorders, depression, and bipolar disorder. Individuals with schizoaffective disorder are also often diagnosed with substance abuse disorder, usually relating to tobacco, marijuana, or alcohol. Health care providers indicate the importance of assessing for co-occurring substance use disorders, as multiple diagnoses not only potentially increase negative symptomology, but may also adversely affect the treatment of schizoaffective disorder.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: One of three types of schizoaffective disorder may be noted in a diagnosis based on the mood component of the disorder:


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV criteria for schizoaffective disorder persisted for 19 years (1994–2013). Clinicians adequately trained in diagnosis used the schizoaffective diagnosis too often, largely because the criteria were poorly defined, ambiguous, and hard to use (or poorly operationalized). Poorly trained clinicians used the diagnosis without making necessary exclusions of common causes of psychosis, including some prescribed psychiatric medications. Specialty books written by experts on schizoaffective disorder have existed for over eight years before DSM-5 describing the overuse of the diagnosis.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Carpenter and the DSM-5 schizoaffective disorders workgroup analyzed data made available to them in 2009, and reported in May 2013 that:


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: a recent review of psychotic disorders from large private insurance and Medicare databases in the U.S. found that the diagnosis of DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder was used for about a third of cases with non-affective psychotic disorders. Hence, this unreliable and poorly defined diagnosis is clearly overused.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: As stated above, the DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder diagnosis is very inconsistently used or unreliable. A diagnosis is unreliable when several different mental health professionals observing the same individual make different diagnoses excessively. Even when a structured DSM-IV diagnostic interview and best estimate procedures were made by experts in the field that included information from family informants and prior clinical records, reliability was still poor for the DSM-IV schizoaffective diagnosis.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The DSM-IV schizoaffective diagnosis is not stable over time either. An initial diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder during time spent at a psychiatric inpatient facility was stable at 6-month and 24-month follow ups for only 36% of patients. By comparison, diagnostic stability was 92% for schizophrenia, 83% for bipolar disorder and 74% for major depression. Most patients diagnosed with DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder are later diagnosed with a different disorder, and that disorder is more stable over time than the DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder diagnosis.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: In April 2009, Carpenter and the DSM-5 schizoaffective disorder workgroup reported that they were "developing new criteria for schizoaffective disorder to improve reliability and face validity," and were "determining whether the dimensional assessment of mood [would] justify a recommendation to drop schizoaffective disorder as a diagnostic category." Speaking to an audience at the May 2009 annual conference of the American Psychiatric Association, Carpenter said:


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: We had hoped to get rid of schizoaffective [disorder] as a diagnostic category [in the DSM-5] because we don't think it's [a] valid [scientific entity] and we don't think it's reliable. On the other hand, we think it's absolutely indispensable to clinical practice.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: A major reason why DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder was indispensable to clinical practice is because it offered clinicians a diagnosis for patients with psychosis in the context of mood disorder whose clinical picture, at the time diagnosed, appeared different from DSM-IV "schizophrenia" or "mood disorder with psychotic features".


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: But DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder carries an unnecessarily worse prognosis than a "mood disorder with psychotic features" diagnosis, because long-term data revealed that a significant proportion of DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder patients had 15-year outcomes indistinguishable from patients with mood disorders with or without psychotic features, even though the clinical picture at the time of first diagnosis looked different from both schizophrenia and mood disorders.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: These problems with the DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder definition result in most people the diagnosis is used on being misdiagnosed; furthermore, outcome studies done 10 years after the diagnosis was released showed that the group of patients defined by the DSM-IV and ICD-10 schizoaffective diagnosis had significantly better outcomes than predicted, so the diagnosis carries a misleading and unnecessarily poor prognosis. The DSM-IV criteria for schizoaffective disorder will continue to be used on U.S. board examinations in psychiatry through the end of 2014; established practitioners may continue to use the problematic DSM-IV definition much further into the future also.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The new schizoaffective disorder criteria continue to have questionable diagnostic validity. Questionable diagnostic validity does not doubt that people with symptoms of psychosis and mood disorder need treatment—psychosis and mood disorder must be treated. Instead, questionable diagnostic validity means there are unresolved problems with the way the DSM-5 categorizes and defines schizoaffective disorder.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: A core concept in modern psychiatry since DSM-III was released in 1980, is the categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia, known as the Kraepelinian dichotomy. Emil Kraepelin introduced the idea that schizophrenia was separate from mood disorders after observing patients with symptoms of psychosis and mood disorder, over a century ago, in 1898. This was a time before genetics were known and before any treatments existed for mental illness. The Kraepelinian dichotomy was not used for DSM-I and DSM-II because both manuals were influenced by the dominant psychodynamic psychiatry of the time, but the designers of DSM-III wanted to use more scientific and biological definitions. Consequently, they looked to psychiatry's history and decided to use the Kraepelinian dichotomy as a foundation for the classification system.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The Kraepelinian dichotomy continues to be used in DSM-5 despite having been challenged by data from modern psychiatric genetics for over eight years, and there is now evidence of a significant overlap in the genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. According to this genetic evidence, the Kraepelinian categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia at the foundation of the current classification and diagnostic system is a mistaken false dichotomy.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The dichotomy at the foundation of the current system forms the basis for a convoluted schizoaffective disorder definition in DSM-IV that resulted in excessive misdiagnosis. Real life schizoaffective disorder patients have significant and enduring symptoms that bridge what are incorrectly assumed to be categorically separate disorders, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. People with psychotic depression, bipolar disorder with a history of psychosis, and schizophrenia with mood symptoms also have symptoms that bridge psychosis and mood disorders. The categorical diagnostic manuals do not reflect reality in their separation of psychosis (via the schizophrenia diagnosis) from mood disorder, nor do they currently emphasize the actual overlap found in real-life patients. Thus, they are likely to continue to introduce either-or conceptual and diagnostic error, by way of confirmation bias into clinicians' mindsets, hindering accurate assessment and treatment.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The new definition continues the lack of parsimony of the old definition. Simpler, clearer, and more usable definitions of the diagnosis were supported by certain members of the DSM-5 workgroup (see next paragraph); these were debated but deemed premature, because more "research [is] needed to establish a new classification system of equal or greater validity" to the existing system. Because of DSM-5's continuing problematic categorical foundation, schizoaffective disorder's conceptual and diagnostic validity remains doubtful. After enough research is completed and data exists, future diagnostic advances will need to either eliminate and replace, or soften and bridge, the hard categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia; most likely using a spectrum or dimensional approach to diagnosis.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: More parsimonious definitions than the current one were considered by Carpenter and the DSM-5 workgroup:


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: One option for the DSM-5 would have been to remove the schizoaffective disorder category and to add affective [or mood] symptoms [that is, mania, hypomania, mixed episode, or depression] as a dimension to schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder "or" to define a single category for the co-occurrence of psychosis and mood symptoms. This option was extensively debated but ultimately deemed to be premature in the absence of sufficient clinical and theoretical validating data justifying such a … reconceptualization. Additionally, there appeared to be no practical way to introduce affect [or mood] dimensions covering the entire course of illness, that would capture the current concept of periods of psychosis related and unrelated to mood episodes.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The field of psychiatry has begun to question its assumptions and analyze its data in order to merge closer with evidence-based medicine. The removal of the "episode diagnosis", and the addition of two episodes of psychosis, as qualifications for the DSM-5 schizoaffective diagnosis, may improve the diagnosis' consistency over DSM-IV for research purposes, where diagnostic criteria are by necessity followed "exactingly". But the new definition remains long, unwieldy, and perhaps still not very useful for community clinicians—with two psychoses, one for two weeks minimum and without mood disorder (but the person can be mildly or moderately depressed) and the other with significant mood disorder and psychosis lasting for most of the time, and with lasting mood symptoms for most of the residual portion of the illness. Community clinicians used the previous definition "for about a third of cases with non-affective psychotic disorders." Non-affective psychotic disorders are, by definition, not schizoaffective disorder. For clinicians to make such sizeable errors of misdiagnosis may imply systemic problems with the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis itself. Already, at least one expert believes the new schizoaffective definition has not gone far enough to solve the previous definition's problems.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: From a scientific standpoint, modern clinical psychiatry is still a very young, underdeveloped medical specialty because its target organ, the human brain, is not yet well understood. The human brain's neural circuits, for example, are just beginning to be mapped by modern neuroscience in the Human Connectome Project and CLARITY. Clinical psychiatry, furthermore, has begun to understand and acknowledge its current limitations—but further steps by the field are required to significantly reduce misdiagnosis and patient harm; this is crucial both for responsible patient care and to retain public trust. Looking forward, a paradigm shift is needed in psychiatric research to address unanswered questions about schizoaffective disorder. The dimensional Research Domain Criteria project currently being developed by the U.S. National Institutes of Mental Health, may be the specific problem solving framework psychiatry needs to develop a more scientifically mature understanding of schizoaffective disorder as well as all other mental disorders.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The primary treatment of schizoaffective disorder is medication, with improved outcomes using combined long-term psychological and social supports. Hospitalization may occur for severe episodes either voluntarily or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntarily. Long-term hospitalization is uncommon since deinstitutionalization started in the 1950s, although it still occurs. Community support services including drop-in centers, visits by members of a community mental health team, supported employment and support groups are common. Evidence indicates that regular exercise has a positive effect on the physical and mental health of those with schizoaffective disorder.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Because of the heterogeneous symptomology associated with schizoaffective disorder, it is common for patients to be misdiagnosed. Many people are either diagnosed with depression, schizophrenia, or bipolar disorder instead of schizoaffective disorder. Because of the broad range of symptoms of Schizoaffective disorder, patients are often misdiagnosed in a clinical setting. In fact, almost 39% of people are misdiagnosed when it comes to psychiatric disorders.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: While various medications and treatment options "exist" for those diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder, symptoms may continue to impact a person for their entire lifespan."Schizoaffective" disorder can affect a person's ability to experience a fulfilling social life and they may also exhibit difficulty forming bonds or relationships with others. Schizoaffective disorder is more likely to occur in women and symptoms begin manifesting at a young age.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Psychosocial treatments have been found to improve outcomes related to schizoaffective disorder. Supportive psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are both helpful. Intensive case management (ICM) has been shown to reduce hospitalizations, improve adherence to treatment, and improve social functioning. With ICM, clients are assigned a case manager responsible for coordination of care and assisting clients to access supports to address needs in multiple areas related to well-being, including housing.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Psychiatric/psychosocial rehabilitation is often a component of schizoaffective disorder treatment. This rehabilitation method focuses on solving community integration problems such as obtaining and keeping housing and increasing involvement in positive social groups. It also focuses on improving and increasing activities of daily living; increasing daily healthy habits and decreasing unhealthy behaviors, thereby significantly improving quality of life. Psychiatric rehabilitation may also focus on vocational rehabilitation. Evidence suggests that cognition-based approaches may be able to improve work and social functioning.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Antipsychotic medication is usually required both for acute treatment and the prevention of relapse. There is no single antipsychotic of choice in treating schizoaffective disorder, but atypical antipsychotics may be considered due to their mood-stabilizing abilities. To date, paliperidone (Invega) is the only antipsychotic with FDA approval for the treatment of schizoaffective disorder. Other antipsychotics may be prescribed to further alleviate psychotic symptoms.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Though not approved for treatment use by the FDA, research suggests that Clozapine may also be effective in treating schizoaffective disorder, particularly in those resistant to initial medication. Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic that is recognized as being particularly effective when other antipsychotic agents have failed. When combined with cognitive therapy, Clozapine has been found to decrease positive and negative symptoms of psychosis at a higher rate in schizoaffective individuals. Clozapine has also been associated with a decreased risk of suicide in patients with schizoaffective disorder and a history of suicidality. Despite this, clozapine treatment may be ineffective for some patients, particularly in those that are already drug-resistant.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The management of the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder is similar to the treatment of bipolar disorder, with the goal of preventing mood episodes and cycling. Lithium or anticonvulsant mood stabilizers such as valproic acid, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine are prescribed in combination with an antipsychotic.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Antidepressants have also been used to treat schizoaffective disorder. Though they may be useful in treating the depressive subtype of the disorder, research suggests that antidepressants are far less effective in treatment than antipsychotics and mood stabilizers.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Some research has supported the efficacy of anxiolytics in treating schizoaffective disorder, though general findings on their effectiveness in treating schizoaffective disorder remain inconclusive. Due to the severe negative outcomes associated with many anti-anxiety drugs, many researchers have cautioned against their long term use in treatment.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be considered for patients with schizoaffective disorder experiencing severe depression or severe psychotic symptoms that have not responded to treatment with antipsychotics.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Compared to depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder, schizoaffective disorder is less commonly diagnosed. Schizoaffective disorder is estimated to occur in 0.3 to 0.8 percent of people at some point in their life. 30% of cases occur between the ages of 25 and 35. It is more common in women than men; however, this is because of the high concentration of women in the depressive subcategory, whereas the bipolar subtype has a roughly even gender distribution. Children are less likely to be diagnosed with this disorder, as the onset presents itself in adolescence or young adulthood.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The term "schizoaffective psychosis" was introduced by the American psychiatrist Jacob Kasanin in 1933 to describe an episodic psychotic illness with predominant affective symptoms, that was thought at the time to be a good-prognosis schizophrenia. Kasanin's concept of the illness was influenced by the psychoanalytic teachings of Adolf Meyer and Kasanin postulated that "schizoaffective psychosis" was caused by "emotional conflicts" of a "mainly sexual nature" and that psychoanalysis "would help prevent the recurrence of such attacks." He based his description on a case study of nine individuals.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Other psychiatrists, before and after Kasanin, have made scientific observations of schizoaffective disorder based on assumptions of a biological and genetic cause of the illness. In 1863, German psychiatrist Karl Kahlbaum (18281899) described schizoaffective disorders as a separate group in his "vesania typica circularis". Kahlbaum distinguished between cross-sectional and longitudinal observations. In 1920, psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (18561926) observed a "great number" of cases that had characteristics of both groups of psychoses that he originally posited were two distinct and separate illnesses, "dementia praecox" (now called schizophrenia) and "manic depressive insanity" (now called bipolar disorders and recurrent depression).


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Kraepelin acknowledged that "there are many overlaps in this area," that is, the area between schizophrenia and mood disorders. In 1959, psychiatrist Kurt Schneider (18871967) began to further refine conceptualizations of the different forms that schizoaffective disorders can take since he observed "concurrent and sequential types". (The "concurrent type" of illness he referred to is a longitudinal course of illness with episodes of mood disorder and psychosis occurring predominantly at the same time [now called psychotic mood disorders or affective psychosis]; while his "sequential type" refers to a longitudinal course predominantly marked by alternating mood and psychotic episodes.) Schneider described schizoaffective disorders as "cases in-between" the traditional Kraepelinian dichotomy of schizophrenia and mood disorders.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The historical clinical observation that schizoaffective disorder is an overlap of schizophrenia and mood disorders is explained by genes for both illnesses being present in individuals with schizoaffective disorder; specifically, recent research shows that schizophrenia and mood disorders share common genes "and" polygenic variations.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Schizoaffective disorder was included as a subtype of schizophrenia in DSM-I and DSM-II, though research showed a schizophrenic cluster of symptoms in individuals with a family history of mood disorders whose illness course, other symptoms and treatment outcome were otherwise more akin to bipolar disorder than to schizophrenia. DSM-III placed schizoaffective disorder in "Psychotic Disorders Not Otherwise Specified" before being formally recognized in DSM-III-R. DSM-III-R included its own diagnostic criteria as well as the subtypes, bipolar and depressive. In DSM-IV, published in 1994, schizoaffective disorders belonged to the category "Other Psychotic Disorders" and included almost the same criteria and the same subtypes of illness as DSM-III-R, with the addition of mixed bipolar symptomatology.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR (published in 2000) criteria for schizoaffective disorder were poorly defined and poorly operationalized. These ambiguous and unreliable criteria lasted 19 years and led clinicians to significantly overuse the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis. Patients commonly diagnosed with DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder showed a clinical picture at time of diagnosis that appeared different from schizophrenia or psychotic mood disorders using DSM-IV criteria, but who as a group, were longitudinally determined to have outcomes indistinguishable from those with mood disorders with or without psychotic features. A poor prognosis was assumed to apply to these patients by most clinicians, and this poor prognosis was harmful to many patients. The poor prognosis for DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder was not based on patient outcomes research, but was caused by poorly defined criteria interacting with clinical tradition and belief; clinician enculturation with unscientific assumptions from the diagnosis' history (discussed above), including the invalid Kraepelinian dichotomy; and by clinicians being unfamiliar with the scientific limitations of the diagnostic and classification system.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: The DSM-5 schizoaffective disorder workgroup analyzed all of the available research evidence on schizoaffective disorder, and concluded that "presenting symptoms of psychosis have little validity in determining diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment response." Given our understanding of overlapping genetics in bipolar disorders, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia, as well as the overlap in treatments for these disorders; but given the lack of specificity of presenting symptoms for determining diagnosis, prognosis or treatment response in these psychotic illness syndromes, the limits of our knowledge are clearer: "Presenting symptoms of psychosis describe only presenting symptoms to be treated, and not much more". Schizoaffective disorder was changed to a longitudinal or life course diagnosis in DSM-5 for this reason.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Little is known of the causes and mechanisms that lead to the development of schizoaffective disorder. Whether schizoaffective disorder is a variant of schizophrenia (as in DSM-5 and ICD-10 classification systems), a variant of bipolar disorder, or part of a dimensional continuum between psychotic depression, bipolar disorders and schizophrenia is currently being investigated.


title: Schizoaffective disorder

text: More recently, some research suggests the need for a more specialized classification for schizoaffective disorder. In a 2017 examining diagnostic heterogeneity study, researchers found that when compared to a schizophrenia sample, individuals with schizoaffective disorder rate higher in suicidality and anxiety disorder comorbidity.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Antoine Marie Jean-Baptiste Roger, comte de Saint-Exupéry, simply known as Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (, , ; 29 June 1900 – 31 July 1944), was a French writer, poet, aristocrat, journalist and pioneering aviator. He became a laureate of several of France's highest literary awards and also won the United States National Book Award. He is best remembered for his novella "The Little Prince" ("Le Petit Prince") and for his lyrical aviation writings, including "Wind, Sand and Stars" and "Night Flight".


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry was a successful commercial pilot before World War II, working airmail routes in Europe, Africa, and South America. He joined the French Air Force at the start of the war, flying reconnaissance missions until France's armistice with Germany in 1940. After being demobilised by the French Air Force, he travelled to the United States to help persuade its government to enter the war against Nazi Germany.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry spent 28 months in America, during which he wrote three of his most important works, then joined the Free French Air Force in North Africa—although he was far past the maximum age for such pilots and in declining health. He disappeared and is believed to have died while on a reconnaissance mission from Corsica over the Mediterranean on 31 July 1944. Although the wreckage of his plane was discovered off the coast of Marseille in 2000, the ultimate cause of the crash remains unknown.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Prior to the war, Saint-Exupéry had achieved fame in France as an aviator. His literary works posthumously boosted his stature to national hero status in France, including "The Little Prince" which has been translated into 300 languages. He earned further widespread recognition with international translations of his other works. His 1939 philosophical memoir "Terre des hommes" (titled "Wind, Sand and Stars" in English) became the name of an international humanitarian group; it was also used as the central theme of Expo 67 in Montreal, Quebec. His birthplace of Lyon also named its main airport and adjacent train station after him.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry was born in Lyon to an aristocratic Catholic family that could trace its lineage back several centuries, whose name ultimately references the 5th-century bishop Saint Exuperius. He was the third of five children of the Viscountess Marie de Fonscolombe and Viscount Jean de Saint-Exupéry (1863–1904). His father, an executive of the "Le Soleil" (The Sun) insurance brokerage, died of a stroke in the train station of La Foux before his son's fourth birthday. His father's death affected the entire family, transforming their status to that of 'impoverished aristocrats'.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry had three sisters and a younger blond-haired brother, François, who at age 15 died of rheumatic fever contracted while both were attending the Marianist College Villa St. Jean in Fribourg, Switzerland, during World War I. Saint-Exupéry attended to his brother, his closest confidant, beside François' death bed, and later wrote that François "...remained motionless for an instant. He did not cry out. He fell as gently as a [young] tree falls", imagery which would much later be recrafted into the climactic ending of "The Little Prince". At the age of 17, now the only man in the family following the death of his brother, the young author was left as distraught as his mother and sisters, but he soon assumed the mantle of a protector and took to consoling them.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: After twice failing his final exams at a preparatory Naval Academy, Saint-Exupéry entered the École des Beaux-Arts as an auditor to study architecture for 15 months, again without graduating, and then fell into the habit of accepting odd jobs. In 1921, Saint-Exupéry began his military service as a basic-rank soldier with the "2e Régiment de chasseurs à cheval" (2nd Chasseurs à Cheval Regiment) and was sent to Neuhof, near Strasbourg. While there he took private flying lessons and the following year was offered a transfer from the French Army to the French Air Force. He received his pilot's wings after being posted to the 37th Fighter Regiment in Casablanca, Morocco.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Later, being reposted to the 34th Aviation Regiment at Le Bourget on the outskirts of Paris, and then experiencing the first of his many aircraft crashes, Saint-Exupéry bowed to the objections of the family of his fiancée, future novelist Louise Lévêque de Vilmorin, and left the air force to take an office job. The couple ultimately broke off their engagement and he worked at several more odd jobs without success over the next few years.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: By 1926, Saint-Exupéry was flying again. He became one of the pioneers of international postal flight, in the days when aircraft had few instruments. Later he complained that those who flew the more advanced aircraft had become more like accountants than pilots. He worked for Aéropostale between Toulouse and Dakar, and then also became the airline stopover manager for the Cape Juby airfield in the Spanish zone of South Morocco, in the Sahara desert. His duties included negotiating the safe release of downed fliers taken hostage by Saharan tribes, a perilous task that earned him his first Légion d'honneur from the French Government.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In 1929, Saint-Exupéry was transferred to Argentina, where he was appointed director of the Aeroposta Argentina airline. He lived in Buenos Aires, in the Galería Güemes building. He surveyed new air routes across South America, negotiated agreements, and even occasionally flew the airmail as well as search missions looking for downed fliers. This period of his life is briefly explored in "Wings of Courage", an IMAX film by French director Jean-Jacques Annaud.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry's first novella, "L'Aviateur" ("The Aviator"), was published in 1926 in a short-lived literary magazine "Le Navire d'Argent" ("The Silver Ship"). In 1929, his first book, "Courrier Sud" ("Southern Mail") was published; his career as an aviator and journalist was about to begin. That same year, Saint-Exupéry flew the Casablanca—Dakar route.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: The 1931 publication of "Vol de nuit" ("Night Flight") established Saint-Exupéry as a rising star in the literary world. It was the first of his major works to gain widespread acclaim and won the prix Femina. The novel mirrored his experiences as a mail pilot and director of the Aeroposta Argentina airline, based in Buenos Aires, Argentina. That same year, at Grasse, Saint-Exupéry married Consuelo Suncin (née Suncín Sandoval), a once-divorced, once-widowed Salvadoran writer and artist, who possessed a bohemian spirit and a "viper's tongue".


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry, thoroughly enchanted by the diminutive woman, would leave and then return to her many times—she was both his muse and, over the long term, the source of much of his angst. It was a stormy union, with Saint-Exupéry travelling frequently and indulging in numerous affairs, most notably with the Frenchwoman Hélène de Vogüé (1908–2003), known as "Nelly" and referred to as "Madame de B." in Saint-Exupéry biographies. Vogüé became Saint-Exupéry's literary executrix after his death and also wrote her own Saint-Exupéry biography under a pseudonym, Pierre Chevrier.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry continued to write until the spring of 1943, when he left the United States with American troops bound for North Africa in the Second World War.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: On 30 December 1935, at 2:45 am, after 19 hours and 44 minutes in the air, Saint-Exupéry, along with his mechanic-navigator André Prévot, crashed in the Libyan desert, during an attempt to break the speed record in a Paris-to-Saigon air race and win a prize of 150,000 francs. The crash site is thought to have been near the Wadi Natrun valley, close to the Nile Delta.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Both Saint-Exupéry and Prévot miraculously survived the crash, only to face rapid dehydration in the intense desert heat. Their maps were primitive and ambiguous, leaving them with no idea of their location. Lost among the sand dunes, their sole supplies consisted of some grapes, two oranges, a madeleine, a pint of coffee in a battered thermos, and a half-pint of white wine in another. They also had with them a small store of medicine: "a hundred grammes of ninety percent alcohol, the same of pure ether, and a small bottle of iodine."


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: The pair had only one day worth of fluids. They both saw mirages and experienced auditory hallucinations, which were quickly followed by more vivid hallucinations. By the second and third day, they were so dehydrated that they stopped sweating. On the fourth day, a Bedouin on a camel discovered them and administered a native rehydration treatment that saved their lives. The near brush with death would figure prominently in his 1939 memoir, "Wind, Sand and Stars", winner of several awards. Saint-Exupéry's classic novella "The Little Prince", which begins with a pilot being stranded in the desert, is, in part, a reference to this experience.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Following the German invasion of France in 1940, Saint-Exupéry flew a Bloch MB.174 with the "Groupe de reconnaissance II/33" reconnaissance squadron of the Armée de l'Air.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: After France's armistice with Germany, Saint-Exupéry went into exile in North America, escaping through Portugal. He stayed in Estoril, at the Hotel Palácio, between 28 November and 20 December 1940. He described his impressions of his stay in Lettre à un Otage. On the same day that he checked out, he boarded the "S.S. Siboney" and arrived in New York City on the last day of 1940, with the intention of convincing the U.S. to enter the conflict against Nazi Germany quickly. On 14 January 1941, at a Hotel Astor author luncheon attended by approximately 1,500, he belatedly received his National Book Award for "Wind, Sand and Stars", won a year earlier while he was occupied witnessing the destruction of the French Army. Consuelo followed him to New York City several months later after a chaotic migration to the southern French town of Oppède, where she lived in an artist's commune, the basis of her autobiography, "Kingdom of the Rocks: Memories of Oppède".


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Between January 1941 and April 1943, the Saint-Exupérys lived in New York City's Central Park South in twin penthouse apartments, as well as The Bevin House mansion in Asharoken on Long Island, New York and a townhouse on Beekman Place in Manhattan.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry and Charles Lindbergh both became P-38 pilots during World War II, with Lindbergh fighting in the Pacific War, and with Saint-Exupéry fighting and dying over the Mediterranean.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: It was after Saint-Exupéry's arrival in the United States that the author adopted the hyphen within his surname, as he was annoyed with Americans addressing him as "Mr. Exupéry". It was also during this period that he authored "Pilote de guerre (Flight to Arras)", which earned widespread acclaim, and ("Letter to a Hostage"), dedicated to the 40 million French living under Nazi oppression, plus numerous shorter pieces in support of France. The Saint-Exupérys also resided in Quebec City, Canada for several weeks during the late spring of 1942, during which time they met a precocious eight-year-old boy with blond curly hair, Thomas, the son of philosopher Charles De Koninck, with whom the Saint-Exupérys resided.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: After he returned from his stay in Quebec, which had been fraught with illness and stress, the French wife of one of his publishers helped persuade Saint-Exupéry to produce a children's book, hoping to calm his nerves and also compete with the new series of "Mary Poppins" stories by P.L. Travers. Saint-Exupéry wrote and illustrated "The Little Prince" in New York City and the village of Asharoken in mid-to-late 1942, with the manuscript being completed in October. It would be first published months later in early 1943 in both English and French in the United States, and would only later appear in his native homeland posthumously after the liberation of France, as his works had been banned by the collaborationist Vichy Regime.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In April 1943, following his 27 months in North America, Saint-Exupéry departed with an American military convoy for Algiers, to fly with the Free French Air Force and fight with the Allies in a Mediterranean-based squadron. Then 43, soon to be promoted to the rank of commandant (major), he was far older than most men in operational units. Although eight years over the age limit for such pilots, he had petitioned endlessly for an exemption which had finally been approved by General Dwight Eisenhower. However, Saint-Exupéry had been suffering pain and immobility due to his many previous crash injuries, to the extent that he could not dress himself in his own flight suit or even turn his head leftwards to check for enemy aircraft.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry was assigned with a number of other pilots to his former unit, renamed "Groupe de reconnaissance 2/33 "Savoie"", flying P-38 Lightnings, which an officer described as "war-weary, non-airworthy craft". The Lightnings were also more sophisticated than models he previously flew, requiring him to undertake seven weeks of stringent training before his first mission. After wrecking a P-38 through engine failure on his second mission, he was grounded for eight months, but was then later reinstated to flight duty on the personal intervention of General Ira Eaker, Deputy Commander of the U.S. Army Air Forces.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: After Saint-Exupéry resumed flying, he also returned to his longtime habit of reading and writing while flying his single-seat Lockheed F-5B (a specially configured P-38 reconnaissance variant). His prodigious studies of literature gripped him and on occasion, he continued his readings of literary works until moments before takeoff, with mechanics having warmed up and tested his aircraft for him in preparation for his flight. On one flight, to the chagrin of his colleagues awaiting his arrival, he circled the airport for an hour after returning, so that he could finish reading a novel. Saint-Exupéry frequently flew with a lined notebook ("carnet") during his long solitary flights and some of his philosophical writings were created during such periods when he could reflect on the world below him.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Prior to his return to flight duty with his squadron in North Africa, the collaborationist Vichy Regime unilaterally promoted Saint-Exupéry as one of its members – quite a shock to the author. Subsequently, French General (later French President) Charles de Gaulle, whom Saint-Exupéry held in low regard, publicly implied that the author-pilot was supporting Germany. Depressed at this, he began to drink heavily. Additionally, his health, both physically and mentally, had been deteriorating. Saint-Exupéry was said to be intermittently subject to depression and there was discussion of taking him off flying status.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Saint-Exupéry's last assigned reconnaissance mission was to collect intelligence on German troop movements in and around the Rhone Valley preceding the Allied invasion of southern France ("Operation Dragoon"). Although he had been reinstated to his old squadron with the provision that he was to fly only five missions, on 31 July 1944, he took off in an unarmed P-38 on his ninth reconnaissance mission from an airbase on Corsica. To the great alarm of his squadron compatriots, he did not return, vanishing without a trace. Word of his disappearance soon spread across the literary world and then it spread into international headlines.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In September 1998, to the east of Riou Island (south of Marseille) fishermen found a silver identity bracelet bearing the names of Saint-Exupéry, his wife Consuelo, and his American publisher, Reynal & Hitchcock. The bracelet was hooked to a piece of fabric, presumably from his flight suit. Announcement of the discovery was an emotional event in France, where Saint-Exupéry was a national icon, and some disputed its authenticity because it was found far from his intended flight path, implying that the aircraft might not have been shot down.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In May 2000 a diver found debris from a Lockheed P-38 Lightning submerged off the coast of Marseille, near where the bracelet was found. The discovery galvanized the country, which had conducted searches for his aircraft and speculated on Saint-Exupéry's fate for decades. After a two-year delay which was imposed by the French government, the remnants of the aircraft were recovered in October 2003.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In 2004, French officials and investigators from the French Underwater Archaeological Department officially confirmed that the remnants of the crash wreckage were, indeed, from Saint-Exupéry's Lockheed F-5B.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: No marks or holes attributable to gunfire were found; however, that was not considered significant as only a small portion of the aircraft was recovered. In June 2004, the fragments were given to the Air and Space Museum in Le Bourget, Paris, where Saint-Exupéry's life is commemorated in a special exhibit.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In 1948, former Luftwaffe telegrapher Rev. Hermann Korth published his war logs, noting an incident that occurred at around noon on 31 July 1944 in which a Focke-Wulf Fw 190 downed a P-38 Lightning. Korth's account ostensibly supported a shoot-down hypothesis for Saint-Exupéry. The veracity of his log, however, was met with skepticism, because it could have described a P-38 which was flown by Second Lieutenant Gene Meredith on 30 July, downed south of Nice.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In 1972, the German magazine "Der Landser" quoted a letter from Luftwaffe reconnaissance pilot Robert Heichele, in which he purportedly claimed to have shot down a P-38 on 31 July 1944. His account, corroborated by a spotter, seemingly supported a shoot-down hypothesis of Saint-Exupéry. However, Heichele's account was met with skepticism, because he described flying a Focke-Wulf Fw 190 D-9, a variant which had not yet entered Luftwaffe service.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In the lists which are held by the Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, no victory was credited to Heichele or his unit in either July or August 1944, and the decrypted report of the day's reconnaissance does not include any flights by 2./NAG 13's Fw 190s. Heichele was shot down on 16 August 1944 and died five days later.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In 2008, a French journalist from "La Provence", who was investigating Saint-Exupéry's death, contacted former Luftwaffe pilots who flew in the area of Marseille, eventually getting an account from Horst Rippert (1922—2013). (Rippert was the older brother of the famous bass singer Ivan Rebroff, who was born in Berlin as Hans-Rolf Rippert.) In his memoirs, Horst Rippert, an admirer of Saint-Exupéry's books, expressed both fears and doubts that he was responsible, but in 2003 he stated that he became certain that he was responsible when he learned the location of Saint-Exupéry's wreckage. Rippert claimed to have reported the kill over his radio, but there are no surviving records to verify this account.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Rippert's account, as it is discussed in two French and German books, was met with both publicity and skepticism. Luftwaffe comrades expressed doubts in Rippert's claim, given that he held it private for 64 years. Very little German documentation survived the war, and contemporary archival sources, consisting mostly of Allied intercepts of Luftwaffe signals, offer no evidence to directly verify Rippert's claim. The entry and exit points of Saint-Exupéry's mission were likely near Cannes, yet his wreckage was discovered South of Marseille.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Though it is possible that German fighters could have intercepted, or at least altered, Saint-Exupéry's flight path, the cause of his death remains unknown, and Rippert's account remains one hypothesis among many.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: While not precisely autobiographical, much of Saint-Exupéry's work is inspired by his experiences as a pilot. One notable example is his novella, "The Little Prince," a poetic tale self-illustrated in watercolours in which a pilot stranded in the desert meets a young prince fallen to Earth from a tiny asteroid. "His most popular work, "The Little Prince" was partially based upon a crash he and his navigator survived in the Libyan desert. They were stranded and dehydrated for four days, nearing death when they miraculously stumbled upon a Bedouin who gave them water. Saint Exupery would later write in Wind, Sand and Stars that the Bedouin saved their lives and gave them "charity and magnanimity [by] bearing the gift of water." "The Little Prince" is a philosophical story, including societal criticism, remarking on the strangeness of the adult world. One biographer wrote of his most famous work: "Rarely have an author and a character been so intimately bound together as Antoine de Saint-Exupéry and his Little Prince," and remarking of their dual fates, "...the two remain tangled together, twin innocents who fell from the sky."


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: During the 1930s, Saint-Exupéry led a mixed life as an aviator, journalist, author and publicist for Air France, Aéropostale's successor. His journalistic writings for "Paris-Soir", "Marianne" and other newspapers covered events in Indochina and the Far East (1934), the Mediterranean, Soviet Union and Moscow (1935), and the Spanish Civil War (1936–1937). Saint-Exupéry additionally wrote a number of shorter pieces, essays and commentaries for various other newspapers and magazines.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Notable among those during World War II was "An Open Letter to Frenchmen Everywhere", which was highly controversial in its attempt to rally support for France against Nazi oppression at a time when the French were sharply divided between support of the Gaullists and Vichy factions. It was published in "The New York Times Magazine" in November 1942, in its original French in "Le Canada, de Montréal" at the same time, and in "Pour la Victoire" the following month. Other shorter pieces include (in French except where translated by others to English):


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: "Pilote de guerre" ("Flight To Arras"), which describes the German invasion of France, was slightly censored when it was released in its original French during wartime in his homeland, due to the removal of a derogatory remark which was made about Hitler (which the French publisher Gallimard failed to reinsert in subsequent editions after World War II). However, shortly after the book's wartime release in France, Nazi appeasers and Vichy supporters objected to its praise of one of Saint-Exupéry's squadron colleagues, Captain Jean Israël, who was portrayed as being amongst the squadron's bravest defenders during the Battle of France.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In support of their German occupiers and masters, Vichy authorities attacked the author as a defender of Jews (in racist terms) leading to the praised book being banned in France, along with prohibitions against further printings of Saint-Exupéry's other works. Prior to France's liberation new printings of Saint-Exupéry's works were made available there only by means of covert print runs, such as that of February 1943 when 1,000 copies of an underground version of "Pilote de guerre" were printed in Lyon.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: A further complication occurred due to Saint-Exupéry's and others' view of General Charles de Gaulle, who was held in low regard. Early in the war, de Gaulle became the leader of the Free French Forces in exile, with his headquarters in London. Even though both men were working to free France from Nazi occupation, Saint-Exupéry viewed de Gaulle with apprehension as a possible post-war dictator, and he consequently provided no public support to the General. In response, de Gaulle struck back at the author by implying that the author was a supporter of Germany, and he then had his literary works banned in France's North African colonies. Saint-Exupéry's writings were, with irony, banned simultaneously in both occupied France and the territory which was controlled by Free France.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Due to Saint-Exupéry's wartime death, the French government awarded his estate the civil code designation "Mort pour la France" (English: "Died for France") in 1948. Amongst the law's provisions is an increase of 30 years to the duration of the original copyright's duration of 70 years; thus most of Saint-Exupéry's creative works will not fall out of copyright status in France for an extra 30 years.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Museum exhibits, exhibitions and theme villages dedicated to both him and his diminutive Little Prince have been created in Le Bourget, Paris and other locations in France, as well as in the Republic of South Korea, Japan, Morocco, Brazil, the United States and Canada.


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: Numerous other tributes have been awarded to honour Saint-Exupéry and his most famous literary creation, his "Little Prince":


title: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: In August 2011, "Saint-Ex", a theatrical production of Saint-Exupéry's life, premiered in Weston, Vermont.


title: The Ranch

text: The Ranch is an American streaming television comedy/drama series. It starred Ashton Kutcher and Danny Masterson (who previously co-starred on "That '70s Show") as brothers Colt and Rooster Bennett, respectively; who help run the Colorado cattle ranch owned by their father Beau (Sam Elliott). It also starred Debra Winger as their mother Maggie, a local bar owner, and Elisha Cuthbert as Colt's love interest Abby, a local schoolteacher. Other cast members from "That 70s Show" who had recurring roles included Wilmer Valderrama, Kurtwood Smith and Debra Jo Rupp. It debuted in 2016 on Netflix and ran for four seasons in eight parts.


title: The Ranch

text: Each season consists of 20 episodes broken up into two parts, each containing 10 episodes, which are approximately 30 minutes in length. All episodes are named after American country music songs.


title: The Ranch

text: The show takes place on the fictional Iron River Ranch, near the fictitious small town of Garrison, Colorado (population 512, as displayed on a sign in the opening credits). Dialogue places the town in southwestern Colorado (near the real town of Norwood), about six hours from Denver by car. The series details the life of the Bennetts, a dysfunctional family consisting of brothers Colt and Rooster, their father Beau, and their mother Maggie who owns the local bar.


title: The Ranch

text: Valderrama, Rupp and Smith had all previously worked together on "That 70's Show", alongside Kutcher and Masterson.


title: The Ranch

text: The first ten episodes premiered on April 1, 2016, the second batch of ten episodes premiered on October 7, 2016. In April 2016, Netflix renewed "The Ranch" for a second season of 20 episodes, the first half of which premiered on June 16, 2017, and the second half was released on December 15, 2017.


title: The Ranch

text: On July 4, 2017, Netflix announced through its official "The Ranch" Twitter account that the show had been renewed for a third season of 20 episodes, the first ten of which aired on June 15, 2018. In December 2017, it was announced that Masterson had been written out of the show following multiple sexual assault allegations made against him, and appeared in only the first 10 episodes of the third season.


title: The Ranch

text: On October 31, 2018, Netflix renewed the series for a fourth and final season with the series to conclude in 2020. On August 21, 2019, it was announced that the first part of the final season (Part 7) was set to premiere on September 13, 2019. On December 9, 2019, it was reported that the second part of the final season (part 8) was set to be released on January 24, 2020.


title: The Ranch

text: "The Ranch" has earned mixed to positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the series an average approval rating of 63% (60% for season 1, 67% for season 2) based on 141 reviews, with an average rating of 4.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A formulaic set-up and predictable plotting are elevated by "The Ranch"'s surprising sensitivity and strong performances." Metacritic gave the series a score of 56 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: The Ranch

text: Writing for "Slate" in a positive review, television critic Willa Paskin wrote of the show, ""The Ranch" is a red-state sitcom, though it takes place in the swing state of Colorado, and is good enough to be watched by people of any political affiliation" and "The goodness sneaks up on you." "Los Angeles Times" wrote: "[Elliott and Winger's] scenes together, as restrained as they are, are the show's most emotionally resonant. You will want to check them out."