title: Resin

text: Rosin is a solidified resin from which the volatile terpenes have been removed by distillation. Typical rosin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown colour, non-odorous or having only a slight turpentine odour and taste. Rosin is insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether, and hot fatty oils. Rosin softens and melts when heated and burns with a bright but smoky flame.


title: Resin

text: Rosin consists of a complex mixture of different substances including organic acids named the resin acids. Related to the terpenes, resin acid is oxidized terpenes. Resin acids dissolve in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the resin acids are regenerated upon treatment with acids. Examples of resin acids are abietic acid (sylvic acid), CHO, plicatic acid contained in cedar, and pimaric acid, CHO, a constituent of galipot resin. Abietic acid can also be extracted from rosin by means of hot alcohol. Pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when distilled in a vacuum; it has been supposed to consist of three isomers.


title: Resin

text: Rosin is obtained from pines and some other plants, mostly conifers. Plant resins are generally produced as stem secretions, but in some Central and South American species of "Dalechampia" and "Clusia" they are produced as pollination rewards, and used by some stingless bee species in nest construction. Propolis, consisting largely of resins collected from plants such as poplars and conifers, is used by honey bees to seal small gaps in their hives, while larger gaps are filled with beeswax.


title: Resin

text: Human use of plant resins has a very long history that was documented in ancient Greece by Theophrastus, in ancient Rome by Pliny the Elder, and especially in the resins known as frankincense and myrrh, prized in ancient Egypt. These were highly prized substances, and required as incense in some religious rites.


title: Resin

text: The word "resin" comes from French "resine", from Latin "resina" "resin", which either derives from or is a cognate of the Greek "rhētínē" "resin of the pine", of unknown earlier origin, though probably non-Indo-European.


title: Resin

text: The word "resin" has been applied in the modern world to nearly any component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like finish. An example is nail polish. Certain "casting resins" and synthetic resins (such as epoxy resin) have also been given the name "resin".


title: Resin

text: Some naturally-derived resins, when soft, are known as 'oleoresins', and when containing benzoic acid or cinnamic acid they are called balsams. Oleoresins are naturally-occurring mixtures of an oil and a resin; they can be extracted from various plants. Other resinous products in their natural condition are a mix with gum or mucilaginous substances and known as gum resins. Several natural resins are used as ingredients in perfumes, e.g., balsams of Peru and tolu, elemi, styrax, and certain turpentines.


title: Resin

text: Other liquid compounds found inside plants or exuded by plants, such as sap, latex, or mucilage, are sometimes confused with resin but are not the same. Saps, in particular, serve a nutritive function that resins do not.


title: Resin

text: Plant resins are valued for the production of varnishes, adhesives, and food glazing agents. They are also prized as raw materials for the synthesis of other organic compounds and provide constituents of incense and perfume. The oldest known use of plant resin comes from the late Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa where it was used as an adhesive for hafting stone tools.


title: Resin

text: The hard transparent resins, such as the copals, dammars, mastic, and sandarac, are principally used for varnishes and adhesives, while the softer odoriferous oleo-resins (frankincense, elemi, turpentine, copaiba), and gum resins containing essential oils (ammoniacum, asafoetida, gamboge, myrrh, and scammony) are more used for therapeutic purposes, food and incense. The resin of the Aleppo Pine is used to flavour retsina, a Greek resinated wine.


title: Resin

text: Many materials are produced via the conversion of synthetic resins to solids. Important examples are bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, which is a resin converted to epoxy glue upon the addition of a hardener. Silicones are often prepared from silicone resins via room temperature vulcanization. Alkyd resins are used in paints and varnishes and harden or cure by exposure to oxygen in the air.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina () is the capital city of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The city is the second-largest in the province, after Saskatoon, and is a commercial centre for southern Saskatchewan. As of the 2016 census, Regina had a city population of 215,106, and a Metropolitan Area population of 236,481. Statistics Canada has estimated the CMA's population to be 263,184 as of 2020. It is governed by Regina City Council. The city is surrounded by the Rural Municipality of Sherwood No. 159.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina was previously the seat of government of the North-West Territories, of which the current provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta originally formed part, and of the District of Assiniboia. The site was previously called Wascana ("Buffalo Bones" in Cree), but was renamed to Regina (Latin for "Queen") in 1882 in honour of Queen Victoria. This decision was made by Queen Victoria's daughter Princess Louise, who was the wife of the Governor General of Canada, the Marquess of Lorne.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Unlike other planned cities in the Canadian West, on its treeless flat plain Regina has few topographical features other than the small spring run-off, Wascana Creek. Early planners took advantage of such opportunity by damming the creek to create a decorative lake to the south of the central business district with a dam a block and a half west of the later elaborate long Albert Street Bridge across the new lake. Regina's importance was further secured when the new province of Saskatchewan designated the city its capital in 1906. Wascana Centre, created around the focal point of Wascana Lake, remains one of Regina's attractions and contains the Provincial Legislative Building, both campuses of the University of Regina, First Nations University of Canada, the Royal Saskatchewan Museum, the Regina Conservatory (in the original Regina College buildings), the Saskatchewan Science Centre, the MacKenzie Art Gallery and the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Residential neighbourhoods include precincts beyond the historic city centre are historically or socially noteworthy neighbourhoods – namely Lakeview and The Crescents, both of which lie directly south of downtown. Immediately to the north of the central business district is the old warehouse district, increasingly the focus of shopping, nightclubs and residential development; as in other western cities of North America, the periphery contains shopping malls and big box stores.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: In 1912, the Regina Cyclone destroyed much of the town; in the 1930s, the Regina Riot brought further attention and, in the midst of the 1930s drought and Great Depression, which hit the Canadian Prairies particularly hard with their economic focus on dry land grain farming. The CCF (now the NDP, a major left-wing political party in Canada), formulated its foundation Regina Manifesto of 1933 in Regina. In recent years, Saskatchewan's agricultural and mineral resources have come into new demand, and it has entered a new period of strong economic growth.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina was established as the territorial seat of government in 1882 when Edgar Dewdney, the lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, insisted on the site over the better developed Battleford, Troy and Fort Qu'Appelle (the latter some to the east, one on rolling plains and the other in the Qu'Appelle Valley between two lakes). These communities were considered better locations for what was anticipated to be a metropole for the Canadian plains. These locations had ample access to water and resided on treed rolling parklands. "Pile-of-Bones", as the site for Regina was then called (or, in Cree, "Oskana kâ-asastêki"), was by contrast located in arid and featureless grassland.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Lieutenant-Governor Dewdney had acquired land adjacent to the route of the future CPR line at Pile-of-Bones, which was distinguished only by collections of bison bones near a small spring run-off creek, some few kilometres downstream from its origin in the midst of what are now wheat fields. There was an "obvious conflict of interest" in Dewdney's choosing the site of Pile-of-Bones as the territorial seat of government and it was a national scandal at the time. But until 1897, when responsible government was accomplished in the Territories, the lieutenant-governor and council governed by fiat and there was little legitimate means of challenging such decisions outside the federal capital of Ottawa. There, the Territories were remote and of little concern. Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, wife of the then Governor General of Canada, named the new community "Regina", in honour of her mother, Queen Victoria.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Commercial considerations prevailed and the town's authentic development soon began as a collection of wooden shanties and tent shacks clustered around the site designated by the CPR for its future station, some to the east of where Dewdney had reserved substantial landholdings for himself and where he sited the Territorial (now the Saskatchewan) Government House.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina attained national prominence in 1885 during the North-West Rebellion when troops were mostly able to be transported by train on the CPR from eastern Canada as far as Qu'Appelle Station, before marching to the battlefield in the further Northwest – Qu'Appelle having been the major debarkation and distribution centre until 1890 when the completion of the Qu’Appelle, Long Lake, and Saskatchewan Railway linked Regina with Saskatoon and Prince Albert. Subsequently, the rebellion's leader, Louis Riel, was tried and hanged in Regina – giving the infant community increased and, at the time, not unwelcome national attention in connection with a figure who was generally at the time considered an unalloyed villain in anglophone Canada. The episode, including Riel's imprisonment, trial and execution, brought the new Regina "Leader" (later the "Leader-Post") to national prominence.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina was incorporated as a city on 19 June 1903, with the MLA who introduced the charter bill, James Hawkes, declaring, "Regina has the brightest future before it of any place in the North West Territories". Several years later the city was proclaimed the capital of the 1905 province of Saskatchewan on 23 May 1906, by the first provincial government, led by Premier Walter Scott; the monumental Saskatchewan Legislative Building was built between 1908 and 1912.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The "Regina Cyclone" was a tornado that devastated the city on 30 June 1912 and remains the deadliest tornado in Canadian history, with a total of 28 fatalities, the population of the city having been 30,213 in 1911. Green funnel clouds formed and touched down south of the city, tearing a swath through the residential area between Wascana Lake and Victoria Avenue, continuing through the downtown business district, rail yards, warehouse district, and northern residential area.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: From 1920 to 1926 Regina used Single transferable vote (STV), a form of proportional representation, to elect its councillors. Councillors were elected in one at-large district. Each voter cast just a single vote, using a ranked transferable ballot.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina grew rapidly until the beginning of the Great Depression, in 1929, though only to a small fraction of the originally anticipated population explosion as population centre of the new province. By this time, Saskatchewan was considered the third province of Canada in both population and economic indicators. Thereafter, Saskatchewan never recovered its early promise and Regina's growth slowed and at times reversed.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: In 1933, Regina hosted the first national convention Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (predecessor of the NDP). At the convention, the CCF adopted a programme known as the Regina Manifesto, which set out the new party's goals. In 1935, Regina gained notoriety for the Regina Riot, an incident of the On-to-Ottawa Trek. (See The Depression, the CCF and the Regina Riot.) Beginning in the 1930s, Regina became known as a centre of considerable political activism and experimentation as its people sought to adjust to new, reduced economic realities, including the co-operative movement and medicare.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The disappearance of the Simpson's, Eaton's and Army & Navy retail department stores in or near the central business district and Simpsons-Sears to the north on Broad Street, left only the Hudson's Bay Company as a large department store in Regina-centre. This, with the proliferation of shopping malls beginning in the 1960s and "big box stores" in the 1990s on the periphery, together with a corresponding drift of entertainment venues (and all but one downtown cinema) to the city outskirts, had depleted the city centre. The former Hudson's Bay Company department store (previously the site of the Regina Theatre though long vacant after that burned to the ground) has been converted into offices; Globe Theatre, located in the old Post Office building at 11th Avenue and Scarth Street, Casino Regina and its show lounge in the former CPR train station, the Cornwall Centre and downtown restaurants now draw people downtown again.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Many buildings of significance and value were lost during the period from 1945 through approximately 1970: Knox United Church was demolished in 1951; the Romanesque Revival city hall in 1964 (the failed shopping mall which replaced it is now office space for the Government of Canada) and the 1894 Supreme Court of the North-West Territories building at Hamilton Street and Victoria Avenue in 1965.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: In 1962 Wascana Centre Authority was established to govern the sprawling 50-year-old, urban park and legislative grounds. A 100-year plan was developed by World Trade Centre Architect Minoru Yamasaki and landscape architect Thomas Church, as part of developing a new University of Saskatchewan campus in the southeast end of the park. The master plan has been subsequently revised every five to seven years since, most recently in 2016. Wascana Centre has made Regina as enjoyable and fulfilling for residents as it had long been the "metropole" for farmers and residents of small neighbouring towns. Despite the setting, improbable though it always was compared with other more likely sites for the capitol, the efforts' results were favourable.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The long-imperilled Government House was saved in 1981 after decades of neglect and returned to viceregal use, the former Anglican diocesan property at Broad Street and College Avenue is being redeveloped with strict covenants to maintain the integrity of the diocesan buildings and St Chad's School and the former Sacred Heart Academy building immediately adjacent to the Roman Catholic Cathedral has been converted into townhouses.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Recently older buildings have been put to new uses, including the old Normal School on the Regina College campus of the University of Regina (now the Canada Saskatchewan Production Studios) and the old Post Office on the Scarth Street Mall. The Warehouse District, immediately adjacent to the central business district to the north of the CPR line, has become a desirable commercial and residential precinct as historic warehouses have been converted to retail, nightclubs and residential use.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The city is situated on a broad, flat, treeless plain. There is an abundance of parks and greenspaces: all of its trees — some 300,000 — shrubs and other plants were hand-planted. As in other prairie cities, American elms were planted in front yards in residential neighbourhoods and on boulevards along major traffic arteries and are the dominant species in the urban forest.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: In recent years the pattern of primary and high school grounds being acreages of prairie sports grounds has been re-thought and such grounds have been landscaped with artificial hills and parks. Newer residential subdivisions in the northwest and southeast have, instead of spring runoff storm sewers, decorative landscaped lagoons.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The streetscape is now endangered by Dutch elm disease, which has spread through North America from the eastern seaboard and has now reached the Canadian prairies; for the time being it is controlled by pest management programs and species not susceptible to the disease are being planted; the disease has the potential to wipe out Regina's elm population.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina experiences a warm summer humid continental climate (Köppen: "Dfb"), with more than 70% of average annual precipitation in the warmest six months, and is in the NRC Plant Hardiness Zone 3b. Regina has warm summers and cold, dry winters, prone to extremes at all times of the year. Average annual precipitation is and is heaviest from May through August, with June being the wettest month with an average of of precipitation. The average daily temperature for the year is . The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 1 January 1885, while the highest recorded temperature was on 5 July 1937.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: From its first founding, particularly once motorcars were common, Reginans have retired to the nearby Qu'Appelle Valley on weekends, for summer and winter holidays and indeed as a place to live permanently and commute from. Since the 1940s, many of the towns near Regina have steadily lost population as western Canada's agrarian economy reorganised itself from small family farm landholdings of a quarter-section (, the original standard land grant to homesteaders) to the multi-section (a "section" being ) landholdings that are increasingly necessary for economic viability.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Some of these towns have enjoyed something of a renaissance as a result of the excellent roads that for many decades seemed likely to doom them; they – and to some extent the nearby city of Moose Jaw – are now undergoing a mild resurgence as commuter satellites for Regina. Qu'Appelle, at one time intended to be the metropole for the original District of Assiniboia in the North-West Territories (as they then were), saw during the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s Regina cottagers pass through en route to the Qu'Appelle Valley; Highway 10, which bypassed Qu'Appelle, running directly from Balgonie to Fort Qu'Appelle off Highway Number 1, quickly ended this. Qu'Appelle has recently seen more interest taken in it as a place to live. Fort Qu'Appelle and its neighbouring resort villages on the Fishing Lakes remain a summer vacation venue of choice; Indian Head is far enough from Regina to have an autonomous identity but close enough that its charm and vitality attract commuters – it "has a range of professional services and tradespeople, financial institutions, and a number of retail establishments." It was the scene of outdoor filming sequences in the CBC television series "Little Mosque on the Prairie."


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: White City and Emerald Park are quasi-suburbs of Regina, as have become Balgonie, Pense, Grand Coulee, Pilot Butte and Lumsden in the Qu'Appelle Valley, some to the north of Regina. Regina Beach — situated on Last Mountain Lake (known locally as Long Lake) and a 30-minute drive from Regina – has been a summer favourite of Reginans from its first establishment and since the 1970s has also become a commuter satellite; Rouleau (also known as the town of Dog River in the CTV television sitcom "Corner Gas") is southwest of Regina and in the summer months used to "bustle with film crews."


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina has a substantial cultural life in music, theatre and dance, supported by the fine arts constituency at the University of Regina, which has faculties of music, theatre and arts. At various times this has attracted notable artistic talent: the Regina Five were artists at Regina College (the university's predecessor) who gained national fame in the 1950s. The long-established MacKenzie Art Gallery once occupied cramped quarters adjacent to Darke Hall on the University of Regina College Avenue Campus; since relocated to a large building at the southwest corner of the provincial government site, at Albert Street near 23rd Avenue. Donald M. Kendrick, Bob Boyer and Joe Fafard, now with significant international reputations, have been other artists from or once in Regina.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Regina Symphony Orchestra, Canada's oldest continuously performing orchestra, performs in the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts (now the Conexus Arts Centre). Concerts and recitals are performed both by local and visiting musicians in the Centre of the Arts and assorted other auditoriums including the University of Regina. The Regina Conservatory of Music operates in the former girls' residence wing of the Regina College building.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Regina Little Theatre began in 1926, and performed in Regina College before building its own theatre in 1981. Regina lacked a large concert and live theatre venue for many years after the loss to fire of the Regina Theatre in 1938 and the demolition of the 1906 City Hall in 1964 at a time when preservation of heritage architecture was not yet a fashionable issue. But until the demolition of downtown cinemas which doubled as live theatres the lack was not urgent, and Darke Hall on the Regina College campus of the university provided a small concert and stage venue.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Annual festivals in and near Regina through the year include the Regina International Film Festival; Cathedral Village Arts Festival; the Craven Country Jamboree; the Regina Folk Festival; Queen City Pride; the Queer City Cinema film festival; the Regina Dragon Boat Festival; and Mosaic, mounted by the Regina Multicultural Council, which earned Heritage Canada's designation of 2004 "Cultural Capital of Canada" (in the over 125,000 population category). The annual Kiwanis Music Festival affords rising musical talents the opportunity to achieve nationwide recognition. The city's summer agricultural exhibition was originally established in 1884 as the Assiniboia Agricultural Association, then from the mid-1960s and up until 2009 as Buffalo Days then from that time until today, the Queen City Ex.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: This was remedied in 1970 with the construction of the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts (now the Conexus Arts Centre) as a Canadian Centennial project, a theatre and concert hall complex overlooking Wascana Lake which is one of the most acoustically perfect concert venues in North America; it is home to the Regina Symphony Orchestra (Canada's oldest continuously performing orchestra), Opera Saskatchewan and New Dance Horizons, a contemporary dance company. The Royal Saskatchewan Museum (the present 1955 structure a Saskatchewan Golden Jubilee project) dates from 1906. The old Post Office at Scarth Street and 11th Avenue, temporarily used as a city hall after the demolition of the 1906 City Hall, is now home to the Globe Theatre, founded in 1966 as "Saskatchewan's first professional theatre since 1927." Holy Rosary Roman Catholic Cathedral and Knox-Metropolitan United Church have particularly impressive Casavant Frères pipe organs, maintain substantial musical establishments and are frequently the venues for choral concerts and organ recitals.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Regina Public Library is a citywide library system with nine branches. Its facilities include the RPL Film theatre which plays non-mainstream cinema, the Dunlop Art Gallery, special literacy services and a prairie history collection. The MacKenzie Art Gallery in Wascana Centre and the Dunlop Art Gallery have permanent collections and sponsor travelling exhibitions. The Saskatchewan Archives and the Saskatchewan Genealogical Library also offer information for those interested in the people of Saskatchewan.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina has a substantial proportion of its overall area dedicated as parks and greenspaces, with biking paths, cross-country skiing venues and other recreational facilities throughout the city; Wascana Lake, the venue for summer boating activities, is regularly cleared of snow in winter for skating and there are toboggan runs both in Wascana Centre and downstream on the banks of Wascana Creek. Victoria Park is in the central business district and numerous greenspaces throughout the residential subdivisions and newer subdivisions in the north and west of the city contain large ornamental ponds to add interest to residential precincts such as Rochdale, Lakewood, Lakeridge, Spruce Meadows and Windsor Park; older school playing fields throughout the city have also been converted into landscaped parks.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The city operates five municipal golf courses, including two in King's Park northeast of the city. Kings Park Recreation facility is also home to ball diamonds, picnic grounds, and stock car racing. Within half an hour's drive are the summer cottage and camping country and winter ski resorts in the Qu'Appelle Valley with Last Mountain and Buffalo Pound Lakes and the four Fishing Lakes of Pasqua, Echo, Mission and Katepwa; slightly farther east are Round and Crooked Lakes, also in the Qu'Appelle Valley, and to the southeast the Kenosee Lake cottage country.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Wascana Centre is a park built around Wascana Lake and designed in 1961 by Minoru Yamasaki — the Seattle-born architect best known as the designer of the original World Trade Center in New York – in tandem with his starkly modernist design for the new Regina Campus of the University of Saskatchewan. Wascana Lake was created as a "stock watering hole" — for the CPR's rolling stock, that is – in 1883 when a dam and bridge were constructed 1½ blocks to the west of the present Albert Street Bridge. A new dam and bridge were built in 1908, and Wascana Lake was used as a domestic water source, to cool the city's power plant and, in due course, for the new provincial legislative building.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: By the 1920s, with Boggy Creek as a source of domestic water and wells into the aquifer under Regina, Wascana Lake had ceased to have a utilitarian purpose and had become a primarily recreational facility, with bathing and boating its principal uses. It was drained in the 1930s as part of a government relief project; 2,100 men widened and dredged the lake bed and created two islands using only hand tools and horse-drawn wagons.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: During the fall and winter of 2003–2004, Wascana Lake was again drained and dredged to deepen it while adding a new island, a promenade area beside Albert Street Bridge, water fountains, and a waterfall to help aerate the lake.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Downstream from Wascana Lake, Wascana Creek continues to provide a lush parkland on its increasingly intensively developed perimeter; in the northwest quadrant of the city Wascana Creek has a second weir with a smaller reservoir in A.E. Wilson Park.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina is a travel destination for residents of southeastern Saskatchewan and the immediately adjacent regions of the neighbouring US states of North Dakota and Montana, and an intermediate stopping point for travellers on the Trans-Canada Highway. Attractions for visitors in Regina include:


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The former large-scale Children's Day Parade and Travellers' Day Parade during Fair Week in the summer, which were substantially supported by the Masons and Shriners, has become the fair parade as such service clubs have lost vitality; the Regina Exhibition's travelling midway divides its time among other western Canadian and US cities. A Santa Claus parade is now mounted during the lead-up to Christmas.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League play their home games at Mosaic Stadium in Regina. Formed in 1910 as the Regina Rugby Club and renamed the Regina Roughriders in 1924 and the Saskatchewan Roughriders in 1946, the "Riders" are a community-owned team with a loyal fan support base; every game in the 2008 season was sold out; out-of-town season ticket holders often travel or more to attend home games. The team has won the Grey Cup on four occasions, in 1966, 1989, 2007 and 2013.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Other sports teams in Regina include the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League, the Regina Thunder of the Canadian Junior Football League, the Regina Riot of the Western Women's Canadian Football League (WWCFL), the Prairie Fire of the Rugby Canada Super League, the Regina Red Sox of the Western Major Baseball League, and the University of Regina's Regina Cougars/Regina Rams of the CIS. Regina is also where all Water Polo players from Saskatchewan centralize, Regina's team being Water Polo Armada.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina's curling teams have distinguished the city for many decades. Richardson Crescent commemorates the Richardson curling team of the 1950s. In recent years Olympic Gold medal winner Sandra Schmirler and her rink occasioned vast civic pride; the Sandra Schmirler Leisure Centre in east Regina commemorates her.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: North-east of the city lies Kings Park Speedway, a ⅓-mile paved oval used for stock car racing since the late 1960s. Regina hosted the Western Canada Summer Games in 1975, and again in 1987, as well as being the host city for the 2005 Canada Summer Games.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Regina had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the Regina CMA had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The 2021 census reported that immigrants (individuals born outside Canada) comprise 45,210 persons or 20.3% of the total population of Regina. Of the total immigrant population, the top countries of origin were Philippines (9,840 persons or 21.8%), India (7,385 persons or 16.3%), China (2,905 persons or 6.4%), Pakistan (2,640 persons or 5.8%), Nigeria (2,235 persons or 4.9%), Vietnam (1,410 persons or 3.1%), United Kingdom (1,380 persons or 3.1%), Bangladesh (1,240 persons or 2.7%), United States of America (1,155 persons or 2.6%), and Ukraine (885 persons or 2.0%).


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: In absolute numbers of Aboriginal population, Regina ranked seventh among CMAs in Canada with an "Aboriginal-identity population of 15,685 (8.3% of the total city population), of which 9,200 were First Nations, 5,990 Métis, and 495 other Aboriginal."


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: According to the 2011 Census, 67.9% of the population identify as Christian, with Catholics (30.4%) making up the largest denomination, followed by United Church (11.3%), Lutheran (7.2%), and other denominations. Others identify as Muslim (1.9%), Buddhist (0.9%), Hindu (0.8%), Sikh (0.5%), with Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality (0.5%), and with other religions. 27.1% of the population report no religious affiliation.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Oil and natural gas, potash, kaolin, sodium sulphite and bentonite contribute a great part of Regina and area's economy. The completion of the train link between eastern Canada and the then-District of Assiniboia in 1885, the development of the high-yielding and early-maturing Marquis strain of wheat and the opening of new grain markets in the United Kingdom established the first impetus for economic development and substantial population settlement. The farm and agricultural component is still a significant part of the economy – the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool (now Viterra Inc.,), "the world's largest grain-handling co-operative" has its headquarters in Regina — but it is no longer the major driver; provincially it has slipped to eighth overall, well behind the natural resources sectors.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Modern transport has obviated the development of a significant manufacturing sector and local petroleum refining facilities: the General Motors assembly plant north on Winnipeg Street, built in 1927 – when Saskatchewan's agricultural economy was booming and briefly made it the third province of Canada after Ontario and Quebec in both population (at just under one million people, roughly the same population as today) and GDP – ceased production during the depression of the 1930s. It was resumed by the federal crown during World War II and housed Regina Wartime Industries Ltd., where 1,000 people were engaged in armaments manufacture. It was not returned to private automotive manufacture after the war and became derelict.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: EVRAZ is a leading world producer of steel plate and pipe. As of July 2007 it was a wholly owned subsidiary of the Swedish steel company SSAB. It began in Regina in 1956 as Prairie Pipe Manufacturing Company Ltd and went through an incarnation as IPSCO Steel. While the bulk of its assets and customers are now in USA and it has its operational headquarters in Chicago, Illinois, it retains its registered office and substantial manufacturing facilities in Regina.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Imperial Oil (the Canadian subsidiary of Standard Oil, now ExxonMobil), for many years maintained a refinery in Regina; today with high world petroleum prices making the exploitation of Saskatchewan oil resources an unprecedentedly lively proposition, Federated Co-operatives maintains an refinery and, together with the Province, an upgrading operation for heavy crude oil.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Crown Life, a significant Canadian and international insurance company, transferred its national head office from Toronto to Regina in 1996 but was acquired by Canada Life in 1998 and the corporate head office returned to Toronto, though with assurances that the company would retain a strong presence in Regina.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: On 19 May 2009 it was announced that Viterra (formerly Saskatchewan Wheat Pool, becoming Viterra after acquisition of Agricore United), the largest grain handler in Canada, would acquire ABB Grain of Adelaide, South Australia in September 2009. The Head Office would be relocated to Regina, with the worldwide malting headquarters remaining in Adelaide. The two companies together are responsible for 37 percent of the world's exports of wheat, canola and barley.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The provincial government continues to be a major driver in the civic economy. The Innovation Place Research Park immediately adjacent to the university campus hosts several science and technology companies which conduct research activities in conjunction with University departments.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Regina Public School Board currently operates 45 elementary schools and 9 high schools with approximately 21,000 students enrolled throughout the city. The publicly funded Regina Catholic Schools Separate School Board operates 25 elementary schools and 4 high schools, and has a current enrollment of approximately 10,000 students. Public and separate schools are amply equipped with state-of-the-art science labs, gymnasia, drama and arts facilities: already by the 1960s, Regina high schools had television studios, swimming pools, ice rinks and drama facilities. Francophone public schools are operated by the Conseil des écoles fransaskoises.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: A small number of parents choose to opt out of the public and separate school systems for home-schooling under the guidance of the Regina Public School Board. Luther College (affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada) is a historical, independent high school; the Regina Huda School offers Islamic education; Harvest City Christian Academy is a private school (occupying the former Sister McGuigan High School site); and the Regina Christian School (in the former Campion College premises) operates as an Associate school of the Regina Public School Division. Historically there were eminent private schools long since closed: Regina College, now the University of Regina but originally a private high school of the Methodist Church of Canada (since 1925 the United Church); the Anglican St Chad's School; the Roman Catholic Campion College, Sacred Heart Academy and Marian High School.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: In the years prior to the establishment of the University of Saskatchewan, there was continued debate as to which Saskatchewan city would be awarded the provincial university: ultimately Saskatoon won out over Regina and in immediate reaction the Methodist Church of Canada established Regina College in 1911. Regina College was initially a denominational high school and junior college affiliated with the University of Saskatchewan – the later-established Campion and Luther Colleges, operated by the Roman Catholic Jesuit Order and Lutheran Church respectively, operated on the same basis. The Church of England concurrently established St Chad's College, an Anglican theological training facility, and the Qu'Appelle Diocesan School on the Anglican diocesan property immediately to the east of Regina College on College Avenue. All were quasi-tertiary institutions.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Ultimately, the financially hard-pressed United Church of Canada (the successor to the Methodist Church), which in any case had ideological difficulties with the concept of fee-paying private schooling given its longstanding espousal of universal free education from the time of its early father Egerton Ryerson, could no longer maintain Regina College during the Great Depression of the 1930s, and Regina College was disaffiliated from the Church and surrendered to the University of Saskatchewan; it became the Regina Campus of the University of Saskatchewan in 1961. After a protracted contretemps over the siting of several faculties in Saskatoon which had been promised to the Regina campus, Regina Campus sought and obtained a separate charter as the University of Regina in 1974.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Campion College and Luther College now have federated college status in the University of Regina, as does the First Nations University of Canada; The United Church's Regina College has entirely consolidated with the University of Saskatchewan and identified with St Andrew's College there: despite the considerable historical involvement by the Methodist, Presbyterian and Anglican churches in antecedent institutions of the University of Regina. The Regina Research Park is located immediately adjacent to the main campus and many of its initiatives in information technology, petroleum and environmental sciences are conducted in conjunction with university departments. A member in the research park is Canada's Petroleum Technology Research facility, a world leader in oil recovery and geological storage of CO.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Regina campus of this province-wide polytechnic institute is adjacent to the University of Regina. It occupies the former Plains Health Centre, previously a third hospital in Regina which in the course of rationalizing health services in Saskatchewan was in due course closed. It offers certificates, diplomas, and applied degrees in trade, skilled labour, and professional fields.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Royal Canadian Mounted Police Academy, "Depot" Division, is on the western perimeter of the city. As capital of the North-West Territories, Regina was the headquarters of the Royal North-West Mounted Police (the RCMP's predecessor) before "the Force" became a national body with its headquarters in Ottawa in 1920. The city takes great pride in this national institution which is a major visitor attraction and a continuing link with Regina's past as the headquarters of the Force, together with longstanding substantial enrollment by trainees from across Canada, obtaining entertainment and recreation citywide. It offers sunset ceremonies and parade in the summertime. The national RCMP music and "Depot" Division chapel (the oldest building still standing in the city) are major visitor attractions in Regina. The first phase of a RCMP Heritage Centre successor to the longstanding museum opened in May 2007.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Domestic water was originally obtained from Wascana Lake and later the Boggy Creek reservoir north of the city and supplemented by wells, however by the 1940s this was proving inadequate to meet the city's water supply needs. Today, drinking water is supplied from Buffalo Pound Lake in the Qu'Appelle Valley, an artificial reservoir on the Qu'Appelle River, since 1967 with water diverted into it from Lake Diefenbaker behind the Gardiner Dam on the South Saskatchewan River. Electricity is provided by SaskPower, a provincial Crown corporation which maintains a province-wide grid with power generated from coal-fired base load, natural gas-fired, hydroelectric and wind power facilities.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Medical services are provided through three city hospitals, Regina General, Pasqua (formerly Grey Nuns), and Wascana Rehabilitation Centre and by private medical practitioners, who, like hospitals, remit their bills to the public universal medical insurer, the Saskatchewan Medicare system.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The Regina Police Service is the primary police service for the city of Regina and holds both Municipal and Provincial Jurisdiction. It was formed in 1892. It employs 347 sworn officers and 139 unsworn employees. The current chief of police is Evan Bray.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The following services also hold jurisdiction in the city and are in partnership: Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canadian National Railway Police Service and the Canadian Pacific Railway Police Service.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Despite having fallen in recent years, Regina's crime rate remains among the highest in Canada. Regina's overall police-reported crime rate was second highest in the country in 2012. Also, the relative severity of crimes in Regina is quite high and the city continues to top the national Crime Severity Index. Regina's crime rate declined 10% from 2011 to 2012. Regina also has one of the highest rates of intravenous drug use in Canada.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina formerly had an extensive streetcar (tramway) network but now has no streetcars, trains or subways. The city's public transit agency, Regina Transit, operates a fleet of 110 buses, on 17 routes, and 4 express routes. The service runs 7 days a week with access to the city centre from most areas of the city. A massive fire at the streetcar barns, on 23 January 1949, destroyed much of the rolling stock of streetcars and trolley buses and helped to propel Regina's diesel bus revolution in 1951, although until well into the 1970s the streetcar rails remained in the centre of many major streets, ready to be returned to use should city transit policy change. Because of the 1949 fire, original Regina streetcar rolling stock was rare, though through later years a few disused streetcars remained in evidence – a streetcar with takeaway food, for example, on the site of the Regina Theatre at 12th Avenue and Hamilton Street, until the Hudson's Bay Company acquired the site and built its 60s-through-90s department store there.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The CPR no longer operates regular passenger services, though in the past railway passenger trains constituted the principal mode of inter-urban transit among Western Canadian cities. Its former station in downtown Regina has become a casino. Currently, Regina can be reached by several highways including the Trans-Canada Highway from the west and east sides and four provincial highways (6, 11, 33, 46) from other directions. The city is served by Ring Road, a high speed connection between Regina's east and northwest that loops around the city's east side (the west side of the loop is formed by Lewvan Drive) with plans calling for another perimeter highway to encircle the city farther out.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The five decades-old bus depot on Hamilton Street immediately south of the Hotel Saskatchewan was replaced in 2008 by one at the corner of Saskatchewan Drive and Broad Street. Bus service in Saskatchewan was serviced by the Saskatchewan Government owned "STC" (Saskatchewan Transportation Company) until 2017 when it was closed and sold off in a controversial decision by the current sitting Saskatchewan government headed by "The Saskatchewan Party". Greyhound of Canada discontinued service through Saskatchewan in 2018. There is no longer a long-distance bus service in Saskatchewan. The bus depot built in 2008 is being converted into use as the new Regina Police Service headquarters as of 2019. Now, Rider Express serves intercity bus service to Saskatoon and Winnipeg.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: Regina International Airport serves Regina and area with non-stop scheduled and destinations to Calgary, Edmonton, Toronto, Vancouver, and Winnipeg. There are also seasonal and charter flights to Las Vegas, Phoenix and Ottawa with destinations in Mexico and the Caribbean, including Cuba. The airport is situated on the west side of the city and is the oldest established commercial airport in Canada. The current, continually expanded, 1960 terminal replaces the original 1940 Art Deco terminal; it has recently undergone further major upgrades and expansions to allow it to handle increases in traffic for the next several years. Private aircraft is facilitated at the Regina Flying Club and Western Air hangars near the Regina International Airport.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The daily newspaper for the city is "The Leader-Post", first published in 1883 and currently owned by Postmedia Network. "The Regina Sun" is published by "The Leader-Post" and distributed free of charge.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: "Prairie Dog" was established in 1993 and is a free alternative newspaper and blog produced by a Saskatchewan worker co-operative. "L'eau vive" is a weekly newspaper publishing in French and serving all of Saskatchewan's francophone community.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The thirteen radio stations broadcasting from the city include CJME News/Talk 980, FM 90.3 CJLR-FM-4 MBC Radio First Nations community radio Missinipi Broadcasting Corporation, FM 91.3 CJTR-FM 91.3 CJTR community radio, FM 97.7 CBKF-FM Première Chaîne news/talk (CBC, French), and FM 102.5 CBKR-FM CBC Radio One news/talk (CBC).


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: There are four private and public television channels broadcasting from Regina: CKCK-TV (CTV), CBKT (CBC), CFRE-TV (Global), and CBKFT (SRC). Educational channel City Saskatchewan (formerly the Saskatchewan Communications Network) and a community channel owned by Regina's cable provider Access Communications are also available on cable.


title: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: The City of Regina maintains trade development programs, cultural, and educational partnerships in a twinning agreement with Bucharest, Romania and Jinan, Shandong, China, and a friendship agreement with Fujioka, Gunma, Japan.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. It is commonly denoted by formula_1, formula_2, or formula_3.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high thermal conductivity. For instance, metals typically have high thermal conductivity and are very efficient at conducting heat, while the opposite is true for insulating materials like Rockwool or Styrofoam. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications, and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The defining equation for thermal conductivity is formula_4, where formula_5 is the heat flux, formula_6 is the thermal conductivity, and formula_7 is the temperature gradient. This is known as Fourier's Law for heat conduction. Although commonly expressed as a scalar, the most general form of thermal conductivity is a second-rank tensor. However, the tensorial description only becomes necessary in materials which are anisotropic.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Consider a solid material placed between two environments of different temperatures. Let formula_8 be the temperature at formula_9 and formula_10 be the temperature at formula_11, and suppose formula_12. A possible realization of this scenario is a building on a cold winter day: the solid material in this case would be the building wall, separating the cold outdoor environment from the warm indoor environment.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat will flow from the hot environment to the cold one as the temperature difference is equalized by diffusion. This is quantified in terms of a heat flux formula_13, which gives the rate, per unit area, at which heat flows in a given direction (in this case minus x-direction). In many materials, formula_13 is observed to be directly proportional to the temperature difference and inversely proportional to the separation distance formula_15:


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The constant of proportionality formula_1 is the thermal conductivity; it is a physical property of the material. In the present scenario, since formula_12 heat flows in the minus x-direction and formula_13 is negative, which in turn means that formula_20. In general, formula_1 is always defined to be positive. The same definition of formula_1 can also be extended to gases and liquids, provided other modes of energy transport, such as convection and radiation, are eliminated or accounted for.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The preceding derivation assumes that the formula_1 does not change significantly as temperature is varied from formula_8 to formula_10. Cases in which the temperature variation of formula_1 is non-negligible must be addressed using the more general definition of formula_1 discussed below.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Thermal conduction is defined as the transport of energy due to random molecular motion across a temperature gradient. It is distinguished from energy transport by convection and molecular work in that it does not involve macroscopic flows or work-performing internal stresses.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Energy flow due to thermal conduction is classified as heat and is quantified by the vector formula_28, which gives the heat flux at position formula_29 and time formula_30. According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat flows from high to low temperature. Hence, it is reasonable to postulate that formula_28 is proportional to the gradient of the temperature field formula_32, i.e.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where the constant of proportionality, formula_34, is the thermal conductivity. This is called Fourier's law of heat conduction. Despite its name, it is not a law but a definition of thermal conductivity in terms of the independent physical quantities formula_28 and formula_32. As such, its usefulness depends on the ability to determine formula_1 for a given material under given conditions. The constant formula_1 itself usually depends on formula_32 and thereby implicitly on space and time. An explicit space and time dependence could also occur if the material is inhomogeneous or changing with time.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In some solids, thermal conduction is anisotropic, i.e. the heat flux is not always parallel to the temperature gradient. To account for such behavior, a tensorial form of Fourier's law must be used:


title: Thermal conductivity

text: An implicit assumption in the above description is the presence of local thermodynamic equilibrium, which allows one to define a temperature field formula_32. This assumption could be violated in systems that are unable to attain local equilibrium, as might happen in the presence of strong nonequilibrium driving or long-ranged interactions.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In engineering practice, it is common to work in terms of quantities which are derivative to thermal conductivity and implicitly take into account design-specific features such as component dimensions.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: For instance, thermal conductance is defined as the quantity of heat that passes in unit time through a plate of "particular area and thickness" when its opposite faces differ in temperature by one kelvin. For a plate of thermal conductivity formula_1, area formula_44 and thickness formula_15, the conductance is formula_46, measured in W⋅K. The relationship between thermal conductivity and conductance is analogous to the relationship between electrical conductivity and electrical conductance.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Thermal resistance is the inverse of thermal conductance. It is a convenient measure to use in multicomponent design since thermal resistances are additive when occurring in series.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: There is also a measure known as the heat transfer coefficient: the quantity of heat that passes per unit time through a unit area of a plate of particular thickness when its opposite faces differ in temperature by one kelvin. In ASTM C168-15, this area-independent quantity is referred to as the "thermal conductance". The reciprocal of the heat transfer coefficient is thermal insulance. In summary, for a plate of thermal conductivity formula_1, area formula_44 and thickness formula_15,


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The heat transfer coefficient is also known as thermal admittance in the sense that the material may be seen as admitting heat to flow.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: An additional term, thermal transmittance, quantifies the thermal conductance of a structure along with heat transfer due to convection and radiation. It is measured in the same units as thermal conductance and is sometimes known as the "composite thermal conductance". The term "U-value" is also used.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Finally, thermal diffusivity formula_54 combines thermal conductivity with density and specific heat:


title: Thermal conductivity

text: As such, it quantifies the "thermal inertia" of a material, i.e. the relative difficulty in heating a material to a given temperature using heat sources applied at the boundary.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In the International System of Units (SI), thermal conductivity is measured in watts per metre-kelvin (W/(m⋅K)). Some papers report in watts per centimetre-kelvin (W/(cm⋅K)).


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The dimension of thermal conductivity is MLTΘ, expressed in terms of the dimensions mass (M), length (L), time (T), and temperature (Θ).


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Other units which are closely related to the thermal conductivity are in common use in the construction and textile industries. The construction industry makes use of measures such as the R-value (resistance) and the U-value (transmittance or conductance). Although related to the thermal conductivity of a material used in an insulation product or assembly, R- and U-values are measured per unit area, and depend on the specified thickness of the product or assembly.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Likewise the textile industry has several units including the tog and the clo which express thermal resistance of a material in a way analogous to the R-values used in the construction industry.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: There are several ways to measure thermal conductivity; each is suitable for a limited range of materials. Broadly speaking, there are two categories of measurement techniques: "steady-state" and "transient". Steady-state techniques infer the thermal conductivity from measurements on the state of a material once a steady-state temperature profile has been reached, whereas transient techniques operate on the instantaneous state of a system during the approach to steady state. Lacking an explicit time component, steady-state techniques do not require complicated signal analysis (steady state implies constant signals). The disadvantage is that a well-engineered experimental setup is usually needed, and the time required to reach steady state precludes rapid measurement.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In comparison with solid materials, the thermal properties of fluids are more difficult to study experimentally. This is because in addition to thermal conduction, convective and radiative energy transport are usually present unless measures are taken to limit these processes. The formation of an insulating boundary layer can also result in an apparent reduction in the thermal conductivity.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The thermal conductivities of common substances span at least four orders of magnitude. Gases generally have low thermal conductivity, and pure metals have high thermal conductivity. For example, under standard conditions the thermal conductivity of copper is over times that of air.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Of all materials, allotropes of carbon, such as graphite and diamond, are usually credited with having the highest thermal conductivities at room temperature. The thermal conductivity of natural diamond at room temperature is several times higher than that of a highly conductive metal such as copper (although the precise value varies depending on the diamond type).


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Thermal conductivities of selected substances are tabulated below; an expanded list can be found in the list of thermal conductivities. These values are illustrative estimates only, as they do not account for measurement uncertainties or variability in material definitions.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The effect of temperature on thermal conductivity is different for metals and nonmetals. In metals, heat conductivity is primarily due to free electrons. Following the Wiedemann–Franz law, thermal conductivity of metals is approximately proportional to the absolute temperature (in kelvins) times electrical conductivity. In pure metals the electrical conductivity decreases with increasing temperature and thus the product of the two, the thermal conductivity, stays approximately constant. However, as temperatures approach absolute zero, the thermal conductivity decreases sharply. In alloys the change in electrical conductivity is usually smaller and thus thermal conductivity increases with temperature, often proportionally to temperature. Many pure metals have a peak thermal conductivity between 2 K and 10 K.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: On the other hand, heat conductivity in nonmetals is mainly due to lattice vibrations (phonons). Except for high-quality crystals at low temperatures, the phonon mean free path is not reduced significantly at higher temperatures. Thus, the thermal conductivity of nonmetals is approximately constant at high temperatures. At low temperatures well below the Debye temperature, thermal conductivity decreases, as does the heat capacity, due to carrier scattering from defects.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: When a material undergoes a phase change (e.g. from solid to liquid), the thermal conductivity may change abruptly. For instance, when ice melts to form liquid water at 0 °C, the thermal conductivity changes from 2.18 W/(m⋅K) to 0.56 W/(m⋅K).


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Even more dramatically, the thermal conductivity of a fluid diverges in the vicinity of the vapor-liquid critical point.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Some substances, such as non-cubic crystals, can exhibit different thermal conductivities along different crystal axes. Sapphire is a notable example of variable thermal conductivity based on orientation and temperature, with 35 W/(m⋅K) along the c axis and 32 W/(m⋅K) along the a axis.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Wood generally conducts better along the grain than across it. Other examples of materials where the thermal conductivity varies with direction are metals that have undergone heavy cold pressing, laminated materials, cables, the materials used for the Space Shuttle thermal protection system, and fiber-reinforced composite structures.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: When anisotropy is present, the direction of heat flow may differ from the direction of the thermal gradient.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In metals, thermal conductivity is approximately correlated with electrical conductivity according to the Wiedemann–Franz law, as freely moving valence electrons transfer not only electric current but also heat energy. However, the general correlation between electrical and thermal conductance does not hold for other materials, due to the increased importance of phonon carriers for heat in non-metals. Highly electrically conductive silver is less thermally conductive than diamond, which is an electrical insulator but conducts heat via phonons due to its orderly array of atoms.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The influence of magnetic fields on thermal conductivity is known as the thermal Hall effect or Righi–Leduc effect.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In the absence of convection, air and other gases are good insulators. Therefore, many insulating materials function simply by having a large number of gas-filled pockets which obstruct heat conduction pathways. Examples of these include expanded and extruded polystyrene (popularly referred to as "styrofoam") and silica aerogel, as well as warm clothes. Natural, biological insulators such as fur and feathers achieve similar effects by trapping air in pores, pockets, or voids.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Low density gases, such as hydrogen and helium typically have high thermal conductivity. Dense gases such as xenon and dichlorodifluoromethane have low thermal conductivity. An exception, sulfur hexafluoride, a dense gas, has a relatively high thermal conductivity due to its high heat capacity. Argon and krypton, gases denser than air, are often used in insulated glazing (double paned windows) to improve their insulation characteristics.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The thermal conductivity through bulk materials in porous or granular form is governed by the type of gas in the gaseous phase, and its pressure. At low pressures, the thermal conductivity of a gaseous phase is reduced, with this behaviour governed by the Knudsen number, defined as formula_56, where formula_57 is the mean free path of gas molecules and formula_58 is the typical gap size of the space filled by the gas. In a granular material formula_58 corresponds to the characteristic size of the gaseous phase in the pores or intergranular spaces.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The thermal conductivity of a crystal can depend strongly on isotopic purity, assuming other lattice defects are negligible. A notable example is diamond: at a temperature of around 100 K the thermal conductivity increases from 10,000 W·m·K for natural type IIa diamond (98.9% C), to 41,000 for 99.9% enriched synthetic diamond. A value of 200,000 is predicted for 99.999% C at 80 K, assuming an otherwise pure crystal. The thermal conductivity of 99% isotopically enriched cubic boron nitride is ~ 1400 W·m·K, which is 90% higher than that of natural boron nitride.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The molecular mechanisms of thermal conduction vary among different materials, and in general depend on details of the microscopic structure and molecular interactions. As such, thermal conductivity is difficult to predict from first-principles. Any expressions for thermal conductivity which are exact and general, e.g. the Green-Kubo relations, are difficult to apply in practice, typically consisting of averages over multiparticle correlation functions. A notable exception is a monatomic dilute gas, for which a well-developed theory exists expressing thermal conductivity accurately and explicitly in terms of molecular parameters.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In a gas, thermal conduction is mediated by discrete molecular collisions. In a simplified picture of a solid, thermal conduction occurs by two mechanisms: 1) the migration of free electrons and 2) lattice vibrations (phonons). The first mechanism dominates in pure metals and the second in non-metallic solids. In liquids, by contrast, the precise microscopic mechanisms of thermal conduction are poorly understood.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: In a simplified model of a dilute monatomic gas, molecules are modeled as rigid spheres which are in constant motion, colliding elastically with each other and with the walls of their container. Consider such a gas at temperature formula_60 and with density formula_61, specific heat formula_62 and molecular mass formula_63. Under these assumptions, an elementary calculation yields for the thermal conductivity


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where formula_65 is a numerical constant of order formula_66, formula_67 is the Boltzmann constant, and formula_2 is the mean free path, which measures the average distance a molecule travels between collisions. Since formula_2 is inversely proportional to density, this equation predicts that thermal conductivity is independent of density for fixed temperature. The explanation is that increasing density increases the number of molecules which carry energy but decreases the average distance formula_2 a molecule can travel before transferring its energy to a different molecule: these two effects cancel out. For most gases, this prediction agrees well with experiments at pressures up to about 10 atmospheres. On the other hand, experiments show a more rapid increase with temperature than formula_71 (here, formula_2 is independent of formula_60). This failure of the elementary theory can be traced to the oversimplified "elastic sphere" model, and in particular to the fact that the interparticle attractions, present in all real-world gases, are ignored.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: To incorporate more complex interparticle interactions, a systematic approach is necessary. One such approach is provided by Chapman–Enskog theory, which derives explicit expressions for thermal conductivity starting from the Boltzmann equation. The Boltzmann equation, in turn, provides a statistical description of a dilute gas for "generic" interparticle interactions. For a monatomic gas, expressions for formula_1 derived in this way take the form


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where formula_76 is an effective particle diameter and formula_77 is a function of temperature whose explicit form depends on the interparticle interaction law. For rigid elastic spheres, formula_77 is independent of formula_60 and very close to formula_66. More complex interaction laws introduce a weak temperature dependence. The precise nature of the dependence is not always easy to discern, however, as formula_77 is defined as a multi-dimensional integral which may not be expressible in terms of elementary functions. An alternate, equivalent way to present the result is in terms of the gas viscosity formula_82, which can also be calculated in the Chapman–Enskog approach:


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where formula_84 is a numerical factor which in general depends on the molecular model. For smooth spherically symmetric molecules, however, formula_84 is very close to formula_86, not deviating by more than formula_87 for a variety of interparticle force laws. Since formula_1, formula_82, and formula_62 are each well-defined physical quantities which can be measured independent of each other, this expression provides a convenient test of the theory. For monatomic gases, such as the noble gases, the agreement with experiment is fairly good.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: For gases whose molecules are not spherically symmetric, the expression formula_91 still holds. In contrast with spherically symmetric molecules, however, formula_84 varies significantly depending on the particular form of the interparticle interactions: this is a result of the energy exchanges between the internal and translational degrees of freedom of the molecules. An explicit treatment of this effect is difficult in the Chapman–Enskog approach. Alternately, the approximate expression formula_93 was suggested by Eucken, where formula_94 is the heat capacity ratio of the gas.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The entirety of this section assumes the mean free path formula_2 is small compared with macroscopic (system) dimensions. In extremely dilute gases this assumption fails, and thermal conduction is described instead by an apparent thermal conductivity which decreases with density. Ultimately, as the density goes to formula_96 the system approaches a vacuum, and thermal conduction ceases entirely.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The exact mechanisms of thermal conduction are poorly understood in liquids: there is no molecular picture which is both simple and accurate. An example of a simple but very rough theory is that of Bridgman, in which a liquid is ascribed a local molecular structure similar to that of a solid, i.e. with molecules located approximately on a lattice. Elementary calculations then lead to the expression


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where formula_98 is the Avogadro constant, formula_99 is the volume of a mole of liquid, and formula_100 is the speed of sound in the liquid. This is commonly called "Bridgman's equation".


title: Thermal conductivity

text: For metals at low temperatures the heat is carried mainly by the free electrons. In this case the mean velocity is the Fermi velocity which is temperature independent. The mean free path is determined by the impurities and the crystal imperfections which are temperature independent as well. So the only temperature-dependent quantity is the heat capacity "c", which, in this case, is proportional to "T". So


title: Thermal conductivity

text: with "k" a constant. For pure metals, "k" is large, so the thermal conductivity is high. At higher temperatures the mean free path is limited by the phonons, so the thermal conductivity tends to decrease with temperature. In alloys the density of the impurities is very high, so "l" and, consequently "k", are small. Therefore, alloys, such as stainless steel, can be used for thermal insulation.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Heat transport in both amorphous and crystalline dielectric solids is by way of elastic vibrations of the lattice (i.e., phonons). This transport mechanism is theorized to be limited by the elastic scattering of acoustic phonons at lattice defects. This has been confirmed by the experiments of Chang and Jones on commercial glasses and glass ceramics, where the mean free paths were found to be limited by "internal boundary scattering" to length scales of 10 cm to 10 cm.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: The phonon mean free path has been associated directly with the effective relaxation length for processes without directional correlation. If V is the group velocity of a phonon wave packet, then the relaxation length formula_102 is defined as:


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where "t" is the characteristic relaxation time. Since longitudinal waves have a much greater phase velocity than transverse waves, "V" is much greater than "V", and the relaxation length or mean free path of longitudinal phonons will be much greater. Thus, thermal conductivity will be largely determined by the speed of longitudinal phonons.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Regarding the dependence of wave velocity on wavelength or frequency (dispersion), low-frequency phonons of long wavelength will be limited in relaxation length by elastic Rayleigh scattering. This type of light scattering from small particles is proportional to the fourth power of the frequency. For higher frequencies, the power of the frequency will decrease until at highest frequencies scattering is almost frequency independent. Similar arguments were subsequently generalized to many glass forming substances using Brillouin scattering.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Phonons in the acoustical branch dominate the phonon heat conduction as they have greater energy dispersion and therefore a greater distribution of phonon velocities. Additional optical modes could also be caused by the presence of internal structure (i.e., charge or mass) at a lattice point; it is implied that the group velocity of these modes is low and therefore their contribution to the lattice thermal conductivity "λ" (formula_104) is small.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Each phonon mode can be split into one longitudinal and two transverse polarization branches. By extrapolating the phenomenology of lattice points to the unit cells it is seen that the total number of degrees of freedom is 3"pq" when "p" is the number of primitive cells with "q" atoms/unit cell. From these only 3p are associated with the acoustic modes, the remaining 3"p"("q" − 1) are accommodated through the optical branches. This implies that structures with larger "p" and "q" contain a greater number of optical modes and a reduced "λ".


title: Thermal conductivity

text: From these ideas, it can be concluded that increasing crystal complexity, which is described by a complexity factor CF (defined as the number of atoms/primitive unit cell), decreases λ. This was done by assuming that the relaxation time "τ" decreases with increasing number of atoms in the unit cell and then scaling the parameters of the expression for thermal conductivity in high temperatures accordingly.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Describing anharmonic effects is complicated because an exact treatment as in the harmonic case is not possible, and phonons are no longer exact eigensolutions to the equations of motion. Even if the state of motion of the crystal could be described with a plane wave at a particular time, its accuracy would deteriorate progressively with time. Time development would have to be described by introducing a spectrum of other phonons, which is known as the phonon decay. The two most important anharmonic effects are the thermal expansion and the phonon thermal conductivity.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Only when the phonon number ‹n› deviates from the equilibrium value ‹n›, can a thermal current arise as stated in the following expression


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where "v" is the energy transport velocity of phonons. Only two mechanisms exist that can cause time variation of ‹"n"› in a particular region. The number of phonons that diffuse into the region from neighboring regions differs from those that diffuse out, or phonons decay inside the same region into other phonons. A special form of the Boltzmann equation


title: Thermal conductivity

text: states this. When steady state conditions are assumed the total time derivate of phonon number is zero, because the temperature is constant in time and therefore the phonon number stays also constant. Time variation due to phonon decay is described with a relaxation time ("τ") approximation


title: Thermal conductivity

text: which states that the more the phonon number deviates from its equilibrium value, the more its time variation increases. At steady state conditions and local thermal equilibrium are assumed we get the following equation


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Using the relaxation time approximation for the Boltzmann equation and assuming steady-state conditions, the phonon thermal conductivity "λ" can be determined. The temperature dependence for "λ" originates from the variety of processes, whose significance for "λ" depends on the temperature range of interest. Mean free path is one factor that determines the temperature dependence for "λ", as stated in the following equation


title: Thermal conductivity

text: where Λ is the mean free path for phonon and formula_110 denotes the heat capacity. This equation is a result of combining the four previous equations with each other and knowing that formula_111 for cubic or isotropic systems and formula_112.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: At low temperatures (< 10 K) the anharmonic interaction does not influence the mean free path and therefore, the thermal resistivity is determined only from processes for which q-conservation does not hold. These processes include the scattering of phonons by crystal defects, or the scattering from the surface of the crystal in case of high quality single crystal. Therefore, thermal conductance depends on the external dimensions of the crystal and the quality of the surface. Thus, temperature dependence of λ is determined by the specific heat and is therefore proportional to T.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Phonon quasimomentum is defined as ℏq and differs from normal momentum because it is only defined within an arbitrary reciprocal lattice vector. At higher temperatures (10 K < "T" < "Θ"), the conservation of energy formula_113 and quasimomentum formula_114, where q is wave vector of the incident phonon and q, q are wave vectors of the resultant phonons, may also involve a reciprocal lattice vector G complicating the energy transport process. These processes can also reverse the direction of energy transport.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Therefore, these processes are also known as Umklapp (U) processes and can only occur when phonons with sufficiently large "q"-vectors are excited, because unless the sum of q and q points outside of the Brillouin zone the momentum is conserved and the process is normal scattering (N-process). The probability of a phonon to have energy "E" is given by the Boltzmann distribution formula_115. To U-process to occur the decaying phonon to have a wave vector q that is roughly half of the diameter of the Brillouin zone, because otherwise quasimomentum would not be conserved.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Therefore, these phonons have to possess energy of formula_116, which is a significant fraction of Debye energy that is needed to generate new phonons. The probability for this is proportional to formula_117, with formula_118. Temperature dependence of the mean free path has an exponential form formula_119. The presence of the reciprocal lattice wave vector implies a net phonon backscattering and a resistance to phonon and thermal transport resulting finite "λ", as it means that momentum is not conserved. Only momentum non-conserving processes can cause thermal resistance.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: At high temperatures ("T" > Θ), the mean free path and therefore "λ" has a temperature dependence "T", to which one arrives from formula formula_119 by making the following approximation formula_121 and writing formula_122. This dependency is known as Eucken's law and originates from the temperature dependency of the probability for the U-process to occur.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Thermal conductivity is usually described by the Boltzmann equation with the relaxation time approximation in which phonon scattering is a limiting factor. Another approach is to use analytic models or molecular dynamics or Monte Carlo based methods to describe thermal conductivity in solids.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Short wavelength phonons are strongly scattered by impurity atoms if an alloyed phase is present, but mid and long wavelength phonons are less affected. Mid and long wavelength phonons carry significant fraction of heat, so to further reduce lattice thermal conductivity one has to introduce structures to scatter these phonons. This is achieved by introducing interface scattering mechanism, which requires structures whose characteristic length is longer than that of impurity atom. Some possible ways to realize these interfaces are nanocomposites and embedded nanoparticles or structures.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Because thermal conductivity depends continuously on quantities like temperature and material composition, it cannot be fully characterized by a finite number of experimental measurements. Predictive formulas become necessary if experimental values are not available under the physical conditions of interest. This capability is important in thermophysical simulations, where quantities like temperature and pressure vary continuously with space and time, and may encompass extreme conditions inaccessible to direct measurement.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: For the simplest fluids, such as dilute monatomic gases and their mixtures, "ab initio" quantum mechanical computations can accurately predict thermal conductivity in terms of fundamental atomic properties—that is, without reference to existing measurements of thermal conductivity or other transport properties. This method uses Chapman-Enskog theory to evaluate a low-density expansion of thermal conductivity. Chapman-Enskog theory, in turn, takes fundamental intermolecular potentials as input, which are computed "ab initio" from a quantum mechanical description.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: For most fluids, such high-accuracy, first-principles computations are not feasible. Rather, theoretical or empirical expressions must be fit to existing thermal conductivity measurements. If such an expression is fit to high-fidelity data over a large range of temperatures


title: Thermal conductivity

text: and pressures, then it is called a "reference correlation" for that material. Reference correlations have been published for many pure materials; examples are carbon dioxide, ammonia, and benzene. Many of these cover temperature and pressure ranges that encompass gas, liquid, and supercritical phases.


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Thermophysical modeling software often relies on reference correlations for predicting thermal conductivity at user-specified temperature and pressure. These correlations may be proprietary. Examples are REFPROP (proprietary) and CoolProp (open-source).


title: Thermal conductivity

text: Thermal conductivity can also be computed using the Green-Kubo relations, which express transport coefficients in terms of the statistics of molecular trajectories. The advantage of these expressions is that they are formally exact and valid for general systems. The disadvantage is that they require detailed knowledge of particle trajectories, available only in computationally expensive simulations such as molecular dynamics. An accurate model for interparticle interactions is also required, which may be difficult to obtain for complex molecules.


title: Freemium

text: Freemium, a portmanteau of the words "free" and "premium," is a pricing strategy by which a basic product or service is provided free of charge, but money (a premium) is charged for additional features, services, or virtual (online) or physical (offline) goods that expand the functionality of the free version of the software. This business model has been used in the software industry since the 1980s. A subset of this model used by the video game industry is called free-to-play.


title: Freemium

text: The business model has been in use for software since the 1980s. The term "freemium" to describe this model appears to have been created only much later, in response to a 2006 blog post by venture capitalist Fred Wilson summarizing the model:Give your service away for free, possibly ad supported but maybe not, acquire a lot of customers very efficiently through word of mouth, referral networks, organic search marketing, etc., then offer premium-priced value-added services or an enhanced version of your service to your customer base.Jarid Lukin of Alacra, one of Wilson's portfolio companies, then suggested the term "freemium" for this model.


title: Freemium

text: In 2009, Chris Anderson published the book "Free", which examines the popularity of this business model. As well as for traditional proprietary software and services, it is now also often used by Web 2.0 and open source companies. In 2014, Eric Seufert published the book "Freemium Economics", which attempts to deconstruct the economic principles of the freemium model and prescribe a framework for implementing them into software products.


title: Freemium

text: The freemium model is closely related to tiered services. Notable examples include LinkedIn, Badoo, Discord, and in the form of a "soft" paywall, such as those employed by "The New York Times" and by La Presse+. This is often in a time-limited or feature-limited version to promote a paid-for full version. The model is particularly suited to software as the cost of distribution is negligible.


title: Freemium

text: A freemium model is sometimes used to build a consumer base when the marginal cost of producing extra units is low. Thus little is lost by giving away free software licenses as long as significant cannibalization is avoided. Other examples include free-to-play games – video games that can be downloaded without paying. Video game publishers of free-to-play games rely on other means to generate revenue – such as optional in-game virtual items that can be purchased by players to enhance gameplay or aesthetics.


title: Freemium

text: Some software and services make all of the features available for free for a trial period, and then at the end of that period revert to operating as a feature-limited free version (e.g. Online Armor Personal Firewall). The user can unlock the premium features on payment of a license fee, as per the freemium model. Some businesses use a variation of the model known as "open core", in which the unsupported, feature-limited free version is also open-source software, but versions with additional features and official support are commercial software.


title: Freemium

text: In June 2011, "PC World" reported that traditional anti-virus software had started to lose market share to freemium anti-virus products. By September 2012, all but two of the 50 highest-grossing apps in the Games section of Apple's iTunes App Store supported in-app purchases, leading "Wired" to conclude that game developers were now required to choose between including such purchases or foregoing a very substantial revenue stream. Beginning in 2013, the digital distribution platform Steam began to add numerous free-to-play and early-access games to its library, many of which utilized freemium marketing for their in-game economies. Due to criticism that the multiplayer games falling under this category were pay-to-win in nature or were low-quality and never finished development, Valve has since added stricter rules to its early-access and free-to-play policies.


title: Freemium

text: Freemium games have come under criticism from players and critics. Many are labelled with the derogatory term 'pay-to-win', which criticizes freemium games for giving an advantage to players who pay more money, as opposed to those who have more skill. Criticisms also extend to the way that the business model can often appear unregulated, to the point of encouraging prolific spending. Freemium games are often designed in a manner where players who are not actively using premium features are actively frustrated, delayed or require much larger investments in time required to acquire currency or upgrades.


title: Freemium

text: In November 2014, the animated TV series "South Park" aired an episode entitled "Freemium Isn’t Free". The episode satirized the business model for encouraging predatory game design tactics based on an improper business model. In 2015, Nintendo released two of their own freemium games in the "Pokémon" series based on other standalone purchasable titles. With the title "Pokémon Rumble World", Nintendo took a different approach by making it possible to complete the entire game without buying premium credits, but retaining them as an option so players can proceed through the game at a pace that suits them.


title: Tim Burton filmography

text: Tim Burton (born August 25, 1958) is an American film director, producer, artist, writer, animator, puppeteer, and actor. He is known for his gothic horror and fantasy films, such as "Beetlejuice" (1988), "Edward Scissorhands" (1990), "The Nightmare Before Christmas" (1993), "Ed Wood" (1994), "Sleepy Hollow" (1999), "Corpse Bride" (2005), "" (2007), "Dark Shadows" (2012), and "Frankenweenie" (2012). He is also known for blockbuster films, such as the adventure-comedy "Pee-wee's Big Adventure" (1985), the superhero films "Batman" (1989) and "Batman Returns" (1992), the science fiction film "Planet of the Apes" (2001), the fantasy-drama "Big Fish" (2003), the musical adventure film "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory" (2005), the fantasy film "Alice in Wonderland" (2010), and film adaptations of "Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children" (2016) and "Dumbo" (2019).


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: Rio is a 2011 American 3D computer-animated musical adventure comedy film produced by Blue Sky Studios and 20th Century Fox Animation, and directed by Carlos Saldanha. The title refers to the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro, where the film is set. The film features the voices of Jesse Eisenberg, Anne Hathaway, Leslie Mann, Rodrigo Santoro, Jemaine Clement, George Lopez, Tracy Morgan, will.i.am, and Jamie Foxx. It tells the story of Blu (Eisenberg), a domesticated male Spix's macaw who is taken to Rio de Janeiro to mate with a free-spirited female Spix's macaw, Jewel (Hathaway). The two eventually fall in love, and together they have to escape from being smuggled by Nigel (Clement), a cockatoo.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: Saldanha developed his first story concept of "Rio" in 2005, in which a penguin is washed up in Rio. Saldanha learned of the production of the films "Happy Feet" (2006) and "Surf's Up" (2007), and changed the concept to involve macaws and their environments in Rio. He proposed his idea to Chris Wedge in 2006, and the project was set up at Blue Sky. The main voice actors were approached in 2009. During production, the crew visited Rio de Janeiro and also consulted with an expert on macaws at the Bronx Zoo to study their movements.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: "Rio" premiered on March 22, 2011, in Lagoa, Rio de Janeiro, followed by its general release on April 15, 2011, by 20th Century Fox. The film received generally positive reviews from film critics, who praised the visuals, voice acting and music. The film was also a box office success, grossing over $143 million in the United States and $484 million worldwide. The film was nominated for Best Original Song for the song "Real in Rio" at the 84th Academy Awards, but lost to the other nominee, "Man or Muppet" from "The Muppets". A sequel, "Rio 2", was released on April 11, 2014.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: Exotic birds are smuggled out of Brazil. In Moose Lake, Minnesota, a crate containing a male Spix's macaw hatchling falls from a truck and is found by a child named Linda Gunderson, who names him Blu. Fifteen years later, Blu is frequently ridiculed for being unable to fly by the Canada geese that come by Linda's bookstore. Ornithologist Túlio Monteiro invites Blu and Linda to Rio de Janeiro for Blu, the last known male of his species, to mate with the last known female. At Túlio's aviary in Rio, Blu meets his prospective mate, the fiercely independent Jewel who longs to flee back to the wilderness. The macaws are captured by orphan boy Fernando and sulphur-crested cockatoo Nigel, who both work for a smuggler gang led by Marcel, who wants to leave the country quickly to sell Blu and Jewel on the black market.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: While Fernando has second thoughts, Nigel wants revenge on "pretty birds" after a parakeet replaced him on a television show. Blu's familiarity with cages sees him escape to the jungle with Jewel. Fernando helps Linda and Túlio search for the birds, while Blu and Jewel meet the toco toucan Rafael, whose bulldog friend, Luiz, will remove the legcuffs holding them together. Rafael tries to teach Blu to fly. They meet red-crested cardinal Pedro and his yellow canary friend Nico. Nigel coerces a horde of marmosets led by Mauro to capture Blu and Jewel. Pedro and Nico take the macaws to a samba dance party, where they begin to fall in love, until the marmosets arrive. The five birds escape on a tram.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: At the smugglers' hideout Fernando, Linda, and Túlio discover the birds are no longer there. Henchmen Armando and Tipa reveal they plan to use the Rio Carnival parade to take the birds to the airport. Blu and the others meet Luiz, who breaks the chain holding Blu and Jewel together. Once released, Jewel flies happily into the sky with the others. Hurt, Blu goes to look for Linda, but Jewel does not want to leave Blu behind. After a brief argument, they go their separate ways.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: When Nigel captures Jewel, Blu and Rafael rush to the carnival to rescue her. As Linda and Túlio pose as dancers in Spix's macaw costumes, Nigel captures Blu and the group. The smugglers take off in their aircraft. Blu breaks out his cage and releases the other birds. Nigel injures Jewel's wing. Blu sends Nigel into the plane's propellers and the plane to begin to fall. The smugglers jump from the plane while Jewel falls out of the open cargo hatch. Jumping out of the plane to rescue her, Blu discovers he can fly. He and Jewel kiss and he carries her to Linda and Túlio.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: Linda and Túlio adopt Fernando and live in their jungle sanctuary. Blu and Jewel raise three chicks together and celebrate with Rafael, Nico, Pedro, Luiz, Linda, and Túlio, who have set up a branch of Blu and Linda's Minnesota bookstore in Rio. Nigel has survived the plane crash, but Mauro ridicules him for losing his feathers. The smugglers are sent to jail.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: Saldanha first had the idea for the film in 2005, involving a penguin being washed up on the beaches of Ipanema; it was changed to the current story after he learned of "Happy Feet" and "Surf's Up" (two other films involving penguins) being produced. He pitched the idea to Chris Wedge at Blue Sky in 2006. Saldanha showed the animators maps and books with geographic landmarks and measurements, from which they built a digital version of Rio. Later, a group of artists from the company visited Rio to see the various story locations. The animators also met with an expert on macaws at the Bronx Zoo to gain insight into their movement and personalities. Saldanha himself is a Brazilian from Rio de Janeiro; such elements of Brazilian culture and landmarks were also influenced from Saldanha growing up in Brazil.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: The lead voice actors were approached in 2009. Jemaine Clement was approached to do the film after seeing test shots of his character Nigel doing a speech from "Flight of the Conchords", which was done prior to a script being finalized. Neil Patrick Harris was supposed to voice Blu, but had other commitments outside production; he was later replaced by Jesse Eisenberg. Eisenberg was asked during the filming of "The Social Network" if he would do his voice recording on the weekends, and he agreed after reading the script, saying: "It was the perfect antidote to get out of the mindset of my character in "Social Network" who was so severe, and in some ways so joyless."


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: For music, they brought on board Sérgio Mendes to act as music guru and online living library. He in turn was able to reach out to artists such as will.i.am and Carlinhos Brown to provide music for the film.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: Eisenberg and Anne Hathaway, who voiced Jewel, had acted together before when both were still teenagers, when they played siblings in the short-lived 1999 TV show "Get Real". Hathaway stated in an interview that she didn't see Eisenberg during production of "Rio" except "socially throughout the process," but that she was "very happy for all of his success."


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: "Rio (Music from the Motion Picture)" was released by Interscope Records on April 5, 2011, for digital download and followed by a physical release on April 12, 2011. The album was produced by the film's score composer John Powell (who regularly worked on most of Blue Sky's films) and Brazilian musician Sérgio Mendes, and features performances from the film's cast, alongside collaborations from Brazilian and American musicians. On March 18, 2011, Brazilian-English singer-songwriter Taio Cruz released a music video and theme song named "Telling the World" on YouTube for the soundtrack, and was released for digital download, two days later. It was positively received, and debuted at number 60 on "Billboard" 200 charts. Powell's score for the film was released into a separate album on April 19, 2011, by the Varèse Sarabande label.


title: Rio (2011 film)

text: The world premiere of "Rio" took place on March 22, 2011, at a Cinépolis theater in Lagoa, Rio de Janeiro. The United States premiere was on April 10, 2011, at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California, and was released throughout the country five days later. Since May 2009, it had been scheduled to be released in the United States on April 8, 2011, but in December 2010, it was rescheduled a week later to April 15, 2011.