title: Oaxaca

text: Local public transportation is offered various local business using pickup trucks, buses and small cargo trucks.(eumed) Oaxaca city has separate first class and second class bus stations, offering services to most places within the state of Oaxaca, including the coastal resorts of Huatulco, Puerto Escondido, Puerto Ángel and Pinotepa Nacional, and also long-distance services to Puebla and Mexico City and other Mexican locations such as Veracruz. Intercity bus services is provided by companies such as ADO, Cristòbal Colòn, SUR, Fletes y Pasajes and AU. Smaller providers provide service in vans, especially between the city of Oaxaca and the coast. These operators have existed only semi-legally in the past but legal issues have since been resolved.


title: Oaxaca

text: Newspapers of Oaxaca include: "El Imparcial de Oaxaca", "El Imparcial del Istmo", "Noticias, Voz e Imagen de Oaxaca", and "Tiempo de Oaxaca."


title: Oaxaca

text: From the latter half of the 20th century, the state has produced a number of notable painters such as Rufino Tamayo, Rodolfo Nieto, Rodolfo Morales, and Francisco Toledo. These four painters have been influential in the establishment of new movements of art from the state. These movements have spurred exhibitions, galleries, museums and schools such as the Museo de Arte Contemporaneo (MACO) and Instituto de Artes Gráficas de Oaxaca (IAGO). Many of today's artists from Oaxaca have been inspired by past indigenous paintings as well as the colonial era works of Miguel Cabrera.


title: Oaxaca

text: The state has not produced as many writers as painters but some important names include Adalberto Carriedo, Jacobo Dalevuelta, Andrés Henestrosa and Natalia Toledo.


title: Oaxaca

text: Music and dance are almost inextricably linked to the state's folkloric heritage. Even more modern composers such as Macedonio Alcalá, Samuel, Mondragón Noriega and José López Alavés are strongly influenced by traditional melodies. Traditional music and dance has its roots in the indigenous traditions that existed long before the Spanish arrived. To these traditions were added elements from European culture and Catholicism. The three main traditions to be found in the state are those of the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, with a small but distinct community of Afro-Mexicans. Some of the best known dances include Los Diablos, La Tortuga, Las Mascaritas and Los Tejorones. In the Afro-Mexican Costa Chica region, a dance called Las Chilenas stands out. La Sandunga is a song that typifies the musical style of the Tehuantepec region and a musical style called "son bioxho" is an endemic form of the son style played with drums, an empty tortoise shell and a reed flute.


title: Oaxaca

text: Oaxacan cuisine varies widely due to the relative geographic isolation of its peoples, and the climates in which foods are produced. Oaxaca's gastronomy is known for its "seven moles," chapulines (grasshoppers), Oaxaca tamales in banana leaves, tasajo and mescal. Regional variations include the wide variety of vegetables in the Central Valleys region, fish and shellfish in the Coast and Isthmus regions and the year-round availability of tropical fruit in the Papaloapan area on the Veracruz border. Like most of the rest of Mexico, corn is the staple food, with corn tortillas, called "blandas" accompanying most meals. Black beans are preferred. Oaxaca produces seven varieties of mole called manchamanteles, chichilo, amarillo, rojo, verde, coloradito and negro. These moles and other dishes are flavored with a variety of chili peppers such as pasillas Oaxaqueños, amarillos, chilhuacles, chilcostles, chile anchos and costeños. Epazote, pitiona and hoja santa are favored herbs in Oaxacan cooking. The last is indispensable for the preparation of mole verde.


title: Oaxaca

text: Chocolate, which is grown in the state, plays an important part in the making of certain moles, but is best known for its role as a beverage. The cacao beans are ground then combined with sugar, almonds, cinnamon and other ingredients to form bars. Pieces of these bars are mixed with hot milk or water and drunk. Oaxaca cheese is a soft white string cheese which is similar to mozzarella. It is sold in "ropes" which are wound onto themselves into balls. It is eaten cold or lightly melted on quesadillas and other dishes. One unique aspect to Oaxacan cuisine is the consumption of "chapulines," which are a type of grasshopper that has been fried and seasoned with salt, lime and chili pepper.


title: Oaxaca

text: There is a saying in Oaxaca, "Para todo mal, mezcal, para todo bien, también" (For everything bad, mezcal; for everything good, the same.) Alcoholic and non alcoholic drinks (as well as food items) based on the maguey plant have been consumed in many parts of Mexico since early in the pre-Hispanic period. The tradition of the making of the distilled liquor called mezcal has been a strong tradition in the Oaxacan highlands since the colonial period. One reason for this is the quality and varieties of maguey grown here. Some varieties, such as espadín and arroquense are cultivated but one variety called tobalá is still made with wild maguey plants. It is made with the heart of the plant which is roasted in pits (giving the final product a smokey flavor) and is sometimes flavored with a chicken or turkey breast (pechuga) added to the mash. It is mezcal, not tequila, and may contain a "worm," which is really a larva that infests maguey plants. The final distilled product can be served as is or can be flavored (called cremas) with almonds, coffee, cocoa fruits and other flavors.


title: Oaxaca

text: The town of Santiago Matatlán calls itself the world capital of mezcal. The best known producer here is Rancho Zapata, which also has a restaurant. It is owned by a man that goes only by the name of Tío (uncle) Pablo, who won first prize for his mezcal in Chicago in 2003. In many parts of the Central Valleys area, one can find small stands and stores selling locally made mezcal on roadsides.


title: Oaxaca

text: Most tourist attractions are located in the city of Oaxaca and the Central Valleys region that surrounds it. This area is the cultural, geographical and political center of the state, filled with pre-Hispanic ruins, Baroque churches and monasteries, indigenous markets and villages devoted to various crafts. The capital city, along with nearby Monte Albán together are listed as a World Heritage Site. Many of the attractions in the city proper are located between the main square or Zocalo and along Andador Macedonio Alcalà Street, known as the Andador Turístico or Tourist Walkway. These include the Cathedral, the Basilica of Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, Museum of Contemporary Art (MACO), Rufino Tamayo Museum and the Mercado 20 de Noviembre, known for its food stands. The most important annual festival is the Guelaguetza, also called the Fiesta del Lunes del Cerro (Festival of Mondays at the Mountain) which occurs each July.


title: Oaxaca

text: The largest and most important archeological site is Monte Albán, which was capital of the Zapotec empire. Also important as an archaeological site is the ancient Zapotec center of Mitla at the eastern end of the Central Valleys which is noted for its unique ancient stone fretwork and abstract mosaics. Between Mitla and Monte Albán there are a number of other important archeological sites such as Yagul, Dainzú and Lambityeco. The most important of these three is Lambityeco, in the middle of the Tlacolula Valley. It was occupied from 600 BCE to 800 CE and coincides with Monte Alban. It was important at that time for its production of salt. Yagul is a ceremonial center on the side of a mountain. Features include a Mesoamerican ball court, the La Rana courtyard, a temple, palace and other buildings.


title: Oaxaca

text: Other attractions in the area include colonial constructions such as the monasteries in Cuilapan, Tlaxiaco, Coixthlahuaca, Yanhuitlán and Santo Domingo. Churches include the Cathedral in Oaxaca and the main church of Teposcolula. Hierve el Agua is an area with "petrified" waterfalls, where water with extremely high mineral content falls over the side of cliffs, forming stone waterfall-like structures. The name means "boiling water" but the water is not hot; rather it pushes up from the ground in places which looks like water boiling. Santa María del Tule is home to an enormous Montezuma cypress (Taxodium mucronatum) tree which is over 2,000 years old. The town of Zaachila is known for its archeological site and weekly market.


title: Oaxaca

text: The second most important zone for tourism is the coast, especially from Puerto Escondido to Huatulco, with sandy beaches on the Pacific Ocean, dolphins, sea turtles, and lagoons with water birds. Many beaches are nearly virgin with few visitors but several areas have been developed such as Puerto Escondido, Huatulco, Puerto Ángel, Zipolite, San Agustinillo and Mazunte. Puerto Escondido is an important destination for tourism from within Mexico with beaches such as Playa Carrizalillo and also attracts international surfers to Zicatela Beach, where an annual surfing competition is held. There are also areas of Oaxaca that are promoted for ecotourism such as Lagunas de Chacahua National Park set in 14,267 hectares of lagoons, rivers, beaches, mangroves, rainforest and grasslands with some 136 species of birds, 23 of reptiles, 4 amphibians and twenty types of mammals.


title: Oaxaca

text: Yagul Natural Monument, located in the Tlacolula Valley, 35 km to the east of Oaxaca city, was a settlement in the early part of the Monte Alban 1 Period (500 CE). It flourished as an urban centre, following the abandonment of Monte Alban around 800 BCE. However, even Yagul was abandoned for a brief period, before it became a city-state in Oaxaca. This status continued until the Spanish Conquistadores invaded the valley, which was then a settlement of Zapotecs. The fortified complex is laid out in three zones; the central part approached through a series of steps is a built-up platform that leads to the temples and palaces. It has the largest ball court in the valley and stated to be the second largest in the Mesoamerican region. The palace of the rulers is an enormous monolith with six porticos and several entrances, built in stone and clay and covered with stucco. The main tomb has a stone façade, which is beautified with carved human heads and features hieroglyphic motifs on the door slab on both sides. To the south of the Palace of the Six Porticos, there is a narrow street that is paved with stone mosaics extracted from the nearby mountain. The street terminates into a long, narrow room called the 'Sala de Consejo' (Council Chamber).


title: Oaxaca

text: Because of its indigenous tradition and abundance of raw materials, Oaxaca is a leading producer of handcrafts in Mexico. Handcrafted items here are noted for their variety and quality. Oaxacan handcrafts are traditionally made with wood, wool, clay and leather and are sold in many venues from local tianguis markets to upscale international stores. The best-known wood craft is the making of "alebrije" figures, which are usually miniature, brightly colored real or imaginary animals. These were originally created from paper and cardboard in Mexico City, but this craft was adapted to native Oaxacan woodcarving to the form it has today. Carver Manuel Jiménez of Arrazola is credited with the creating of the Oaxacan version of this craft. Other wood crafts include the making of masks, toys and utensils. Major woodcarving areas include San MartínTilcajete and Arrazola.


title: Oaxaca

text: Pottery has a long tradition that extends into the pre-Hispanic period. Oaxaca shares many pottery types with other parts of Mexico along with two of its own: barro negro and the green glazed pottery of Atzompa. The first is centered in the town of San Bartolo Coyotepec near the capital city. This pottery gets its color from the local clay used to make it and its shine from a technique developed by Doña Rosa Nieto in the mid-20th century. The Atompa green-glazed ware is made much the same way it was in colonial times, although there have been some recent innovations with color and decorative techniques. This pottery is found in Santa María Atzompa, near Oaxaca city.


title: Oaxaca

text: Another major craft category is textiles. Textiles from cotton and other fibers date to early in the pre-Hispanic period on backstrap looms. This form of weaving has been dominated by women since that time. The Spanish introduced the wide European frame loom, which is mostly used by men. Traditional clothing items such as huipils are still made on backstrap looms, while the European looms are used to produce larger and heavier items such as rugs, sarapes and blankets, notably in the village of Teotitlán del Valle. Other items are produced with cotton fibers, although some maguey fibers can be found, while palm fronds are used to produce mats and hats. Embroidery is an important part of indigenous clothing, especially for women. One municipality noted for its indigenous and embroidered clothing is Santo Tomás Jalietza, just south of the city of Oaxaca. The Xochimilco neighborhood of the capital is known for its embroidered tablecloths, napkins and other tableware.


title: Oaxaca

text: Both precious and non-precious metals are worked in the state. Many gold and silver jewelry items are made with filigree (fine metal thread) which is weaved and wrapped into shapes. This technique is Arab in origin and was introduced by the Spanish. The municipalities of Santo Domingo Tehuantepec, Juchitán de Zaragoza and Huajuapan de León are known for this work. Other metals, especially iron, are forged into utilitarian and decorative items in places such as Santiago Jamiltepec and Tlacolula de Matamoros. Items produced include mirrors, frames, figures, knives, machetes and more.


title: Oaxaca

text: The state of Oaxaca has no official flag, but the state government uses a flag with a white background and a shield in the center.


title: Oaxaca

text: The coat of arms consists of a red canvas, wrapped around its upper end; inside within a white oval is the inscription "EL RESPETO AL DERECHO AJENO ES LA PAZ" (Respect for the rights of others is peace), and the slogan words are separated from each other by symbolic representations of nopales. The inner oval is divided into three parts: on the bottom are two arms breaking chains; in the upper left is a stylised image of the state of Oaxaca, with the flower and fruit, in a stylised form, of the huaje tree; and at the top right is the profile of one of the palaces from the archaeological site of Mitla, with a Dominican Cross to its right. Around the oval are distributed seven golden stars, three on the bottom, two on the right above the oval and two to the left above the oval. On the bottom of the canvas is the phrase "ESTADO LIBRE Y SOBERANO DE OAXACA" (The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca). Above the canvas is the Shield of Mexico.


title: Oaxaca

text: While the educational system of the state provides services to 1.1 million students in 12,244 schools, with 54,274 teachers, the Mexican government agency Conapo ranks Oaxaca as the third most marginalized state in Mexico, based on factors such as education and housing. 80% of the municipalities of the state do not meet minimum requirements for these services. The Sierra Sur and La Mixteca regions has the most municipalities in this category. The average child in Oaxaca attends school for 6.39 years, below the national average of 8 years.


title: Oaxaca

text: In rural areas of the state, there is extremely limited education offerings beyond elementary school. Indigenous people comprise 33% of the state population, of which only 5% ever attain an education beyond the primary grade levels. In addition, 90% of all indigenous teachers do not have satisfactory academic backgrounds.


title: Oaxaca

text: Concerning the general population, most of those aged 15 years or older have finished primary school, but completion of secondary school is well below the national average. Just over 21% of the population is illiterate, above the national average of 12.4%. 45% of those over 15 years of age have not finished primary school. Only a small minority of the population has professional aspirations with 6.7% attaining studies at the baccalaureate level or above.


title: Oaxaca

text: Higher-level education in Oaxaca has traditionally been limited to a few schools, although this is changing. The largest university in the state is the Benito Juárez Autonomous University of Oaxaca (UABJO), located in the capital city of Oaxaca de Juarez. Founded in 1827 as the Oaxacan Institute for Arts and Sciences, today UABJO offers the widest range of curricula in the state. In addition standard undergraduate studies, specialized schools such as the UABJO School of Medicine and UABJO School of Law offer advanced academic degrees (i.e. Juris Doctor, M.D., PhD) in their respective fields. Other universities the Instituto Tecnológico de Oaxaca, which offers several undergraduate and graduate level programs, and the Universidad de la Sierra Juárez, which was opened in 2005 to help provide higher education to underserved rural areas in the Sierra Juarez mountains. The UABJO has expanded its educational offerings, in coordination with the UNAM offers the type of open and distance education.


title: Oaxaca

text: In addition there is the SUNEO university system. Two of the largest institutions of this system are the Universidad Tecnológica de la Mixteca (UTM) and the Universidad del Mar (UMAR). The first offers bachelor's, master's and postgraduate courses in the areas of computing, electronics, design and business studies, while the second offers undergraduate and master's degrees in the areas of social sciences and marine sciences.


title: Oaxaca

text: Ninety five percent of Oaxaca's population receives health care from one or more government programs. Government health services used include IMSS; Seguridad Social, ISSSTE and that related to PEMEX.(infraes) The state sponsors the Servicios de Salud de Oaxaca (SSO) which primarily works to provide antibiotics and other medicines to public dispensaries. It is meant to supplement other federal and state services such as IMSS. There are 1,020 primary care medical facilities and 28 hospitals in the state, 3,240,024 people are registered in one or more government programs and are attended by 3,337 doctors, 5,400 paramedics and 6,887 other health providers. Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Oaxaca was constructed by the federal government as the first "level three" or high level specialty hospital in the state. It was opened in 2006 and is located in San Bartolo Coyotepec.


title: Oaxaca

text: One particular health problem the state has is outbreaks of dengue fever during the rainy season, which occurs from June to October. Some of these cases are hemorrhagic. The problem is more severe in the tropical lowlands of the state, near the ocean.


title: Oaxaca

text: Despite the health services that exist, there are serious problems and deficiencies. As of 1997, life expectancy in the state was 71.5 years, 9 years higher than in 1990. The death rate has decreased from 5.79 deaths per thousand to 5.14. While much of Mexico's health care system struggles to meet needs, the system in Oaxaca, one of the country's poorest states, has it particularly bad. The relatively prosperous state of Nuevo León has 3,207 hospital beds, while Oaxaca has only 1,760, despite the fact that the two states have about the same population. There is about the same ratio of doctors between the two states. Forty four percent of pregnant women receive pre-natal care from people who are not medically qualified. 70 women each year die from complications from pregnancy and childbirth, and most of these are avoidable, due to bleeding and eclampsia. For every 100,000 live births in Oaxaca, there are 95.1 maternal deaths, over the national average of 63.3, putting the state in the top five.


title: Oaxaca

text: The state lacks sufficient numbers of health care workers and lacks specialized hospital and other facilities. Other problems include obsolete medical equipment, lack of medicines. Many of these problems have persisted for decades. Health care providers offer an average of 20,000 consults each day, covering a population of 800,000 people. In 2000, there was only one doctor for every 180 people.


title: Oaxaca

text: In 2006, health care workers held a work stoppage and march, demanding improvements in the health care system along with the ouster of Governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz. Most of the participating strikers were from the hospital and emergency room sectors, from 15 hospitals and 650 health centers in the state.


title: Oaxaca

text: Football, baseball and basketball are popular in Oaxaca. Football is most popular in Oaxaca city and in Huajuapan de Leon, having a notable international player by the name of Ricardo Osorio. The baseball team, Guerreros de Oaxaca, play at the Eduardo Vasconcelos Stadium in Oaxaca de Juarez and play in the Mexican League. The Oaxacan Academy of Baseball is located in the municipality of San Bartolo Coyotepec. It was created in 2009 by Alfredo Harp Helú, owner of the Diablos Rojos and Guerreros de Oaxaca teams. The goal of the academy is to reach youth people through sports and education, especially those who show talent for the sport of baseball. Vinicio Castilla is the most notable player hailing from Oaxaca, having played third base in Major League Baseball for the Atlanta Braves, Colorado Rockies, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Houston Astros and San Diego Padres. He became the owner of the Oaxaca Guerreros in 1995 and three years later they won the championship. Basketball is practiced in all of Oaxaca, mostly played during local festivals, especially in the Sierra Norte. The area also has a tournament with the Copa Juárez as the prize.


title: Oaxaca

text: The best known beach in Puerto Escondido is Playa Zicatela, due to its fame as a surfing attraction. The "tubes" produced by the waves that come ashore here attract advanced and professional surfers from all over Mexico and internationally. The Torneo Internacional de Surf (International Surfing Tournament) is held here each year in November and is a world class event. It has attracted names such as Nathaniel Curran from the U.S., Cris Davison from Australia and Marco Polo from Brazil, with its US$50,000 first prize.


title: Oaxaca

text: Because of its geography and landscape, mountain biking is also common in Oaxaca and is practiced primarily in the Sierra Norte in Ixtlan de Juarez, San Antonio Cuajimoloyas, Santa Catarian Ixtepeji, Benito Juarez Lachatao and San Isidro Llano Grande. Surfing is common in places such as Huatulco Bay and Puerto Escondido, with the annual Zicatela beach tournament held in November. Snorkeling and scuba diving take place in Puerto Escondido, principally in Playa Carrizalillo and Playa Manzanillo, Playa Marinero and Puerto Angelito and at Huatulco. Sport fishing is common in Puerto Escondido and in Huatulco with tournaments held in November and May respectively. Anglers, catch sailfish, dorado, marlin and others. In Huajuapan de Leon there is a fishing tournament at the Yosocuta Dam in July; it is noted for its black bass (lobina). Kayaking also takes places along the Copalita River in Huatulco.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Philip Anthony Jones (born 21 February 1992) is an English professional footballer who plays for club Manchester United. Before joining Manchester United, Jones played for Blackburn Rovers at both youth and senior levels. Although primarily a centre-back, he has also been used as a right-back or defensive midfielder.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Jones has represented England at various levels. He played for the under-19 team in 2009 before making his debut for the under-21 team in 2010. He made his debut for the England senior team in 2011, and represented his country at UEFA Euro 2012, and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Jones was born in Preston, Lancashire, and grew up in nearby Clayton-le-Woods. He attended Balshaw's CE High School in Leyland, and played for the Ribble Wanderers under-10 team.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Jones joined the Blackburn Rovers youth team in 2002. He then joined the senior team for the 2009–10 Premier League season, signing a two-year professional contract. He made his first-team debut for Blackburn after starting the League Cup match against Nottingham Forest on 22 September 2009, in which Blackburn won 1–0. Then in February 2010, he signed a new five-year contract that included a £16 million release clause. Jones made his first Premier League start for Blackburn against Chelsea on 21 March, just a month after turning 18. He was widely praised for his committed and assured performance at centre-back, making several crucial blocks and interceptions as Rovers held the champions to a 1–1 draw at Ewood Park. In the 2009–10 season, he made nine league appearances, and three cup appearances.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: The 2010–11 season started in promising fashion with Jones starting in the opening match of the campaign against Everton, and subsequently playing the majority of the club's matches in the first half of the season, albeit in an unfamiliar defensive midfield role. A torn knee cartilage injury in a match against West Ham United in December, threatened to rule him out for the remainder of the season. However, on 19 March 2011, he made his return from injury against Blackpool at Ewood Park coming on as a second-half substitute for Brett Emerton in a 2–2 draw. On 2 April 2011, Jones started a first-team match for the first time in four months against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium, playing the full 90 minutes in a 0–0 draw. Despite his injury, he played 26 league matches, and two cup matches for Blackburn that season.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: At the end of the 2010–11 season, Manchester United were reportedly interested in signing Jones. Alex Ferguson was apparently impressed with Jones' commitment and leadership skills at centre-back when Blackburn held United to a 1–1 draw on the day United clinched the 2010–11 title. On 13 June 2011, United confirmed that they had reached an agreement to sign Jones on a five-year deal for an undisclosed transfer fee believed to be at least £16.5 million; the deal would be finalised upon his return from international duty. He made his debut for the club on the 2011 pre-season tour to the United States, in United's 3–1 victory over Chicago Fire.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Jones made his competitive debut for Manchester United as a second-half substitute, replacing Rio Ferdinand in the 2011 FA Community Shield against rivals Manchester City. United were 2–0 behind, but won 3–2. Jones made his league debut a week later, again as a substitute replacing Ferdinand, as United beat West Bromwich Albion 2–1 on the opening weekend. He made his full Premier League debut on 22 August 2011 against Tottenham Hostpur in a 3–0 victory at Old Trafford, playing the entire match alongside Jonny Evans. On 10 September 2011, Jones provided two assists for Wayne Rooney in United's 5–0 thumping of Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium. He played the entire match at right-back and created Rooney's first goal after a quick throw in and pin point cross for Rooney to tap home. Then five minutes later, Jones embarked on a mazy dribble going past numerous Bolton defenders before his shot was blocked by the goalkeeper but followed up by Rooney. Jones started the away match to Liverpool as a box-to-box midfielder, different from his usual centre-back and full-back positions he was accustomed to.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Jones scored his first ever senior goal on 3 December 2011, in a 1–0 away win against Aston Villa. He arrived in the box from central midfield to meet a cross from Nani with a controlled side foot volley to score the match's only goal. Jones scored a consolation goal against Basel in a 2–1 Champions League defeat that resulted in United being knocked out of the competition, heading in a loose ball after Federico Macheda's shot had come back off the bar. On 21 December 2011, he suffered a facial injury in an away match against Fulham, however the X-ray showed no serious damage and Jones returned to action in the 3–2 defeat against Blackburn on 31 December.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: After suffering a back problem and having a knee operation which kept him out for the start of the 2012–13 season, Jones made his first appearance in an away match against Galatasaray in the UEFA Champions League on 20 November. He made his first Premier League appearance on 28 November 2012, replacing Anderson in the 84th minute of a 1–0 win at home to West Ham United. He scored his first goal of the 2013–14 season on 29 October in a 4–0 win against Norwich City in the League Cup. On 10 December, he scored the only goal of the match in a 1–0 win against Shakhtar Donetsk in the final group-stage match of the UEFA Champions League, ensuring Manchester United finished top of the group.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 1 July 2015, Jones signed a new four-year contract with Manchester United. On 8 February 2019, he signed a new contract until 2023. On 9 February, Jones assisted Anthony Martial in a 3–0 win over Fulham, his first goal involvement since 2014.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 26 January 2020, he scored in a 6–0 FA Cup win against Tranmere Rovers; it was his first goal for United since March 2014. He then spent 20 months injured, finally returning to training and playing with the reserves in September 2021.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: In September 2021, Jones opened up on his injury problems, stating "I think as a footballer, as a person, as a human being, that's the lowest I probably ever felt in my life".


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Following an injury to Harry Maguire, coupled with existing injuries to Eric Bailly and Victor Lindelöf, Jones made his return to first team action in a 1–0 home defeat to Wolverhampton Wanderers on 3 January 2022, his first appearance in nearly two years.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Jones made his debut for the England under-19 team in the 3–1 win over Turkey on 17 November 2009. He appeared a further three times for the under-19s.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 4 August 2010, Jones was called up to the England under-21 squad. On 10 August, Jones won his first under-21 cap, starting for England against Uzbekistan. He was substituted in the 46th minute and was replaced by Liverpool's Martin Kelly. He was selected for the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship in Denmark and was made captain by manager Stuart Pearce for the final group stage match against the Czech Republic.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 5 August 2011, he was called up to the England senior team for the friendly against the Netherlands by Fabio Capello, but did not end up playing as the match was cancelled four days later by the Football Association after riots in London. On 7 October 2011, Jones made his debut for the England senior team in a 2–2 draw against Montenegro in UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying. After the match, Capello said Jones was "born with talent", and praised his performance.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Jones was named in England's UEFA Euro 2012 squad by Capello's replacement Roy Hodgson. However, he did not make an appearance during the tournament.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 12 May 2014, Jones was named in England's 23-man squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Due to a shoulder injury, Hodgson took uncapped defender John Stones as standby for Jones, but he recovered before 2 June deadline. With England's elimination likely, Jones was given a tournament debut as a starter in the final group match, helping the team to a clean sheet in a 0–0 draw with Costa Rica in Belo Horizonte.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: He was named in the 23-man England national team squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. He played two matches, both against Belgium (in the group stage and third place play-off), and both ended in defeat.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Known for his physical power and build, Jones has been called a "jack of all trades" for his ability to play at centre-back, right-back or as a defensive midfielder. Despite the suggestion that his best position is centre-back, he often fills in at right-back. With his stocky build, opposition players have found it hard to bully Jones off the ball or out-muscle him.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Former Manchester United player Bobby Charlton has said that Jones evoked memories of the late Duncan Edwards, "If you talk to Bobby Charlton", says Pat Crerand, Charlton's teammate in United's 1967–68 European Cup-winning team, "Phil Jones reminds him of Duncan Edwards with his power and build."


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: In 2011, England manager Fabio Capello compared Jones to former A.C. Milan and Italy captain Franco Baresi, and former Real Madrid and Spain captain Fernando Hierro.


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: In 2013, Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson offered perhaps the most glowing endorsement of Jones' abilities, saying "The way he is looking, he could be our best ever player. He may be one of the best players we have ever had, no matter where we play him. At 21 years of age, he is going to be a phenomenal player. He can play anywhere on the pitch. He has such a massive influence, with his instinct and reading of the game."


title: Phil Jones (footballer, born 1992)

text: Later assessments of Jones' style were less flattering, with former Manchester United captain Roy Keane deeming Jones "not good at defending or [a] good defender". Jones was described by The Athletic as "someone who has become a running joke for football's LOL generation". In 2019, reflecting on Ferguson's 2013 endorsement of Jones, The i noted that "in more than six years Jones has produced more internet memes, as he falls flat on his face or it contorts in an impossible expression, than convincing performances in a Manchester United shirt", while suggesting Ferguson's comments "could well be the biggest error of judgement he ever made in his career".


title: Endianness

text: In computing, endianness, also known as byte sex, is the order or sequence of bytes of a word of digital data in computer memory. Endianness is primarily expressed as big-endian (BE) or little-endian (LE). A big-endian system stores the most significant byte of a word at the smallest memory address and the least significant byte at the largest.


title: Endianness

text: A little-endian system, in contrast, stores the least-significant byte at the smallest address. Bi-endianness is a feature supported by numerous computer architectures that feature switchable endianness in data fetches and stores or for instruction fetches.


title: Endianness

text: Endianness may also be used to describe the order in which the bits are transmitted over a communication channel, e.g., big-endian in a communications channel transmits the most significant bits first. Bit-endianness is seldom used in other contexts.


title: Endianness

text: Danny Cohen introduced the terms "big-endian" and "little-endian" into computer science for data ordering in an Internet Experiment Note published in 1980.


title: Endianness

text: The adjective "endian" has its origin in the writings of 18th century Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift. In the 1726 novel "Gulliver's Travels", he portrays the conflict between sects of Lilliputians divided into those breaking the shell of a boiled egg from the big end or from the little end. He called them the "Big-Endians" and the "Little-Endians". Cohen makes the connection to "Gulliver's Travels" explicit in the appendix to his 1980 note.


title: Endianness

text: Computers store information in various-sized groups of binary bits. Each group is assigned a number, called its "address", that the computer uses to access that data. On most modern computers, the smallest data group with an address is eight bits long and is called a byte. Larger groups comprise two or more bytes, for example, a 32-bit word contains four bytes. There are two possible ways a computer could number the individual bytes in a larger group, starting at either end. Both types of endianness are in widespread use in digital electronic engineering. The initial choice of endianness of a new design is often arbitrary, but later technology revisions and updates perpetuate the existing endianness to maintain backward compatibility.


title: Endianness

text: Internally, any given computer will work equally well regardless of what endianness it uses since its hardware will consistently use the same endianness to both store and load its data. For this reason, programmers and computer users normally ignore the endianness of the computer they are working with. However, endianness can become an issue when moving data external to the computer – as when transmitting data between different computers, or a programmer investigating internal computer bytes of data from a memory dump – and the endianness used differs from expectation. In these cases, the endianness of the data must be understood and accounted for.


title: Endianness

text: These two diagrams show how two computers using different endianness store a 32-bit (four byte) integer with the value of . In both cases, the integer is broken into four bytes, , , , and , and the bytes are stored in four sequential byte locations in memory, starting with the memory location with address "a", then "a + 1", "a + 2", and "a + 3". The difference between big and little endian is the order of the four bytes of the integer being stored.


title: Endianness

text: The left-side diagram shows a computer using big-endian. This starts the storing of the integer with the "most"-significant byte, , at address "a", and ends with the "least"-significant byte, , at address "a + 3".


title: Endianness

text: The right-side diagram shows a computer using little-endian. This starts the storing of the integer with the "least"-significant byte, , at address "a", and ends with the "most"-significant byte, , at address "a + 3".


title: Endianness

text: Since each computer uses its same endianness to both store and retrieve the integer, the results will be the same for both computers. Issues may arise when memory is addressed by bytes instead of integers, or when memory contents are transmitted between computers with different endianness.


title: Endianness

text: Big-endianness is the dominant ordering in networking protocols, such as in the internet protocol suite, where it is referred to as network order, transmitting the most significant byte first. Conversely, little-endianness is the dominant ordering for processor architectures (x86, most ARM implementations, base RISC-V implementations) and their associated memory. File formats can use either ordering; some formats use a mixture of both or contain an indicator of which ordering is used throughout the file.


title: Endianness

text: The styles of little- and big-endian may also be used more generally to characterize the ordering of any representation, e.g. the digits in a numeral system or the sections of a date. Numbers in positional notation are generally written with their digits in left-to-right big-endian order, even in right-to-left scripts. Similarly, programming languages use big-endian digit ordering for numeric literals.


title: Endianness

text: Computer memory consists of a sequence of storage cells (smallest addressable units); in machines that support byte addressing, those units are called "bytes". Each byte is identified and accessed in hardware and software by its memory address. If the total number of bytes in memory is "n", then addresses are enumerated from 0 to "n" − 1.


title: Endianness

text: Computer programs often use data structures or fields that may consist of more data than can be stored in one byte. In the context of this article where its type cannot be arbitrarily complicated, a "field" consists of a consecutive sequence of bytes and represents a "simple data value" which – at least potentially – can be manipulated by "one" single hardware instruction. On most systems, the address of a multi-byte simple data value is the address of its first byte (the byte with the lowest address).


title: Endianness

text: These attributes of the parts of a field play an important role in the sequence the bytes are accessed by the computer hardware, more precisely: by the low-level algorithms contributing to the results of a computer instruction.


title: Endianness

text: Positional number systems (mostly base 2, or less often base 10) are the predominant way of representing and particularly of manipulating integer data by computers. In pure form this is valid for moderate sized non-negative integers, e.g. of C data type codice_1. In such a number system, the "value" of a digit which it contributes to the whole number is determined not only by its value as a single digit, but also by the position it holds in the complete number, called its significance. These positions can be mapped to memory mainly in two ways:


title: Endianness

text: The integer data that are directly supported by the computer hardware have a fixed width of a low power of 2, e.g. 8 bits ≙ 1 byte, 16 bits ≙ 2 bytes, 32 bits ≙ 4 bytes, 64 bits ≙ 8 bytes, 128 bits ≙ 16 bytes. The low-level access sequence to the bytes of such a field depends on the operation to be performed. The least-significant byte is accessed first for addition, subtraction and multiplication. The most-significant byte is accessed first for division and comparison. See .


title: Endianness

text: When character (text) strings are to be compared with one another, e.g. in order to support some mechanism like sorting, this is very frequently done lexicographically where a single positional element (character) also has a positional value. Lexicographical comparison means almost everywhere: first character ranks highest – as in the telephone book.


title: Endianness

text: Integer numbers written as text are always represented most significant digit first in memory, which is similar to big-endian, independently of text direction.


title: Endianness

text: Many historical and extant processors use a big-endian memory representation, either exclusively or as a design option. Other processor types use little-endian memory representation; others use yet another scheme called "middle-endian", "mixed-endian" or "PDP-11-endian".


title: Endianness

text: Some instruction sets feature a setting which allows for switchable endianness in data fetches and stores, instruction fetches, or both. This feature can improve performance or simplify the logic of networking devices and software. The word "bi-endian", when said of hardware, denotes the capability of the machine to compute or pass data in either endian format.


title: Endianness

text: Dealing with data of different endianness is sometimes termed the "NUXI problem". This terminology alludes to the byte order conflicts encountered while adapting UNIX, which ran on the mixed-endian PDP-11, to a big-endian IBM Series/1 computer. Unix was one of the first systems to allow the same code to be compiled for platforms with different internal representations. One of the first programs converted was supposed to print out , but on the Series/1 it printed instead.


title: Endianness

text: The IBM System/360 uses big-endian byte order, as do its successors System/370, ESA/390, and z/Architecture. The PDP-10 uses big-endian addressing for byte-oriented instructions. The IBM Series/1 minicomputer uses big-endian byte order.


title: Endianness

text: The Datapoint 2200 used simple bit-serial logic with little-endian to facilitate carry propagation. When Intel developed the 8008 microprocessor for Datapoint, they used little-endian for compatibility. However, as Intel was unable to deliver the 8008 in time, Datapoint used a medium-scale integration equivalent, but the little-endianness was retained in most Intel designs, including the MCS-48 and the 8086 and its x86 successors. The DEC Alpha, Atmel AVR, VAX, the MOS Technology 6502 family (including Western Design Center 65802 and 65C816), the Zilog Z80 (including Z180 and eZ80), the Altera Nios II, and many other processors and processor families are also little-endian.


title: Endianness

text: The Intel 8051, unlike other Intel processors, expects 16-bit addresses for LJMP and LCALL in big-endian format; however, xCALL instructions store the return address onto the stack in little-endian format.


title: Endianness

text: Similarly early IBM POWER processors were big-endian, but the PowerPC and Power ISA descendants are now bi-endian.


title: Endianness

text: The IA-32 and x86-64 instruction set architectures use the little-endian format. Other instruction set architectures that follow this convention, allowing only little-endian mode, include Nios II, Andes Technology NDS32, and Qualcomm Hexagon.


title: Endianness

text: Some instruction set architectures are "bi-endian" and allow running software of either endianness; these include Power ISA, SPARC, ARM AArch64, C-Sky, and RISC-V. IBM AIX and IBM i run in big-endian mode on bi-endian Power ISA; Linux originally ran in big-endian mode, but by 2019, IBM had transitioned to little-endian mode for Linux to ease the porting of Linux software from x86 to Power. SPARC has no relevant little-endian deployment, as both Oracle Solaris and Linux run in big-endian mode on bi-endian SPARC systems, and can be considered big-endian in practice. ARM, C-Sky, and RISC-V have no relevant big-endian deployments, and can be considered little-endian in practice.


title: Endianness

text: Some architectures (including ARM versions 3 and above, PowerPC, Alpha, SPARC V9, MIPS, Intel i860, PA-RISC, SuperH SH-4 and IA-64) feature a setting which allows for switchable endianness in data fetches and stores, instruction fetches, or both. This feature can improve performance or simplify the logic of networking devices and software. The word "bi-endian", when said of hardware, denotes the capability of the machine to compute or pass data in either endian format.


title: Endianness

text: Many of these architectures can be switched via software to default to a specific endian format (usually done when the computer starts up); however, on some systems, the default endianness is selected by hardware on the motherboard and cannot be changed via software (e.g. the Alpha, which runs only in big-endian mode on the Cray T3E).


title: Endianness

text: Note that the term "bi-endian" refers primarily to how a processor treats data accesses. Instruction accesses (fetches of instruction words) on a given processor may still assume a fixed endianness, even if data accesses are fully bi-endian, though this is not always the case, such as on Intel's IA-64-based Itanium CPU, which allows both.


title: Endianness

text: Note, too, that some nominally bi-endian CPUs require motherboard help to fully switch endianness. For instance, the 32-bit desktop-oriented PowerPC processors in little-endian mode act as little-endian from the point of view of the executing programs, but they require the motherboard to perform a 64-bit swap across all 8 byte lanes to ensure that the little-endian view of things will apply to I/O devices. In the absence of this unusual motherboard hardware, device driver software must write to different addresses to undo the incomplete transformation and also must perform a normal byte swap.


title: Endianness

text: Some CPUs, such as many PowerPC processors intended for embedded use and almost all SPARC processors, allow per-page choice of endianness.


title: Endianness

text: SPARC processors since the late 1990s (SPARC v9 compliant processors) allow data endianness to be chosen with each individual instruction that loads from or stores to memory.


title: Endianness

text: The ARM architecture supports two big-endian modes, called "BE-8" and "BE-32". CPUs up to ARMv5 only support BE-32 or word-invariant mode. Here any naturally aligned 32-bit access works like in little-endian mode, but access to a byte or 16-bit word is redirected to the corresponding address and unaligned access is not allowed. ARMv6 introduces BE-8 or byte-invariant mode, where access to a single byte works as in little-endian mode, but accessing a 16-bit, 32-bit or (starting with ARMv8) 64-bit word results in a byte swap of the data. This simplifies unaligned memory access as well as memory-mapped access to registers other than 32 bit.


title: Endianness

text: Many processors have instructions to convert a word in a register to the opposite endianness, that is, they swap the order of the bytes in a 16-, 32- or 64-bit word. All the individual bits are not reversed though.


title: Endianness

text: Recent Intel x86 and x86-64 architecture CPUs have a MOVBE instruction (Intel Core since generation 4, after Atom), which fetches a big-endian format word from memory or writes a word into memory in big-endian format. These processors are otherwise thoroughly little-endian.


title: Endianness

text: There are also devices which use different formats in different places. For instance, the BQ27421 Texas Instruments battery gauge uses the little-endian format for its registers and the big-endian format for its random-access memory. This behavior does not seem to be modifiable.


title: Endianness

text: Although many processors use little-endian storage for all types of data (integer, floating point), there are a number of hardware architectures where floating-point numbers are represented in big-endian form while integers are represented in little-endian form. There are ARM processors that have mixed-endian floating-point representation for double-precision numbers: each of the two 32-bit words is stored as little-endian, but the most significant word is stored first. VAX floating point stores little-endian 16-bit words in big-endian order. Because there have been many floating-point formats with no network standard representation for them, the XDR standard uses big-endian IEEE 754 as its representation. It may therefore appear strange that the widespread IEEE 754 floating-point standard does not specify endianness. Theoretically, this means that even standard IEEE floating-point data written by one machine might not be readable by another. However, on modern standard computers (i.e., implementing IEEE 754), one may safely assume that the endianness is the same for floating-point numbers as for integers, making the conversion straightforward regardless of data type. Small embedded systems using special floating-point formats may be another matter, however.


title: Endianness

text: Most instructions considered so far contain the size (lengths) of their operands within the operation code. Frequently available operand lengths are 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 bytes. But there are also architectures where the length of an operand may be held in a separate field of the instruction or with the operand itself, e.g. by means of a word mark. Such an approach allows operand lengths up to 256 bytes or larger. The data types of such operands are character strings or BCD. Machines able to manipulate such data with one instruction (e.g. compare, add) include the IBM 1401, 1410, 1620, System/360, System/370, ESA/390, and z/Architecture, all of them of type big-endian.


title: Endianness

text: On most systems, the address of a multi-byte value is the address of its first byte (the byte with the lowest address); little-endian systems of that type have the property that, for sufficiently low data values, the same value can be read from memory at different lengths without using different addresses (even when alignment restrictions are imposed). For example, a 32-bit memory location with content can be read at the same address as either 8-bit (value = 4A), 16-bit (004A), 24-bit (00004A), or 32-bit (0000004A), all of which retain the same numeric value. Although this little-endian property is rarely used directly by high-level programmers, it is occasionally employed by code optimizers as well as by assembly language programmers.


title: Endianness

text: In more concrete terms, identities like this are the equivalent of the following C code returning "true" on most little-endian systems:


title: Endianness

text: While not allowed by C++, such type punning code is allowed as "implementation-defined" by the C11 standard and commonly used in code interacting with hardware.


title: Endianness

text: On the other hand, in some situations it may be useful to obtain an approximation of a multi-byte or multi-word value by reading only its most significant portion instead of the complete representation; a big-endian processor may read such an approximation using the same base address that would be used for the full value.


title: Endianness

text: Some operations in positional number systems have a natural or preferred order in which the elementary steps are to be executed. This order may affect their performance on small-scale byte-addressable processors and microcontrollers. However, high-performance processors usually fetch multi-byte operands from memory in the same amount of time they would have fetched a single byte, so the complexity of the hardware is not affected by the byte ordering.


title: Endianness

text: Addition, subtraction, and multiplication start at the least significant digit position and propagate the carry to the subsequent more significant position. On most systems, the address of a multi-byte value is the address of its first byte (the byte with the lowest address). The implementation of these operations is marginally simpler using little-endian machines where this first byte contains the least significant digit.


title: Endianness

text: Comparison and division start at the most significant digit and propagate a possible carry to the subsequent less significant digits. For fixed-length numerical values (typically of length 1,2,4,8,16), the implementation of these operations is marginally simpler on big-endian machines.


title: Endianness

text: Some big-endian processors (e.g. the IBM System/360 and its successors) contain hardware instructions for lexicographically comparing varying length character strings.


title: Endianness

text: The normal data transport by an assignment statement is in principle independent of the endianness of the processor.


title: Endianness

text: The PDP-11 is in principle a 16-bit little-endian system. The instructions to convert between floating-point and integer values in the optional floating-point processor of the PDP-11/45, PDP-11/70, and in some later processors, stored 32-bit "double precision integer long" values with the 16-bit halves swapped from the expected little-endian order. The UNIX C compiler used the same format for 32-bit long integers. This ordering is known as "PDP-endian".


title: Endianness

text: A way to interpret this endianness is that it stores a 32-bit integer as two little-endian 16-bit words, with a big-endian word ordering:


title: Endianness

text: Segment descriptors of IA-32 and compatible processors keep a 32-bit base address of the segment stored in little-endian order, but in four nonconsecutive bytes, at relative positions 2, 3, 4 and 7 of the descriptor start.


title: Endianness

text: Dates can be represented with different endianness by the ordering of the year, month and day. For example, September 13, 2002 can be represented as:


title: Endianness

text: In date and time notation in the United States, dates are middle-endian and differ from date formats worldwide.


title: Endianness

text: When memory bytes are printed sequentially from left to right (e.g. in a hex dump), little-endian representation of integers has the significance increasing from left to right. In other words, it appears backwards when visualized, which can be counter-intuitive.


title: Endianness

text: This behavior arises, for example, in FourCC or similar techniques that involve packing characters into an integer, so that it becomes a sequences of specific characters in memory. Let's define the notation as simply the result of writing the characters in hexadecimal ASCII and appending to the front, and analogously for shorter sequences (a C multicharacter literal, in Unix/MacOS style):


title: Endianness

text: On big-endian machines, the value appears left-to-right, coinciding with the correct string order for reading the result:


title: Endianness

text: Middle-endian machines complicate this even further; for example, on the PDP-11, the 32-bit value is stored as two 16-bit words in big-endian, with the characters in the 16-bit words being stored in little-endian:


title: Endianness

text: Byte-swapping consists of rearranging bytes to change endianness. Many compilers provide built-ins that are likely to be compiled into native processor instructions (/), such as . Software interfaces for swapping include:


title: Endianness

text: Some CPU instruction sets provide native support for endian byte swapping, such as (x86 - 486 and later), and (ARMv6 and later).


title: Endianness

text: Some compilers have built-in facilities for byte swapping. For example, the Intel Fortran compiler supports the non-standard specifier when opening a file, e.g.: . Other compilers have options for generating code that globally enables the conversion for all file IO operations. This permits the reuse of code on a system with the opposite endianness without code modification.


title: Endianness

text: Hardware description languages (HDLs) used to express digital logic often support arbitrary endianness, with arbitrary granularity. For example, in SystemVerilog, a word can be defined as little endian or big endian:


title: Endianness

text: The recognition of endianness is important when reading a file or filesystem created on a computer with different endianness.


title: Endianness

text: Fortran sequential unformatted files created with one endianness usually cannot be read on a system using the other endianness because Fortran usually implements a record (defined as the data written by a single Fortran statement) as data preceded and succeeded by count fields, which are integers equal to the number of bytes in the data. An attempt to read such a file using Fortran on a system of the other endianness results in a run-time error, because the count fields are incorrect.


title: Endianness

text: Unicode text can optionally start with a byte order mark (BOM) to signal the endianness of the file or stream. Its code point is U+FEFF. In UTF-32 for example, a big-endian file should start with ; a little-endian should start with .


title: Endianness

text: Application binary data formats, such as MATLAB ".mat" files, or the ".bil" data format, used in topography, are usually endianness-independent. This is achieved by storing the data always in one fixed endianness or carrying with the data a switch to indicate the endianness. An example of the former is the binary XLS file format that is portable between Windows and Mac systems and always little-endian, requiring the Mac application to swap the bytes on load and save when running on a big-endian Motorola 68K or PowerPC processor.


title: Endianness

text: TIFF image files are an example of the second strategy, whose header instructs the application about endianness of their internal binary integers. If a file starts with the signature it means that integers are represented as big-endian, while means little-endian. Those signatures need a single 16-bit word each, and they are palindromes (that is, they read the same forwards and backwards), so they are endianness independent. stands for Intel and stands for Motorola, the respective CPU providers of the IBM PC compatibles (Intel) and Apple Macintosh platforms (Motorola) in the 1980s. Intel CPUs are little-endian, while Motorola 680x0 CPUs are big-endian. This explicit signature allows a TIFF reader program to swap bytes if necessary when a given file was generated by a TIFF writer program running on a computer with a different endianness.


title: Endianness

text: As a consequence of its original implementation on the Intel 8080 platform, the operating system-independent File Allocation Table (FAT) file system is defined with little-endian byte ordering, even on platforms using another endianness natively, necessitating byte-swap operations for maintaining the FAT.


title: Endianness

text: ZFS, which combines a filesystem and a logical volume manager, is known to provide adaptive endianness and to work with both big-endian and little-endian systems.


title: Endianness

text: Many IETF RFCs use the term "network order", meaning the order of transmission for bits and bytes "over the wire" in network protocols. Among others, the historic RFC 1700 (also known as Internet standard STD 2) has defined the network order for protocols in the Internet protocol suite to be big-endian, hence the use of the term "network byte order" for big-endian byte order.


title: Endianness

text: However, not all protocols use big-endian byte order as the network order. The Server Message Block (SMB) protocol uses little-endian byte order. In CANopen, multi-byte parameters are always sent least significant byte first (little-endian). The same is true for Ethernet Powerlink.


title: Endianness

text: The Berkeley sockets API defines a set of functions to convert 16-bit and 32-bit integers to and from network byte order: the (host-to-network-short) and (host-to-network-long) functions convert 16-bit and 32-bit values respectively from machine ("host") to network order; the and functions convert from network to host order. These functions may be a no-op on a big-endian system.


title: Endianness

text: While the high-level network protocols usually consider the byte (mostly meant as "octet") as their atomic unit, the lowest network protocols may deal with ordering of bits within a byte.


title: Endianness

text: Bit numbering is a concept similar to endianness, but on a level of bits, not bytes. Bit endianness or bit-level endianness refers to the transmission order of bits over a serial medium. The bit-level analogue of little-endian (least significant bit goes first) is used in RS-232, HDLC, Ethernet, and USB. Some protocols use the opposite ordering (e.g. Teletext, IC, SMBus, PMBus, and SONET and SDH), and ARINC 429 uses one ordering for its label field and the other ordering for the remainder of the frame. Usually, there exists a consistent view to the bits irrespective of their order in the byte, such that the latter becomes relevant only on a very low level. One exception is caused by the feature of some cyclic redundancy checks to detect "all" burst errors up to a known length, which would be spoiled if the bit order is different from the byte order on serial transmission.


title: Endianness

text: Apart from serialization, the terms "bit endianness" and "bit-level endianness" are seldom used, as computer architectures where each individual bit has a unique address are rare. Individual bits or bit fields are accessed via their numerical value or, in high-level programming languages, assigned names, the effects of which, however, may be machine dependent or lack software portability.


title: A-1 Pictures

text: The studio was established by SMEJ's animation production division, Aniplex, on May 9, 2005, to animate its anime series and productions. In 2006, it co-produced the original production "Zenmai Zamurai", and in October of the same year, established a studio in Asagaya. In the following year, 2007, the studio produced its first series, "Ōkiku Furikabutte".


title: A-1 Pictures

text: Originally established to oversee the production of only a few of Aniplex's family-oriented series, the studio has since grown and expanded as a full-fledged studio involved in the production of a wide range of media and anime productions and other activities, which it has overseen. The studio has also expanded its international presence, participating in the noted international convention, Anime Expo 2007 (AX 2007), held in Long Beach, California, and having its own panel there.


title: A-1 Pictures

text: In 2010, A-1 Pictures worked in collaboration with a joint project of TV Tokyo's anime department and Aniplex called Anime no Chikara for the creation of original anime series. Three anime series were produced that year for the project: "Sound of the Sky", "Night Raid 1931" and "Occult Academy".


title: A-1 Pictures

text: In April 2018, A-1 Pictures rebranded its Kōenji Studio as CloverWorks, giving it a unique brand identity, which made it distinguishable from its main Asagaya Studio. On October 1, 2018, CloverWorks separated from A-1 Pictures, although it still remains as a subsidiary under Aniplex.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: 47 Ronin is a 2013 American fantasy action film directed by Carl Rinsch in his directorial debut. Written by Chris Morgan and Hossein Amini from a story conceived by Morgan and Walter Hamada, the film is a work of "Chūshingura" ("The Treasury of Loyal Retainers"): a fictionalized account of the forty-seven rōnin, a real-life group of masterless samurai under daimyō Asano Naganori in 18th-century Japan who avenged Naganori's death by confronting his rival Kira Yoshinaka. Starring Keanu Reeves in the title role, Hiroyuki Sanada, Tadanobu Asano, Rinko Kikuchi and Ko Shibasaki, the film bears little resemblance to its historical basis compared to previous adaptations, and instead serves as a stylized interpretation set "in a world of witches and giants."


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Produced by H2F Entertainment, Mid Atlantic Films, Moving Picture Company, Stuber Productions and Relativity Media, "47 Ronin" premiered in Japan on December 6, 2013 before being released by Universal Pictures on December 25, 2013 in the United States in both 3D and 2D. While the action sequences and visuals were praised, "47 Ronin" received generally negative reviews from critics and grossed just $151 million against its production budget of $175–225 million, making it a costly box office bomb that left Universal in the red for 2013. "Variety" magazine listed "47 Ronin" as one of "Hollywood's biggest box office bombs of 2013". Despite its critical and commercial failure, a sequel, "Blade of the 47 Ronin", was released on October 25, 2022.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: In late medieval Japan, a half-Japanese, half-English outcast named Kai is saved by the benevolent Lord Asano, ruler of the Akō Domain. Kai and Asano's daughter Mika fall in love, despite the scorn her father's samurai hold for Kai’s mixed ancestry.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Lord Kira, the Shōgun's master of ceremonies, seeks to take Akō for himself with the help of Mizuki, a shapeshifting kitsune. She sends a kirin to kill Asano and his men on a hunting trip, leading Kai to ride to their aid. Taking up a fallen sword, Kai slays the monster and spots Mizuki in the form of a white fox with different-colored eyes. When the Shōgun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi visits Akō, Kai notices Mizuki disguised as a concubine with the same multi-colored eyes. He tries to warn Asano's principal counselor, Oishi, about the witch in Kira's household, but is dismissed.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: For the entertainment of the Shōgun, Kira arranges a duel between his best warrior, a golem, and Asano's chosen combatant, whom Mizuki incapacitates with magic. Kai secretly dons his armor to fight in his stead, but is unmasked during the duel, and the Shōgun orders him severely beaten. That night, Mizuki bewitches Asano into believing Kira is raping Mika, causing him to attack the unarmed lord. Sentenced to death, Asano is compelled to perform "seppuku" to preserve his honor. The Shōgun gives Kira domain over Akō and Mika, granting her one year of mourning before she must marry Kira. The Shōgun brands Oishi and his men "ronin", forbidding them from avenging Asano, and Kira has Oishi imprisoned and Kai sold into slavery.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Nearly a year later, Oishi is released by his captors, believing him harmless. Having realized that Kira used sorcery to frame Asano, Oishi and his son Chikara reunite the scattered ronin, and rescue Kai from the fighting pits of the Dutch colony of Dejima. Kai leads them to the mystical Tengu Forest, which he escaped as a child, to obtain the special blades of the Tengu. Warning Oishi never to draw his sword inside the Tengu temple, Kai faces the Tengu Master who once trained him. Faced with an illusion of his men being slaughtered by the Tengu, Oishi resists the urge to draw his sword, while Kai bests his former master. Having proven themselves worthy, the ronin receive their blades.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: They plan to ambush Kira on his pilgrimage to a shrine to seek blessings for his wedding to Mika, but the procession is a trap and most of the ronin are killed. Believing them all dead, Mizuki presents Kira with Oishi's sword, and taunts Mika with their deaths. Oishi and Kai, having survived the attack, lead half the remaining ronin to infiltrate Kira's castle, disguised as a band of wedding performers. With Kira's men distracted during the performance, the other ronin scale the castle walls and attack the guards. While Oishi fights Kira, Kai and Mika face Mizuki in the form of a dragon, and Kai finally draws on the mystical powers of the Tengu to kill her. Oishi emerges with Kira's severed head, and Kira's retainers surrender.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: The ronin and Kai surrender themselves to the authorities of the bakufu and are sentenced to death, having violated the Shōgun's prohibition on avenging Asano. However, the Shōgun declares that they followed the principles of "bushido" and restores their honor as samurai, allowing them to perform "seppuku" and receive the honor of burial with Asano. The Shōgun returns domain of Akō to Mika, and pardons Chikara so that he may preserve Oishi’s bloodline and serve Akō.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: An epilogue explains the tradition of paying respect at the graves of the 47 Ronin, which continues every year on December 14.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Universal Pictures first announced the film in December 2008, with Keanu Reeves attached to star. "Variety" then reported that "the film will tell a stylized version of the story, mixing fantasy elements of the sort seen in "The Lord of the Rings" pics, with gritty battle scenes akin to those in films such as "Gladiator."" Universal planned to produce the film in 2009 after finding a director and in November of that year, the studio entered talks with Carl Rinsch, who had filmed "visual and stylish" blurbs for brands, to direct the film.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: In December 2010, the studio announced that the film would be produced and released in 3D. Between March and April 2011, five Japanese actors were cast alongside Reeves: Hiroyuki Sanada, Tadanobu Asano, Rinko Kikuchi, Kou Shibasaki and Jin Akanishi; according to "Variety", Universal chose them in order to make the film's story more authentic rather than choose actors recognizable in the United States. Universal provided Rinsch with an initial production budget of despite his complete lack of feature film experience, which led to "The Hollywood Reporter" considering it to be a "large-scale, downright risky" move.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Principal photography began on , 2011 in Budapest. Origo Film Group contributed to the film. Production moved to Shepperton Studios in the United Kingdom; additional filming in Japan was also planned. Reeves said that scenes were filmed first in the Japanese language in order to familiarize the cast, to which the scenes were filmed again in the English language. The actors' costumes were designed by Penny Rose, who said, "We decided to base it on the culture and what the shapes should be—i.e., everyone's in a kimono—but we've thrown a kind of fashion twist at it. And we've made it full of color, which is quite unusual for me."


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Reshoots were done in London during late August 2012, which were delayed by the Olympics and the filming of Reeves' directorial debut "Man of Tai Chi". Universal pulled Rinsch from the project during the editing stages in late 2012, with Universal chairwoman Donna Langley taking over the editing process. In addition, the studio added a love scene, extra close-ups and individual lines of dialogue in order to try and boost Reeves' presence in the film, which "significantly added" to the budget of the film.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: 47 Ronin: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the film's soundtrack album of music composed and made by Ilan Eshkeri and was released on December 17, 2013 by Varèse Sarabande.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: "47 Ronin" was originally scheduled to be released on , 2012, but was moved to , 2013 due to the need for work on the 3D visual effects. It was once again moved to a final release date of , 2013 in order to account for the re-shoots and post-production.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: An endorsement from the cast of "Sengoku Basara" was held until January 23, 2014, stating that Japanese fans who tweet with the hashtag #RONIN_BASARA could win "Sengoku Basara 4" for the PS3 or a "47 Ronin" poster signed by the film's cast.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released "47 Ronin" on DVD, Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on April 1, 2014.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: The film opened in Japan in the first week of December 2013 where it opened to 753 screens nationwide and grossed an estimated US$1.3 million, opening third behind "" and the third week of the Studio Ghibli film "Kaguya-hime no Monogatari" ("The Tale of Princess Kaguya"). "Variety" called the Japanese debut "troubling", considering the well-known local cast and the fact that the film is loosely based on a famous Japanese tale. The evening tabloid newspaper "Nikkan Gendai" stated that its dismal performance were "unheard-of numbers" generated by the Japanese distaste for a Hollywood rendition of Chushingura which bore no resemblance to the renowned historical epic. In the United States the film grossed US$20.6 million in its first five days of release, opening in ninth place at the box office. It also grossed US$2.3 million for a fifth-place debut in the United Kingdom. The film was a box office bomb, unable to recover its $175 million production budget.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: "47 Ronin" received predominantly negative reviews from film critics, failing to impress Japanese audiences where studio expectations were high. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 16% approval rating based on 89 reviews, with an average score of 4.2/10. The critical consensus states: ""47 Ronin" is a surprisingly dull fantasy adventure, one that leaves its talented international cast stranded within one dimensional roles." On Metacritic the film has a score of 28 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: Kirsten Acuña of "Business Insider" stated that the film flopped for three reasons: First, it opened in December when there is an over-saturation of films for the Christmas season; second, the film took "too long in the vault", having undergone editing and lost momentum; and third, audiences had not been drawn to Reeves as an actor since "The Matrix Revolutions" (which was released ten years prior) and that he had not yet reestablished his stardom prior to making "John Wick".


title: 47 Ronin (2013 film)

text: In August 2020, a sequel was announced to be in development. Ron Yuan will serve as director, with John Orlando, Share Stallings and Tim Kwok co-producing. The plot of the film will take place 300 years in the future and will be a mashup of genres including martial arts, horror, action, and science fiction cyber-punk. By April 2021, actress Aimee Garcia and former professional wrestler-turned-author AJ Mendez were writing the sequel. Principal photography took place in Budapest in December 2021. "Blade of the 47 Ronin" was produced by Universal 1440 Entertainment and distributed by Netflix for release on October 25, 2022.


title: Dowry

text: A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment by the groom, or his family, to the bride, or her family, dowry is the wealth transferred from the bride, or her family, to the groom, or his family. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, and which remains under her ownership and control.


title: Dowry

text: Dowry is an ancient custom that is already mentioned in some of the earliest writings, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected and demanded as a condition to accept a marriage proposal in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of Asia, The custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly patrilineal and that expect women to reside with or near their husband's family (patrilocality). Dowries have long histories in Europe, South Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world.


title: Dowry

text: A dowry is the transfer of parental property to a daughter at her marriage (i.e. 'inter vivos') rather than at the owner's death ("mortis causa"). A dowry establishes a type of conjugal fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of financial security in widowhood or against a negligent husband, and may eventually go to provide for her children. Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore might include furnishings such as linens and furniture.


title: Dowry

text: Locally, dowry or trousseau is called in Urdu, Persian and Arabic; "dahej" in Hindi, in Punjabi, "daijo" in Nepali, in Turkish, "joutuk " in Bengali, "jiazhuang" in Mandarin, "varadhachanai" in Tamil, "streedhanam" in Malayalam, "miraz" in Serbo-Croatian and in various parts of Africa as "serotwana", "idana", "saduquat" or "mugtaf".


title: Dowry

text: Anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study of dowry systems around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated that dowry is a form of inheritance found in the broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland that practice "diverging devolution", i.e., that transmit property to children regardless of sex. This practice differs from the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice "homogenous inheritance" in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the "bride price", the money, goods or property given by the groom or his family to the parents of the bride (not the bride herself).


title: Dowry

text: Goody has demonstrated a historical correlation between the practices of "diverging devolution" (dowry) and the development of intensive plough agriculture on the one hand, and homogeneous inheritance (brideprice) and extensive hoe agriculture on the other. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of the work is done by women. These are the societies that give brideprice. Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy, and hence bridewealth is paid as a compensation to her family for the loss of her labour. In plough agriculture farming is largely men's work; this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with private property and marriage tends to be monogamous, to keep the property within the nuclear family. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to keep property within the group.


title: Dowry

text: There is a scholarly debate on Goody's theory. Sylvia Yanagisko argues, for example, that there are a number of societies including parts of Japan, Southern Italy, and China, that do not support Goody's claim that dowry is a form of female inheritance of male property. She notes that Goody's is an evolutionary model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today. Susan Mann argues, in contrast, with examples where even in late Imperial China, dowry was a form of female inheritance.


title: Dowry

text: Stanley J. Tambiah (Goody's co-author on the earlier "Bridewealth and Dowry") later argued that Goody's overall thesis remained pertinent in North India, although it required modification to meet local circumstances. He points out that dowry in North India is only partially used as a bride's conjugal fund, and that a large part goes directly to the groom's joint family. This would initially seem to discount Goody's model, except that in North India, the joint family is composed of the groom's parents, his married brothers and unmarried sisters, and their third generation children. This joint family controlled this part of the dowry, which they used to help fund their own daughter/sister's dowries. But when the parents die, and the joint family partitions, this jointly held wealth was then divided among the married sons, such that ultimately, the bride's dowry given to the joint family returned to her and her husband as their "conjugal fund."


title: Dowry

text: Schlegel and Eloul expanded on Goody's model through further statistical analysis of the Ethnographic atlas. They argue that a major factor in determining the type of marriage transaction is the type of property controlled by the household. Bridewealth circulates property and women, and is typical of societies where property is limited. Dowry concentrates property and is found in property owning classes or commercial or landed pastoral peoples. When families give dowry, they not only ensure their daughter's economic security, they also "buy" the best possible husband for her, and son-in-law for themselves.


title: Dowry

text: Even in the oldest available records, such as the Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon, the dowry is described as an already-existing custom. Daughters did not normally inherit any of her father's estate. Instead, with marriage, the bride got a dowry from her parents, which was intended to offer her as much lifetime security as her family could afford.


title: Dowry

text: In Babylonia, both bride price and dowry auctions were practiced. However, bride price almost always became part of the dowry. According to Herodotus, auctions of maidens were held annually. The auctions began with the woman the auctioneer considered to be the most beautiful and progressed to the least. It was considered illegal to allow a daughter to be sold outside of the auction method. Attractive maidens were offered in an auction to determine the bride price to be paid by a swain, while in the case of maidens lacking attractivity a reverse auction was needed to determine the dowry to be paid to a swain. In case of divorce without reason, a man was required to give his wife the dowry she brought as well as the bride price the husband gave. The return of dowry could be disputed, if the divorce was for a reason allowed under Babylonian law.


title: Dowry

text: A wife's dowry was administered by her husband as part of the family assets. He had no say, however, in its ultimate disposal; and legally, the dowry had to be kept separate for it was expected to support the wife and her children. The wife was entitled to her dowry at her husband's death. If she died childless, her dowry reverted to her family, that is her father if he was alive, otherwise her brothers. If she had sons, they would share it equally. Her dowry was inheritable only by her own children, not by her husband's children by other women.


title: Dowry

text: In archaic Greece, the usual practice was to give a bride price ("hédnon" ("ἕδνον")). Dowries ("pherné" ("φερνή")) were exchanged by the later classical period (5th century B.C). A husband had certain property rights in his wife's dowry. In addition, the wife might bring to the marriage property of her own, which was not included in the dowry and which was, as a result, hers alone. This property was "beyond the dowry" (Greek "parapherna", the root of paraphernalia) and is referred to as paraphernal property or extra-dotal property.


title: Dowry

text: A dowry may also have served as a form of protection for the wife against the possibility of ill treatment by her husband and his family, providing an incentive for the husband not to harm his wife. This would apply in cultures where a dowry was expected to be returned to the bride's family if she died soon after marrying.


title: Dowry

text: The Romans practiced dowry ("dos"). The dowry was property transferred by the bride, or on her behalf by anyone else, to the groom or groom's father, at their marriage. Dowry was a very common institution in Roman times, and it began out of a desire to get the bride's family to contribute a share of the costs involved in setting up a new household. Dos was given for the purpose of enabling the husband to sustain the charges of the marriage state (onera matrimonii). All the property of the wife which was not dowry, or was not a donatio propter nuptias, continued to be her own property, and was called "Parapherna". The dowry could include any form of property, given or promised at the time of marriage, but only what remained after deducting the debts. Not only the bride's family, any person could donate his property as dowry for the woman.


title: Dowry

text: Two types of dowry were known—"dos profectitia" and "dos adventitia". That dos is profectitia which was given by the father or father's father of the bride. All other dos is adventitia. Roman law also allowed for a species of dowry, called "dos receptitia", which was given by some other person than the father or father's father of the bride, in consideration of marriage, but on the condition that it should be restored back to the dowry giver, on the death of the wife. The bride's family were expected to give a dowry when a girl married, and in proportion to their means. It was customary for the bride's family and friends to pay promised dowries in installments over three years, and some Romans won great praise by delivering the dowry in one lump sum.


title: Dowry

text: The practice of dowry in the Indian subcontinent is a controversial subject. Some scholars believe dowry was practiced in antiquity, but some do not. The traces of the dowry system in India can be found in the Vedic Age where it is common for upper caste Hindus.


title: Dowry

text: But eyewitness reports (discussed below) suggest dowry in ancient India was insignificant(especially for lower caste). Documentary evidence suggests that at the beginning of 20th century, bridewealth, rather than dowry was the common custom, which often resulted in poor boys remaining unmarried.


title: Dowry

text: Stanley J. Tambiah claims the ancient Code of Manu sanctioned dowry and bridewealth in ancient India (typically in Rohtak) and especially in Kadia families, but dowry was the more prestigious form and associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) caste. Bridewealth was restricted to the lower castes, who were not allowed to give dowry. He cites two studies from the early 20th century with data to suggest that this pattern of dowry in upper castes and bridewealth in lower castes persisted through the first half of the 20th century. However, it is more likely that marriages involved both reciprocal gifts between the two families, claims Tambiah, so that insofar as the groom's family gave the bridewealth, it tended to be given back as dowry to the bride as part of her conjugal estate.


title: Dowry

text: Michael Witzel, in contrast, claims the ancient Indian literature suggests dowry practices were not significant during the Vedic period. Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had property inheritance rights either by appointment or when they had no brothers.


title: Dowry

text: The findings of MacDonell and Keith are similar to Witzel, and differ from Tambiah; they cite ancient Indian literature suggesting bridewealth was paid even in brahma- and daiva-types of marriage associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) upper caste. Dowry was not infrequent, when the girl suffered from some bodily defect. Property rights for women increased in ancient India, suggest MacDonell and Keith, over the Epics era (200 BC – 700 AD). Kane claims ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura-type of marriage that was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld suggests that religious duties listed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride be richly adorned to celebrate marriage' were ceremonial dress and jewelry along with gifts that were her property, not property demanded by or meant for the groom; Lochtefeld further notes that bridal adornment is not currently considered as dowry in most people's mind.


title: Dowry

text: The above analysis by various scholars is based on interpreting verses of ancient Sanskrit scriptures from India, not eyewitness accounts. Available eyewitness observations from ancient India give a different picture. One of these are the eyewitness records from Alexander the Great's conquest ("ca". 300 BC), as recorded by Arrian and Megasthenes. Arrian's first book mentions a lack of dowry,


title: Dowry

text: The two sources suggest dowry was absent, or infrequent enough to be noticed by Arrian. About 1200 years after Arrian's visit, another eyewitness scholar visited India named Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, also known as Al-Biruni, or Alberonius in Latin. Al-Biruni was an Islamic era Persian scholar who went and lived in India for 16 years from 1017 CE. He translated many Indian texts into Arabic, as well as wrote a memoir on Indian culture and life he observed. Al-Biruni claimed,


title: Dowry

text: Al-Biruni further claims that a daughter, in 11th century India, had legal right to inherit from her father, but only a fourth part of her brother. The daughter took this inheritance amount with her when she married, claimed Al-Biruni, and she had no rights to income from her parents after her marriage or to any additional inheritance after her father's death. If her father died before her marriage, her guardian would first pay off her father's debt, then allocate a fourth of the remaining wealth to her upkeep till she is ready to marry, and then give the rest to her to take with her into her married life.


title: Dowry

text: Dowry was common in different historic periods of China and continued through the modern history. Locally called " (), the dowry ranged from land, jewelry, money to a collection of clothing, sewing equipment and collection of household items. Mann and others find that dowry was a form of inheritance to daughters. In traditional China, the property owned by a family, if any, was earmarked for equal division or inheritance by sons only. Dowry was the only way assets were transferred to a daughter. It included immovable property such as land, and movable property like jewelry and fine clothing. The dowry she brought with her was typically sequestered from the property of her husband and other male members in a joint family. She would often sell this property for cash to overcome hard economic times or needs of her children and husband. In a few cases, she may transfer the property she brought as dowry to her daughter or daughter-in-law. Dowry assets once transferred in turn constituted separate wealth of the woman who received it ("sifang qian", etc.). Often a woman who brought a large dowry was considered more virtuous in Chinese culture than one who didn't. In parts of China, both dowry and brideprice ("pinjin") were practiced from ancient eras to the 20th century. Though throughout the history of China, the practice of using a brideprice has largely been used instead of dowries, but has slowly diminished in modern times.


title: Dowry

text: Dowry was widely practiced in Europe until the early modern era. Folklorists often interpret the folk tale "Cinderella" as the competition between the stepmother and the stepdaughter for resources, which may include the need to provide a dowry. Gioachino Rossini's opera "La Cenerentola" makes this economic basis explicit: Don Magnifico wishes to make his own daughters' dowries larger, to attract a grander match, which is impossible if he must provide a third dowry.


title: Dowry

text: One common penalty for the kidnapping and rape of an unmarried woman was that the abductor or rapist had to provide the woman's dowry. Until the late 20th century this was sometimes called wreath money, or the breach of promise.


title: Dowry

text: Providing dowries for poor women was regarded as a form of charity by wealthier parishioners. The custom of Christmas stockings springs from a legend of St Nicholas, in which he threw gold in the stockings of three poor sisters, thus providing for their dowries. St. Elizabeth of Portugal and St. Martin de Porres were particularly noted for providing such dowries, and the Archconfraternity of the Annunciation, a Roman charity dedicated to providing dowries, received the entire estate of Pope Urban VII. In 1425, the Republic of Florence created a public fund, called the "Monte delle doti", to provide dowries to Florentine brides.


title: Dowry

text: Vast inheritances were standard as dowries for aristocratic and royal brides in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Portuguese crown gave two cities in India and Morocco as dowry to the British Crown in 1661 when King Charles II of England married Catherine of Braganza, a princess of Portugal.


title: Dowry

text: In some cases, nuns were required to bring a dowry when joining a convent. At some times, such as Ancien Régime France, convents were also used by some parents to put less attractive daughters, so that the more marriageable daughters could have larger dowries. Ancien Régime families that could not provide proper dowries also used the convents as places to put their daughters.


title: Dowry

text: In the County of Bentheim in Lower Saxony, for instance, parents who had no sons might give a land dowry to their new son-in-law. It was commonly given with the condition that he take the surname of his bride, in order to continue the family name.


title: Dowry

text: Dowry was used in England. However, the right of daughters to inherit and of women to hold property and other rights in their own name made it a different instrument than on the Continent. The Salic law, which required females to be disinherited and disenfranchised from land ownership, did not apply in England. Single women held many rights men did. The most famous example of this English female inheritance and agency right is perhaps Elizabeth I of England, who held all rights a male monarch did.


title: Dowry

text: While single women held rights to hold property equivalent to those of men, marriage and married women were affected by the Norman Conquest changes to the law in the 12th Century. Coverture was introduced to the common law in some jurisdictions, requiring property of a wife to be held in the husband's name, custody and control. The Normans also introduced the dowry in England replacing the earlier custom of the new husband giving a morning gift to his bride. At first the husband publicly gave the dowry at the church door at the wedding.


title: Dowry

text: If the husband died first, which was frequent, there was a Widows dowry of one third of the husband's lands at the time of his marriage; the income, and in some cases, the management, of the lands, was assigned to her for the rest of her life. This concept is included in the Great Charter, and along with the recognition of female inheritance and absence of the Salic law, and women, particularly single women, holding many rights equivalent to those men held, manifests English law differing fundamentally from the law of the Continent, especially the law of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Dowry

text: Thirteenth-century court records are filled with disputes over dowries, and the law became increasingly complex.


title: Dowry

text: The English dowry system permitted most noble families to marry off their daughters and thereby gain extended kin and patronage ties. Marriageable daughters were a valuable commodity to ambitious fathers, and the English aristocracy sent few of their eligible daughters to convents.


title: Dowry

text: Failure to provide a customary, or agreed-upon, dowry could cause a marriage to be called off. William Shakespeare made use of such an event in "King Lear": one of Cordelia's suitors gives up his suit upon hearing that King Lear will give her no dowry. In "Measure for Measure", Claudio and Juliet's premarital sex was brought about by their families' wrangling over dowry after the betrothal. Angelo's motive for forswearing his betrothal with Mariana was the loss of her dowry at sea.


title: Dowry

text: In Victorian England, dowries were viewed by some members of the upper class as an early payment of the daughter's inheritance. In some instances, daughters who had not received their dowries were the only female heirs entitled to part of the estate when their parents died. If a couple died without children, a woman's dowry was often returned to her family.


title: Dowry

text: Coverture never applied universally in Britain and was repealed in the 1800s. This effectively ended the concept of dowry as the property of a single woman was either retained by her after marriage or its income became marital property under joint control with a husband (not under his sole control as in coverture).