title: Enthiran

text: R. Rathnavelu was hired as the cinematographer after Ravi K. Chandran, Nirav Shah and Tirru were considered. Anthony was the film's editor. Yuen Woo-ping, known for his work in "The Matrix" trilogy and the "" films, was selected to be the stunt co-ordinator, while Legacy Effects, a visual effects studio based in the United States, were in charge of the prosthetic make-up and animatronics in the film. Munich-based film technical company, Panther, were responsible for the crane shots. The film's subtitle captioning was done by Rekha Haricharan.


title: Enthiran

text: Manish Malhotra and Mary E. Vogt were chosen to design the film's costumes. Fifty-seven costumes were used for Rai, including a "Mexican tribal" look that she sported during the filming of the "Kilimanjaro" segment. According to make-up artist Banu, no prosthetics were used for Rajinikanth to avoid bothering him by withholding his time on set. Additional make-up was by Vance Hartwell, an employee of Legacy Effects.


title: Enthiran

text: The visual appearance of Chitti was based on the G.I. Joe action figures. For Chitti's "villain robot" look, its hair was spiked and brown coloured lenses were used for its eyes, whereas for its "good robot" look, green coloured lenses were used. The wig used for Chitti's "villain robot" look had a silver streak in the middle, made out of Yak hair, while its leather jacket was designed by Vogt. To make Vaseegaran look mature, the team made Rajinikanth sport an Oakley beard. Suits made of copper were used for Chitti's costumes.


title: Enthiran

text: For Sabu Cyril's sets, Shankar required approximately twice as much studio floor space as for his previous film. After rejecting Ramoji Film City for technical reasons, "Enthiran" producer, Kalanithi Maran, took six months to set up three air-conditioned studio floors on land in Perungudi owned by Sun TV Network. Filming began on 15 February 2008 at AVM Studios in Chennai. After the initial stages of filming, Shankar and Rathnavelu toured the world for three weeks, scouting for exotic filming locations. They visited Austria, Germany, Peru, Brazil and Argentina, looking for a backdrop to shoot the "Kilimanjaro" and "Kadhal Anukkal" segments, eventually deciding on Peru and Brazil. "Kilimanjaro" was filmed at the ruins of the Incan city of Machu Picchu in Peru, with some 100 Brazilian extras. It was choreographed by Raju Sundaram and supervised by Fernando Astete, director of the Machu Picchu archaeological park. "Kadhal Anukkal" was filmed in Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in northeastern Brazil.


title: Enthiran

text: The filming for Chitti's introduction to the international robotics conference was completed in December 2008 at Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering and Vellore Institute of Technology, where more than 400 students were used as extras. Further footage was shot over five days at the Ennore Port on the Mitsui O.S.K. Lines car carrier, "Neptune Ace". An action sequence where Chitti saves Sana from thugs was filmed in Lonavla, under the supervision of the action choreographer Peter Hein. Scenes featuring Rajinikanth as Chitti were captured over five days at the Perungudi Dump Yard in Chennai. Sabu Cyril told Uma Kannan of "The New Indian Express" that the sets for the climax sequence, which was filmed at Mayajaal, consisted of a tar road and glass buildings which rose to , and that aluminium composite panels, reported to have cost 50 million, were also used to design the sets.


title: Enthiran

text: The set for "Arima Arima", a sequence choreographed by Prabhu Deva, was designed and constructed by Cyril at Ramoji Film City. Filming of the number took place over 22 days in April 2009. Junior artists were employed by Rathnavelu to wear masks of Rajinikanth. For the sequence entitled "Irumbile Oru Irudhaiyam", choreographed by Remo D'Souza and featuring Rai and Rajinikanth as Chitti, three different sets were used: one of copper, one of gold and one in silver. The musical number, which was filmed in AVM Studios for eight days, was the last portion of the film's principal photography. D'Souza incorporated the popping style of street dances, but encountered difficulties in performing the dance movements in tandem with the robot, and with the restrictions created by the rigid costumes. Principal photography ended on 7 July 2010.


title: Enthiran

text: Impressed with the film's script, V. Srinivas Mohan became the visual effects supervisor in December 2007. He asked Shankar to increase the filming schedules by six months to include pre-production requirements. Both Mohan and Shankar visited several visual effects companies, including the New Zealand-based Weta Digital and the United States-based Industrial Light & Magic, Cafe FX and Tippett Studio before partnering with Legacy Effects. The original Eros-Ayngaran visual effects budget was 700 million, but after Sun Pictures took over production, it was significantly reduced to 200 million. As a result, the visual effects team had to omit and alter some sequences, making Chitti wear sunglasses for most of the film to reduce the cost and difficulty of animating his eyes.


title: Enthiran

text: After a series of previsualisation tests, including a scene in which Chitti jumps on a train to save Sana, Mohan eventually decided to use the technique in 40 out of the 60 visual effects scenes featured in the film, consisting of 2,000 takes. Further previsualisation supervision was conducted by P. C. Sanath of Firefly Creative Studios, a visual effects company based in Hyderabad. 3D storyboards were constructed using 3D animation programs for every scene in the film and were shot from different angles. In an interview with Malathi Rangarajan of "The Hindu", Mohan said all the pre-production work took one-and-a-half years to complete.


title: Enthiran

text: Rathnavelu used the 435 Xtreme camera and also wrote a 1,600-page manual, in which he listed all the possible angles from where he could film the characters Rajinikanth played. Legacy Effects and the Hong Kong-based visual effects companies Kinomotive Studios and Menfond Electronics took responsibility for the film's CGI work. To create the robots with Rajinikanth's appearance, a complete scan of his face in 3D digital format in all possible lighting conditions was conducted using the Doom Light Stage, so that his face could be replicated on the mannequins. The technique, according to Shankar, was previously used in "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" (2008). The robot Chitti featured in the film was a mannequin made by a Legacy Effects team of 100 technicians in Los Angeles. For every robotic mannequin used, six puppeteers were employed to control the mannequin's movements.


title: Enthiran

text: "Enthiran" focuses on the battle between man and machine. Despite Shankar's claim that "Enthiran" was a purely original idea, it has been compared to Mary Shelley's 1818 novel "Frankenstein", owing to the similar personae of Chitti and Frankenstein's monster, both of whom turn against their respective creators. K. Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake, in their book "Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinemas", noted the similarity between the two works, arguing that Chitti was "manipulated by Bohra to become a Frankenstein-like figure". Writing for "The A.V. Club", Genevieve Koski observed, "The plot of "Enthiran" is essentially "Frankenstein" via [Isaac] Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics."


title: Enthiran

text: Director and film critic Sudhish Kamath called "Enthiran" "a superhero film, a sci-fi adventure, a triangular love story with a hint of the Ramayana", while remarking that "Enthiran" similarities to "The Terminator" (1984) were "more than obvious. Not just visually—where we see the Superstar with one human eye and one scarred metallic eye but also intentionally spelt out when the bad robot announces that he has created Terminators." Kamath compared two of the film's robots to C-3PO and R2-D2, droids from the "Star Wars" film series, which was referenced in "Enthiran" when Vaseegaran refers to one of his creations as "R2". The film was noted to have similarities with the 2002 Kannada film "Hollywood" which had its lead actor playing three roles – one of which was a scientist and another was a humanoid robot invented by that scientist which falls in love with the girlfriend of his creator.


title: Enthiran

text: Although Shankar initially claimed that "Enthiran" would be made for all audiences, including those lacking computer literacy, the film is influenced by and makes references to many scientific principles relating to the fields of engineering, computer science and robotics, including terabytes and Asimov's laws of robotics. Visual references are made to the science books "A Briefer History of Time" (2005) and "Freakonomics" (2005). In his book "Visual Perception and Cultural Memory: Typecast and Typecast(e)ing in Malayalam Cinema", Sujith Kumar Parayil notes the similarities between Kalabhavan Mani's role in the film to the one Mani played in the Malayalam film "Sallapam" (1996).


title: Enthiran

text: For "Enthiran"s soundtrack and score, A. R. Rahman made use of the Continuum Fingerboard, an instrument he had experimented with previously in the song "Rehna Tu" from Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra's drama film "Delhi-6" (2009). The film also marked the debut of Rahman's daughter Khatija as a playback singer.


title: Enthiran

text: The soundtrack album to "Enthiran" was released on 31 July 2010 at the Putrajaya International Convention Centre in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The original Tamil and dubbed Telugu versions were released by Think Music, while the dubbed Hindi version was released by Venus Music. Think Music purchased the release rights of the original Tamil and dubbed Telugu versions of the album for 70 million. The album of the film's dubbed Telugu version, "Robo", was released on 6 August 2010, while its dubbed Hindi version, "Robot", was released on 14 August 2010. After the second day of release, the album's original Tamil version reached the number one position in the Top 10 World Albums chart on iTunes, making it the first Tamil album to do so.


title: Enthiran

text: The Tamil album was officially released on 31 July 2010, which coincided with a promotional event held at the Putrajaya International Convention Centre in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Co-hosted by Vivek and Punnagai Poo Gheetha, the event was attended by most of the film's cast and crew members, including Kalanithi Maran, S. Shankar, Rajinikanth, Aishwarya Rai, A. R. Rahman, Santhanam, Karunas, Vairamuthu, R. Rathnavelu, Anthony, Sabu Cyril, and Yogi B. Other invited guests were Dayanidhi Maran, Radha Ravi, Vadivelu, Shriya Saran, Jayam Ravi, Ramya Krishnan, S. A. Chandrasekhar, Aishwarya and Soundarya Rajinikanth, Krish, and Sangeetha Arvind. Furthermore, Silambarasan, Vijayalakshmi, and Poorna were part of stage performances. The release event of the Telugu version, titled "Robo", was held in Hyderabad on 6 August 2010, which was attended by Chiranjeevi, D. Ramanaidu, Mohan Babu, Srinu Vaitla, Kajal Aggarwal, and Kamna Jethmalani. The Hindi version, titled "Robot", was released by Venus on 14 August 2010, in a function held in Mumbai. The event was attended by Amitabh Bachchan, Jaya Bachchan and Abhishek Bachchan, along with the crew of the film.


title: Enthiran

text: "Enthiran" was released on 1 October 2010. The film was dubbed and released in Hindi as "Robot" and in Telugu as "Robo" and later in Kannada as "Bombat Robo". The film was released in 2,250 theatres worldwide, including 500 theatres in Tamil Nadu, 350 theatres in Andhra Pradesh, 128 theatres in Kerala, 23 theatres in Karnataka, and 750 theatres in North India. With an estimated budget of 1.321.62 billion, "Enthiran" was India's most expensive film up to that point, surpassing the Hindi film "Blue" (2009), which was filmed on a budget of 750 million.


title: Enthiran

text: "Enthiran" became the first Tamil film to be released at the Colosseum kino, a Norwegian theatre complex in Oslo, and it was screened at the 21st Bath Film Festival, held in the United Kingdom in 2011. Additionally, a version of the film, edited to a running length of two hours, was released in Japan in May 2012, and later screened at the 24th Tokyo International Film Festival, where it won a special award under the section "Winds of Asia–Middle East". By public demand, the original, unedited version was later released in that country.


title: Enthiran

text: The first poster for "Enthiran" was released on 8 September 2008. The film's trailer was released on 11 September 2010, at the Sathyam Cinemas theatre complex in Chennai. To promote "Enthiran", AGS Entertainment organised a festival from 25 September 2010 until its release date, in which they screened popular films of Rajinikanth at the company's theatre in Villivakkam. In Coimbatore, the Department of Posts printed 100,000 post cards advertising the film. Sun Pictures invested a total of 500 million on promotional activities.


title: Enthiran

text: Advance bookings for the film began two weeks before the release date in the United States. In the Jackson Heights neighbourhood in New York, tickets were sold out within ten minutes of going on sale. In Kerala the distribution rights were sold for 50 million, while in Karnataka they were sold for 100 million. The distribution rights in Mumbai were sold to Shringar Films. In the United Kingdom, "Enthiran" was released by Ayngaran International, while "Robot" was released by B4U Network. DVD marketing in India was handled by Moser Baer; Ayngaran International released the two-DVD set of the film in early 2011.


title: Enthiran

text: The novelist Aarur Thamizhnadan made a complaint with the Chennai Metropolitan Police against the filmmakers in November 2010, stating that the producers plagiarised his 1996 novel "Jugiba". Thamizhnadan demanded 10 million from the director and producers for damages and filed a case against Kalanithi Maran. In June 2011, the Madras High Court dismissed the case after a petition filed by Maran denying the allegation was approved. The case continued, and in early 2021, after failing several times to show up in court, Shankar was issued a non-bailable warrant.


title: Enthiran

text: The daily newspaper "Business Line" reported that "Enthiran" grossed 580 million from all versions in the opening weekend, and "The Economic Times" stated it netted 1.17 billion by the end of its opening week. According to a February 2015 report by "Hindustan Times", the film has grossed ₹2.56 billion worldwide in its lifetime. Indo-Asian News Service stated in July 2015 that the film grossed ₹2.90 billion from both its original and its dubbed versions. "Enthiran" became the top-earning Indian film of 2010 ahead of "My Name Is Khan" and "Dabangg" and became the highest-grossing Tamil film of all time at that point.


title: Enthiran

text: As of January 2018, "Enthiran" is the fourth-highest-grossing South Indian film of all time after "" (2017), "" (2015), and "Kabali" (2016). Box Office India estimated that "Enthiran" netted 1.95 billion across India with the Tamil version netting 1.20 billion, the Telugu version netting 530 million and the Hindi version netting 220 million. The website estimated the overseas earnings of the film (including its dubbed versions) at approximately $12 million as of November 2010 with the Tamil version grossing $11 million and the remaining $1 million coming in from the Telugu and Hindi versions. "Enthiran" collected 1.05 billion in Tamil Nadu alone, a record it held for seven years before being surpassed by "" (2017), which grossed 1.526 billion.


title: Enthiran

text: In Japan, the film grossed $407,438, including $370,697 for the Hindi version and $36,741 for the Tamil version.


title: Enthiran

text: "Enthiran" has received a rating of 67% on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on twelve reviews, with a rating of 5.6/10.


title: Enthiran

text: "Enthiran" received positive reviews from critics in India, with praise particularly directed at Rathnavelu's cinematography, Cyril's art direction, Srinivas Mohan's visual effects and Rajinikanth's performance as Chitti. Aniruddha Guha of "Daily News and Analysis" gave the film a rating of four out of five stars and believed it had the "best special effects ever seen in a Tamil film" and that it was "one of the most entertaining Tamil films—across all languages—ever made." Both Nikhat Kazmi of "The Times of India" and Kaveree Bamzai of "India Today" rated the film four out of five stars. Kazmi called it "the perfect getaway film". Bamzai praised Rajinikanth's acting in the film and said, "Rajni tells us why robot sapiens are superior to homo sapiens".


title: Enthiran

text: Both Anupama Chopra of NDTV and Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff.com gave "Enthiran" a rating of three-and-a-half stars out of five. Chopra criticised the film's portions in the second half, describing them as "needlessly stretched and cacophonous", but concluded her review by saying, ""Robot" rides on Rajinikanth's shoulders and he never stoops under the burden. Aided by snazzy clothes, make-up and special effects, he makes Chitti endearing." Srinivasan, however, said that Shankar "strikes the balance between science fiction and masala quotient." She concluded that, "Whichever way you look at it, is one of those rare films that give you just enough material to pull you in, and enjoy yourself." Rajeev Masand of News18 gave a rating of three out of five stars and said, "In the end, it's the fantastic special effects and an inspired performance from that keeps the film fresh."


title: Enthiran

text: Mayank Shekhar, writing for "Hindustan Times", rated it three stars and said, "Leave aside jokes running on the Internet. This film, just a few feet too long, is fine entertainment by itself." Malini Mannath of "The New Indian Express" noted "Enthiran" for having "An engaging script, brilliant special effects, and a debonair hero who still carries his charisma effortlessly." Karthik Subramanian of "The Hindu" observed that actors "tend to get lost in special effects movies." He believed it was not the case in "Enthiran": "Rajinikanth and [Aishwarya Rai] carry the movie on their shoulders, and considering the fact that much of the acting must have been in front of green screens, one has to say that nothing looks artificial right through." In contrast, Gautaman Bhaskaran of "Hindustan Times" rated it two out of five stars, writing that "Shankar's work slips into a loud, overdramatic and exaggerated mess".


title: Enthiran

text: Lisa Tsering from "The Hollywood Reporter" said, "Rajinikanth is such a badass that Chuck Norris is afraid of him." She praised the filming locations, especially the "Kilimanjaro" song sequence, but criticised the length of the film's climax portions. Genevieve Koski from "The A. V. Club" believed that "Enthiran" was "pretty good" and concluded that "if you prefer elaborate costumes and dance music mixed in with your killer-robot action, expect to enjoy up to an hour of "Enthiran"." Marc Savlov of "The Austin Chronicle" called "Enthiran" "the best apocalyptic sci-fi-romcom-melodrama-dance-off date movie of the year."


title: Enthiran

text: Roger Moore, writing for the "Orlando Sentinel", gave a mixed review, evaluating it as a "melodramatic kitschy Indian musical about a robot built for national defense but who discovers his human side." Following the film's screening at the Mumbai International Film Festival, American film director Oliver Stone praised "Enthiran" originality. Conversely, Joe Leydon of "Variety" believed that Shankar "riffs on everything" from "Frankenstein" to "The Terminator", but suggested that the film was an "overwhelming mash-up of American-style, f/x-driven sci-fi spectacle and a Bollywood musical."


title: Enthiran

text: At the 58th National Film Awards, "Enthiran" won for Best Special Effects and Best Production Design. It won in three categories at the 58th Filmfare Awards South for Best Cinematographer, Best Art Director and Best Costume Design. At the 5th Vijay Awards, it was nominated in fourteen categories and won in seven, including Best Villain and Favourite Hero for Rajinikanth, Favourite Film and Favourite Director. At the 17th Screen Awards, the film won awards under the Best Special Effects and Spectacular Cutting Edge Technology categories. However, the film missed out on being the official Indian submission for the Academy Awards since the jury noted out that it had sequences lifted from four American films.


title: Enthiran

text: In a personal appreciation letter to Shankar following the film's release, the director K. Balachander described Shankar as India's James Cameron, "Enthiran" as India's "Avatar" (2009) and Sun Pictures as India's Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. "Enthiran" was the only Tamil film featured on the Internet Movie Database (IMDb) list of the 50 best films of 2010. The film was also included as a case study in a postgraduate elective course of the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, "Contemporary Film Industry: A Business Perspective".


title: Enthiran

text: Scenes from "Enthiran", particularly one known as the "Black Sheep" scene, have been parodied in subsequent films, including "Mankatha" (2011), "Osthe" (2011), "Singam II" (2013), "Ya Ya" (2013), "I" (2015) with the same director, as well as in the Telugu films "Dookudu" (2011) and "Nuvva Nena" (2011). In the film, Chitti often introduces himself by stating the clock rate of his central processing unit, which is 1 terahertz (10 hertz), and his random-access memory limit, which is 1 zettabyte (10 bytes). This introduction dialogue, which is spoken by Chitti as "Hi, I'm Chitti, speed 1 terahertz, memory 1 zettabyte" became popular. Rajinikanth featured in a cameo role as Chitti in the science-fiction film "Ra.One" (2011).


title: Enthiran

text: On Rajinikanth's 64th birthday, an agency named Minimal Kollywood Posters designed posters of Rajinikanth's films, in which the Minion characters from the "Despicable Me" franchise are dressed as Rajinikanth. The digital art was hand drawn on a digital pad by Gautham Raj. One of the posters depicted a mutated Minion, reminiscent of Chitti's "villain robot" look in "Enthiran". In March 2015, Kamath, in his review of the science fiction film "Chappie", compared its eponymous lead character to Chitti in terms of learning human emotions. While promoting "" in India director Joe Russo, said that the sequence in "Enthiran" where numerous clones of Chitti come together to form a giant python inspired a similar scene in ""s predecessor "" (2015) where the titular antagonist, Ultron and his clones come together to form a gigantic version of himself, but that the scene was cut from the final version of the film to accommodate its runtime.


title: Enthiran

text: In September 2015, writer B. Jeyamohan announced that the pre-production stage of a standalone sequel to "Enthiran" was "going on in full swing" and that principal photography would commence once Rajinikanth finished filming for "Kabali", by the end of that year. Nirav Shah would be the cinematographer and A. R. Rahman would return as music director, while Muthuraj would handle the art direction. The sequel would be shot in 3D, unlike its predecessor which was shot in 2D and converted to 3D in post-production. Titled "2.0", the film entered production in December 2015 and was released worldwide on 29 November 2018 in Tamil, Telugu and Hindi languages. Rajinikanth reprised his roles as Vaseegaran and Chitti, with the additional cast played by Akshay Kumar and Amy Jackson.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The , stylized as LEAF, is a compact five-door hatchback battery electric vehicle (BEV) manufactured by Nissan. It was introduced in Japan and the United States in December 2010, and its second generation was introduced in October 2017. The Leaf's range on a full charge has been increased gradually from to (EPA rated), due to the use of a larger battery pack along with several minor improvements.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Among other awards and recognition, the Leaf has won the 2010 Green Car Vision Award, the 2011 European Car of the Year, the 2011 World Car of the Year, and the 2011–2012 Car of the Year Japan. Global sales totaled 577,000 Leafs by February 2022. , European sales totaled more than 208,000 units, and, , over 165,000 units had been sold in the U.S., and 157,000 in Japan. The Leaf listed as the world's all-time top selling plug-in electric car through December 2019. The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Leaf in early 2020 to become the all-time best selling electric car.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Nissan sought to make the Leaf appealing to mainstream drivers by giving it a familiar five-door hatchback design. The body has a sharp V-shape design with large, up slanting headlights that split and redirect airflow away from the door mirrors, and the bottom of the car has aerodynamic panelling. The battery, the heaviest part of most electric vehicles, is situated below the seats and rear foot space, keeping the center of gravity as low as possible and giving the car better structural rigidity than a conventional five-door hatchback.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The Leaf is powered by an electric synchronous motor of and driving the front wheels. The Leaf was initially equipped with a lithium ion battery, later increased to . The battery is manufactured by Automotive Energy Supply Corporation. It's guaranteed for eight years or 100,000 miles in the USA, and 100 000 km or 5 years in Europe. In 2011, Nissan estimated that the battery would have a lifetime of at least 10 years, with 80% usable capacity remaining after five years. In 2019, based on data gathered from over 400,000 Leafs sold in Europe, Nissan stated that the battery would last 22 years, outlasting the vehicle by 10-12 years.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: According to a 2015 report by Warranty Direct, of 35,000 Leafs sold in Europe, three had had a battery failure for a rate of 0.01%, for internal combustion engined cars the failure rate is 25 times higher.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Nissan reports the 2011 Leaf has a and the 2013 model . The Leaf is generally cheaper to operate than internal combustion engine and hybrid cars. However, since the Leaf costs significantly more than similar internal combustion vehicles, it may take longer for the fuel savings to cancel out the increased initial cost, even after government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Some vehicles initially came equipped with the telematics system CarWings. From 2011 to 2015 this used the 2G cellular network. 2G has been decommissioned in many areas, requiring an upgrade of the telematic control unit to use newer networks. Rebranded NissanConnectEV in 2016, it is provided free of charge to owners, if equipped, depending on year and model. As of 2017 it offers GPS data for routing, and for locating charging stations. It may also provide two-way communication with the car which enables remote control of the climate system, and monitoring of charging status.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Nissan electric vehicles have existed since 1946. The Leaf was preceded by the low-volume Altra station wagon (1997–2001) and Hypermini microcar (1999–2001).


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rated it 21.2 /100 km and had a range of . It is on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). US-market SV and SL trims had an SAE J1772 connector for (120/240 volts AC). Using mains electricity and the included cable, the car regains about of range per hour. The SL trim had an optional CHAdeMO port with which it can be charged from fully discharged to 80% capacity in about 30 minutes. Nissan warns that if fast charging is the primary way of recharging, then the normal and gradual battery capacity loss is about 10% more than regular 240-volt charging over a 10-year period. Other companies make compatible charging stations, and companies and local government have various initiatives to create electric vehicle networks of public charging stations.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The 2011/12 model Leaf has a top speed of over . The motoring press has reported a 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration time of 9.9 seconds.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: About a dozen Leaf Nismo RC (Racing Competition) vehicles were produced, custom built race cars with the same motor (but with somewhat increased output) but no other shared components. Endurance at racing speeds is only 20 minutes. Six examples of a later version called the NISMO LEAF RC_02 are further altered by using dual motors to create a four-wheel-drive racing vehicle.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: By March, Nissan had plants at Smyrna, Tennessee, Oppama, Japan, and Sunderland, England, with production of 150,000, 50,000, and 50,000 respectively.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The 2013 Leaf has extended range due to a more efficient heating system, better regenerative braking, weight reduction, and improved aerodynamics. The EPA rating is , a slight increase from in 2011 and 2012 models also due to technicality in the rating system.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The 2013 model year Leaf has a dashboard display of the battery's charge percentage. A 6.6-kW onboard charger, available as an extra-cost option on the base model, reduces charging times using 240-volt power, so a charge from empty to full takes about four hours, instead of seven. The onboard charger is more compact and located under the hood, increasing cargo volume.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: There are three trim levels. A new trim level, Leaf S, has a lower price, 16-inch steel wheels, and fewer accessories.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In Europe, Nissan offered a battery leasing option for all trims produced at Sunderland, which lowered the price.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The 2014 Leaf is largely the same as the 2013 model year except for standard rear-view monitor and updated EV-IT functionality with voice destination entry and SMS readout.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Beginning in late 2016, all three trims (S, SV, and SL) came equipped with both charging receptacles. A larger 30 kWh battery in the US-market SL and SV trims boosted range to .


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The S trim initially kept the 24 kWh battery found in earlier Leafs, and received the upgrade midway through the 2016 model year.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: With the new battery pack Nissan extended the warranty to 96 months or . This means that if a car lost four of the 12 bars on its capacity gauge before that period is up, Nissan would replace or repair the battery free of charge.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Global sales in 2017 fell to about 47,000 units, in anticipation of the second generation. , the Leaf was available in more than 60 countries in four continents.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In February 2014, the Automotive Science Group (ASG) published the result of a study conducted to assess the life-cycle of over 1,300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America. The study found that among advanced automotive technologies, the Nissan Leaf holds the smallest life-cycle environmental footprint of any model year 2014 automobile available in the North American market with minimum four-person occupancy. The study concluded that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the battery electric technology are more than offset with increased environmental performance during operational life. For the assessment, the study used the average electricity mix of the U.S. grid in 2014.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In December 2014, Nissan announced that Leaf owners have accumulated together 1 billion kilometers (625 million miles) driven. This amount of electric distance translates into avoiding 180 million kilograms of emissions by driving an electric car in comparison to travelling with a gasoline-powered car. In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion kilometers (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016, saving nearly 500 million kilograms of emissions.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Models with an on-board 3.6 kW charger can be fully charged in eight hours from an appropriate 240-volt charger, while models with an on-board 6.6 kW charger can be fully recharged in 4 hours.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In July 2019, Green NCAP assessed 2019 40 kWh N-CONNECTA Nissan Leaf, noting that the eco driving mode made no noticeable difference in energy consumption, and noting that the car's average and maximum energy consumption were bettered by the Hyundai Ioniq.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: After the original battery packs degrade, owners may wish to refurbish, replace, or upgrade their battery packs instead of purchasing a new electric car. However, there are few options globally for this process. In August 2019, "Automotive News" reported that "more than a year after launching a battery refurbishment program for Leaf customers in Japan, Nissan remains noncommittal about offering the program in the brand's largest market — the U.S." Nissan previously offered a replacement battery back for the Leaf for $5,499 plus installation in the U.S., but then later raised the price to $8,500. As of January 2020, Leaf owners began reporting that Nissan had lowered the cost of the 24 kWh batteries to $5,500, with a $1,000 trade-in credit for the return of the original battery, making the battery $4,500 plus the cost of labor and tax."A spokesman with Nissan Canada confirmed with the National Post that a replacement battery for a 2011 to 2017 Nissan Leaf retails at $11,533 plus installation for both the 24 kWh version and the 40 kWh version."


title: Nissan Leaf

text: NHTSA rates the 2011 and 2012 model years as five out of five stars overall. It won the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety's "Top Safety Pick" in 2011. It received top ratings of "Good" for front, side, and rear impact crash tests, and also on rollover protection. All injury measurements except one were rated good, indicating a low risk of significant injuries in crashes according to the scale of severity employed in the IIHS's testing. The European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) awarded the Leaf the highest five-star car safety rating, earning the following ratings for each criterion:


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In the case of an accident in which the airbags are deployed, the Leaf automatically disconnects the high-voltage system. In December 2010, Nissan also advised first responders to manually disconnect both the high voltage and 12 V systems before performing any first response actions.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The Nissan Leaf's battery pack is shielded from crash damage by structural steel reinforcement. In December 2011, Nissan reported that none of the around two dozen Leafs destroyed in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caught fire, and that their batteries remained intact. , no fires after a crash have been reported in the U.S. associated with the Leaf or other plug-in electric cars available in the market.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In 2011 electric vehicle warning sounds, to alert pedestrians of the Leaf's quiet movement relative to traditional motor vehicles, were introduced in anticipation of legislation mandating it in Europe, Japan, and America. This sound varies according to direction and acceleration, and is only active at low speeds. It can be disabled on some models. Actual legislation requiring this did not come into effect until 2019 in the EU; followed by the US in September 2020. The vehicle's reverse chime has been described as "annoying" and "quite irritating".


title: Nissan Leaf

text: At the 2010 Washington Auto Show, the Leaf was given the Green Car Vision Award by the Green Car Journal, which said that the Leaf "will provide the features, the styling, and the driving experience that will meet the needs of a sophisticated and demanding market, while producing zero localized emissions and requiring no petroleum fuels." "Popular Mechanics", upon awarding the Leaf its 2010 Breakthrough Award, explained that the Nissan Leaf is "not the first pure EV, but [...] hits the mainstream like none of its predecessors." "Popular Mechanics" also alluded to the Leaf's range, which is said to be "enough for most commuters for the price of an average vehicle and with a much lower operating cost than gasoline-powered vehicles."


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Other awards received by the Leaf include the 2011 European Car of the Year, EV.com's 2011 EV of the Year, 2011 Eco-Friendly Car of the Year by Cars.com, 2011 Green Fleet Electric Vehicle of the Year, it was listed among the 2011 Greenest Vehicles of the Year by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, also listed by Mother Earth News among its "Best Green Cars" of 2011, and also was ranked first in Kelley Blue Book Top 10 Green Cars for 2011. The Leaf won the 2011 World Car of the Year, and was a finalist for the 2011 World Green Car. Ward's Auto listed the Leaf's 80 kW electric motor in Ward's 10 Best Engines for 2011. Until October 2011 the Leaf was ranked as the most efficient EPA certified vehicle for all fuels ever. In December 2011, the Leaf was awarded with the 2011–2012 Car of the Year Japan at the Tokyo Motor Show.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: An Electric Production Class was formed for the 2011 Pikes Peak International Hill Climb and Chad Hord raced a Leaf in the event. The off-road racing driver ascended the course in 14 minutes and 33 seconds to win the class. The interior of the car was removed and replaced with mandatory racing seats, safety harness, and a roll cage.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The Nissan Leaf Nismo Concept shown at the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show features an extreme body kit that includes an aerodynamic front bumper, a rear undershield, rear diffuser, extended side skirts and 18-inch alloy wheels.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In October 2017, for the 2018 model year, Nissan launched the new generation Leaf in Japan, and deliveries in North America and Europe began in February 2018. In 2018, global sales reached a record level of 87,149 units, third behind the Tesla Model 3 and the BAIC EC-Series.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Mechanically, the second generation Leaf is similar to the first, while adding more range, and more power. Stylistically, it is a major departure from the previous model. The interior adds Android Auto & Apple CarPlay.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The Leaf now comes standard with a 40 kWh lithium-ion battery and 110 kW motor, delivering an EPA range of up to . LEAF PLUS has a standard 62 kWh lithium-ion battery and 160 kW electric motor, delivering an EPA range of up to .


title: Nissan Leaf

text: It has a 40 kWh battery pack with an EPA-rated range of . The electric motor produces and of torque. It charges through either a 6.6 kW regular plug (SAE J1772 in US/Japan, or a Type 2 connector in EU countries) or a 50 kW CHAdeMO, and has the ability to send power back to the grid.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Propilot Assist, a lane centering system, is available on the two highest trim levels for an additional cost, and has automatic parking in some markets. The car offers one-pedal braking where easing off the accelerator pedal causes significant regenerative braking, to the point where the vehicle can be brought to a complete stop without the driver touching the brake pedal, at which point hydraulic brakes are automatically applied, to hold the vehicle in position.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: From 2019, a Leaf e+ (Leaf Plus in North America) variant has been offered. It has a larger 62 kWh battery providing an EPA range of , and a new 160 kW motor. It can use CHAdeMO chargers up to 100 kW.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In September 2020, Nissan showed off a novel UK prototype emergency services version of the Leaf for natural disaster response, dubbed the RE-LEAF, based on the 62 kWh LEAF e+ (sold in the U.S. as the Plus). The working concept vehicle is ruggedized with an elevated ride height of , underbody protection and all-terrain tires on motorsport wheels. It is intended to serve as a reliable mobile power source for a small command center, offering weatherproof external power outlets for site lighting, tools or emergency medical equipment. Other modifications include a cargo area in place of the rear seats, separated from the passenger area by a cage, a rear hatch area that opens to a workstation area with pull-out computer desk and LCD monitor, and roof-mounted emergency lights. While there was no word of an actual production version, the concept was well-received in the automotive, EV and tech media.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In June 2022, the Leaf got a face lift for the 2023 model year. Battery capacity and range were slightly reduced to for the 40 kWh version and for the 60 kWh version.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The N-Connecta adds from Acenta an intelligent around view monitor with moving object detection and front and rear parking sensors, part synthetic leather and cloth trim, heat pack with heated seats and heated steering wheel, 43 centimetre (17 inch) alloy wheels, and privacy glass.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: Tekna adds from N-Connecta ProPILOT Advanced Driver Assistance System, Bose speakers, part leather seats with Ultrasuede trim, LED fog lamps with cornering function, and electronic parking brake.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The North American Leafs were initially sold in S, SV and SL trim lines. In 2018, for the 2019 model year, the S Plus, SV Plus, and SL Plus trims were added. The S and SV trim levels can be had with either the Leaf or Leaf Plus battery pack. The SL is only available in the Leaf Plus configuration.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The Mexican model arrived on 24 August 2018 as a 2019 model, and was offered in S, SL, and SL Bitono trim lines.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: In celebration of World EV Day, 9 September 2020, Nissan marked the production of the 500,000th LEAF.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The production version was unveiled in August 2009. After receiving 20,000 pre-orders in the United States, Nissan stopped taking reservations in the United States until early 2011. Production in Japan started in October 2010, and delivery in the US and Japan began in December, with deliveries in other markets beginning in early 2012. By December 2020 the Leaf was sold in 59 markets around the world.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The Leaf was the world's best selling electric car from 2011 to 2014 and 2016. Sales fell in 2015 with overall sales led by the Tesla Model S. , the Leaf listed as the world's all-time best selling plug-in electric car. By early 2020, the Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Leaf to become the new best selling electric car in history.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: By February 2022, global Leaf deliveries totaled 577,000 cars. , Europe listed as the biggest market with more than 208,000 units sold, of which, 72 620 units have been registered in Norway, the leading European country market. , U.S. sales totaled 165,710 units through December 2021, and 157,059 units in Japan.


title: Nissan Leaf

text: The Nissan Leaf is the subject of Roger McGough's poem "Ode to the Leaf", from his 2012 collection "As Far As I Know".


title: Passing (film)

text: Passing is a 2021 black-and-white romantic drama film written, produced, and directed by Rebecca Hall in her feature directorial debut. It is based on the 1929 novel of the same name by Nella Larsen, and its title refers to African-Americans who had skin color light enough to be perceived as white, referred to as "passing". The film stars Tessa Thompson, Ruth Negga, André Holland, Bill Camp, Gbenga Akinnagbe, Antoinette Crowe-Legacy, and Alexander Skarsgård.


title: Passing (film)

text: "Passing" had its world premiere at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival on January 30, 2021, and began a limited theatrical release on October 27, 2021, prior to streaming on Netflix on November 10. The film received acclaim from critics, who praised Hall's screenplay and direction, and performances of Thompson and Negga. The film was named one of the top ten films of 2021 by the African American Film Critics Association. For her performance, Negga was nominated for the Golden Globe Award, BAFTA and Screen Actors Guild Award in the category of Best Supporting Actress.


title: Passing (film)

text: In 1920s New York City, Irene Redfield, a light-skinned black woman living in Harlem, meets a childhood friend, Clare Bellew, by chance at a hotel dining room. While Irene is married to a Black doctor, the also light-skinned Clare "passes" as white and has married a wealthy white man from Chicago named John.


title: Passing (film)

text: Clare invites Irene up to her hotel room so they can talk more openly. Clare explains that after her father died, she was raised by her two white aunts and married John very young. They are interrupted by John, who openly despises and degrades Black people, unaware of his wife's or Irene's racial background. Irene leaves the hotel, angry with Clare, and refuses to respond to Clare's letters. However, after Clare unexpectedly shows up at Irene's home and apologizes for the encounter, they rekindle their friendship.


title: Passing (film)

text: Clare, who wishes to associate with black people again, invites herself to a dance party that Irene is organizing. Most of the guests at the party find Clare charming, including Irene's husband, Brian. While there, Irene reveals Clare's secret to her friend, novel writer Hugh Wentworth, who seems less impressed with Clare than the others.


title: Passing (film)

text: As time passes, Clare soon becomes involved in all aspects of Irene's life, joining Irene and Brian to all their outings. At first, Irene seems happy to have Clare around, but soon she becomes disillusioned with Clare, and starts to grow dissatisfied with her presence. Brian, also dissatisfied, attempts to teach his and Irene's children about racism in America, as Irene refuses to move anywhere else. However, Irene believes that the children are too young to learn about such things, inciting an argument between the two, further straining their marriage. Brian invites Clare to a tea party from which Irene purposefully excluded her.


title: Passing (film)

text: When out shopping with her friend Felise, who is unable to pass, Irene encounters John, and hurries away as he begins to realize the truth about his wife's racial background. Irene tries to warn Clare, but decides against it when she is unable to reach her by phone.


title: Passing (film)

text: As Brian, Irene, and Clare are on their way to Felise's Christmas party on the top floor of a seven story building, Irene asks Clare what she would do if John ever learned the truth. Clare replies that she would move back to Harlem to be with Irene, a response which Irene finds troubling. During the party, Irene remains silent, avoiding the other guests. She opens a large vertical window to smoke. Suddenly, John angrily forces himself into the apartment demanding to see Clare, who remains calm, and moves next to Irene by the window. John accuses her of being a "dirty liar" and lunges towards her, at which point Irene abruptly puts an arm across Clare's pelvis. Clare falls backwards out the window, but it is not made clear whether John pushed her, Irene pushed her, or she committed suicide.


title: Passing (film)

text: In horror, all the other guests rush outside, not knowing whether or not Clare is dead. After some hesitation, Irene slowly goes downstairs, where the police are questioning guests. Brian states that he believes John pushed Clare, but when asked, Irene asserts that she believes the fall was an accident. The film ends with the police declaring death by misadventure, Irene sobbing in Brian's arms, and Clare's body being carried away by medics.


title: Passing (film)

text: It was announced in August 2018 that Rebecca Hall would be making her directorial debut on the adaptation of the Nella Larsen novel, with Tessa Thompson and Ruth Negga set to star in the lead roles. Hall had begun writing the film a decade earlier upon reflecting on her own family's history. When Hall presented her with a script version, Negga decided to collaborate in making it into a film as Negga was surprised the work was not more prominent, after having read the novel and was "completely astounded" by it. Thompson stated that the film would be shot in black and white. André Holland was cast in October 2019. In November 2019, Alexander Skarsgård joined the cast of the film.


title: Passing (film)

text: With less than a month to go before filming production was set to begin, Hall was still $500,000 short on her desired $10 million budget, and had to apply for two grants to cover the difference. Filming began in November 2019 in New York City. The film is in monochrome. Benjamin Lee of "The Guardian" praised the use of a 4:3 aspect ratio as in this film it was "both fitting and practical given a smaller budget". Into the third week of filming, the Hugh Wentworth role, originally intended for Benedict Cumberbatch, remained uncast, and budgetary realities and the tight filming timeline meant the production would need an actor who lived in New York. On November 21, Bill Camp signed on, and filming wrapped in December after a 23-day shoot.


title: Passing (film)

text: "Passing" had its world premiere at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival on January 30, 2021. Shortly after, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film for around $15 million. It also screened at the New York Film Festival on October 3, 2021. The film had a limited theatrical release on October 27, 2021, prior to streaming on Netflix on November 10.


title: Passing (film)

text: According to Samba TV, the film was watched in 653,000 households over its first three days of release.


title: Passing (film)

text: Kevin Maher of "The Times" gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, calling it, "a mesmerizing, deeply disquieting experience." Jessica Kiang, writing for "Variety", wrote that the film is "unerring, deceptively delicate, quiet and immaculate, like that final fall of snow." In his review for "The Guardian", Peter Bradshaw praised Hall's direction, calling the film, "a very stylish piece of work from Hall." Benjamin Lee of "The Guardian", gave the film a negative review of 2 out of 5 stars, arguing that it had "disappointing lack of verve" and was "inert".


title: Passing (film)

text: The performances of Negga and Thompson in particular received praise. In a very positive review for the "Chicago Tribune", Michael Phillips gave the film a perfect score of four out of four stars, and wrote of the performances: "what Thompson and Negga accomplish on screen in this extraordinarily detailed portrait becomes a master class in incremental revelations". David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" lauded Thompson for her "unshowy, beautifully internalized performance", and Simran Hans called Negga "magnetic" in her review for "The Guardian". In "Time Magazine"'s annual best performances of the year list, Stephanie Zacharek named Negga's performance of the best of 2021.


title: Osmosis

text: Osmosis (, ) is the spontaneous net movement or diffusion of solvent molecules through a selectively-permeable membrane from a region of high water potential (region of lower solute concentration) to a region of low water potential (region of higher solute concentration), in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides. It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves across a selectively permeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations. Osmosis can be made to do work. Osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity.


title: Osmosis

text: Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane (vacuole) or organelle membranes by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins (small transmembrane proteins similar to those responsible for facilitated diffusion and ion channels). Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment.


title: Osmosis

text: Some kinds of osmotic flow have been observed since ancient times, e.g., on the construction of Egyptian pyramids. Jean-Antoine Nollet first documented observation of osmosis in 1748. The word "osmosis" descends from the words "endosmose" and "exosmose", which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847) from the Greek words ἔνδον ("éndon" "within"), ἔξω ("éxō" "outer, external"), and ὠσμός ("ōsmós" "push, impulsion"). In 1867, Moritz Traube invented highly selective precipitation membranes, advancing the art and technique of measurement of osmotic flow.


title: Osmosis

text: Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane toward a higher concentration of solute. In biological systems, the solvent is typically water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids, and even gases.


title: Osmosis

text: When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell. When the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane.


title: Osmosis

text: Osmosis can be demonstrated when potato slices are added to a high salt solution. The water from inside the potato moves out to the solution, causing the potato to shrink and to lose its 'turgor pressure'. The more concentrated the salt solution, the bigger the loss in size and weight of the potato slice.


title: Osmosis

text: The mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute (resulting in lower concentration of water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore a diffusion of water along a concentration gradient) or by a solute's attraction to water (resulting in less free water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore net movement of water toward the solute). Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted.


title: Osmosis

text: The diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water. The "bound water" model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property—or how hydrophilic they are.


title: Osmosis

text: It is difficult to describe osmosis without a mechanical or thermodynamic explanation, but essentially there is an interaction between the solute and water that counteracts the pressure that otherwise free solute molecules would exert. One fact to take note of is that heat from the surroundings is able to be converted into mechanical energy (water rising).


title: Osmosis

text: Many thermodynamic explanations go into the concept of chemical potential and how the function of the water on the solution side differs from that of pure water due to the higher pressure and the presence of the solute counteracting such that the chemical potential remains unchanged. The virial theorem demonstrates that attraction between the molecules (water and solute) reduces the pressure, and thus the pressure exerted by water molecules on each other in solution is less than in pure water, allowing pure water to "force" the solution until the pressure reaches equilibrium.


title: Osmosis

text: Osmotic pressure is the main agent of support in many plants. The osmotic entry of water raises the turgor pressure exerted against the cell wall, until it equals the osmotic pressure, creating a steady state.


title: Osmosis

text: When a plant cell is placed in a solution that is hypertonic relative to the cytoplasm, water moves out of the cell and the cell shrinks. In doing so, the cell becomes "flaccid". In extreme cases, the cell becomes plasmolyzed – the cell membrane disengages with the cell wall due to lack of water pressure on it.


title: Osmosis

text: When a plant cell is placed in a solution that is hypotonic relative to the cytoplasm, water moves into the cell and the cell swells to become "turgid".


title: Osmosis

text: Osmosis is responsible for the ability of plant roots to draw water from the soil. Plants concentrate solutes in their root cells by active transport, and water enters the roots by osmosis. Osmosis is also responsible for controlling the movement of guard cells.


title: Osmosis

text: In unusual environments, osmosis can be very harmful to organisms. For example, freshwater and saltwater aquarium fish placed in water of a different salinity than that to which they are adapted to will die quickly, and in the case of saltwater fish, dramatically. Another example of a harmful osmotic effect is the use of table salt to kill leeches and slugs.


title: Osmosis

text: This means that if a cell is put in a solution which has a solute concentration higher than its own, it will shrivel, and if it is put in a solution with a lower solute concentration than its own, the cell will swell and may even burst.


title: Osmosis

text: Osmosis may be opposed by increasing the pressure in the region of high solute concentration with respect to that in the low solute concentration region. The force per unit area, or pressure, required to prevent the passage of water (or any other high-liquidity solution) through a selectively permeable membrane and into a solution of greater concentration is equivalent to the osmotic pressure of the solution, or turgor. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the property depends on the concentration of the solute, but not on its content or chemical identity.


title: Osmosis

text: The osmotic gradient is the difference in concentration between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable membrane, and is used to tell the difference in percentages of the concentration of a specific particle dissolved in a solution.


title: Osmosis

text: Usually the osmotic gradient is used while comparing solutions that have a semipermeable membrane between them allowing water to diffuse between the two solutions, toward the hypertonic solution (the solution with the higher concentration). Eventually, the force of the column of water on the hypertonic side of the semipermeable membrane will equal the force of diffusion on the hypotonic (the side with a lesser concentration) side, creating equilibrium. When equilibrium is reached, water continues to flow, but it flows both ways in equal amounts as well as force, therefore stabilizing the solution.


title: Osmosis

text: Reverse osmosis is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solvent through a semi-permeable membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side, forcing it from a region of high solute concentration through a membrane to a region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.


title: Osmosis

text: Osmosis may be used directly to achieve separation of water from a solution containing unwanted solutes. A "draw" solution of higher osmotic pressure than the feed solution is used to induce a net flow of water through a semi-permeable membrane, such that the feed solution becomes concentrated as the draw solution becomes dilute. The diluted draw solution may then be used directly (as with an ingestible solute like glucose), or sent to a secondary separation process for the removal of the draw solute. This secondary separation can be more efficient than a reverse osmosis process would be alone, depending on the draw solute used and the feedwater treated. Forward osmosis is an area of ongoing research, focusing on applications in desalination, water purification, water treatment, food processing, and other areas of study.


title: Joe Cole

text: Joseph John Cole (born 8 November 1981) is an English football coach and former professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder or winger in the Premier League, Ligue 1, League One and United Soccer League. He is regarded as one of the most talented players of his generation and one of the most gifted English midfielders of all time.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole started his career with West Ham United, where, after breaking into the first team in January 1999, he played more than 120 Premier League games over five seasons. He was one of a number of players who left West Ham in the summer of 2003, after the club had been relegated to the Football League First Division, with Cole signing for Chelsea. He spent seven seasons at Chelsea, playing over 280 games in all competitions and winning seven trophies, including three Premier League titles, two FA Cups and a League Cup. He left Chelsea on a free transfer in July 2010 to join Liverpool, who a year later loaned him to Lille. After a season in France, he returned to Liverpool before re-joining West Ham in January 2013. He signed for Aston Villa in June 2014, then joined Coventry City on loan in October 2015, joining on a permanent deal in January 2016. This was to be his last club in England.


title: Joe Cole

text: Capped by England at under-16, under-18 and under-21 level, Cole was a full international between 2001 and 2010, capped by the England national team on 56 occasions, scoring 10 goals. He was selected for the England squad at the 2002, 2006 and 2010 World Cups and Euro 2004.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole was born in Paddington, London, and lived there until he moved to Somers Town at the age of six. He was raised by his mother, Susan, and adoptive father, George Cole, and grew up with brother Nicky and sister Charly.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole is a product of the West Ham United youth system. He was long touted as a child prodigy and as the hottest prospect in English football, with Manchester United reportedly offering to pay £10 million for his services as a 16-year-old. Playing in a mould similar to former England favourite Paul Gascoigne, he progressed through the West Ham ranks and signed professional terms in November 1998 before making his first-team debut aged 17 on 2 January 1999 in an FA Cup third round tie against Swansea City. Eight days later he made his Premier League debut, away to Manchester United. In 1999, Cole was part of West Ham's victorious FA Youth Cup-winning squad (alongside Michael Carrick), defeating Coventry City 9–0 on aggregate in the final. Cole played only eight Premier League games in his first season but in the following season, he made 22 Premier League appearances, was a member of the West Ham team which won the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup, scored his first goal for West Ham, in a 3–2 League Cup win at Birmingham City on 30 November 1999 and scored his first Premier League goal, in a 5–4 home win against Bradford City, on 12 February 2000. In January 2003, then West Ham manager Glenn Roeder gave Cole the club captain's armband at the age of 21. Cole's last game for West Ham came on 11 May 2003 in a 2–2 draw with Birmingham City, a game which saw West Ham relegated from the Premier League. Cole won the "Hammer of the Year award" for 2003.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 6 August 2003, Cole signed for Chelsea for a fee of £6.6 million after he had rejected a new contract with West Ham. He was the sixth player signed after the club's takeover by billionaire Roman Abramovich, amongst those was his former West Ham teammate Glen Johnson. Manager Claudio Ranieri saw Cole as the perfect replacement for Gianfranco Zola, whom the club had released earlier that year, and West Ham declared that the transfer was enough for them not to sell any more players that summer.


title: Joe Cole

text: A week after signing for the club, Cole made his debut in a UEFA Champions League qualifier away to MŠK Žilina. He came on as a substitute for fellow new signing Damien Duff with 21 minutes remaining and caused Michal Drahno to score an own goal to conclude a 2–0 victory. On 17 August, he played his first Premier League game for the club, again replacing Duff for the last 15 minutes in a 2–1 victory over Liverpool at Anfield. He scored his first goal on 29 October in the League Cup against Notts County, replacing Jesper Grønkjær in the 70th minute and netting the last goal in a 4–2 victory which put Chelsea into the last 16. On 17 December, in the next round, he started away to Aston Villa, finishing Hernán Crespo's cross to equalise in an eventual 1–2 defeat. Cole's only other goal of the season was his only one in the league campaign, ending a one-two with Frank Lampard to open the scoring after five minutes away to Newcastle United, albeit in a 1–2 defeat.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole took advantage of injuries to wingers Duff and Arjen Robben to become a regular member of Chelsea's Premier League title winning team in 2004–05. He started in the League Cup Final at the Millennium Stadium on 27 February, making way for Johnson after 81 minutes of an eventual 3–2 win after extra time against Liverpool. His form saw him hit a run of goals towards the end of the season, and he scored a goal on 9 March against Norwich City blasted in from 20 yards off his weaker left foot Cole scored ten goals for Chelsea in 2004–05 and ended the season with a Premier League champions' medal.


title: Joe Cole

text: In the first half of the 2005–06 season, Cole secured himself in the Chelsea first-team lineup, ahead of Shaun Wright-Phillips and Damien Duff. Cole also extended his contract with Chelsea for another four seasons. He ended his season by scoring one of the goals in Chelsea's 3–0 win over Manchester United, which earned the Premier League title for the team. He was subsequently named in the PFA Team of the Year.


title: Joe Cole

text: In January 2007, Cole underwent surgery for a stress fracture on his foot he suffered in late 2006. He made his return for Chelsea in the first leg of Chelsea's 1–1 draw in the Champions League quarter-final tie against Valencia. He started for Chelsea in their victory over Manchester United in the 2007 FA Cup Final, and went on to be substituted at half-time.


title: Joe Cole

text: In 2007–08, Cole scored a low driven shot that tucked into the corner against West Ham, opting not celebrate against his former club. He scored another goal in the League Cup semi-finals against Everton which sent Chelsea to another final. Cole played in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final, which Chelsea lost on penalties to Manchester United; he was substituted in extra time for Nicolas Anelka, who missed Chelsea's crucial penalty.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 17 August 2008, Cole scored the first Premier League goal of the management of Luiz Felipe Scolari in a 4–0 win against Portsmouth. After surgery on his knee to repair an injury he picked up in the FA Cup clash with Southend United, Cole missed the rest of the season.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole did not play for Chelsea in the 2009–10 pre-season due to cruciate ligament damage in his knee, suffered in January 2009. He made a return to the starting line-up in Chelsea's League Cup match against Queens Park Rangers on 23 September 2009 in which he was also handed the captain's armband. Cole made his first 2009–10 Premier League appearance for Chelsea against Blackburn Rovers, playing in attacking midfield in a 5–0 win. On 8 November 2009, he played his 250th game for Chelsea, coming on as a substitute against Manchester United in the 62nd minute for Deco, on his 28th birthday. On 3 April 2010, Cole scored the first goal in a 2–1 win at Old Trafford against Manchester United in a potential title deciding game. Described as a "clever flick", his goal helped Chelsea win and overtake Manchester United at the top of the league as they were at the end of the season. He came on as a substitute as Chelsea won the 2010 FA Cup Final, his second appearance in an FA Cup Final for Chelsea. His contract with Chelsea expired on 30 June 2010, making him a free agent. Cole ended his career at Chelsea having won three Premier League titles, two FA Cups and a League Cup.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole joined Liverpool on a free transfer after signing a four-year deal in July 2010. He was manager Roy Hodgson's first signing at the club and was given the number 10 shirt. Cole was to receive £90,000-a-week wages and was advertised as a major coup by the club. Club captain Steven Gerrard even claimed Cole was as technically good as Lionel Messi. After leaving the club in 2013, Cole said that joining Liverpool was a mistake due to not feeling a connection with the club or fans.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole made his Liverpool debut on 5 August 2010 against Rabotnički in the UEFA Europa League assisting the opening goal for David N'Gog in a 2–0 win. His league debut, against Arsenal at Anfield on 15 August 2010, lasted just 45 minutes as he was sent off for a challenge on Laurent Koscielny. In his next match, on 19 August 2010, Cole missed a penalty against Trabzonspor in the UEFA Europa League third qualifying round first leg, though Liverpool still won 1–0. Cole played in Jamie Carragher's testimonial match, where he scored his first goal for the club. He then scored his first competitive goal for the club against Steaua București in a Europa League group stage match at Anfield on 16 September 2010, converting just 27 seconds into the game. Liverpool ended up winning 4–1. He scored his first Premier League goal for Liverpool in a 2–1 win against Bolton Wanderers on 1 January 2011. On 17 February, Cole played his first match under new manager Kenny Dalglish in a 0–0 draw against Sparta Prague in the Europa League, in which he came on as a first-half substitute for the injured Fábio Aurélio. Cole scored his first and only goal under Kenny Dalglish's tenure in a 5–0 win against Birmingham City at Anfield in April.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 31 August 2011, Cole signed for French champions Lille on a season-long loan. On his debut against Saint-Étienne, he gained his first assist after a solo run where he took on and beat four players to set up the third goal in Lille's 3–1 victory. Cole got another assist in his second Lille appearance against Bordeaux, assisting an Eden Hazard goal in a 1–1 draw. On 24 September, he scored his first goal for Lille, against Lorient, in a 1–1 draw. On 23 October, Cole came on as a 60th-minute substitute for Idrissa Gueye and scored his second goal for Lille in the 3–1 win over Lyon. Following his successful substitute appearance, he was included in the starting line-up for Lille's Round of 16 Coupe de la Ligue match against Ligue 2 club Sedan on 26 October. In the match, Cole scored the team's second goal in the 40th minute, which turned out to be decisive in a 3–1 win. Cole closed out the first half of the Ligue 1 season by scoring a goal in Lille's 4–4 draw with Nice on 21 December.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole netted his first hat-trick for Lille in a 6–0 victory over amateur club Chantilly in the Coupe de France Round of 64 on 7 January 2012.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole scored his fourth league goal of the season in a 4–1 triumph over Ajaccio on 15 April, firing the ball just inside the post following a cross from Nolan Roux. The final appearance in his loan with Lille came in their 4–1 final day victory over Nancy, he provided an assist for one of Eden Hazard's three goals and was later substituted off in the 64th minute by Nolan Roux. The playmaker underwent a career renaissance during his loan spell with Lille, scoring on four occasions in 27 league appearances and providing three assists. Following the season, Lille manager Rudi Garcia declared his desire to keep Cole at the club. On 5 June 2012, however, he confirmed that Cole would not remain at Lille after stating that new Liverpool manager Brendan Rodgers wanted the player to rejoin the Liverpool squad.


title: Joe Cole

text: After a one-year loan to Lille, Cole returned to Liverpool with new manager Brendan Rodgers saying he wanted to have him in the squad for the upcoming season. He played three pre-season matches, against Toronto FC, Roma, and Tottenham Hotspur. On 2 August 2012, Cole started his first Liverpool game for over a year, playing in the Europa League first leg qualifier victory over FC Gomel. He was substituted after just 23 minutes being replaced by Raheem Sterling after tweaking his hamstrings. On 18 August 2012, he was able to return as a substitute in Liverpool's 3–0 defeat to West Bromwich Albion.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 22 November 2012, Cole was given a start against BSC Young Boys in the Europa League, providing a cross to Jonjo Shelvey to score the opener and then scoring Liverpool's second, in the 2–2 draw. On 9 December 2012, he scored the equaliser as Liverpool beat his former club West Ham 3–2.


title: Joe Cole

text: In January 2013, West Ham signed Cole on a free transfer from Liverpool, with Cole returning to his first professional club on an 18-month deal. He made his second "debut" on 5 January in an FA Cup third round tie against Manchester United. The game finished 2–2 with Cole providing the assists for both of West Ham's goals which were scored by James Collins. Cole scored his first league goal on his return to West Ham in a 1–1 home draw with Queens Park Rangers on 19 January 2013, scoring from close range after Carlton Cole's shot had been saved by QPR goalkeeper Júlio César.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole scored his second West Ham goal since his return on 25 February 2013 in a 2–3 defeat to Tottenham, putting the Hammers 2–1 up by turning with the ball to score. On 17 August 2013, Cole scored West Ham's first Premier League goal of the 2013–14 campaign, netting the first in a 2–0 home victory over newly promoted Cardiff City.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole was ruled out of action for six weeks with a hamstring injury in September 2013. On 30 November 2013, he scored his second goal of the season in a home victory over Fulham, coming off the bench to complete the 3–0 victory. At the end of the 2013–14 season, and the end of Cole's 18-month contract, his departure from West Ham was confirmed. In his second spell, he had played in 37 games in all competitions, scoring five goals.


title: Joe Cole

text: In June 2014, Cole signed a two-year contract with Aston Villa on a free transfer after he was released by West Ham. His debut for the club came on 27 August, starting and being replaced by Andreas Weimann in the 62nd minute as they lost 0–1 to League One club Leyton Orient in the second round of the League Cup.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole's first Premier League game was on 18 October, coming on for the final nine minutes in place of Christian Benteke in a 0–3 defeat away to Everton. On 29 November, Cole made his first start for Villa away to Burnley, opening the scoring in a 1–1 draw. He was an unused substitute on 30 May 2015 in the FA Cup Final, which Villa lost 0–4 to Arsenal.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 16 October 2015, Cole signed for Coventry City on a 35-day, emergency loan deal, and made his debut four days later, playing for just under an hour in an away 0–0 draw against Rochdale. His debut goal came on 3 November in a 4–3 home win against Barnsley, a free-kick which put Coventry 4-2 up. In November, his loan with Coventry was extended until 3 January 2016.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 7 January 2016, Cole signed on a free transfer on a deal lasting until the end of the season. In all, Cole made 22 league appearances for the Sky Blues, scoring twice, both from long-range free kicks.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 4 May 2016, Cole signed with the Tampa Bay Rowdies in the North American Soccer League (NASL), signing a contract through the end of the 2017 NASL season, with a club option for 2018. He made his debut ten days later, playing the full 90 minutes of a 1–1 home draw against Rayo OKC. Two weeks later, away to Minnesota United, he scored his first goal to open a 2–0 win, assisting Eric Avila for the other; he was voted the league's Player of the Week. On 19 October, Cole was one of ten players nominated for the NASL Golden Ball award. In June 2018, Cole was promoted to assistant coach with the Rowdies, while still acting as a player as well.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole retired from professional football on 13 November 2018. He has since taken up a coaching role at Chelsea.


title: Joe Cole

text: As an England schoolboy international, Cole scored seven goals in an 8–1 victory against Spain in an England Schoolboys game, as well as playing for England's under-17 team, where he scored the winning goal against Norway in a final of the Nordic Tournament. Cole made his senior international debut against Mexico in May 2001. He was a member of England's 2002 World Cup squad, making one substitute appearance in the tournament. Cole was also a squad member at UEFA Euro 2004, but did not play.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole's displays in England's friendlies leading up to the 2006 World Cup enhanced his reputation ahead of the summer's finals in Germany. In May 2006, he was confirmed in the England squad for the World Cup, ahead of Chelsea teammate Shaun Wright-Phillips. He played on the left side of midfield in England's opening game against Paraguay on 10 June 2006. On 20 June 2006, England drew with Sweden in Group B play, with a final score of 2–2. Cole scored a volley in the 34th minute of the match and got an assist in the 85th when he sent in a ball to Steven Gerrard, with this contribution earning him the Man of the match award.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole lined up for the England squad for the first time since the 2006 World Cup in the 1–1 friendly draw against the Netherlands, on 15 November 2006 providing an assist for Wayne Rooney from a cross. After another injury, he returned to start the friendly against Brazil at Wembley Stadium on 1 June 2007.


title: Joe Cole

text: On 7 February 2008, Cole was one of the 23-man squad selected for the friendly against Switzerland which they won 2–1, courtesy of Jermaine Jenas and Shaun Wright-Phillips goals. For Jenas' goal, Cole skipped down the left and crossed to Jenas. Cole was named Man of the match for his performance.


title: Joe Cole

text: In August 2008, Cole scored a late equalising goal in a 2–2 draw at Wembley against the Czech Republic after coming on as a substitute. He then scored England's two goals in the next fixture after coming on as a second-half substitute in the 2–0 defeat of Andorra in the opening match for 2010 World Cup qualifying. In England's next World Cup qualifier, against Croatia, he suffered a head injury in a clash with Croatian defender Robert Kovač which resulted in the Croat's sending off.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole was named in the final 23-man selection for England's 2010 World Cup squad. He played, and scored, in a 3–0 victory against Platinum Stars, of South Africa's Premier Soccer League, in an unofficial warm-up game. However, he was limited to only two substitute appearances in the tournament itself, as England lost to Germany in the second round in what was to be his final international appearance.


title: Joe Cole

text: A clever, versatile, and technically gifted midfielder, Cole was capable of playing in several offensive midfield positions, as an attacking midfielder, winger or supporting striker. A quick, strong and creative player, Cole was known in particular for his dribbling skills, and was capable of both scoring and creating goals due to his vision, passing and striking ability. His dribbling and overall flair was praised by Pelé, who stated that, "He has the skills of a Brazilian," during Cole's spell at Chelsea. Despite his talent, some pundits have argued that he failed to live up to the potential he demonstrated in his youth, partially due to the recurring injuries he sustained throughout his career.


title: Joe Cole

text: Cole married fitness instructor Carly Zucker in June 2009. Cole had been dating Zucker since 2002 and proposed to her in 2007. The couple have a daughter, Ruby Tatiana Cole, born in March 2010, and a son, Harrison "Harry" Cole, born in October 2012.


title: Joe Cole

text: In November 2009, Cole was caught driving his Audi A4 at 105 mph on a 70 mph section of dual carriageway in Claygate, Surrey. At the subsequent court case, Cole was warned he could lose his driving licence and was ordered to pay £600 costs. He launched an appeal concerning his driving ban.


title: Mykonos

text: Mykonos (, ; ) is a Greek island, part of the Cyclades, lying between Tinos, Syros, Paros and Naxos. The island has an area of and rises to an elevation of at its highest point. There are 10,134 inhabitants according to the 2011 census, most of whom live in the largest town, Mykonos, which lies on the west coast. The town is also known as "Chora" (i.e. 'Town' in Greek, following the common practice in Greece when the name of the island itself is the same as the name of the principal town).


title: Mykonos

text: Mykonos's nickname is "The Island of the Winds", due to the very strong winds that usually blow on the island. Tourism is a major industry and Mykonos is known for its vibrant nightlife and for being a gay-friendly destination with many establishments catering for the LGBT community.


title: Mykonos

text: Herodotus mentions Carians as the original inhabitants of the island. Ionians from Athens seem to have followed next in the early 11th century BC. There were many people living on the neighboring island of Delos, only away, which meant that Mykonos became an important place for supplies and transit. It was, however, during ancient times a rather poor island with limited agricultural resources. Its inhabitants were polytheists and worshiped many gods.


title: Mykonos

text: Mykonos came under the control of the Romans during the reign of the Roman Empire and then became part of the Byzantine Empire until the 12th century. In 1204, with the fall of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade, Mykonos was occupied by Andrea Ghisi. The island was ravaged by the Catalans at the end of the 13th century and finally given over to direct Venetian rule in 1390.


title: Mykonos

text: In 1537, while the Venetians still reigned, Mykonos was attacked by Hayreddin Barbarossa, the admiral of Suleiman the Magnificent and an Ottoman fleet established itself on the island. The Ottomans, under the leadership of Kapudan Pasha, imposed a system of self-governance comprising a governor and an appointed council of "syndics". When the castle of Tinos fell to the Ottomans in 1718, the last of the Venetians withdrew from the region.


title: Mykonos

text: Up until the end of the 18th century, Mykonos prospered as a trading center, attracting many immigrants from nearby islands, in addition to regular pirate raids. In June 1794 the Battle of Mykonos was fought between British and French ships in the island's main harbor.


title: Mykonos

text: The Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire broke out in 1821 and Mykonos played an important role, led by the national heroine, Manto Mavrogenous. Mavrogenous, a well-educated aristocrat guided by the ideas of the Enlightenment, sacrificed her family's fortune for the Greek cause. Greece became an independent state in 1830. A statue of her sits in the middle of Manto Mavrogenous square in the main town.


title: Mykonos

text: As a result of sailing and merchant activity, the island's economy quickly picked up but declined again during the late 19th century and especially after the opening of the Corinth Canal in 1904 and the First World War at the beginning of the 20th century. Many Mykonians left the island to find work in mainland Greece and many foreign countries, especially the United States.


title: Mykonos

text: Tourism soon came to dominate the local economy, owing a lot to the important excavations carried out by the French School of Archaeology, which began work in Delos in 1873. Mykonos became popular with international "jet set" tourists in the 1960s. In the 70s it was popular spot for Americans to treat as a nude beach, which Americans imagined to be a feature of those natural "far out" Greeks, and then flourished further to become a popular gay tourist destination in the 1980s. By the 2000s, Mykonos had become one of Greece's most expensive islands.


title: Mykonos

text: In Greek mythology, Mykonos was named after its first ruler, Mykonos (Μύκονος), the son or grandson of the god Apollo and a local hero. The island is also said to have been the location of the Gigantomachy, the great battle between Zeus and Giants and where Hercules killed the invincible giants having lured them from the protection of Mount Olympus. According to myth, the large rocks all over the island are said to be the petrified corpses of the giants.


title: Mykonos

text: The island has an area of and rises to an elevation of at its highest point. It is situated east of Athens in the Aegean Sea. The island features no rivers, but numerous seasonal streams two of which have been converted into reservoirs.


title: Mykonos

text: The island is composed mostly of granite and the terrain is very rocky with many areas eroded by the strong winds. High quality clay and baryte, which is a mineral used as a lubricant in oil drilling, were mined on the eastern side of Mykonos until the late 1900s.


title: Mykonos

text: It produces of water daily, by reverse osmosis of sea water in order to help meet the needs of its population and visitors.


title: Mykonos

text: Mykonos has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen;BSH) because of the low overall rainfall, although it has lots of Mediterranean characteristics and it is highly influenced by the Mediterranean Sea. The sun shines for up to 300 days a year. The rainy season lasts from October until March. Vegetation follows the typical pattern for the region and grows around mid-autumn and ends in the beginning of the summer. The average daily temperature in the Winter is around , while it is in the summer. The average night temperature is in the winter and in the summer.


title: Mykonos

text: Because of the seasonal cool "meltemi" wind (similar to the other Cyclades islands) and the moderating sea, summer days are relatively cool, dry, sunny and pleasant. The reason for the low overall rainfall is the rain shadow of the Pindus Mountains, which dry out the westerly winds. Winters in general are mild and wet, with many sunny days even in mid-winter. Snow is infrequent and doesn't stay long on the ground when it falls.


title: Mykonos

text: The municipality of Mykonos (officially: ) is a separate regional unit of the South Aegean region, and the sole municipality in the regional unit. As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Mykonos was created out of part of the former Cyclades Prefecture. The municipality, unchanged at the Kallikratis reform, also includes the islands Delos, Rineia and several uninhabited islets. The total area of the municipality is .


title: Mykonos

text: There are 10,134 inhabitants (2011) most of whom live in the largest town, Mykonos, also known as "Chora" (i.e. "the Town" in Greek, a common denomination in Greece when the name of the island itself is the same as the name of the principal town).


title: Mykonos

text: It being a Greek island, the economy of Mykonos is closely linked with the sea. However, with the rise of tourism, it plays a minor role during summer.


title: Mykonos

text: The original Neoclassical building underwent refurbishments and expansions in the 1930s and 1960s and the large eastern room was added in 1972. The museum contains artefacts from the neighbouring island Rhenia, including 9th- to 8th-century BC ceramic pottery from the Cyclades and 7th- to 6th-century BC works from other areas in the Aegean. Its most famous item is the large vase produced in Tinos, showing scenes from the fall of Troy.


title: Mykonos

text: There is an abundance of churches because, for many years, the islanders were required to build a church on their land before building a house.


title: Mykonos

text: Mykonos Airport is located southeast of the town of Mykonos and it is served by international flights during summer. The flight from Athens to Mykonos takes 25 minutes.


title: Mykonos

text: Mykonos is also accessible by boat and ferries. High speed vessels visit daily from the surrounding islands and from Athens.


title: Mykonos

text: Taxis, buses or boats are available for transportation. There are three main bus depots in Mykonos. The northern depot is situated behind Remezzo Club above the old Port and provides regular service to Ano Mera, Elia and Kalafatis. A few hundred meters below, at the Old Port, lays another Depot focusing on the northern destinations of Tourlos (New Port) and Agios Stefanos. The southern Bus Depot is at the town "entrance", called Fabrika and it provides regular service to Ornos, Agios Yannis, Plati Gialos, Psarou, Paraga, and Paradise Beach. Small boats travel to and from the many beaches. Tour boats go regularly to the nearby island of Delos.


title: Mykonos

text: In 2013 the Mykonos Biennale was inaugurated offering theatrical, cultural, cinematic, artistic, and musical productions.


title: Bass Reeves

text: Bass Reeves (July 1838 – January 12, 1910) was an American law enforcement official, historically noted as the first black deputy U.S. marshal west of the Mississippi River. He worked mostly in Arkansas and the Oklahoma Territory. During his long career, he had on his record more than 3,000 arrests of dangerous fugitives, and shot and killed 14 of them in self-defense.


title: Bass Reeves

text: Reeves was born into slavery in Crawford County, Arkansas, in 1838. He was named after his grandfather, Bass Washington. Reeves and his family were enslaved by Arkansas state legislator William Steele Reeves. When Bass was eight (about 1846), William Reeves moved to Grayson County, Texas, near Sherman in the Peters Colony. It appears plausible that Reeves was kept in bondage by William Steele Reeves's son, Colonel George R. Reeves -- a Texan sheriff, legislator, and one-time Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives until his death from rabies in 1882.


title: Bass Reeves

text: When the American Civil War began, George Reeves joined the Confederate Army, forcing Bass to go with him. It is unclear how, and exactly when, Bass Reeves escaped, but at some point during the Civil War, he gained his freedom. One account recalls how Bass Reeves and George Reeves had an altercation over a card game. Bass severely beat George, and fled to the Indian Territory where he lived among the Cherokee, Creeks and Seminoles. Bass stayed with these Native American tribes and learned their languages until he was freed by the Thirteenth Amendment's abolishment of slavery in 1865.


title: Bass Reeves

text: Reeves and his family farmed until 1875 when Isaac Parker was appointed federal judge for the Indian Territory. Parker appointed James F. Fagan as U.S. marshal, directing him to hire 200 deputies U.S. marshals. Fagan had heard about Reeves, who knew the Territory and could speak several Native languages. He recruited him as a deputy; Reeves was the first black deputy to serve west of the Mississippi River. Reeves was assigned as a deputy U.S. marshal for the Western District of Arkansas, which had responsibility also for the Native reservation Territory. He served there until 1893. That year he transferred to the Eastern District of Texas in Paris, Texas, for a short while. In 1897, he was transferred again, serving at the Muskogee Federal Court in the Native Territory.


title: Bass Reeves

text: Reeves worked for 32 years as a federal peace officer in the Indian Territory and became one of Judge Parker's most valued deputies. Reeves brought in some of the most dangerous fugitives of the time; he was never wounded despite having his hat and belt shot off on separate occasions.


title: Bass Reeves

text: In addition to being a marksman with a rifle and revolver, Reeves developed superior detective skills during his long career. When he retired in 1907, Reeves had on his record over 3,000 arrests of felons. He killed 14 outlaws to defend his life. Reeves had to arrest his own son for murder; Benjamin "Bennie" Reeves was charged with the murder of his own wife. Despite being disturbed and deeply shaken by the incident, Reeves nonetheless insisted on the responsibility of bringing Bennie to justice. Bennie was subsequently captured, tried, and convicted. He served 11 years at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas before his sentence was commuted; he reportedly lived the rest of his life as a model citizen.


title: Bass Reeves

text: When Oklahoma became a state in 1907, Reeves, then 68, became an officer of the Muskogee Police Department. He served for two years before he became ill and retired.


title: Bass Reeves

text: Reeves was himself once charged with murdering a posse cook. At his trial before Judge Parker, Reeves claimed to have shot the man by mistake while cleaning his gun; he was represented by former United States Attorney W. H. H. Clayton, who was a colleague and friend. Reeves was eventually believed and acquitted, possibly based on his exceptional record.


title: Bass Reeves

text: Reeves' health began to fail further after retiring. He died of Bright's disease (nephritis) on January 12, 1910.


title: Bass Reeves

text: Reeves was married twice and had eleven children. In 1864 he married Nellie Jennie (d. 1896) and after her death Winnie Sumter (1900–1910). His children were named Newland, Benjamin, George, Lula, Robert, Sally, Edgar, Bass Jr., Harriet, Homer and Alice.


title: Bass Reeves

text: He was a great-uncle of Paul L. Brady, who became the first black man appointed as a federal administrative law judge in 1972.


title: Bass Reeves

text: His great-great-grandson is former National Football League and Canadian Football League player Willard Reaves, while his great-great-great-grandsons are National Hockey League player Ryan Reaves and CFL player Jordan Reaves. Ryan Reaves's grandfather changed the family name from Reeves to Reaves.


title: Bass Reeves

text: In 1992, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.


title: Widows (2018 film)

text: Widows is a 2018 neo-noir heist thriller film directed by Steve McQueen from a screenplay by Gillian Flynn and McQueen, based upon the 1983 British television series of the same name. The plot follows four Chicago women who attempt to steal $5,000,000 from the home of a prominent local politician in order to pay back a crime boss from whom $2,000,000 was stolen by the women's husbands before they were killed in a botched getaway attempt. A British-American co-production, the film stars Viola Davis, Michelle Rodriguez and Elizabeth Debicki in the title roles alongside Cynthia Erivo, Colin Farrell, Brian Tyree Henry, Daniel Kaluuya, Jacki Weaver, Carrie Coon, Robert Duvall, and Liam Neeson in an ensemble supporting cast.


title: Widows (2018 film)

text: "Widows" premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on November 6, 2018 and in the United States on November 16, by 20th Century Fox. The film received critical acclaim, with praise aimed at its direction, editing, screenplay and performances (particularly Davis, Debicki and Kaluuya), with critics crediting it for blending "dramatic themes with popcorn thrills". The film grossed $76 million worldwide on a production budget of $42 million and received several award nominations, among them being one for Davis for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.


title: Widows (2018 film)

text: In Chicago, Harry Rawlings and his criminal gang's getaway van are blown up during a police standoff after stealing $2,000,000 from crime boss Jamal Manning. Jamal threatens Veronica, Harry's widow, demanding compensation, needing the money to finance his campaign for alderman of a South Side ward. He is running against Jack Mulligan, the next-in-line of a dynastic family that has held the position for decades. Mulligan doesn't like politics, but is happy to profit from it; his father Tom, the previous alderman, warns him that he will face everlasting shame if he loses to Jamal.


title: Widows (2018 film)

text: Veronica is given a key to a safety deposit box by Bash, Harry's loyal chauffeur, which contains Harry's notebook with a detailed plan for stealing $5 million from Mulligan's home. She is advised to sell the notebook to Jamal's people, but decides against it.


title: Widows (2018 film)

text: Veronica decides to carry out the heist, recruiting two of the other widows of Harry's gang, Alice and Linda. Alice has lost her livelihood and is pressured by her mother to become a sugar baby. Linda has lost her store, as her husband secretly gambled away the rent payments. The fourth widow, Amanda, does not join them, as Veronica discovers she has a 4-month-old baby. Alice acquires guns and a getaway van while Linda deciphers Harry's blueprints. Jamal's brother and right-hand man Jatemme attacks several witnesses and kills Bash while looking for Harry's notebook. Eventually, Alice uses a real estate executive, her sugar daddy, to identify the blueprint as the safe room in the Mulligan family mansion which also serves as Jack Mulligan's campaign headquarters.