title: Tekken 7

text: The PlayStation 4 version was confirmed at Paris Games Week 2015 on October 27, 2015. Bandai Namco announced that the PlayStation 4 version would feature exclusive content, as well as PlayStation VR support. In addition to previous graphical upgrades in the arcade version, the console versions received one. Exclusive content on the PlayStation 4 version were released in the form of classic costumes for Jin, Xiaoyu and King, as well as a "Tekken" jukebox with classic musical tracks.


title: Tekken 7

text: At E3 2016, "Tekken 7" was announced to be released for the Xbox One and Windows platforms in 2017, in addition to the PlayStation 4 version. A trailer, revealed during same event, showcased some of new features that were included in "Fated Retribution", such as graphical updates and stages, as well as a story mode, which adds cutscenes and dialogue during battles.


title: Tekken 7

text: The game is supported by downloadable content. Players who pre-ordered the game received a code that downloads the character Eliza. She is otherwise available as paid DLC starting on July 28, 2017. "Taiko no Tatsujin" collaboration items were also made available as free DLC on the same date. The first major batch DLC, containing the Tekken Bowl minigame, "The Idolmaster" collaboration outfits, "" uniforms for Xiaoyu and Alisa, swimsuits for female characters, fundoshi for male characters, and Vintage 1920s bathing suits was made available on August 31, 2017. The second DLC, adding Geese Howard as a playable character and the stage Howard Estate, was released on November 30, 2017. The third DLC, adding Noctis Lucis Caelum as a playable character and the stage Hammerhead, was released on March 20, 2018. These three batches can also be bought together with a season pass.


title: Tekken 7

text: A free update, Season 2, was released on September 6, 2018. It focused on balance changes, several modifications to the characters' moves, the addition of Wall Bound mechanic for every character, as well as Simple Combo and Assist, which were previously exclusive to the Story Mode. On the same date, the fourth and fifth DLC, adding the characters Anna Williams and Lei Wulong, respectively, were also made available for purchase. The sixth and seventh DLC, containing the characters Craig Marduk and Armor King, respectively, were released on December 3, 2018. The eighth DLC, adding the character Julia Chang, and the ninth DLC, adding the character Negan and the stage Last Day on Earth, were released on February 28, 2019. The last two DLC also came with a free update that added variations of Jungle Outpost, Twilight Conflict, and Infinite Azure stages. The six were packaged into the second season pass for a cheaper price.


title: Tekken 7

text: Season 3 update was released for free on September 10, 2019, and again concerned about balance changes. The tenth DLC was released on the same date and added Zafina to the playable cast. December 10, 2019 saw the release of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth DLC, containing the characters Ganryu and Leroy Smith and the frame data display feature, respectively. The character Fahkumram and the stage Cave of Enlightenment were released as part of the fourteenth and fifteenth DLC on March 24, 2020.


title: Tekken 7

text: November 10, 2020 saw the release of a free Season 4 update as well as two paid DLC, adding the character Kunimitsu and the stage Vermilion Gates. Two more DLC were added on March 23, 2021, which include the character Lidia Sobieska and the stage Island Paradise.


title: Tekken 7

text: "Tekken 7" received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. According to Chris Carter of Destructoid, it was an "impressive effort with a few noticeable problems holding it back. Won't astound everyone, but is worth your time and cash," and awarded it a score of 8/10. "Electronic Gaming Monthly"s Evan Slead scored the game a 7.5/10 with the consensus ""Tekken 7", the latest entry in the long-running franchise, delivers what fighting genre fans love about multiplayer battles, but there isn’t enough new material to make it truly stand out from the increasingly competitive options in the fighting genre." The game was rated 36 out of 40 for both the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions by "Famitsu". Eurogamer Italy opined, ""Tekken 7" is what the fighting game community was waiting for. Awesome gameplay, new mechanics, great characters and a good amount of contents." "Metro" summarised it as ""Tekken" with better graphics - the gameplay and characters are still a huge amount of fun." 4Players called it one of "the deepest combo-filled fighters out there that will give "Injustice 2"s superheroes a run for their money." Matt Elliott of GamesRadar awarded it 4 out of 5 stars stating that "Despite some narrative missteps, "Tekken 7" is still a compelling, exhilarating experience. Find the right sparring partner and it will entertain you indefinitely." Polygon stated that the "unforgettable characters and fluid fights are worth the work." Darry Huskey's score of 9.5/10 on IGN said that ""Tekken 7" is a hallmark fighting game that's both accessible and highly technical, with great customization options." "GamesMaster" agreed, saying it was a "gratifying fighting game". "A smart, blisteringly fun experience at its core, "Tekken 7"s limited singleplayer campaign and poor tutorials marr an otherwise resounding win", was Dave Houghton's conclusion on "PC Gamer" with a score of 79%.


title: Tekken 7

text: In "Game Informer"s Reader's Choice Best of 2017 Awards, the game came in second place for "Best Fighting Game". The game was nominated for "Best PS4 Game" in Destructoids Game of the Year Awards 2017, and for "Best Fighting Game" in IGN's Best of 2017 Awards. It was also a runner-up each for "Best Multiplayer" and "Game of the Year" in Giant Bomb's 2017 Game of the Year Awards. In 2019, "Game Informer" ranked it as the 7th best fighting game of all time.


title: Tekken 7

text: In addition, "Tekken 7" has been especially popular in the competitive scene. The Tekken World Tour was created in 2017 as a season-long, points-based international tournament series that begins in March and culminates in the Tekken World Tour World Finals each December. The Tour has gone on to receive praise for successfully showcasing several relatively unknown and overlooked "Tekken 7" players from around the world as well as generating more interest in the game competitively. "Tekken 7" received particular praise for its display at EVO 2018, and it was one of the few games to see increased numbers of entrants at EVO 2019.


title: Tekken 7

text: In the United Kingdom, "Tekken 7" was the best selling software in the week of release; this is a first for the series in 19 years, since the debut of "Tekken 3" on the original PlayStation. It remained at number 1 in the second week. The game also topped the Japanese charts in its first week, selling 58,736 copies. The release of the game also boosted PlayStation 4 sales. It fell to number 2 in the second week, behind "Mario Kart 8 Deluxe". It was number 1 in both Australia and New Zealand. "Tekken 7" was also the best selling physical software in North America in the month of June 2017, as well as the 8th best selling download on the US PlayStation Store. It was the 5th most downloaded game on the EU PlayStation Store.


title: Tekken 7

text: Within the first two months of release, "Tekken 7" had sold over two million copies worldwide. Harada was satisfied with these sales as they surpassed the team's own expectations. Harada later revealed that the game sold over 3 million copies before its one-year anniversary. As of December 2022, the game has surpassed 10 million in sales, making it the most commercially successful game in the series, surpassing the record held by "Tekken 3".


title: Nudity in film

text: In film, nudity may be either graphic or suggestive, such as when a person appears to be naked but is covered by a sheet. Since the birth of film, depictions of any form of sexuality have been controversial, and in the case of most nude scenes, had to be justified as part of the story.


title: Nudity in film

text: Nudity in film should be distinguished from sex in film. A film on naturism or about people for whom nudity is common may contain non-sexual nudity, and some non-pornographic films contain brief nude scenes. Nudity in a sexual context is common in pornographic films or erotic films.


title: Nudity in film

text: Nude scenes are considered controversial in some cultures because they may challenge the community's standards of modesty. These standards vary by culture and depend on the type of nudity, who is exposed, which parts of the body are exposed, the duration of the exposure, the posing, the context, or other aspects.


title: Nudity in film

text: Nudity in film may be subject to censorship or rating regimes that control the content of films. Many directors and producers apply self-censorship, limiting nudity (and other content) in their films to avoid censorship or a strict rating.


title: Nudity in film

text: Nudity has almost universally not been permitted on stage, but sheer or simulated nudity may have been. Devices used included flesh-colored bodystockings to simulate nudity or long hair as a cover for vital parts for roles such as Lady Godiva.


title: Nudity in film

text: American actress Adah Isaacs Menken created controversy in 1861 when she wore a flesh-colored bodystocking in the play "Mazeppa", based on Byron's "Mazeppa", in which she played a Polish man who was tied nude to the back of a wild horse by his enemies. She also posed nude for photographs.


title: Nudity in film

text: Early in her career, French actress Sarah Bernhardt posed topless on several occasions for photographer Felix Nadar. She is nevertheless seen with her top covered in surviving stills of these sessions. At least one topless photograph of Bernhardt from 1873 survives. These nude sessions were not meant for public viewing but for the encouraging of theatrical employers or personal guests.


title: Nudity in film

text: In the 1880s, Eadweard Muybridge used a device he called a zoopraxiscope to project a series of successive still photographs. The photos would then be played one after the other, giving the illusion of movement. Sometimes the same sequence would be filmed using several cameras. Many of Muybridge's photographic sessions using the zoopraxiscope had anonymous nude models, both female and male.


title: Nudity in film

text: The first films containing nudity were early erotic films. Production of such films commenced almost immediately after the invention of the motion picture. The earliest film containing a simulated nude scene is thought to be the 1897 "After the Ball" by French director George Méliès, in which the director's future wife wears a bodystocking to simulate nudity.


title: Nudity in film

text: Two of the earliest pioneers of erotica were French producer Eugène Pirou and director Albert Kirchner. Kirchner (under the pseudonym "Léar") directed films for Pirou. The 1899 short film "Le Coucher de la Mariée" starred Louise Willy performing a bathroom striptease. Other French filmmakers considered that profits could be made from risqué films that showed women disrobing.


title: Nudity in film

text: In Austria, Johann Schwarzer sought to break the dominance of French-produced erotic films being distributed by the Pathé brothers. Schwarzer formed his Saturn-Film production company, which between 1906 and 1911 produced 52 erotic productions, each of which contained young local women fully nude, to be shown at men-only theatre nights (called "Herrenabende"). These films were promoted as erotic and artistic, rather than pornographic, but in 1911, Saturn was dissolved by the censorship authorities and its films destroyed. However, copies of at least a half of the films have been found in private hands. Filmarchiv Austria has included four of Schwarzer's works on the Europa Film Treasures site: "Das Sandbad" (1906), "Baden Verboten" (1906), "Das Eitle Stubenmädchen" (1908) and "Beim Fotografen" (1908). Internet Archive has included over twenty of Schwarzer's works on their site.


title: Nudity in film

text: The 1911 Italian film "Dante's Inferno", directed by Francesco Bertolini, is loosely adapted from Dante Alighieri's epic poem "The Divine Comedy" and inspired by the illustrations of Gustave Doré. In depicting tormented souls in Hell, there are frequent glimpses of nude male and female actors (including the first male frontal scenes). Remade many times, the U.S. version, "Dante's Inferno" (1924) from the Fox Film Corporation, also contains groups of nude figures and scenes of flagellation.


title: Nudity in film

text: Several early films of the silent era and early sound era include women in nude scenes, presented in a historical or religious context. One such film was the anticlerical "Hypocrites", directed by Lois Weber and released in January 1915, which was the first American motion picture with a central role played entirely in the nude. It contained several sequences with Margaret Edwards (uncredited) appearing fully nude as a ghostly apparition representing Truth. Her scenes were created using innovative travelling double exposure sequences (photographed by the legendary early cinematographer Dal Clawson) which made her appear as a semi-transparent spirit. "Inspiration", released in November 1915, is believed to be the first American motion picture with a "named" leading actor in a nude scene. The nudity in the film was that of an artist's model, played by Audrey Munson. Munson appeared nude again in a similar role in the 1916 film "Purity". In these films, Munson was a tableau vivant, not being required to move, and only her backside and breasts were in view. Annette Kellermann, the famous Australian swimming star, appeared fully nude in an active role in Fox's "A Daughter of the Gods" in 1916. Though shot from the front, most of Kellerman's body is covered by her long hair.


title: Nudity in film

text: Historical and "exotic" contexts were also used as justifications for nude or near-nude scenes. In 1917, Fox produced the lavish "Cleopatra" in which Theda Bara wore a number of risqué outfits. Gordon Griffith appeared as a young naked Tarzan in "Tarzan of the Apes" (1918), making him the first child actor to appear naked on screen. Nell Shipman appeared nude in the Canadian film "Back to God's Country" (1919). Fox produced "The Queen of Sheba" in 1921 starring Betty Blythe, who displayed ample nudity even when wearing 28 different diaphanous costumes. There is also a brief moment of nudity in D. W. Griffith's "Orphans of the Storm" (1921) to display the debauchery of the French aristocracy. "Hula" (1927) is a feature film in which popular star Clara Bow does a nude bathing scene.


title: Nudity in film

text: "Is Your Daughter Safe?" (1927) was one of the earliest exploitation films which contained nudity. A compilation of medical documentary films and stock footage of nude scenes dating back to the 1900s, it was presented as an educational film about the dangers of venereal disease, white slavery, and prostitution. Exploitation short subjects (three to 15 minutes in length) with comedic plots and frequent nudity were also produced in the silent era. A few have survived to the present such as "Forbidden Daughters" (13 minutes, 1927), directed by prominent nude photographer Albert Arthur Allen, "Hollywood Script Girl" (three minutes, 1928), and "Uncle Si and the Sirens" (eight minutes, c. 1928). These were the forerunners of the "nudie" comedy feature films that emerged in the late 1950s. Years later, when the Hays Code came into force, these films were considered too obscene to be reshown. Most of these films are now lost.


title: Nudity in film

text: In France in the 1920s, short-subject films were made of a topless Josephine Baker performing exotic dance routines. The 1922 Swedish/Danish silent horror film "Häxan" contained nude scenes, torture and sexual perversion. The film was banned in the U.S. and had to be edited before it was shown in other countries. The 1929 Russian film "Man with a Movie Camera" by Dziga Vertov featured nudity within the context of naturism, including live childbirth.


title: Nudity in film

text: Filmmaking started in the 1890s, and the first feature-length film was produced in 1906. Nude scenes appeared in films from the start of the new invention. Several Hollywood films produced in the 1910s and 1920s, which contained only brief nudity, were controversial. Various groups objected to these features on moral grounds, and several states set up film censorship boards, arguing that such content was obscene and should be banned. Under pressure, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) created its own censorship agency, the Hays Code, which brought an end to nudity and risqué content in films produced by the main Hollywood studios. The Code was adopted in 1930 and began to be effectively enforced in 1934. At the same time, the Catholic Legion of Decency was formed to keep an eye on the morals conveyed in films and indicate its disapproval by "condemning" films it considered morally objectionable. Theaters would not show a condemned film until this system declined in the 1960s.


title: Nudity in film

text: American social and official attitudes toward nudity later began to ease, and the Code came under repeated challenge in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1958, the New York Court of Appeals ruled that a film that merely contains nudity was not obscene. The Code was abandoned in 1968 in favor of the MPAA film rating system.


title: Nudity in film

text: Even today, the presence of nudity in a film is invariably noted by critics and censors. Until the 1980s, male nudity was rarely shown on screen. Though female nudity was routinely treated with respect and solemnity, male nudity, when it finally found its way onto the screen, was generally treated humorously and mockingly.


title: Nudity in film

text: The silent film era came to an end in 1929. In 1930, the Motion Picture Association of America drew up the Motion Picture Production Code, also known as the Hays Code, to raise the moral standards of films by directly restricting the materials which the major film studios could include in their films. The code authorized nudity only in naturist quasi-documentary films and in foreign films. However, the code was not enforced until 1934.


title: Nudity in film

text: After the end of silent films, movies with sound that included brief glimpses of nudity appeared as early as 1930 with "All Quiet on the Western Front". Cecil B. DeMille, later known as a family entertainment specialist, included several nude scenes in his early films such as "The Sign of the Cross" (1932), "Four Frightened People" (1934), and "Cleopatra" (1934). The "Dance of the Naked Moon" and orgy scene was cut for "The Sign of the Cross" in a 1938 reissue to comply with the production code. Other filmmakers followed suit, particularly in historical dramas such as "The Scarlet Empress" (1934) – which, among other things, shows topless women being burned at the stake – and contemporary stories filmed in exotic, mostly tropical, locations. "Bird of Paradise", directed by King Vidor in 1932, featured a nude swimming scene with Dolores del Río, and Harry Lachman's "Dante's Inferno" featured many naked men and women suffering in hell.


title: Nudity in film

text: The early "Tarzan" films with Johnny Weissmuller featured at least partial nudity justified by the natural surroundings in which the characters lived; in "Tarzan and His Mate" in 1934, Jane (Maureen O'Sullivan, doubled by Olympic swimmer Josephine McKim) swims in the nude.


title: Nudity in film

text: Under the pretense of being an educational ethnographic film, producers could justify showing half-clad natives in jungle epics and South-Sea-island documentaries. This was often done by editing in stock footage or fabricating new scenes with ethnic-looking stand-ins. Examples of docufiction include "Ingagi" (1930), notorious for its fake scenes of semi-nude "native" girls filmed on a back lot. "Forbidden Adventure in Angkor" (1937) is a 1912 Cambodia documentary with scenes added, for dramatic effect, of two explorers and a dozen topless female bearers, incongruously played by African-American women. "The Sea Fiend" (1935), re-issued as "Devil Monster" (1946), is a low-budget South-Sea drama spiced up with stock footage inserts of half-dressed native girls. Other films of questionable authenticity in this subgenre, sometimes referred to as Goona-goona epics, include "Moana" (1926), "Trader Horn", "The Blonde Captive", "" (all 1931), "Goona Goona" aka "Kriss", "Isle of Paradise", "Virgins of Bali", "Bird of Paradise" (all 1932), "Gow" aka "Gow the Killer" (1934, re-released as "Cannibal Island" in 1956), "Inyaah, Jungle Goddess" (1934), "Legong: Dance of the Virgins" (1935), "Love Life of a Gorilla" (1937), "Mau-Mau" (1955), and "Naked Africa" (1957).


title: Nudity in film

text: Due to the diaphanous or sheer nature of 1920s and 1930s fashions, female body parts or virtual nudity, or both, can be on display even when the performer is fully clothed. As a result, when the Hays Code came into force in 1934, studio wardrobe departments had to attire actresses in more conservative as well as contemporary dress.


title: Nudity in film

text: Though in place, the Hays Code was not enforced until 1934, spurred on in response to objections voiced by several groups to the content of Hollywood films – provoked at least partly by the notorious 1933 Czech film "Ecstasy", which was highly controversial in its time largely because of a nude swimming scene by Hedy Lamarr as well as perhaps the first non-pornographic film to portray sexual intercourse, although never showing more than the actors' faces. It has also been called the first on-screen depiction of a female orgasm.


title: Nudity in film

text: The restrictions of the production code were strictly enforced from 1934 until the early 1960s to restrict nudity in films produced by the studios. United States-produced films were also under the scrutiny of moral guardians, such as the Catholic Legion of Decency, which had an influence on the content and subject matter of films in the 1930s and 1940s. They were also subject to constraints of state censorship authorities. These bodies followed inconsistent guidelines through which the film producers had to navigate; with some films being exhibited in cut versions in some states.


title: Nudity in film

text: The Hays Code was so strict that even the display of cleavage was controversial. Producer Howard Hughes created controversy by his emphasis on cleavage, especially that of Jane Russell, first in the 1941 film "The Outlaw" and also in the 1953 film "The French Line". The film was found objectionable under the Hays Code because of Russell's "breast shots in bathtub, cleavage and breast exposure" while some of her decollete gowns were regarded to be "intentionally designed to give a bosom peep-show effect beyond even extreme decolletage". Both films were condemned by the Legion of Decency and were released only in cut versions.


title: Nudity in film

text: Independent film producers – i.e., those outside the studio system – were not bound by the restrictions of the Hays Code. However, they were subject to state censorship regimes and could be excluded from so-called "family" theatres. These films claimed to be educational and dealt with taboo topics such as drug parties, prostitution, and sexually transmitted infections. In the course of presenting the message, nudity at times made an appearance. These films, which emerged in the 1930s, were obliged to play in independent theaters or traveled across the United States in "roadshow" fashion. They were normally low-budget, and described as sensationalized exploitation films. Using this framework, brief nude scenes of women appeared in "Maniac" (1934) and "Sex Madness" (1937), and nude swimming sequences in "Marihuana" (1936) and "Child Bride" (1938). "Child Bride" was controversial because it included a topless and skinny dipping scene by 12-year-old Shirley Mills, which was described by Allmovie as "gratuitous child nudity", though in some versions the topless scene was cut out.


title: Nudity in film

text: Exploitative films with pseudo-ethnographic pretensions continued well into the 1960s. For example, "Mau-Mau" (1955), presented as a documentary of the violent nationalist uprising in Kenya, played the grind-house circuit. Fabricated scenes filmed in front of a painted backdrop of an African village show nude and semi-clad "native" women being raped, strangled, and stabbed by machete-wielding maniacs.


title: Nudity in film

text: Other films containing nudity were the early underground 8mm pornographic films and fetish reels which, due to various censorship regimes, had only limited (usually clandestine) means of distribution and were only shown in private until the 1970s.


title: Nudity in film

text: Nudist films first appeared in the early 1930s as documentaries, Utopian and docu-dramas promoting the healthy lifestyle of the naturist movement in Europe and the U.S. Earliest examples include "This Nude World" (1933), a narrated documentary filmed in the U.S., France, and Germany, and "Elysia, Valley of the Nude" (1933), a docu-drama filmed at a nudist camp in Elsinore, California. Throughout the thirties, nudist films like "Why Nudism?" (1933), "Nudist Land" (1937), and "The Unashamed" (1938) flourished in road shows, but disappeared entirely in the forties.


title: Nudity in film

text: The nudist-camp movie was revived in the 1950s with "Garden of Eden" (1954), the first naturist film shot in color. Changes in censorship laws led to a flood of films such as "Naked Venus" (1958) directed by Edgar G. Ulmer, "Nudist Memories" (1959), and "Daughter of the Sun" (1962) by David F. Friedman and Herschell Gordon Lewis. Doris Wishman was probably the most active producer/director in the genre, with eight nudist films to her credit between 1960 and 1964, with "Hideout in the Sun" (1960), "Nude on the Moon" (1961), "Diary of a Nudist" (1961), "Blaze Starr Goes Nudist" (1962), "Gentlemen Prefer Nature Girls" (1963), "Playgirls International" (1963), "Behind the Nudist Curtain" (1964), and "The Prince and the Nature Girl" (1964).


title: Nudity in film

text: Edward Craven Walker (1918-2000), the inventor of the lava lamp, was a major figure in the naturist movement. He made three nudist films under the name Michael Keatering. They were "Travelling Light" (1959), "Sunswept" (1962), and "Eves on Skis" (1963).


title: Nudity in film

text: Ramsey Harrington produced "The Nudist Story" (1960) (retitled "For Members Only" or "Pussycat's Paradise" for the U.S. market), Arthur Knight produced "My Bare Lady" (1963) and Leo Orenstein (under the pseudonym Alan Overton) directed "Have Figure, Will Travel" (1963).


title: Nudity in film

text: Exploitation producer George Weiss also released films such as "Nudist Life" (1961), which comprised vintage nudist camp footage. In the same year, in England, Harrison Marks released "Naked as Nature Intended" which starred Pamela Green and was a box office success (Marks soon went to make softcore pornographic and caning / spanking fetish films).


title: Nudity in film

text: Nudist films claimed to depict the lifestyles of members of the nudism or naturist movement, but were largely a vehicle for the exhibition of female nudity. They were mainly shot in naturist resorts, but augmented by attractive glamour models. The nudity was strictly non-sexual and, when filmed frontally, the members' pubic area was strictly covered by the angle of shot or some clothing or other objects. However, there was uninhibited exposure of breasts and backsides. The acting and technical production standards were not very high and the outlets for their exhibition were very limited, as was the size of the audience interested in these films, and many films were re-released several times under new titles, to trick patrons into seeing the films additional times. What audience there was lost interest in these films by the mid-1960s and production ceased.


title: Nudity in film

text: At the same time, some independent producers produced erotic feature films which openly contained female nudity without the pretext of a naturist context. These nudie-cuties followed the formula of being humorous films with hapless, bumbling males and glorified women. The groundbreaking "The Immoral Mr. Teas" (1959) directed by Russ Meyer was the first of such films. In that film, the context for the presentation of female nudity was the fantasies of the main character. The film is widely considered the first pornographic feature not confined to under-the-counter distribution, and the film was commercially successful. Russ Meyer made two more nudie-cuties: "Wild Gals of the Naked West", and "Eve and the Handyman", starring his wife Eve in the title role. For the next few years a wave of such films, known as "nudies" or "nudie-cuties", were produced for adult theatres (in the United States sometimes called grindhouse theatres). The films bailed out movie houses that were facing stiff competition from television at the time. Nudie-cutie advertising was packed with tag-lines such as "You'll Never See This on TV". Films in this genre included Doris Wishman's science fiction spoof "Nude on the Moon" (1961), the Herschell Gordon Lewis and David F. Friedman film "The Adventures of Lucky Pierre" (1961), and Ed Woods horror-nudie "Orgy of the Dead" (1965), with its bevy of topless dancers from beyond the grave, following his Western screenplay "Revenge of the Virgins" (1959), which shows a fierce tribe of bare-breasted Indian women hunting a group of treasure seekers. There were very many other similar films and sequels. One of the most renowned nudie-cuties is "The Imp-probable Mr Weegee", a pseudo-documentary in which famed crime photographer Arthur Fellig, nicknamed "Mr. WeeGee", stars as himself. In the film, he falls in love with a store window dummy. Besides Russ Meyer, the only director in this field to go on to critical success is Francis Ford Coppola, who began his career writing and directing a pair of nudie comedies in 1962, "Tonight for Sure" and "The Bellboy and the Playgirls". Harrison Marks's "The Naked World of Harrison Marks" (1967) and "Nine Ages of Nakedness" (1969) could be considered late additions to the genre.


title: Nudity in film

text: In Michael Powell's controversial British film "Peeping Tom", released in 1960, a model (Pamela Green) lies back on a bed waiting to be photographed by the killer in a key scene. She undoes her top briefly exposing one of her breasts. The scene is regarded as the first female nude scene in a mainstream postwar English-language feature film, and notably the first such scene for a British film. The movie was panned by critics at the time and it reportedly destroyed Powell's directing career in the UK. The film is now seen as a cult classic; Martin Scorsese re-released it in 1979. Another 1960 release, the American horror film "Macumba Love", featured a brief topless scene of June Wilkinson frolicking in the ocean. This segment, which caused a sensation at the time, only was seen in the European release of the film.


title: Nudity in film

text: By now the Production Code had been revised so that it served less as a doctrine of rules and more as a workable set of precautions, including those on sex and nudity, to which filmmakers were advised on the more graphic depictions and given exceptions that could be made. It gave the MPAA the power to label certain films that were seen as containing adult or provocative material as "Suggested for Mature Audiences".


title: Nudity in film

text: The unfinished 1962 film "Something's Got to Give" included a nude pool swim scene with Marilyn Monroe. For the filming of the scene, a body stocking was made for Monroe, and the set was to be closed to all but necessary crew. However, Monroe asked photographers to come in, including William Woodfield, and took off the body stocking and swam in only a flesh-colored bikini bottom. After filming was completed, Monroe was photographed in the bikini bottom, and without it. Had the project been completed and released as planned, it would have been the first Hollywood film of the sound era to feature a mainstream actress in the nude.


title: Nudity in film

text: However, this was not the first instance of Monroe being filmed in the nude. In the 1961 John Huston film "The Misfits", Monroe, playing the lead female character, drops a sheet during an intimate scene, exposing herself on camera. Huston, however, decided not to include the footage in the final cut, as he believed it was of no value to the story. The script did not emphasize nudity in the 45-second-long love scene, but Monroe thought it was required, seeing that her character is putting on her clothes while being alone in the room, and it made "no sense" that "a woman sitting up in bed, with nobody in the room, [would] pull the sheet up and then try to put a blouse on at the same time". Charles Casillo, author of "Marilyn Monroe: The Private Life of a Public Icon", says the footage was preserved by "Misfits" producer Frank E. Taylor and has been, as of 2018, in the possession of his son, Curtice Taylor, since 1999.


title: Nudity in film

text: The distinction of being the first mainstream American actress to appear nude in a starring role went to actress Jayne Mansfield in the 1963 film "Promises! Promises!", though her pubic area is never visible on film. The film was banned in Cleveland and some other cities, though later the Cleveland court decided the nude scenes in the film were not lewd. Both the original and an edited version enjoyed box office success elsewhere. As a result of the film's success, Mansfield landed on the Top 10 list of Box Office Attractions for that year. However, "Chicago Sun-Times" movie critic Roger Ebert wrote, "Finally in "Promises! Promises!" she does what no Hollywood star ever does except in desperation. She does a nudie. In 1963, that kind of box office appeal was all she had left." Mansfield's autobiographical book "Jayne Mansfield's Wild, Wild World"—which she co-wrote with Mickey Hargitay—was published directly after the release of the film. It contains 32 pages of black-and-white photographs from the movie printed on glossy paper. Photographs of a naked Mansfield on the set were published in the June 1963 edition of "Playboy".


title: Nudity in film

text: "The Pawnbroker", released in 1964, breached the Motion Picture Production Code with actresses Linda Geiser and Thelma Oliver (who later became the mystic and yoga teacher Krishna Kaur Khalsa) fully exposing their breasts. Allied Artists refused to cut the film and released it to theaters without a Production Code seal. The nudity resulted in a backlash from moral and religious conservatives, including the Catholic Legion (which by that time had become a virtually powerless fringe organization). However, critical and overall public response was positive, and many Catholics rebuked the Legion's condemnation of the film. The National Council of Churches even gave the movie an award for Best Picture of the Year.


title: Nudity in film

text: The 1965 thriller "The Collector" contained mild nudity of Samantha Eggar and added to the challenge to the blanket prohibition of nudity in films. That same year Paula Prentiss performed a strip-tease in the Woody Allen-scripted comedy "What's New Pussycat?", which ended up on the cutting room floor but resurfaced on the pages of "Playboy", and Julie Christie appeared nude in the British drama film "Darling". U.S. release prints of the film and even later U.S. video and DVD versions cut the nudity. In 1966, Michelangelo Antonioni's seminal film "Blowup" was the first English-language film to show a woman's pubic hair. Antonioni's mod-influenced murder-mystery contained a scene involving two girls undressing before being chased around a studio by a fashion photographer, who wrestles them to the ground and exposes their torsos. There are additional scenes depicting sexuality and partial nudity, as well as blatant drug use. The film was produced in Britain and released to American audiences by MGM without Production Code approval, the first mainstream motion picture containing nudity to be released by a major studio in the US, the first open defiance by a major studio of the Code. That same year the biblical epic based on the book of Genesis "", was released by Twentieth Century Fox featuring a nude sequence of Adam and Eve. Another epic, the historical film "Hawaii" (1966) featured scenes of topless native girls. John Frankenheimer's 1966 sci-fi thriller "Seconds" contained an extended sequence of full frontal male and female nudity that was deleted from the original American release in which bohemian revelers dance and play in a wine vat.


title: Nudity in film

text: By 1967, the MPAA had abandoned the Production Code altogether, and in November 1968, the voluntary MPAA film rating system was implemented. The rating system has changed in minor ways since its inception, but the type and intensity of nudity continue to be rating criteria.


title: Nudity in film

text: By the mid-1960s, the novelty of the purely voyeuristic nudie-cutie/nudist camp comedy had dissipated. A new cycle of more realistic sex dramas and gritty, film noir-inspired crime stories (mostly filmed in black-and-white) emerged to dominate the adult market. These films had a much harder edge and dealt with racy subjects such as infidelity, wife-swapping, prostitution, lesbianism, drugs, white slavery, rape, psycho-killers, sex cults, decadence, sadomasochism, and sexual perversion. The films that concentrate on the dark and violent side of sexuality are generally known as "roughies".


title: Nudity in film

text: Prime examples of roughie sexploitation include: Lewis and Friedman's "Scum of the Earth!" (1963); Russ Meyer's "Lorna" (1964); Joseph P. Mawra's misogynistic Olga trilogy, "White Slaves of Chinatown", "Olga's Girls", and "Olga's House of Shame" (all 1964); R. Lee Frost's "The Defilers" (1965); Doris Wishman's "Bad Girls Go to Hell" (1965); "The Sexploiters" (1965); "The Agony of Love" (1966), and Michael Findlay's "Body of a Female" (1965) and psycho-killer trilogy starting with "The Touch of Her Flesh" (1967).


title: Nudity in film

text: Sexploitation films initially played in grindhouse theatres and struggling independent theaters. However, by the end of the 1960s they were playing in established cinema chains. As the genre developed during the 1960s films began showing scenes of simulated sex. By the late 1960s, the films were attracting a larger and broader audience, including couples rather than the single males who originally made up the vast majority of patrons. The genre rapidly declined in the early 1970s due to advertising bans, the closure of many grindhouses and drive-in theaters, and the growth of hardcore pornography in the "Golden Age of Porn". During this period a number of adult films that were sexually explicit received general theatrical releases, including "Blue Movie" (1969), "Mona the Virgin Nymph" (1970), "Deep Throat" (1972), and others.


title: Nudity in film

text: Frost's "Love Camp 7" (1968) was the forerunner of the women in prison and Nazi exploitation subgenres which have continued to the present day. Their stories feature women in prison who are subjected to sexual and physical abuse, typically by sadistic male or female prison wardens and guards. The genre also features many films in which imprisoned women engage in lesbian sex. These films discarded all moralistic pretensions and were works of pure fantasy intended only to titillate the audience with a lurid mix of sex and violence, including voyeurism (strip searches, group shower scenes, cat-fights) to sexual fantasies (lesbianism), to fetishism (bondage, whipping, degradation), and outright sadism (rape, sexual slavery, beatings, torture, cruelty).


title: Nudity in film

text: In Japan, Seijun Suzuki's "Gate of Flesh" (1964) was the first mainstream film with nudity seen in "general release" (as opposed to adults-only) theaters. Suzuki was a pioneer of the film noir. His surreal and influential "Branded to Kill" (1967) contains several scenes of casual nudity (the actors had to wear adhesive patches to avoid censorship problems).


title: Nudity in film

text: In Japan, films called pink films (pinky violent movies) were partly influenced by the Japanese Ero guro films which focuses on sexual corruption, and decadence. Many, such as "Shogun's Joy of Torture" (1968) by Teruo Ishii, deal directly with sadomasochism or include fetishistic scenes of female victims being bound.


title: Nudity in film

text: In 1968, the Hays Code was replaced by the MPAA film rating system. Since then, nudity in various forms has become more common. A number of actresses have appeared nude or partially nude in films, and it has become increasingly common for actresses to appear topless onscreen. Notable actresses who have appeared topless include Jane Fonda ("Coming Home", 1978), Julie Andrews ("S.O.B.", 1981), Kate Winslet ("Titanic", 1997), Gwyneth Paltrow ("Shakespeare in Love", 1998), Reese Witherspoon ("Twilight", 1998), Rene Russo ("The Thomas Crown Affair", 1999), Katie Holmes ("The Gift", 2000), and Halle Berry ("Swordfish", 2001). In an interview in March 2007, Berry said that her toplessness in "Swordfish" was "gratuitous" to the movie, but that she needed to do so to get over her fear of nudity, and that it was the best thing she did for her career. Having overcome her inhibitions, she went on to a role in "Monster's Ball", which required her to be nude in a sex scene featuring her and Billy Bob Thornton, and which won her an Academy Award for Best Actress. Some actresses prefer not to expose their breasts and use a body double.


title: Nudity in film

text: In 2007, writer/director Judd Apatow announced "I'm gonna get a penis or a vagina in every movie I do from now on. . . . It really makes me laugh in this day and age, with how psychotic our world is, that anyone is troubled by seeing any part of the human body." On 11 October 2010, the MPAA's Classification and Rating Administration announced that it would specifically note in the future which films contained "male nudity" in direct response to parental concerns about the content of the satire film "Brüno".


title: Nudity in film

text: Actors and actresses are typically informed of nude scenes well in advance, and nudity waivers require directors to state what will be shown and its presentation. This is generally stipulated in the nudity clause of a performer's contract. Actress Anne Hathaway said in an interview with National Public Radio, "The director submits a shot list, and you look over them for approval. And a lot of times, if an actor feels the shot demands a lot of them, they'll demand money for it.". In 2021, however, following on from multiple allegations that actors and actresses were forced to push past their comfort zones in the name of artistic integrity, the Time's Up campaign has advised many Hollywood stars to set boundaries in order to avoid past mistakes. It also advises celebrities to avoid using film doubles to make on-screen nudity more graphic, but rather focus on imparting the same effect on the audience through alternative methods. While this may seem over the top for some movie stars, with the likes of Winslet and Sebastian Stan still preparing to strip off in their latest films, the fact that leading actresses like Eva Green have spent nearly 30 minutes on-screen naked, while leading actors such as McGregor have managed to accrue nearly 20 minutes themselves, is perhaps alarming enough to movie-goers and audiences that graphic displays of nudity may have been overused.


title: Nudity in film

text: The tastefulness of nude scenes is hotly debated in the United States. Adding nudity to films may potentially hurt a film's commercial potential.


title: Nudity in film

text: Some European films showed more nudity than the American films, due to less strict attitudes about nudity in some parts of Europe. European films exhibited in the United States were not subject to the Hays Code, though some did create controversy. The 1931 Greek film "Daphnis and Chloe" by Orestis Laskos featured the first nude scene in a European fiction film, showing Chloe bathing in a fountain.


title: Nudity in film

text: Gustav Machatý's "Extase" (1933) with Hedy Lamarr was condemned by Pope Pius XI. It was very controversial on its release in the United States and is credited with contributing to the repressive regime under the Hays Code.


title: Nudity in film

text: Abel Gance's "Lucrezia Borgia" (1935) had a nude scene with actress Edwige Feuillère. The French League for the Recovery of Public Morality in Lyon mounted a campaign against this film.


title: Nudity in film

text: Leni Riefenstahl's "Olympia" (1938), which was produced as Nazi propaganda and a documentary of the 1936 Summer Olympics, has an opening sequence noted for its idealized, non-exploitive use of male and female nudity. Another film from Germany, "Liane, Jungle Goddess" (1956), featured Marion Michael as a topless female variant on the Tarzan legend.


title: Nudity in film

text: Alessandro Blasetti's "La cena delle beffe" ("Dinner of fun", 1941) had Clara Calamai in what is credited as being the first topless scene in an Italian film. It was soon followed by similar scenes in the Italian films "La corona di ferro" ("The Iron Crown", 1941) and "Carmela" (1942). Other noteworthy European films which contained nudity include Italian film "Era lui... sì! sì!" (1951, with then 15-year-old Sophia Loren in a harem scene), two of Ingmar Bergman's Swedish films "Hamnstad" ("Port of Call", 1948) and "Summer with Monika" (1953), Jean-Pierre Melville's French film "Bob le flambeur" ("Bob the Gambler", 1956, with Isabelle Corey, then-age 16), François Truffaut's "Shoot the Piano Player" (1960), "The Awful Dr. Orloff" (1961), a French-Spanish horror film by Jesús Franco, Brigitte Bardot's casual nude scenes in "Contempt" (1963) by Jean-Luc Godard, the French film "The Game Is Over" (1966, with Jane Fonda), Luis Buñuel's "Belle de Jour" (1967, with Catherine Deneuve) and "Isadora" (1968, with Vanessa Redgrave).


title: Nudity in film

text: Makers of the British film "The Pleasure Girls" (1965) shot an alternate version of a party scene with brief nudity that only appears in the export print. The 1966 British-Italian film "Blowup" became the first mainstream English-language film to show a woman's pubic hair, although the particular shot was only a fraction of a second long. (Some sources, such as "Playboy"'s "History of Sex in Cinema" series, have stated that the pubic hair exposure was unintended).


title: Nudity in film

text: Two Swedish films from 1967, "I Am Curious (Yellow)" and "Inga", were ground-breaking—and famous—for showing explicit sex and nudity. Both were initially banned in the U.S. and were rated X when they were shown in 1968. "I Am Curious (Yellow)" was banned in Massachusetts, more on the basis of the sexuality than the nudity, and was the subject of prosecution. The film was held not to be obscene.


title: Nudity in film

text: There was a surge in nudity in film in the United Kingdom after 1960. The gritty social drama "This Sporting Life" (1963) was among the first to include glimpses of male nudity. Judy Geeson's uninhibited nude swim in "Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush" (1967) created a stir at the time. The surreal student protest film "If..." (1968) was notorious and controversial for its frontal male nudity (excised by censors), female nudity, sex, violence and homosexuality. Ken Russell's "Women in Love" (1969) was especially controversial for showing frontal male nudity in a wrestling scene between Oliver Reed and Alan Bates. Glenda Jackson won the Academy Award for Best Actress in that film, the first performer to win for a role that included nude scenes.


title: Nudity in film

text: There was also a long line of sex comedies, beginning with "Mary Had a Little..." (1961), which were more intended to display nudity than sexuality. Other British sex comedies included "What's Good for the Goose" (1969). There apparently are two versions of the film, one being an uncensored version (105 minutes vs. the censored 98-minute version), which shows nudity from Sally Geeson (Judy's sister); this version was released in continental Europe. Other films include "Percy" and its sequel, "Percy's Progress", as well as the "Carry On" series, which added nudity to its saucy seaside postcard innuendo. Series producer Peter Rogers saw the George Segal movie "Loving" (1970) and added his two favorite words to the title, making "Carry On Loving" the twentieth in the series, followed by "Carry On Girls", based around a Miss World-style beauty contest. Next in the series was "Carry On Dick", with more risque humour and Sid James and Barbara Windsor's on- and off-screen lovemaking. There was also the science fiction comedy "Zeta One" (1969) with Yutte Stensgaard and biographical films such as "Savage Messiah" (1972) which contained a long nude scene with Helen Mirren.


title: Nudity in film

text: Traditionally conservative Hammer Film Productions introduced nudity into their line of horror and fantasy films starting with "The Vampire Lovers" (1970), "Countess Dracula" (1971), both featuring Ingrid Pitt, "When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth" (1970) with Victoria Vetri, "Lust for a Vampire" (1971), "Twins of Evil" (1971), et al.


title: Nudity in film

text: The "Commedia sexy all'italiana" genre of Italian film of the 1970s and early 1980s featured abundant female nudity in a clichéd form, most of it for the local market, but some for the international market. The Italian-produced "Last Tango in Paris" (1973), directed by Bernardo Bertolucci, was one of the first commercial films to openly contain nudity, and led to the boom of other fashion erotic films, such as the French-produced "Emmanuelle" (1974) and the Franco-German production "Story of O" (1975) by Just Jaeckin, the Franco-Japanese production "In the Realm of the Senses" (1976) by Nagisa Oshima, and the Italian-American produced "Caligula" (1979) by Tinto Brass.


title: Nudity in film

text: The films of Catherine Breillat, a French filmmaker, are well known for containing explicit nudity. Her film "Une vraie jeune fille" (1975) contains close-ups of actress Charlotte Alexandra's breasts and vulva and actor Bruno Balp's erect penis, some of which are particularly graphic in nature (including a sequence where an actor attempts to insert an earthworm into Alexandra's vagina). This resulted in the film not officially being released until 1999. Other actresses who have appeared in explicit full-frontal nude scenes in Breillat's films include Caroline Ducey in "Romance" (1999) and Roxane Mesquida in "Sex Is Comedy" (2002). Bernardo Bertolucci's film "The Dreamers" (2003) included extensive full frontal nude scenes, male and female, and graphic sex scenes.


title: Nudity in film

text: European attitudes towards depictions of nudity tend to be relatively relaxed and there are few taboos around it. Showing of full frontal nudity in movies, even by major actors, is common and it is not considered damaging to the actors' careers. In recent years, explicit, unsimulated sexual intercourse has occurred in movies which target the general movie-going audience, albeit those usually labeled 'arthouse' product; for example, Michael Winterbottom's "9 Songs" (in which the male character is depicted ejaculating) and Lars von Trier's "The Idiots".


title: Nudity in film

text: The Italian film "1900" (1976), a.k.a. "Novecento", includes an explicit scene of Robert De Niro and Gérard Depardieu, who are shown on either side of the actress Stefania Casini as she fondles and masturbates their exposed penises. Another scene features two prepubescent boys in a barn, one of them taking his damp clothes off, and shown frontally naked. The other one gets curious about the former's exposed glans, who asks him to show his own penis, and incites him to retract his foreskin, while his own penis is seen twice fully erect.


title: Nudity in film

text: The Finnish documentary "Steam of Life" about men in saunas shows nudity throughout the film. In the Dutch movie "All Stars 2: Old Stars", the main characters stay in a nudist campsite. Much full frontal nudity is displayed, but not of any of the main characters. The French film "Stranger by the Lake" (2013) is set on a male nude beach, showing much male full frontal nudity, and even an ejaculation scene.


title: Nudity in film

text: Although there has been a gradual relaxation of attitudes towards nudity, changes in laws can lead to more stringent criteria. One prominent case involved "Walkabout" (1971) which includes numerous scenes of full frontal nudity featuring 17-year-old Jenny Agutter which did not pose a problem when submitted to the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) in 1971 and later in 1998, since the Protection of Children Act 1978 permitted the distribution and possession of indecent images of people over the age of 16; however, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 raised the age threshold to 18 which meant the actress' age was a factor when the film was re-submitted in 2011. The BBFC reviewed the scenes in regards to the law and deemed them to not be "indecent" and passed the film uncut. Had this not been the case, the film would have been refused classification and it would have effectively made it illegal to possess a copy of the film, including copies that had been purchased legally at the time.


title: Nudity in film

text: Over the years, nudity in film was a source of scandal and provocation; but its presence today is treated largely naturally, frequently with nudity being shown in scenes that naturally require it, such as those that take place in nature or in the bathroom or in love scenes. For example, "The Blue Lagoon" (1980) shows the awakening of the sexual instinct in two shipwrecked young cousins – one male, one female – on a tropical island where nudity is a natural part of the environment in which they find themselves. The relationship between a painter and his model, who traditionally poses in the nude, is the context of a number of films. In "La Belle Noiseuse" ("The Beautiful Liar", 1991) the painter's model motivates him again after a period of lack of inspiration of the artist. Similarly, in "Titanic" (1997) Kate Winslet poses nude for Leonardo DiCaprio. These films show the close relationship between film and the traditional art nude in art in films such as "The Adventures of Baron Munchausen" (1988), where Uma Thurman poses as Botticelli's "The Birth of Venus", and "Goya in Bordeaux" (1999), where Maribel Verdú poses as Goya's "The Naked Maja". There are film scenes where nudity, in routine and non-sexual situations, such as mixed shower scenes, has been used to emphasize gender equity in the future, as in "Starship Troopers". Another example of the practice involves scenes with a nude swim, also called skinny-dipping, such as Kelly Brook and Riley Steele in "Piranha 3D". Toplessness in film is regarded by some as partial nudity, such as Halle Berry in "Swordfish".


title: Nudity in film

text: Female nudity has been fairly common in Japanese cinema since at least the 1960s when the director Seijun Suzuki included nude scenes in his yakuza exploitation films such as "Branded to Kill" (1967). The actress Reiko Ike headlined a number of exploitation flicks in the early 1970s: "Girl Boss Guerilla" (1972), "Criminal Woman" (1973) and "Sex & Fury" (1973). Nagisa Oshima directed the overtly sexual "In the Realm of the Senses" in 1976 starring Eiko Matsuda and Tatsuya Fuji. The unexpurgated version of the film has never been shown in Japan, and the film negatives had to be secretly shipped out of the country to France for developing. Eri Ishida appeared naked in "Enrai" (1981) and "Daburu Beddo" (1983), before going on to mainstream success. In 1986, Hitomi Kuroki appeared nude in "Keshin". In the early 1990s, Loletta Lee appeared nude in a whole series of Hong Kong category III movies, e.g. "Girls Unbutton", "Crazy Love", and "Sex and Zen II" with Shu Qi. "New Love in Tokyo" (1994) was notable for having one of the first scenes of uncensored pubic hair. 2000 saw Harumi Inoue strip down for her role in "Freeze Me".


title: Nudity in film

text: Full-frontal adult male nudity (in which genitals are fully revealed) traditionally has been taboo in mainstream cinema from East Asia (and for actors of East Asian origin living outside East Asia), in sharp contrast to the situation in mainland Europe, but similar to the US. However, two rare early examples of a challenge to this taboo occurred: first, in the early years of cinema in mainland China, in the black-and-white silent film "The Big Road" (1934), directed by radical 1930's Chinese film director Sun Yu, which features the full-frontal nudity of a group of young men skinny-dipping in a river, while being observed by two women, a scene described as "very advanced for the time". Another example of nudity (but with simulated genitals) in East Asian cinema is the Japanese film "Hanzo the Razor" (1972). It is the first part of a trilogy, depicting Officer Hanzo Itami's foiling of a plot by corrupt officials in Edo period Japan. Simulated male and female genitals are shown in various scenes. There are also scenes showing Hanzo using sexually aggressive tactics in order to extract secrets from women who associated with Hanzo's suspects.


title: Nudity in film

text: However, a number of films from the early 1990s onwards have begun to lift this taboo. Among them are: the notable frequent full-frontal nudity of Hong Kong Chinese females and the brief but particularly notable full-frontal adult male nudity of a Hong Kong Chinese male actor, Chung Lin, who plays the robot version of Japanese scientist Ryuichi Yamamoto, in the 1991 Hong Kong science fiction/comedy film "Robotrix" (perhaps the first time in Hong Kong cinema that a Chinese adult male's genitals have been fully revealed on camera in a film on general release); the full-frontal male and female nudity of young Hong Kong Chinese actor Tony Leung Ka-fai and young British actress Jane March in the French/Vietnamese film "The Lover" (1992); the brief view of the genitals of Hong Kong Chinese actor Mark Cheng, as he walks around a room fully naked in the Hong Kong movie "Raped by an Angel" (1993); the full-frontal appearance of Hong Kong Chinese actor Michael Lam, who was the lead in the Hong Kong/Singapore film, "Bugis Street" (1995), as his clothes and underwear are torn off by his lover, fully exposing his genitals; a variety of East Asian actors whose genitals are shown in "The Pillow Book" (1996); of Hong Kong Chinese lead actor Sunny Chan in a bathroom scene as he enters a shower, fully revealing his genitals for a few moments, in the Hong Kong film "Hold You Tight" (1997), directed by Hong Kong film director Stanley Kwan; of mainland China lead actor Wang Hongwei in the mainland China film "Xiao Wu" (English title: "The Pickpocket", 1998), directed by a leading Sixth Generation movement Chinese film director, Jia Zhangke, in which a young Chinese man takes off all his clothes in an empty bathhouse and his genitals are shown; of South Korean lead actor Lee Sang-hyun and lead actress Kim Tae-yeon, both of whose genitals are shown in bedroom scenes, in the South Korea film "Lies" (1999), directed by South Korean film director Jang Sun-woo; of both the male and female leads in the South Korean film "Peppermint Candy", directed by South Korean film director Lee Chang-dong (also 1999), in which their frontal nudity is briefly shown in several scenes.


title: Nudity in film

text: In the 2000s, the mainland China lead actor Liu Ye appears with frontal nudity in the mainland China film "Lan Yu" (2001), in which his genitals are shown for several seconds as he lies naked on a bed; the frontal nudity of Thai film actor Min Oo, playing the character of Min, is shown, in which his penis is gently pulled out of his clothes by his female lover, and then as it is slowly caressed by her, shown to gradually become erect, in an outdoor scene in a forest, in the Thailand film "Blissfully Yours" (2002), directed by Thai film director Apichatpong Weerasethakul; the full-frontal close-up of a Singapore Chinese actor's penis in the Singapore film "15" (2003), directed by Singapore film director Royston Tan; a brief view of the genitals of a Chinese male actor in a story where the main characters openly brag about the size of their "packages", in the mainland China film "Green Hat" (also 2003), directed by Chinese director/film writer Liu Fendou; of mainland Chinese actors Guifeng Wang (playing an extraterrestrial from the planet Mars) and Yu Bo playing his Chinese friend Xiao Bo, shown naked in the mainland China film "Star Appeal" (2004), with Guifeng Wang's genitals revealed on camera in several scenes, directed by mainland China writer/director Cui Zi'en; of Thai actor Sakda Kaewbuadee, who plays the character Tong, shown running naked in a jungle, in brief glimpses of full male nudity, in the Thailand film "Tropical Malady" (also 2004), directed by Thai film-maker Apichatpong Weerasethakul.


title: Nudity in film

text: The genitals of mainland Chinese actors Yu Bo and Xiwen Zhang, whose genitals are briefly shown in the mainland China film "My Fair Son" (also 2005), directed by Cui Zi'en; of Singapore Chinese actor/director Zihan Loo, who removes all his clothes, uncovering his genitals, and while waiting to meet a prostitute, masturbates on camera, eventually revealing his fully erect penis, in the Thailand film "Pleasure Factory" (2007), directed by Thai film director Ekachai Uekrongtham; the full-frontal nudity of Filipino actor Harry Laurel in bedroom scenes in the Philippines film "The Man in the Lighthouse" (also 2007), directed by the Filipino film and television director Joselito Altarejos; the full-frontal nudity of Filipino actor Harold Montano in the award-winning Philippines film "Tirador", also known as "Slingshot" (also 2007), directed by Dante Mendoza; a variety of Taiwanese Chinese actors who dare each other to skinnydip in the Taiwan film "Winds of September" (2008); and of lead Hong Kong Chinese actor Ron Heung and the Hong Kong National Baseball Team, who are shown naked in communal shower scenes in the Hong Kong film "City Without Baseball" (also 2008), with their genitals fully revealed on camera. The film is directed by the Chinese South African film director Lawrence Ah Mon.


title: Nudity in film

text: In the same year, Filipino actor Marco Morales appeared in full-frontal nudity in two scenes in the Philippines film "Walang Kawala", also known as "No Way Out", directed by Joel Lamangan, as did the Filipino actors Coco Martin and Kristofer King in the Cannes entry Philippines film "Serbis", also known as "Service", directed by Dante Mendoza.


title: Nudity in film

text: South Korean lead actor Song Kang-ho appears frontally naked, with his genitals revealed, in the South Korean vampire horror film "Thirst" (2009), directed by South Korean film director Park Chan-wook; Hong Kong Chinese actors Sean Li and Osman Hung appear frontally naked, with their genitals revealed, in a variety of scenes in the Hong Kong film "Permanent Residence" (also 2009), directed by the mainland China-born film director and producer known as Scud, as does Thai lead actor Phakpoom Surapongsanuruk, in a scene of full frontal genital nudity and attempted masturbation in the Thailand film "Mundane History", directed by Thailand female film director Anocha Suwichakornpong (also 2009). Three movies, made from 2009 to 2013, feature the full-frontal nudity of Asian American actor Ken Jeong, whose genitals appear in the US films "The Hangover" (2009), "The Hangover Part II" (2011) and "The Hangover Part III" (2013). One Asian-Australian movie in 2013 features full-frontal nudity, with Asian Australian Actor Matthew Victor Pastor showing his genitals for the "Made In Australia" opening title sequence.


title: Nudity in film

text: The genitals of lead Hong Kong Chinese actors Byron Pang and Hong Kong half-Chinese/half-British actor Thomas Price are shown several times in the Hong Kong film "Amphetamine" (2010), as are the genitals of numerous Hong Kong Chinese actors in the Hong Kong film "Love Actually... Sucks!" (2011), including a scene of masturbation revealing a Chinese young man's fully erect penis and uncovered glans. The mainland China film "Bad Romance" (also 2011), by first-time mainland Chinese film director François Chang, features a brief view of the penis of mainland Chinese actor Hayden Leung in a home shower scene, while the Hong Kong – mainland China film "Speechless" (2012) by Hong Kong Chinese film director Simon Chung, features a view of the genitals of lead French actor Pierre-Mathieu Vital during a swimming scene, and the South Korea film "B-E-D" (also 2012), written and directed by South Korean film director Park Chul-soo, features frequent full-frontal nudity. The Hong Kong film "Voyage" (also 2013), starring the Hong Kong Chinese actors Byron Pang and Adrian 'Ron' Heung, also features full-frontal male nudity in several scenes. The Japanese-Peruvian Internet music star Sebastian Castro (the stage-name of Benjamin Brian Castro) also appears in the film, and in one scene undresses in front of his girlfriend, with his penis and testicles fully exposed on camera. The South Korean/French film "Black Stone" (2015), by South Korean film director Roh Gyeong-tae, stars South Korean actor Won Tae-hee, playing the part of a young army recruit, in which he is shown in a shower scene with other men with his genitals fully exposed on camera. In the same year, the award-winning mainland China/Taiwan/Hong Kong film "No No Sleep", directed by Taiwanese film director Tsai Ming-liang, features Lee Kang-sheng and Masanobu Andô in a short film without dialogue, and includes non-sexual full-frontal male nudity. Also in the same year, the Hong Kong Chinese film "Utopians" tells a story of a student's attraction to his Professor, and several scenes of full-frontal male nudity include one in which the main character, played by mainland China actor Adonis He Fei, is shown masturbating his erect penis until ejaculation. In 2017, the Japanese—German film "Berlin Drifters", directed by Japanese film director Kôichi Imaizumi, tells the story of two Japanese men temporarily living in Berlin, Germany: one living alone and the other urgently in need of accommodation, played by Japanese male actor Lyota Majima and actor/director Kôichi Imaizumi, appearing together in full-frontal nudity, frequently shown with erect penises, having sex, and masturbating and ejaculating each other on screen.


title: Nudity in film

text: These appearances contrast with those in films nearer the beginning of the 21st century: the much briefer nude (side) appearance of young mainland Chinese actor Cui Lin (in which his genitals are shown) at the beginning of the shower scene in the mainland China film "Beijing Bicycle" (2001), directed by mainland China film director Wang Xiaoshuai; the very brief frontal view of young mainland Chinese actor Wang Baoqiang, whose genitals are visible for a short moment while he quickly washes in a large metal bucket in the mainland China film "Blind Shaft" (2003), directed by mainland China film director Li Yang; of Japanese puppeteer and actor "Sota Sakuma", whose body and genitals are fully revealed but shown briefly, in a nude beach scene in the US/Czech film "EuroTrip" (2004); and even the brief frontal view of mainland China lead actor Guo Xiaodong's genitals as he lies in bed with his wife, in the mainland China film "Summer Palace", later in the decade (2006).


title: Nudity in film

text: Nudity in film is restricted by the Indian Censor Board. Even in 18+ films, full frontal nudity with genitals/buttocks exposed is banned (not allowed to be released in India). However some Indian films with their premieres outside India do contain nudity and western films containing nude scenes are allowed to be shown in the adult film theaters in major cities of the country. The Bengali film "Gandu" (2010), starring Anubrata Basu, features full-frontal nudity and a fully erect penis, and the film "Chatrak" (2011), starring Paoli Dam and Anubrata Basu, features full-frontal male and female nudity. Another Bengali film "Cosmic Sex" shows Rii Sen completely nude. Malayalam films "Kutty Srank" (2010) and "The Painted House" (2015) show nudity of main protagonist actresses. Hindi films include "Trishagni" (1988) and "Bandit Queen" (1994) contain nudity though in "Trishagni" body-double was used for actress Pallavi Joshi. A scene in "Ek Chhotisi Love Story" (2002) which appeared to show actress Manisha Koirala's buttock cleavage in underwear was shot using a body double.


title: Nudity in film

text: Director Asoka Handagama is famous for showing nude scenes in his films. Another director Vimukthi Jayasundara got fame by making "The Forsaken Land" (2005) with nude scenes.


title: Nudity in film

text: In animated films in the U.S., nudity is limited. Only a few mainstream animated films like "Fritz the Cat" (1972), "Fantastic Planet" (1973), and "Heavy Metal" (1981), have contained significant female full frontal nudity.


title: Nudity in film

text: In Japanese cinema, nudity taboos have evolved greatly since the dawn of animation, and anime, the general category of animated films, includes some films with a spectrum of nudity and sexual situations. The Toei Animation films "" in the 1960s and "Tatsu no ko Taro" in the 1970s include brief full nudity of their title characters. The popularity of OVA (Original Video Animation) direct-to-video series in Japan has been a major factor in the unique blend of content in Japanese anime. Starting in the mid-1980s when video tape players became common home appliances, themes of nudity and sexual content flourished in Japanese animation with the hallmarks of many modern subgenres being established early with such films and OVA series as "Lolita Anime", "Cream Lemon" and "Urotsukidōji". Such sexually explicit films or those with significant nudity are referred to as hentai outside of Japan while partial nudity in Anime is called ecchi.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Trolls World Tour (often named as Trolls 2: World Tour) is a 2020 American computer-animated musical comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Universal Pictures, based on the Good Luck Trolls dolls created by Thomas Dam. The sequel to "Trolls" (2016) and the second installment in the franchise, the film was directed by Walt Dohrn and co-directed by David P. Smith (in his feature directorial debut), from a screenplay by Maya Forbes, Wallace Wolodarsky, Elizabeth Tippet, and the writing team of Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger, and a story by Aibel and Berger. The film features an ensemble cast that includes the voices of Anna Kendrick, Justin Timberlake, Rachel Bloom, James Corden, Ron Funches, Kelly Clarkson, Anderson .Paak, Sam Rockwell, George Clinton, and Mary J. Blige. The film follows Poppy and Branch as they discover several more troll tribes that represent music genres other than their own. Troubles arise when the Queen of the Rock tribe plans to overthrow the foreign music genres to unite the trolls under rock music.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: A sequel to "Trolls" was announced in February 2017, with Kendrick and Timberlake returning their roles. Podcasters the McElroy brothers began campaigning for roles in the film in March 2017, with DreamWorks Animation confirmed it would make cameo appearances in September 2018. Much of the new cast were signed in May 2018 to June 2019. The marking custom animation to promote the film was provided from Minimo VFX and Jellyfish Pictures.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: "Trolls World Tour" was released in the United States in a limited number of theaters on April 10, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic and was simultaneously released on video on demand. AMC Theatres subsequently announced they would no longer distribute the studio's films, though this was later reversed after AMC and Universal agreed on a new contract. Like its predecessor, the film received generally positive reviews from critics, although comparisons were made between it and .


title: Trolls World Tour

text: In the techno kingdom, King Trollex's tribe of Techno Trolls are attending a rave, when Hard Rock Trolls led by Queen Barb arrive and use weaponized guitars to destroy everything. Queen Barb demands Trollex to surrender and hand over his "string".


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Queen Poppy later receives a letter from Barb, inviting her to bring her "string" to unite the trolls. Former King Peppy explains there were once six magical lyre strings that represented major tribes of music - Pop, Hard Rock, Techno, Funk, Classical, and Country. However, the six tribes took their strings and went their separate ways. Peppy, Branch, and the others don't trust Barb's invitation, but Poppy decides to sneak out with her string, to prove Barb is the same as any other troll. Branch (who is trying to confess his love) and Biggie (who stowed away) accompany her. At the same time, a giraffe-like Pop Troll named Cooper finds old illustrations of trolls his shape, and sets off to find them, eventually getting beamed up into a spaceship.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Meanwhile, Barb sends bounty hunters of smaller music genres to find Poppy, promising to spare the tribe of the successful one. Poppy's group soon discovers the ruins of the Classical tribe's town, Symphonyville. A sentient flute, Pennywhistle, tells them that Barb wants to forcefully unite all trolls under Rock. They then head to Lonesome Flats to warn the centaur-like Country Trolls. Poppy feels their music is too downbeat and decides to try to cheer them up first, despite Branch's reservations. The Pop Trolls wind up imprisoned, but are rescued by a smooth-talking Country Troll named Hickory, who builds them a raft to take them to Vibe City to warn the Funk Trolls. They encounter Chaz, a Smooth Jazz troll, who paralyzes them with his music, until Hickory, using gumdrop earplugs to remain immune, drives him off. Biggie deserts the group, angry that Poppy broke an earlier promise to keep him safe.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: The group reaches Vibe City, which turns out to be the spaceship that took Cooper. They reunite with Cooper, who reveals that he is actually the long-lost son of Funk Trolls King Quincy and Queen Essence, and twin brother of their son Prince D. Poppy maintains all trolls are the same, but Prince D explains that Pop Trolls once tried to unite all trolls under Pop, causing the initial split. The Hard Rock Trolls attack the ship, and Poppy's group is ejected to safety. Poppy and Branch argue over her refusal to listen; Branch walks off and is captured by Reggaeton and K-Pop trolls, who fight over him until he convinces them to work together with him against Barb.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: A repentant Hickory reveals he is actually a Yodel troll, who disguised himself and his brother Dickory as a centaur to steal Poppy's string. He tells Poppy to run, but Barb arrives and captures her. Biggie, meanwhile, returns home to find Pop Village destroyed, and realizes he should have never left Poppy, rallying the other Pop trolls to rescue her.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: At Volcano Rock City, Barb forces her captives to attend a concert. She uses the six magic strings on her guitar to turn all her captives to Rock Zombies, including Branch when he and his new friends try to rescue Poppy. Poppy herself seems to have been turned, but then reveals that she used gumdrops to block out the music. She smashes Barb's guitar, restoring the zombies, but the strings are destroyed, ending music and turning all trolls gray.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Cooper hears his heartbeat and starts beatboxing with Prince D, convincing other trolls to make sounds to create a rhythm. Poppy leads everyone into singing together from their hearts, restoring their music and color, including Barb, who accepts Poppy's offer of friendship. Branch and Poppy confess their mutual love, and the trolls all return to Pop Village to celebrate.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: On February 28, 2017, Universal Pictures and DreamWorks Animation announced a sequel to the 2016 film "Trolls", with Anna Kendrick and Justin Timberlake reprising their roles as Poppy and Branch.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: In March 2017, podcasters the McElroy brothers began campaigning for roles in the film via a podcast titled "The McElroy Brothers Will Be in Trolls World Tour". Following the campaign's success, DreamWorks confirmed in September 2018 that the McElroy brothers would make cameo appearances in "World Tour".


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Sam Rockwell, Chance the Rapper, Anthony Ramos, Jamie Dornan and Flula Borg were added to the cast in May 2018. Corden, Icona Pop, Funches, and Nayyar returned to reprise their roles. On June 12, 2018, the film was retitled as "Trolls World Tour". In October 2018, it was confirmed that Kelly Clarkson had joined the cast, and will perform an original song. In June 2019, along with promotional posters, new cast members have been announced, which include: J Balvin, Mary J. Blige, Rachel Bloom, George Clinton, Ester Dean and Gustavo Dudamel.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: The marking custom animation to promote the film was provided from Minimo VFX & Jellyfish Pictures, who would do the animation for "Spirit Untamed" and have produced assets for "" and "The Bad Guys".


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Along with Timberlake, Clarkson, .Paak, Blige and Clinton, songs are provided by Chris Stapleton and SZA.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: The first single from the movie's soundtrack, "The Other Side", by Timberlake and SZA, was released on February 26, 2020. The "Trolls World Tour: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack" was released on March 13, 2020.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Universal Pictures had originally planned to release "Trolls World Tour" theatrically in the United States on April 10, 2020. It was later pushed up to February 14, 2020 before being pushed back to April 17, 2020. Following the delay of "No Time to Die", it was once again pushed up to the original April 10 release date. It was also set to be released on March 20 in the United Kingdom, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, its release date was pushed back to April 6.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: On March 17, Universal announced that the film would be released simultaneously in theaters and for digital rental on April 10 in the United States and Canada due to the COVID-19 pandemic. By then, "Trolls World Tour" had only been released in Russia, Singapore, and Malaysia. Other films distributed by the studio, such as "The Invisible Man" and "The Hunt" were also released digitally before the end of the usual 90-day theatrical run.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: As the lockdown measures receded, the film was released in three Santikos Theatres locations in San Antonio, Texas on May 1, 2020. Theatres in Hong Kong also started to show the film a week later on May 8, 2020. In Russia the film was made available in IMAX cinemas. In Austria and the Netherlands, it was released in both 4DX and Dolby Cinema.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: "Trolls World Tour" was made available for an early digital purchase on June 23, 2020. The film was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Ultra HD Blu-ray by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment on July 7, 2020. All releases include an original short film entitled "Tiny Diamond Goes Back to School". By July 19, the film had totaled $23.6 million worth of DVD and Blu-ray sales. The movie was also available to stream on the streaming service Peacock.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: In response to Universal releasing the film without consulting theater owners, as well as comments from NBCUniversal CEO Jeff Shell suggesting that future Universal releases would premiere on streaming simultaneously in theaters, AMC Theatres stated that they would not license films that also premiere at the same time on digital release; "Going forward, AMC will not license any Universal movies in any of our 1,000 theatres globally on these terms." Regal Cinemas followed suit in a statement not just directed at Universal, saying "we will not be showing movies that fail to respect the windows". However, in July 2020, AMC and Universal announced they had come to a deal to shorten the minimum theatrical window to 17 days (down from the usual 90), and that AMC would receive an undisclosed share of subsequent PVOD sales, resulting in a termination of AMC's ban on Universal's films.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote that some of the cast, including Anna Kendrick and Justin Timberlake, were not aware of the film's VOD release, and that their representatives were trying to secure the actors' bonuses they would have received had the film performed well theatrically.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: In the U.S., the film made about $60,000 in its opening weekend from 25 drive-in theaters, amid extensive movie theater closures due to restrictions targeted at the COVID-19 pandemic. By May 12, despite no official reports, Deadline Hollywood said media outlets including Box Office Mojo had underreported the figures and estimated the film was approaching $1 million from theatrical grosses. By June 7, Deadline said the film had amassed $3.6 million from the domestic box office, and likely had been the first place film every weekend since its release. It continued to play in drive-ins in the following weeks. Box Office Mojo reported the domestic gross at only $450,000 and reported the total worldwide gross at $48 million. The-Numbers.com did not count any domestic gross, and put the worldwide total slightly higher at $49 million.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Following its debut digital streaming weekend, it was reported by FandangoNow that the film had set the record for most streams on a release weekend by the company. The film also finished number one for Amazon Prime, Comcast, Apple TV, Vudu, YouTube, and DirecTV, with Universal reporting it was purchased 10-times more than its previous day-one rental "", which had made $2–3 million on its first day. Altogether, the film made at least $40 million over the weekend. Through the first 19 days of release, it was estimated between three and five million people had streamed the film, resulting in about a $95 million gross ($77 million of which went to Universal, more revenue for the studio than the original film made during its entire theatrical run). After three months of release the film remained in the top-five across most services, and occasionally returned to the top spot on Amazon Prime, FandangoNow, and iTunes. By August, "IndieWire" estimated the film had made about $150 million from rentals.


title: Trolls World Tour

text: "Deadline Hollywood" estimated that due to the film's approximate $95 million production cost, plus another $30 million spent on marketing (although rival studios claim Universal spent more than that, as high as a normal $80–100 million campaign), the film could break-even if 9–12 million people rent the film, resulting in about $200 million in revenue. "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote that "in the opinion of some industry veterans, [the film] may never make a dime" although "Universal believes it can make $40 million or more in profit from all revenue sources." In October 2020, "The Hollywood Reporter" said the film was the second-most popular PVOD title amid the COVID-19 pandemic, behind "Mulan".


title: Trolls World Tour

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 71% based on 160 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "A fun follow-up for fans of the original, "Trolls World Tour" offers a second helping of colorful animation, infectious energy, and sing-along songs." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Trolls World Tour

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" magazine gave it a mixed review, calling it a "music-drenched fairy tale" and "for all its surface pleasures, it's a likable but underimagined one, with more enthusiasm than surprise and, at the same time, an overprogrammed sense of its own thematic destiny."


title: Trolls World Tour

text: On April 9, 2020, Justin Timberlake expressed interest in participating in future "Trolls" films during his Apple Music takeover, "I hope we make, like, seven Trolls movies, because it literally is the gift that keeps on giving". On November 22, 2021, it was announced that a third "Trolls" film would be released in theaters on November 17, 2023.


title: Invertebrate

text: Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a "backbone" or "spine"), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate subphylum Vertebrata. Familiar examples of invertebrates include arthropods, mollusks, annelids, echinoderms and cnidarians.


title: Invertebrate

text: The majority of animal species are invertebrates; one estimate puts the figure at 97%. Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata. Invertebrates vary widely in size, from 50 μm (0.002 in) rotifers to the 9–10 m (30–33 ft) colossal squid.


title: Invertebrate

text: Some so-called invertebrates, such as the Tunicata and Cephalochordata, are more closely related to vertebrates than to other invertebrates. This makes the invertebrates paraphyletic, so the term has little meaning in taxonomy.


title: Invertebrate

text: The word "invertebrate" comes from the Latin word "vertebra", which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. The jointed aspect of "vertebra" is derived from the concept of turning, expressed in the root "verto" or "vorto", to turn. The prefix "in-" means "not" or "without".


title: Invertebrate

text: The term "invertebrates" is not always precise among non-biologists since it does not accurately describe a taxon in the same way that Arthropoda, Vertebrata or Manidae do. Each of these terms describes a valid taxon, phylum, subphylum or family. "Invertebrata" is a term of convenience, not a taxon; it has very little circumscriptional significance except within the Chordata. The Vertebrata as a subphylum comprises such a small proportion of the Metazoa that to speak of the kingdom Animalia in terms of "Vertebrata" and "Invertebrata" has limited practicality. In the more formal taxonomy of Animalia other attributes that logically should precede the presence or absence of the vertebral column in constructing a cladogram, for example, the presence of a notochord. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata. However, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps bauplan.


title: Invertebrate

text: Despite this, the concept of "invertebrates" as a taxon of animals has persisted for over a century among the laity, and within the zoological community and in its literature it remains in use as a term of convenience for animals that are not members of the Vertebrata. The following text reflects earlier scientific understanding of the term and of those animals which have constituted it. According to this understanding, invertebrates do not possess a skeleton of bone, either internal or external. They include hugely varied body plans. Many have fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeletons, like jellyfish or worms. Others have hard exoskeletons, outer shells like those of insects and crustaceans. The most familiar invertebrates include the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Echinodermata, Mollusca and Arthropoda. Arthropoda include insects, crustaceans and arachnids.


title: Invertebrate

text: By far the largest number of described invertebrate species are insects. The following table lists the number of described extant species for major invertebrate groups as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species", 2014.3.


title: Invertebrate

text: The IUCN estimates that 66,178 extant vertebrate species have been described, which means that over 95% of the described animal species in the world are invertebrates.


title: Invertebrate

text: The trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a vertebral column (backbone): this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates. The distinction is one of convenience only; it is not based on any clear biologically homologous trait, any more than the common trait of having wings functionally unites insects, bats, and birds, or than not having wings unites tortoises, snails and sponges. Being animals, invertebrates are heterotrophs, and require sustenance in the form of the consumption of other organisms. With a few exceptions, such as the Porifera, invertebrates generally have bodies composed of differentiated tissues. There is also typically a digestive chamber with one or two openings to the exterior.


title: Invertebrate

text: The body plans of most multicellular organisms exhibit some form of symmetry, whether radial, bilateral, or spherical. A minority, however, exhibit no symmetry. One example of asymmetric invertebrates includes all gastropod species. This is easily seen in snails and sea snails, which have helical shells. Slugs appear externally symmetrical, but their pneumostome (breathing hole) is located on the right side. Other gastropods develop external asymmetry, such as Glaucus atlanticus that develops asymmetrical cerata as they mature. The origin of gastropod asymmetry is a subject of scientific debate.


title: Invertebrate

text: Other examples of asymmetry are found in fiddler crabs and hermit crabs. They often have one claw much larger than the other. If a male fiddler loses its large claw, it will grow another on the opposite side after moulting. Sessile animals such as sponges are asymmetrical alongside coral colonies (with the exception of the individual polyps that exhibit radial symmetry); alpheidae claws that lack pincers; and some copepods, polyopisthocotyleans, and monogeneans which parasitize by attachment or residency within the gill chamber of their fish hosts).


title: Invertebrate

text: Neurons differ in invertebrates from mammalian cells. Invertebrates cells fire in response to similar stimuli as mammals, such as tissue trauma, high temperature, or changes in pH. The first invertebrate in which a neuron cell was identified was the medicinal leech, "Hirudo medicinalis."


title: Invertebrate

text: Learning and memory using nociceptors in the sea hare, "Aplysia" has been described. Mollusk neurons are able to detect increasing pressures and tissue trauma.


title: Invertebrate

text: Neurons have been identified in a wide range of invertebrate species, including annelids, molluscs, nematodes and arthropods.


title: Invertebrate

text: One type of invertebrate respiratory system is the open respiratory system composed of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles that terrestrial arthropods have to transport metabolic gases to and from tissues. The distribution of spiracles can vary greatly among the many orders of insects, but in general each segment of the body can have only one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it. The tracheae are invaginations of the cuticular exoskeleton that branch (anastomose) throughout the body with diameters from only a few micrometres up to 0.8 mm. The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells and serve as sites of diffusion for water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Gas may be conducted through the respiratory system by means of active ventilation or passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their haemolymph.


title: Invertebrate

text: A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helices. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers and bees, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a gill, or function essentially as normal, via a plastron. Note that despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (ecdysis).


title: Invertebrate

text: Like vertebrates, most invertebrates reproduce at least partly through sexual reproduction. They produce specialized reproductive cells that undergo meiosis to produce smaller, motile spermatozoa or larger, non-motile ova. These fuse to form zygotes, which develop into new individuals. Others are capable of asexual reproduction, or sometimes, both methods of reproduction.


title: Invertebrate

text: Social behavior is widespread in invertebrates, including cockroaches, termites, aphids, thrips, ants, bees, Passalidae, Acari, spiders, and more. Social interaction is particularly salient in eusocial species but applies to other invertebrates as well.


title: Invertebrate

text: The term invertebrates covers several phyla. One of these are the sponges (Porifera). They were long thought to have diverged from other animals early. They lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges typically feed by drawing in water through pores. Some speculate that sponges are not so primitive, but may instead be secondarily simplified. The Ctenophora and the Cnidaria, which includes sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish, are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into organs. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, they are sometimes called diploblastic.


title: Invertebrate

text: The Echinodermata are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, including starfish (Asteroidea), sea urchins, (Echinoidea), brittle stars (Ophiuroidea), sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea) and feather stars (Crinoidea).


title: Invertebrate

text: The largest animal phylum is also included within invertebrates: the Arthropoda, including insects, spiders, crabs, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. In addition, they possess a hardened exoskeleton that is periodically shed during growth. Two smaller phyla, the Onychophora and Tardigrada, are close relatives of the arthropods and share some traits with them, excluding the hardened exoskeleton. The Nematoda or roundworms, are perhaps the second largest animal phylum, and are also invertebrates. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom. Other invertebrates include the Nemertea or ribbon worms, and the Sipuncula.


title: Invertebrate

text: Another phylum is Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. These were originally considered primitive, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors. Flatworms are acoelomates, lacking a body cavity, as are their closest relatives, the microscopic Gastrotricha. The Rotifera or rotifers, are common in aqueous environments. Invertebrates also include the Acanthocephala or spiny-headed worms, the Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, and the Cycliophora.


title: Invertebrate

text: Also included are two of the most successful animal phyla, the Mollusca and Annelida. The former, which is the second-largest animal phylum by number of described species, includes animals such as snails, clams, and squids, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods because they are both segmented. Now, this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla.


title: Invertebrate

text: Among lesser phyla of invertebrates are the Hemichordata, or acorn worms, and the Chaetognatha, or arrow worms. Other phyla include Acoelomorpha, Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, Entoprocta, Phoronida, and Xenoturbellida.


title: Invertebrate

text: Invertebrates can be classified into several main categories, some of which are taxonomically obsolescent or debatable, but still used as terms of convenience. Each however appears in its own article at the following links.


title: Invertebrate

text: The earliest animal fossils appear to be those of invertebrates. 665-million-year-old fossils in the Trezona Formation at Trezona Bore, West Central Flinders, South Australia have been interpreted as being early sponges. Some paleontologists suggest that animals appeared much earlier, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago though they probably became multicellular in the Tonian. Trace fossils such as tracks and burrows found in the late Neoproterozoic era indicate the presence of triploblastic worms, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as earthworms.


title: Invertebrate

text: Around 453 MYA, animals began diversifying, and many of the important groups of invertebrates diverged from one another. Fossils of invertebrates are found in various types of sediment from the Phanerozoic. Fossils of invertebrates are commonly used in stratigraphy.