title: Humorism

text: Although the theory of the four humors does appear in some Hippocratic texts, other Hippocratic writers accepted the existence of only two humors, while some refrained from discussing the humoral theory at all. Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, as a medical theory retained its popularity for centuries, largely through the influence of the writings of Galen (129–201 AD). The four essential elements—humors—that make up the human body, according to Hippocrates, are in harmony with one another and act as a catalyst for preserving health. Hippocrates' theory of four humors was linked with the popular theory of the four elements (earth, fire, water, and air) proposed by Empedocles, but this link was not proposed by Hippocrates or Galen, who referred primarily to bodily fluids. While Galen thought that humors were formed in the body, rather than ingested, he believed that different foods had varying potential to act upon the body to produce different humors. Warm foods, for example, tended to produce yellow bile, while cold foods tended to produce phlegm. Seasons of the year, periods of life, geographic regions, and occupations also influenced the nature of the humors formed. As such, certain seasons and geographic areas were understood to cause imbalances in the humors, leading to varying types of disease across time and place. For example, cities exposed to hot winds were seen as having higher rates of digestive problems as a result of excess phlegm running down from the head, while cities exposed to cold winds were associated with diseases of the lungs, acute diseases, and "hardness of the bowels," as well as ophthalmies (issues of the eyes), and nosebleeds. Cities to the west, meanwhile, were believed to produce weak, unhealthy, pale people that were subject to all manners of disease. In the treatise, "Airs, Waters, Places," a Hippocratic physician is described arriving to an unnamed city where they test various factors of nature including the wind, water, and soil to predict the direct influence on the diseases specific to the city based on the season and the individual.


title: Humorism

text: A fundamental idea of Hippocratic medicine was the endeavor to pinpoint the origins of illnesses in both the physiology of the human body and the influence of potentially hazardous environmental variables like air, water, and nutrition, and every humor has a distinct composition and is secreted by a different organ. Aristotle's concept of eucrasia—a state resembling equilibrium—and its relationship to the right balance of the four humors allow for the maintenance of human health, offering a more mathematical approach to medicine.


title: Humorism

text: The imbalance of humors, or dyscrasia, was thought to be the direct cause of all diseases. Health was associated with a balance of humors, or eucrasia. The qualities of the humors, in turn, influenced the nature of the diseases they caused. Yellow bile caused warm diseases and phlegm caused cold diseases. In "On the Temperaments", Galen further emphasized the importance of the qualities. An ideal temperament involved a proportionally balanced mixture of the four qualities. Galen identified four temperaments in which one of the qualities (warm, cold, moist, or dry) predominated, and four more in which a combination of two (warm and moist, warm and dry, cold and dry, or cold and moist) dominated. These last four, named for the humors with which they were associated—sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic—eventually became better known than the others. While the term "temperament" came to refer just to psychological dispositions, Galen used it to refer to bodily dispositions, which determined a person's susceptibility to particular diseases, as well as behavioral and emotional inclinations.


title: Humorism

text: Disease could also be the result of the "corruption" of one or more of the humors, which could be caused by environmental circumstances, dietary changes, or many other factors. These deficits were thought to be caused by vapors inhaled or absorbed by the body. Greeks and Romans, and the later Muslim and Western European medical establishments that adopted and adapted classical medical philosophy, believed that each of these humors would wax and wane in the body, depending on diet and activity. When a patient was suffering from a surplus or imbalance of one of the four humors, then said patient's personality and/or physical health could be negatively affected.


title: Humorism

text: Therefore, the goal of treatment was to rid the body of some of the excess humor through techniques like purging, bloodletting, catharsis, diuresis, and others. Bloodletting was already a prominent medical procedure by the first century, but venesection took on even more significance once Galen of Pergamum declared blood to be the most prevalent humor. The volume of blood extracted ranged from a few drops to several litres over the course of several days, depending on the patient's condition and the doctor's practice.


title: Humorism

text: Even though humorism theory had several models that used 2, 3, and 5 components, the most famous model consists of the four humors described by Hippocrates and developed further by Galen. The four humors of Hippocratic medicine are black bile (, '), yellow bile (, '), phlegm (, ""), and blood (, "haima"). Each corresponds to one of the traditional four temperaments. Based on Hippocratic medicine, it was believed that for a body to be healthy, the four humors should be balanced in amount and strength. The proper blending and balance of the four humors was known as "eukrasia".


title: Humorism

text: Humorism theory was improved by Galen, who incorporated his understanding of the humors into his interpretation of the human body. He believed the interactions of the humors within the body were the key to investigating the physical nature and function of the organ systems. Galen combined his interpretation of the humors with his collection of ideas concerning nature from past philosophers in order to find conclusions about how the body works. For example, Galen maintained the idea of the presence of the Platonic tripartite soul, which consisted of “"thumos" (spiritedness), "epithumos" (directed spiritedness, i.e., desire), and "Sophia" (wisdom).” Through this, Galen found a connection between these three parts of the soul and the three major organs that were recognized at the time: the brain, the heart, and the liver. This idea of connecting vital parts of the soul to vital parts of the body was derived from Aristotle's sense of explaining physical observations, and Galen utilized it to build his view of the human body. The organs (named "organa") had specific functions (called "chreiai") that contributed to the maintenance of the human body, and the expression of these functions is shown in characteristic activities (called "energeiai") of a person. While the correspondence of parts of the body to the soul was an influential concept, Galen decided that the interaction of the four humors with natural bodily mechanisms were responsible for human development and this connection inspired his understanding of the nature of the components of the body.


title: Humorism

text: Galen recalls the correspondence between humors and seasons in his "On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato," and says that, "As for ages and the seasons, the child (παῖς) corresponds to spring, the young man (νεανίσκος) to summer, the mature man (παρακµάζων) to autumn, and the old man (γέρων) to winter". He also related a correspondence between humors and seasons based on the properties of both. Blood, as a humor, was considered hot and wet. This gave it a correspondence to spring. Yellow bile was considered hot and dry, which related it to summer. Black bile was considered cold and dry, and thus related to autumn. Phlegm, cold and wet, was related to winter.


title: Humorism

text: Galen also believed that the characteristics of the soul follow the mixtures of the body, but he did not apply this idea to the Hippocratic humors. He believed that phlegm did not influence character. In his "On Hippocrates The Nature of Man", Galen stated: "Sharpness and intelligence (ὀξὺ καὶ συνετόν) are caused by yellow bile in the soul, perseverance and consistency (ἑδραῖον καὶ βέβαιον) by the melancholic humor, and simplicity and naivety (ἁπλοῦν καὶ ἠλιθιώτερον) by blood. But the nature of phlegm has no effect on the character of the soul (τοῦ δὲ φλέγµατος ἡ φύσις εἰς µὲν ἠθοποιῗαν ἄχρηστος)." He further said that blood is a mixture of the four elements: water, air, fire, and earth.


title: Humorism

text: These terms only partly correspond to modern medical terminology, in which there is no distinction between black and yellow bile, and phlegm has a very different meaning. It was believed that the humors were the basic substances from which all liquids in the body were made. Robin Fåhræus (1921), a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, suggested that the four humors were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen: a dark clot forms at the bottom (the "black bile"); above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the "blood"); above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the "phlegm"); the top layer is clear yellow serum (the "yellow bile").


title: Humorism

text: Many Greek texts were written during the golden age of the theory of the four humors in Greek medicine after Galen. One of those texts was an anonymous treatise called "On the Constitution of the Universe and of Man", published in the mid-19th century by J.L. Ideler. In this text, the author establishes the relationship between elements of the universe (air, water, earth, fire) and elements of the man (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm). He said that:


title: Humorism

text: 17th century English playwright Ben Jonson wrote humor plays, where character types were based on their humoral complexion.


title: Humorism

text: It was thought that the nutritional value of the blood was the source of energy for the body and the soul. Blood was believed to consist of small proportional amounts of the other three humors. This meant that taking a blood sample would allow for determination of the balance of the four humors in the body. It was associated with a sanguine nature (enthusiastic, active, and social). The seasonal association of blood is the spring because the natural characteristics found in individuals was associated with being hot and wet.


title: Humorism

text: Yellow bile was associated with a choleric nature (ambitious, decisive, aggressive, and short-tempered). It was thought to be fluid found within the gallbladder, however it could also be found in excretions such as vomit or feces. The associated qualities for yellow bile are hot and dry with the natural association of summer and fire. It was believed that an excess of this humor in an individual would result in emotional irregularities such as increased anger or behaving irrationally.


title: Humorism

text: Black bile was associated with a melancholy nature, the word "melancholy" itself deriving from the Greek for "black bile", μέλαινα χολή ("melaina kholé"). Depression was attributed to excess or unnatural black bile secreted by the spleen.


title: Humorism

text: Cancer was also attributed to an excess of black bile concentrated in a specific area. The seasonal association of black bile was to autumn as the cold and dry characteristics of the season reflect the nature of man.


title: Humorism

text: Phlegm was associated with a phlegmatic nature, thought to be associated with reserved behavior. The phlegm of humorism is far from phlegm as it is defined today. Phlegm was used as a general term to describe white or colorless secretions such as pus, mucus, saliva, sweat, or semen. Phlegm was also associated with the brain, possibly due to the color and consistency of brain tissue. The French physiologist and Nobel laureate Charles Richet, when describing humorism's "phlegm or pituitary secretion" in 1910, asked rhetorically, "this strange liquid, which is the cause of tumours, of chlorosis, of rheumatism, and cacochymia – where is it? Who will ever see it? Who has ever ever seen it? What can we say of this fanciful classification of humors into four groups, of which two are absolutely imaginary?" The seasonal association of phlegm is winter due to the natural properties of being cold and wet.


title: Humorism

text: Humors were believed to be produced via digestion as the final products of hepatic digestion. Digestion is a continuous process taking place in every animal, and it can be divided into four sequential stages. The gastric digestion stage, the hepatic digestion stage, the vascular digestion stage, and the tissue digestion stage. Each stage digests food until it becomes suitable for use by the body. In gastric digestion, food is made into


title: Humorism

text: chylous, which is suitable for the liver to absorb and carry on digestion. Chylous is changed into chymous in the hepatic digestion stage. Chymous is composed of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These four humors then circulate in the blood vessels. In the last stage of digestion, tissue digestion, food becomes similar to the organ tissue for which it is destined.


title: Humorism

text: If anything goes wrong leading up to the production of humors, there will be an imbalance leading to disease. Proper organ functioning is necessary in the production of good humor. The stomach and liver also have to function normally for proper digestion. If there are any abnormalities in gastric digestion, the liver, blood vessels, and tissues cannot be provided with the raw chylous, which can cause abnormal humor and blood composition. A healthy functioning liver is not capable of converting abnormal chylous into normal chylous and normal humors.


title: Humorism

text: Humors are the end product of gastric digestion, but they are not the end product of the digestion cycle, so an abnormal humor produced by hepatic digestion will affect other organs that are working towards the digestion of food in the digestion cycle.


title: Humorism

text: According to Hippocratic humoral theory, jaundice is present in the Hippocratic Corpus. Some of the first descriptions of jaundice come from the Hippocratic physicians (icterus). The ailment appears multiple times in the Hippocratic Corpus, where its genesis, description, prognosis, and therapy are given. The five kinds of jaundice mentioned in the Hippocratic Corpus all share a yellow or greenish skin color.


title: Humorism

text: A modern doctor will undoubtedly start to think of the symptoms listed in contemporary atlases of medicine after reading the clinical symptoms of each variety of jaundice listed in the Hippocratic Corpus. Despite the fact that the Hippocratic physicians' therapeutic approaches have little to do with contemporary medical practice, nonetheless, their capacity for observation as they described the various forms of jaundice is remarkable. In the Hippocratic Corpus, the Hippocratic physicians make multiple references to jaundice. At that time, jaundice was viewed as an illness unto itself rather than a symptom brought on by a disease.


title: Humorism

text: Empedocles's theory suggested that there are four elements: earth, fire, water, and air, with the earth producing the natural systems. Since this theory was influential for centuries, later scholars paired qualities associated with each humor as described by Hippocrates/Galen with seasons and "basic elements" as described by Empedocles.


title: Humorism

text: The following table shows the four humors with their corresponding elements, seasons, sites of formation, and resulting temperaments:


title: Humorism

text: Medieval medical tradition in the Golden Age of Islam adopted the theory of humorism from Greco-Roman medicine, notably via the Persian polymath Avicenna's "The Canon of Medicine" (1025). Avicenna summarized the four humors and temperaments as follows:


title: Humorism

text: The Unani school of medicine, practiced in Perso-Arabic countries, India, and Pakistan, is based on Galenic and Avicennian medicine in its emphasis on the four humors as a fundamental part of the methodologic paradigm.


title: Humorism

text: The humoralist system of medicine was highly individualistic, for all patients were said to have their own unique humoral composition. From Hippocrates onward, the humoral theory was adopted by Greek, Roman and Islamic physicians, and dominated the view of the human body among European physicians until at least 1543 when it was first seriously challenged by Andreas Vesalius. Vesalius mostly criticized Galen's theories of human anatomy and not the chemical hypothesis of behavioural regulation (temperament). However, some believe that theory of humors was cast into the underside of science in 1628 by the findings of William Harvey (also mostly criticizing the anatomy theory of Galen) and by Rudolf Virchow's theories of cellular pathology in 1858.


title: Humorism

text: Typical 18th-century practices such as bleeding a sick person or applying hot cups to a person were based on the humoral theory of imbalances of fluids (blood and bile in those cases). Methods of treatment like bloodletting, emetics and purges were aimed at expelling a surplus of a humor. Other methods used herbs and foods associated with a particular humor to counter symptoms of disease, for instance: people who had a fever and were sweating were considered hot and wet and therefore given substances associated with cold and dry. Apocroustics were medications intended to stop the flux of malignant humours to a diseased body part.


title: Humorism

text: 16th-century Swiss physician Paracelsus further developed the idea that beneficial medical substances could be found in herbs, minerals and various alchemical combinations thereof. These beliefs were the foundation of mainstream Western medicine well into the 17th century. Specific minerals or herbs were used to treat ailments simple to complex, from an uncomplicated upper respiratory infection to the plague. For example, chamomile was used to decrease heat, and lower excessive bile humor. Arsenic was used in a poultice bag to 'draw out' the excess humor(s) that led to symptoms of the plague. Apophlegmatisms, in pre-modern medicine, were medications chewed in order to draw away phlegm and humors.


title: Humorism

text: Although advances in cellular pathology and chemistry criticized humoralism by the 17th century, the theory had dominated Western medical thinking for more than 2,000 years. Only in some instances did the theory of humoralism wane into obscurity. One such instance occurred in the sixth and seventh centuries in the Byzantine Empire when traditional secular Greek culture gave way to Christian influences. Though the use of humoralist medicine continued during this time, its influence was diminished in favor of religion. The revival of Greek humoralism, owing in part to changing social and economic factors, did not begin until the early ninth century. Use of the practice in modern times is pseudoscience.


title: Humorism

text: At the time, the Humoral Theory was the Great Unifying Theory, before the invention of modern medicine, for more than 2000 years. The Theory was one of the fundamental tenets of the teachings of the Greek physician-philosopher Hippocrates (460–370 BCE), who is regarded as the first practitioner of medicine, appropriately referred to as the "Father of Modern Medicine."


title: Humorism

text: With the advent of the "Doctrine of Specific Etiology," the Humoral Theory's demise hastened even further. This demonstrates that there is only one precise cause and one specific issue for each and every sickness or disorder that has been diagnosed. Additionally, the identification of messenger molecules like hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters suggests that the humoral theory has not yet been fully moribund.Humoral Theory is still present in modern medical terminology, which refers to humoral immunity when discussing elements of immunity that circulate in the bloodstream, such as hormones and antibodies.


title: Humorism

text: Modern medicine refers to humoral immunity or humoral regulation when describing substances such as hormones and antibodies, but this is not a remnant of the humor theory. It is merely a literal use of "humoral", i.e. pertaining to bodily fluids (such as blood and lymph).


title: Humorism

text: The concept of humorism was not definitively disproven until 1858. There were no studies performed to prove or disprove the impact of dysfunction in known bodily organs producing named fluids (humors) on temperament traits simply because the list of temperament traits was not defined up until the end of the 20th century.


title: Humorism

text: Theophrastus and others developed a set of characters based on the humors. Those with too much blood were sanguine. Those with too much phlegm were phlegmatic. Those with too much yellow bile were choleric, and those with too much black bile were melancholic. The idea of human personality based on humors contributed to the character comedies of Menander and, later, Plautus.


title: Humorism

text: Through the neo-classical revival in Europe, the humor theory dominated medical practice, and the theory of humoral types made periodic appearances in drama. The humors were an important and popular iconographic theme in European art, found in paintings, tapestries, and sets of prints.


title: Humorism

text: The humors can be found in Elizabethan works, such as in "Taming of the Shrew", in which the character Petruchio pretends to be irritable and angry to show Katherina what it is like being around a disagreeable person. He yells at the servants for serving mutton, a choleric food, to two people who are already choleric.


title: Humorism

text: Foods in Elizabethan times were believed to have an affinity with one of these four humors. A person showing signs of phlegmatism might have been served wine (a choleric drink and the direct opposite humor to phlegmatic) to balance this.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Marilyn Ann Taylor (née Briggs; April 22, 1952 – April 12, 2009), known professionally as Marilyn Chambers, was an American pornographic actress, exotic dancer, model, actress, singer and vice-presidential candidate. She was known for her 1972 hardcore film debut, "Behind the Green Door", and her 1980 pornographic film "Insatiable". She ranked at No. 6 on the list of Top 50 Porn Stars of All Time by AVN, and ranked as one of Playboy's Top 100 Sex Stars of the Century in 1999. Although she was primarily known for her adult film work, she made a successful transition to mainstream projects and has been called "porn's most famous crossover".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Born Marilyn Ann Briggs in Providence, Rhode Island, Chambers was raised in Westport, Connecticut, in a middle-class household. It is often reported that she was born in Westport; however, in a 2007 interview, Chambers confirmed she was born in Providence but grew up in Westport. Her father was in advertising and her mother was a nurse. She was the youngest of three children, a brother, Bill Briggs (keyboardist for 1960s Boston band The Remains), and a sister, Jann Smith. Chambers attended Burr Farms Elementary School, Hillspoint Elementary School, Long Lots Junior High School, and Staples High School where she graduated in 1970. Her father tried to discourage her from pursuing a modeling career, citing brutal competition. "Ever since I was a little kid, I've always wanted to be an actress," Chambers said in 1997. "I was always a performer, a junior Olympic diver, a junior Olympic gymnast. My mother always told me I was a show-off".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: "When I was about 16, I learned how to write my mother’s name on notes to get out of school", she said. "And then I'd take the train into the city to go to auditions". While in high school, she landed some modeling assignments and a small role in the film "The Owl and the Pussycat" (1970), in which Chambers was credited as Evelyn Lang. During her early career as a model, her most prominent job was as the "Ivory Soap girl" on the Ivory Snow soap flake box, posing as a mother holding a baby under the tag line "99 & 44/100% pure".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Upon the release of "The Owl and the Pussycat", Chambers was sent to Los Angeles and San Francisco on a promotional tour. After that, she did not receive any roles except for a low-budget film, writer-director-producer Sean S. Cunningham's "Together" (1971), in which she appeared nude. In 1970, she moved from Westport to San Francisco, where she held several jobs that included topless model and bottomless dancer. "I moved to San Francisco, thinking it was the entertainment capital of the world, which indeed, it is not," she said.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers sought work in theater and dance groups in San Francisco to no avail. In 1972, she saw an advertisement in the "San Francisco Chronicle" for a casting call for what was billed as a "major motion picture". She rushed to the audition only to find it was for a pornographic film, which was to be called "Behind the Green Door". She was about to leave when producers Artie and Jim Mitchell noticed her resemblance to Cybill Shepherd. They invited her upstairs to their offices and told her the film's plot. Chambers was highly dubious about accepting a role in a pornographic film, fearing it might ruin her chances at breaking into the mainstream. But she was turned on by the fantasy of the story and decided to take a chance, under the condition that she receive a hefty salary and 10 percent of the film's gross. She also insisted that each actor get tested for venereal disease. The Mitchell Brothers balked at her request for a percentage of the film's profits, but finally agreed, realizing the film needed a wholesome blonde actress.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: The film told the story of a wealthy San Francisco socialite, Gloria Saunders (Chambers), who is taken against her will to an elite North Beach sex club and loved as she's never been loved before. Unusually, Chambers does not have a single word of dialogue in the entire film. After engaging in lesbian sex with a group of six women, she then has sex with actor Johnnie Keyes. This possibly makes "Behind the Green Door" the first U.S. feature-length hardcore film to include an interracial sex scene. The porn industry and viewing public were shocked by the then-taboo spectacle of a white woman having sex with a black man. The scene with Keyes is followed by Chambers mounting a trapeze contraption suspended from the ceiling. She then engages in vaginal intercourse with one man as she performs oral sex on another and masturbates two others.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: "Each sequence "was" a surprise to me", she said in 1987. "They never told me what was happening next. I just did it as it happened, and it worked. I've always been highly sexed. Oh, my God, I love it! Insatiable "is" the right word for me".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: After filming concluded, she informed the Mitchell Brothers that she was "the Ivory Snow Girl"; the Mitchells capitalized on this by billing her as the "99 and 44/100% impure" girl. Although she said at the time the film would help "sell a lot more soap", Procter & Gamble quickly dropped her after discovering her double life as an adult-film actress, and the advertising industry was scandalized. The fact that Chambers's image was so well known from Ivory Snow boosted the film's ticket sales, and led to several jokes on television talk shows. Nearly every adult film she made following this incident featured a cameo of her Ivory Snow box.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers was relatively unknown prior to "Behind the Green Door"; however, the film made her a star. "Green Door", along with "Deep Throat", released the same year, and "The Devil in Miss Jones", ushered in what is commonly known as the porno chic era. Critics have since debated whether she was really having orgasms in her scenes or just acting.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Following "Behind the Green Door", the Mitchell Brothers and Chambers teamed up for "Resurrection of Eve", released in September 1973. Although not the runaway blockbuster that "Green Door" was, "Eve" was a hit and a well-received entry into the porno chic market. It also helped set Chambers apart from her contemporaries Linda Lovelace and Georgina Spelvin as the wholesome, all-American girl next door. Following "Eve", Chambers was anxious to transition her fame into other areas of entertainment. At the time, the Mitchell Brothers were still her managers. "They were always talking about some half-assed idea I knew wouldn't come off", Chambers said in 1992. Flakes' is a terrible word but they were, in a cute sort of way". Chambers had always considered the brothers as her own brothers but when she abruptly announced that she was leaving them to take up with Chuck Traynor, they were appalled and had a falling out with Chambers.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: In retaliation, the brothers created a documentary in 1976 called "Inside Marilyn Chambers", which was composed of alternate shots and outtakes from "Green Door" and "Eve", as well as interviews with some of her co-stars. This was done without Chambers's knowledge or approval but when she learned of it just prior to its release, she negotiated a deal that would offer her 10% of the gross as long as she would contribute interviews to the film and promote it nationally. "I hated the film and I still do", she said later. "It's supposed to be the story of my life, and it's not true. Jim and Art ripped me off. They felt I'd betrayed them... I felt they'd betrayed me, and for many years, we didn't speak. Only when money was to be made did we start talking again." Chambers reunited with the Mitchell Brothers in 1979 for two 30-minute features called "Beyond de Sade" and "Never a Tender Moment", which explored BDSM. The films, which were shot at the Mitchell Brothers Theatre, co-starred Erica Boyer.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers dreamed of having a career in mainstream films and believed her celebrity as the star of "Behind the Green Door" and the Ivory Snow girl would be a stepping stone to other endeavors. "The paradox was that, as a result of "Green Door", Hollywood blackballed me," she said later. "["Green Door"] became a very high-grossing film ... But, to a lot of people, it was still a dirty movie; for me to do anything else, as an "actress", was totally out of the question. I became known as a porno star, and that type of labeling really hurt me. It hurt my chances of doing anything else".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Throughout the 1970s, she was up for roles in several Hollywood films. Her biggest opportunity came in 1976 when it was announced in "Variety" that she was to star alongside Rip Torn in "City Blues", a film about a young hooker defended by a seedy lawyer. The film was to be directed by Nicholas Ray. Ray had never seen "Behind the Green Door" or even screen-tested Chambers. Instead, the two met and Ray was impressed. "I have a camera in my head," he said, adding that Chambers would "eventually be able to handle anything that the young Katie Hepburn or Bette Davis could." However, the project never came to fruition, in large part due to Ray's alcohol and drug abuse. Ray died in 1979.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers claimed that Jack Nicholson and Art Garfunkel brought her in to talk about a role in the 1978 film "Goin' South", then asked her for cocaine and grilled her about whether her orgasms in "Behind the Green Door" were real; she was angered to the point where she stormed out of the interview. She was going to be cast in the film "Hardcore", opposite George C. Scott, but the casting director took one look at her and said she was too wholesome to be cast as a porn queen. "The "Hardcore" people wanted a woman with orange hair who chews gum, swings a big purse, and wears stiletto heels. That's such a cliche," Chambers said years later. Season Hubley was cast instead.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers won the starring role in film director David Cronenberg's low-budget Canadian movie, "Rabid", which was released in 1977. Cronenberg stated that he wanted to cast Sissy Spacek in the film lead, but the studio vetoed his choice because of her accent. The director says that the idea of casting Chambers came from producer Ivan Reitman, who had heard that Chambers was looking for a mainstream role. Reitman felt that it would be easier to market the film in different territories if the well-known porn star portrayed the main character. Cronenberg stated that Chambers put in a lot of hard work on the film and that he was impressed with her. Cronenberg further states he had not seen "Behind the Green Door" prior to casting her.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: "It was great working with David", Chambers said in a 1997 interview. "He taught me a lot of things that were very valuable as an actress, especially in horror films. I found it useful in sex films, too!"


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: In 1974, she starred in the dinner theater production of "The Mind With the Dirty Man" in Las Vegas and received favorable reviews for her work. The play ran for 52 weeks which, at the time, was the longest-running play in Vegas history, and the mayor gave Chambers the key to the city. In 1976, she starred in a short-lived musical revue off-Broadway called "Le Bellybutton". In 1977, she starred in Neil Simon's "Last of the Red Hot Lovers" in Vegas. The one-woman show "Sex Surrogate", in 1979, caused controversy in Las Vegas as it featured full-frontal nudity, which was banned from all major hotel casino showrooms. In 1983, the play was spun off into a 26-part syndicated soap opera called "Love Ya, Florence Nightingale". It was broadcast on cable television channels such as the Playboy Channel.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers had some chart success with the disco single "Benihana" in 1976, produced by Michael Zager on the Roulette Records label. "Billboard" magazine said, "She... sings quite nicely in a sexy little voice in this catchy disco tribute to an oriental lover man." The song is played in the background of one scene in the film "Rabid". In "Insatiable", she sang the theme song, "Shame On You," which plays over the opening credits. She did the same for the song, "Still Insatiable", which was used in her comeback in the 1999 adult film of the same name. She also sang vocals in the 1983 X-rated film, "Up 'n' Coming", in which she plays a rising country music star. In the early 1980s, she was the lead singer of a country and western band called Haywire.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers wrote an autobiography, "My Story", in 1975, and co-authored "Xaviera Meets Marilyn Chambers" with Xaviera Hollander in 1977. Both were published by Warner Communications. She also wrote a sex advice column in the mid-to-late 1970's for "Genesis" magazine called "Private Chambers", and one for "Club" magazine throughout the 1980s called "State of the Nation". In 1981, she released a book of sex positions and tips called "Sensual Secrets". One of the male models featured in the photos with Marilyn was a young Ron Jeremy. The same year, she released another sex manual called "The Illustrated Kama Sutra".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Although she had tried for several years to shed her image as a porn star, Chambers returned to the adult film industry with 1980's "Insatiable". In the film, she played actress, model, and heiress Sandra Chase, whose appetite for sex is, as the title suggests, insatiable. Sandra is getting ready to make a movie and her manager, played by Jessie St. James, is working on getting some big names to appear alongside Sandra. The story is told in a series of flashbacks which detail Sandra's sexual encounters.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: "My manager had never really wanted me to do X-rated film[s]," she said in 1997. "He tried to move me out of that, but—seeing as things didn't go that way, and I wasn't getting any legitimate projects—it was something that we needed to do. I was known in the X-rated business, and it was the right time. It was a cool story and the budget was going to be a lot higher; there were going to be helicopters and Ferraris. It was going to be very classy. There were some names in it that would be good for the box office, [including John Holmes] and that was at a time when X-films were still playing in theaters."


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: The bet paid off. "Insatiable" was the top-selling adult video in the U.S. from 1980 to 1982 and it was inducted in the XRCO Hall of Fame. It was followed by a sequel, "Insatiable II" in 1984. Another X-rated film, "Up 'n' Coming", was released in 1983. She also released six direct-to-video features in the early 1980s called "Marilyn Chambers' Private Fantasies", in which she acted out her own sexual fantasies alongside some of the biggest names in the industry. The scenarios and dialogue for the series were written by Chambers. Despite her return to the adult-film world, Chambers dreamed of launching a successful mainstream acting career, but was unable to do so.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers left the pornography business because of the increasing fear of AIDS. In 1999, Chambers returned to San Francisco to perform at the Mitchell Brothers' O'Farrell Theatre. Mayor Willie Brown proclaimed a "Marilyn Chambers Day" for her unique place in San Francisco history, and praised her for her "artistic presence", her "vision", and her "energy". That same year Chambers returned to adult features with a trio of films made for VCA Pictures called "Still Insatiable" (1999), "Dark Chambers" (2000), and "Edge Play" (2000), each directed by Veronica Hart.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Near the end of her career, Chambers appeared primarily in independent films, including her last role in "Solitaire". Chambers claimed that the more laid-back pace of these roles suited her as "there's a lot less pressure on you to perform [and] you don't have to be young and skinny". Among these were "Bikini Bistro", "Angel of H.E.A.T." (with Mary Woronov), "Party Incorporated", and "Breakfast in Bed".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: In a 2004 interview, Chambers said, "My advice to somebody who wants to go into adult films is: absolutely not! It's heart-breaking. It leaves you kind of empty. So have a day job and don't quit it".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: On February 1, 1985, while performing her nude act at the "Cine-Stage" within the Mitchell Brothers' O'Farrell Theatre in San Francisco, Chambers was arrested by a vice squad and charged with committing a lewd act in a public place and soliciting prostitution. It was alleged by plainclothes policemen who were in the audience that Chambers allowed audience members to touch her with their hands and mouths during her show called "Feel the Magic". She was released on $2,000 bail and the charges were later dropped. "I've never been arrested in my life for anything, ever, so this is kind of a big shock to me, not only as a performer but as a human being", Chambers said at the time. "It's a heartbreaker. This is supposed to be a hip city. I really love—make that LOVED—this city. These people have been my fans for years, and it's a thrill for them to touch me up close. There's nothing illegal if I'm not taking money."


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers' attorney claimed that Chambers was used "as a pawn in a struggle over control of adult businesses." Chambers' arrest came three days before the Board of Supervisors were to vote on a proposed ordinance to eliminate police permits for adult bookstores and theaters. In the wake of her arrest, the Board stripped police of their power to license the city's adult theaters. "The O'Farrell was packed the day after we were arrested," Chambers said later. "And they put the mayor's phone number up on the marquee—'Call Mayor Dianne Feinstein'... I'm in jail with my fur coat and nothing else on, and [the police officers] want to take pictures. I took a mug shot with every cop in the place, and they're going, 'I'm really sorry we had to do this.' And the next night they were all back enjoying the show".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Later that year on December 13, 1985, she was arrested during a performance at Stage Door Johnny's, a strip club in Cleveland. Police said she was nude except for her shoes and was having sexual contact with an audience member. She was charged with promoting prostitution and was held in jail until she was freed on a $1,000 bond. Chambers denied the charge, saying, "I did the same show I've been doing for the last six years. Police just happened to be in the audience."


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: In the 2004 United States presidential election, Chambers ran for vice president on the Personal Choice Party ticket, a libertarian political party. She received a total of 946 votes. In the 2008 United States presidential election, she was again Charles Jay's running mate, this time as an alternate write-in candidate to his primary national Boston Tea Party running mate Thomas L. Knapp in the states of Arkansas, Hawaii, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Utah.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: Chambers was married three times. Her first marriage was to Doug Chapin, whom she met while he was playing bagpipes for money on the streets of San Francisco. They married in 1971. She divorced Chapin in 1974 and married Chuck Traynor, who was recently divorced from Linda Lovelace. He also became her manager and they were together for 10 years.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: In the mid-1980s, Chambers was "on her way to an early grave, consuming massive amounts of alcohol and cocaine daily when she met her husband-to-be", William Taylor, Jr., a truck driver, on a blind date. After their first date, he called her to say that he could not see her because he was a recovering heroin addict. Chambers got so angry that she kicked a wall and broke her leg. Taylor came to visit Chambers in the hospital, and upon her release, they began a romance and Chambers entered Narcotics Anonymous. The couple married around 1991 or 1992 and had one child, McKenna Marie Taylor, in 1992 before divorcing in 1994. When Chambers became clean and sober during the early 1990s, her Lexus had a vanity plate that read "LUV NA".


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: On April 12, 2009, Chambers was found dead in her home near Santa Clarita, California. Documents found with her body identified her as Marilyn Ann Taylor. She was discovered by her 17-year-old daughter. The LA County Coroner's autopsy revealed Chambers died of a cerebral hemorrhage caused by an aneurysm related to heart disease. Chambers was ten days short of her 57th birthday. The painkiller hydrocodone and the antidepressant citalopram were found in her system, but not enough to cause death. The Associated Press reported she was survived by her daughter, sister and brother. Her ashes were scattered at sea.


title: Marilyn Chambers

text: In 2000, Tracy Hutson played Chambers in the cable television biographical film "Rated X", about the Mitchell brothers' film and Chambers's strip-club career.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: Michael Fagan (born 8 August 1948) is a British citizen who intruded into Queen Elizabeth II's bedroom in Buckingham Palace in 1982.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: Michael Fagan was born in Clerkenwell, London, on 8 August 1948, the son of Ivy and Michael Fagan, Sr. His father was a steel erector and a "champion" safe-breaker. He had two younger sisters, Marjorie and Elizabeth. In 1955, he attended Compton Street School in Clerkenwell (later St Peter & St Paul RC Primary School). In 1966, he left home at 18 to escape his father, who, Fagan says, was violent. He started working as a painter and decorator. In 1972, he married Christine, with whom he had four children (she left him the year of the break-ins, but later came back). At some point in the 1970s–1980s, Fagan was a member of a North London branch of the Workers Revolutionary Party.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: In early July 1982, Fagan intruded into Buckingham Palace. Fagan stated he shimmied up a drainpipe and startled a housemaid, who called security. He disappeared before guards arrived, who then disbelieved the housemaid's report. Fagan said he then entered the palace through an unlocked window on the roof and wandered around for the next half-hour while eating cheese and crackers. Two alarms were tripped, but the police turned them off believing they were faulty. He viewed royal portraits and sat for some time on a throne. He also spoke of entering the post room. He drank a half bottle of white wine, became tired and left.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: At around 7:00 a.m. on 9 July 1982, Fagan scaled Buckingham Palace's perimeter wall, which was topped with revolving spikes and barbed wire, and climbed up a drainpipe. An alarm sensor detected his movements, but police thought the alarm was faulty and silenced it. Fagan wandered the corridors for several minutes before reaching the royal apartments. In an anteroom, Fagan broke a glass ashtray, cutting his hand. He entered the bedroom of Queen Elizabeth II at about 7:15 am carrying a fragment of glass.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: The Queen woke when Fagan disturbed a curtain. Initial reports said he had sat on the edge of her bed, however Fagan said in a 2012 interview that the Queen left the room immediately to seek security. The Queen phoned the palace switchboard twice for police, but none arrived, so she used her bedside alarm bell; she also beckoned a housemaid in the corridor, who was quickly dispatched to seek urgent help. The duty footman, Paul Whybrew, who had been walking the Queen's dogs, arrived, followed by two policemen on palace duty, who removed Fagan. The incident had happened as the armed police officer outside the royal bedroom came off duty before his replacement arrived.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: A subsequent police report was critical of the competence of officers on duty, as well as a system of confused and divided command. The Home Secretary who held sole responsibility for the police, William Whitelaw, offered his resignation but it was refused by the prime minister, Margaret Thatcher.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: Since Fagan's actions were, at the time, a civil wrong rather than a criminal offence, he was not charged with trespassing in the Queen's bedroom. He was charged with theft of the wine, but the charges were dropped when he was committed for psychiatric evaluation. In late July, Fagan's mother said, "He thinks so much of the Queen. I can imagine him just wanting to simply talk and say hello and discuss his problems." He spent the next three months in a psychiatric hospital before being released on 21 January 1983.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: It was not until 2007, when Buckingham Palace became a "designated site" for the purposes of section 128 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, that trespass at the palace became a criminal offence.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: Two years after entering Buckingham Palace, Fagan attacked a policeman at a café in Fishguard, Wales, and was given a three-month suspended sentence. In 1983, Fagan recorded a cover version of the Sex Pistols song "God Save the Queen" with punk band the Bollock Brothers. In 1997, he was imprisoned for four years after he, his wife and their 20-year-old son Arran were charged with conspiring to supply heroin.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: Fagan made an appearance in Channel 4's "The Antics Roadshow", an hour-long 2011 TV documentary directed by the artist Banksy and Jaimie D'Cruz charting the history of people behaving oddly in public.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: After the death of the Queen on 8 September 2022, Fagan told reporters that he had lit a candle in her memory at a local church.


title: Michael Fagan (intruder)

text: The intrusion was adapted in 2012 for an episode of Sky Arts' "Playhouse Presents" series entitled "Walking the Dogs", a one-off British comedy drama featuring Emma Thompson as the Queen and Eddie Marsan as the intruder. In 2020, Tom Brooke played Fagan in the fifth episode of season 4 of "The Crown". The intrusion also inspired Trinidadian calypso singer Mighty Sparrow to write his ironic song "Phillip My Dear", very loosely based on the event.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Donald Trump, the 45th president of the United States, was impeached for the first time by the House of Representatives of the 116th United States Congress on December 18, 2019. The House adopted two articles of impeachment against Trump: abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. The Senate acquitted Trump of these charges on February 5, 2020.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Trump's impeachment came after a formal House inquiry found that he had solicited foreign interference in the 2020 U.S. presidential election to help his re-election bid, and then obstructed the inquiry itself by telling his administration officials to ignore subpoenas for documents and testimony. The inquiry reported that Trump withheld military aid and an invitation to the White House to Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy in order to influence Ukraine to announce an investigation into Trump's political opponent Joe Biden and to promote a discredited conspiracy theory that Ukraine, not Russia, was behind interference in the 2016 presidential election. A phone call between Trump and Zelenskyy on July 25, 2019, was particularly important—whistleblower Lt. Col. Alexander Vindman was a participant in the call, and later informed Congress.<ref name="Vindman_8/1/2021"></ref>


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The inquiry stage of Trump's impeachment lasted from September to November 2019 in the wake of Vindman's August whistleblower complaint alleging Trump's abuse of power. In October, three congressional committees (Intelligence, Oversight, and Foreign Affairs) deposed witnesses. In November, the House Intelligence Committee held a number of public hearings in which witnesses testified publicly; on December 3, the committee voted 13–9 along party lines to adopt a final report. The total number of witnesses testifying either publicly or in closed door sessions was 17. A set of impeachment hearings before the House Judiciary Committee began on December 4; on December 13, it voted 23–17 along party lines to recommend two articles of impeachment, for abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. The committee released a lengthy report on the impeachment articles on December 16. Two days later, the full House approved both articles in a mostly party-line vote, with all Republicans opposing along with three Democrats. This made Trump the third U.S. president in history to be impeached, and marked the first fully partisan impeachment where a U.S. president was impeached without support for the impeachment from the President's own party.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The articles were submitted to the Senate on January 16, 2020, initiating the trial. The trial saw no witnesses or documents being subpoenaed, as Republican senators rejected attempts to introduce subpoenas. On February 5, Trump was acquitted on both counts by the Senate, as neither count received 67 votes to convict. On Article I, abuse of power, the vote was 48 for conviction, 52 for acquittal. On Article II, obstruction of Congress, the vote was 47 for conviction, 53 for acquittal. Republican Mitt Romney, the only senator to break party lines, became the first U.S. senator to vote to convict a president of his own party in an impeachment trial, as he voted for conviction on abuse of power. Trump remained in office for the remainder of his term.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Two days after the acquittal, Trump fired two witnesses who had testified about his conduct in the impeachment inquiry: Ambassador Gordon Sondland and Alexander Vindman, together with Vindman's twin brother Yevgeny.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Donald Trump is the third U.S. president to be impeached by the House of Representatives, after Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Before Trump, Johnson was the only president to be impeached in his first term. The House Judiciary Committee also voted to adopt three articles of impeachment against Richard Nixon, but he resigned prior to the full House vote. The Senate voted to acquit both Johnson and Clinton in their trials.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Congress's first efforts to impeach Trump were initiated by Democratic representatives Al Green and Brad Sherman in 2017. In December 2017, an impeachment resolution failed in the House with a 58–364 vote margin. Following the 2018 elections, the Democrats gained a majority in the House and launched multiple investigations into Trump's actions and finances. Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi initially resisted calls for impeachment. In May 2019, however, she indicated that Trump's continued actions, which she characterized as obstruction of justice and refusal to honor Congressional subpoenas, might make an impeachment inquiry necessary.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Investigations into various scandals in the Trump administration which could lead to articles of impeachment were initiated by various house congressional committees, led by Pelosi, and began in February 2019. A formal impeachment investigation began in July 2019, and several subpoenas were issued; while most were honored, several were not. The Trump administration asserted executive privilege, which led to several lawsuits including "".


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The Trump–Ukraine scandal revolves around efforts by U.S. President Donald Trump to coerce Ukraine and other foreign countries into providing damaging narratives about 2020 Democratic Party presidential primary candidate Joe Biden, as well as information relating to the origins of previous political attacks against him, such as the claims investigated by Robert Mueller. Trump enlisted surrogates within and outside his official administration, including his personal lawyer Rudy Giuliani and Attorney General William Barr, to pressure Ukraine and other foreign governments to cooperate in investigating conspiracy theories concerning American politics. Trump blocked but later released payment of a congressionally mandated $400 million military aid package to allegedly obtain "quid pro quo" cooperation from Volodymyr Zelenskyy, the president of Ukraine. A number of contacts were established between the White House and the government of Ukraine, culminating in a phone call between Trump and Zelenskyy on July 25, 2019. Less than two hours later, on behalf of the president, senior executive budget official Michael Duffey discreetly instructed the Pentagon to continue withholding military aid to Ukraine.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The scandal reached public attention in mid-September 2019 after a whistleblower complaint made in August 2019. The complaint raised concerns about Trump using presidential powers to solicit foreign electoral intervention in the 2020 U.S. presidential election. The Trump White House has corroborated several allegations raised by the whistleblower. A non-verbatim transcript of the Trump–Zelenskyy call confirmed that Trump requested investigations into Joe Biden and his son Hunter, as well as a discredited conspiracy theory involving a Democratic National Committee server, while repeatedly urging Zelenskyy to work with Giuliani and Barr on these matters. The White House also confirmed that the record of the call had been transferred to a highly classified system. White House acting chief of staff Mick Mulvaney said one reason why Trump withheld military aid to Ukraine was Ukrainian "corruption related to the DNC server", referring to a debunked theory that Ukrainians framed Russia for hacking into the DNC computer system. After the impeachment inquiry began, Trump publicly urged Ukraine and China to investigate the Bidens. Bill Taylor, the Trump administration's top diplomat to Ukraine, testified that he was told that U.S. military aid to Ukraine and a Trump–Zelenskyy White House meeting were conditioned on Zelenskyy publicly announcing investigations into the Bidens and alleged Ukrainian interference in the 2016 U.S. elections. United States Ambassador to the European Union Gordon Sondland testified that he worked with Giuliani at Trump's "express direction" to arrange a "quid pro quo" with the Ukraine government.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On the evening of September 24, 2019, Pelosi announced that six committees of the House of Representatives would begin a formal impeachment inquiry into President Trump. Pelosi accused the President of betraying his oath of office, national security, and the integrity of the country's elections. The six committees charged with the task were those on Financial Services, the Judiciary, Intelligence, Foreign Affairs, Oversight and Reform, and Ways and Means.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: In October 2019, three congressional committees (Intelligence, Oversight, and Foreign Affairs) deposed witnesses, including Ambassador Taylor, Laura Cooper (the deputy assistant secretary of defense for Russian, Ukrainian and Eurasian affairs), and former White House official Fiona Hill. Witnesses testified that they believed that President Trump wanted Zelenskyy to publicly announce investigations into the Bidens and Burisma (a Ukrainian natural gas company on whose board Hunter Biden had served) and 2016 election interference. On October 8, in a letter from White House counsel Pat Cipollone to House speaker Pelosi, the White House officially responded that it would not cooperate with the investigation due to concerns including that there had not yet been a vote of the full House and that interviews of witnesses were being conducted behind closed doors. On October 17, Mulvaney said in response to a reporter's allegation of "quid pro quo", "We do that all the time with foreign policy. Get over it." He walked back his comments later that day, asserting there had been "absolutely no "quid pro quo"" and that Trump had withheld military aid to Ukraine over concerns of the country's corruption.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On October 29, 2019, Massachusetts representative Jim McGovern introduced a resolution referred to House Rules Committee, which set forth the "format of open hearings in the House Intelligence Committee, including staff-led questioning of witnesses, and [authorization for] the public release of deposition transcripts". This resolution, formally authorizing the impeachment inquiry, was approved by the House by a vote of 232 to 196 on October 31, 2019. In November 2019, the House Intelligence Committee held a number of public hearings in which witnesses testified publicly. On November 13, Taylor and Kent testified publicly. Ambassador Marie Yovanovitch testified before the committee on November 15, 2019. Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Vindman, the National Security Council's head of European affairs, and Jennifer Williams, Vice President Mike Pence's chief European security adviser, testified together on the morning of November 19, 2019. Later that day, Kurt Volker, the former U.S. special representative for Ukraine, and Tim Morrison, the former national security presidential adviser on Europe and Russia, gave public testimony before the House Intelligence Committee. Also subpoenaed were Foreign Service Officers Catherine Croft, Jennifer Williams, Christopher Anderson, and Suriya Jayanti.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On November 20, 2019, Ambassador Sondland testified that he conducted his work with Giuliani at the "express direction of the president", and that he understood a potential White House invitation for Zelenskyy to be contingent on Ukraine announcing investigations into the 2016 elections and Burisma. Later that day, Cooper and David Hale, the under secretary of state for political affairs, testified jointly before the committee. On November 21, 2019, Fiona Hillwho, until August 2019, was the top Russia expert on the National Security Councilcriticized Republicans for promulgating the "fictional narrative" that Ukraine rather than Russia interfered in the 2016 election, asserting that the theory was planted by Russia and played into its hands. Testifying alongside Hill was David Holmes, the current head of political affairs in the U.S. Embassy in Ukraine.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 3, the House Intelligence Committee voted 13–9 along party lines to adopt a final report and also send it to the House Judiciary Committee. The report's preface states:[T]he impeachment inquiry has found that President Trump, personally and acting through agents within and outside of the U.S. government, solicited the interference of a foreign government, Ukraine, to benefit his reelection. In furtherance of this scheme, President Trump conditioned official acts on a public announcement by the new Ukrainian President, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, of politically-motivated investigations, including one into President Trump's domestic political opponent. In pressuring President Zelenskyy to carry out his demand, President Trump withheld a White House meeting desperately sought by the Ukrainian President, and critical U.S. military assistance to fight Russian aggression in eastern Ukraine. The Republicans of the House committees had released a countering report the previous day, saying in part that the evidence does not support accusations. "The evidence presented does not prove any of these Democrat allegations, and none of the Democrats' witnesses testified to having evidence of bribery, extortion, or any high crime or misdemeanor," said the draft report. This report also painted the push to impeachment as solely politically motivated. "The Democrats are trying to impeach a duly elected President based on the accusations and assumptions of unelected bureaucrats who disagreed with President Trump's policy initiatives and processes," the report's executive summary states. During the inquiry, the Trump administration's public arguments were limited to assertions that the president had done nothing wrong and the process was unfair.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 5, Speaker Pelosi authorized the Judiciary Committee to begin drafting articles of impeachment.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: A set of impeachment hearings was brought before the Judiciary Committee, with Trump and his lawyers being invited to attend. The administration declined as the president was scheduled to attend a NATO summit in London. In a second letter on December 6, Cipollone again said that the White House would not offer a defense or otherwise participate in the impeachment inquiry, writing to chairman Jerry Nadler, "As you know, your impeachment inquiry is completely baseless and has violated basic principles of due process and fundamental fairness." Nadler responded in a statement, "We gave President Trump a fair opportunity to question witnesses and present his own to address the overwhelming evidence before us. After listening to him complain about the impeachment process, we had hoped that he might accept our invitation."


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The first hearing, held on December 4, 2019, was an academic discussion on the definition of an impeachable offense. The witnesses invited by Democrats were law professors Noah Feldman from Harvard, Pamela S. Karlan from Stanford, and Michael Gerhardt from the University of North Carolina. Republicans invited Jonathan Turley, a constitutional scholar at George Washington University; Turley, who had testified in favor of the impeachment of President Bill Clinton in 1999, testified against impeaching Trump, citing a lack of evidence. It was observed that he contradicted his own opinion on impeachment from when Clinton was on trial.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Potential articles of impeachment outlined during the hearing include abuse of power for arranging a "quid pro quo" with the president of Ukraine, obstruction of Congress for hindering the House's investigation, and obstruction of justice for attempting to dismiss Robert Mueller during his investigation of Russian interference in the 2016 election. On December 5, Pelosi requested that the House Judiciary Committee draft articles of impeachment. After the vote, Pelosi said that, while this was "a great day for the Constitution", it was "a sad day for America". She also said, "I could not be prouder or more inspired by the moral courage of the House Democrats. We never asked one of them how they were going to vote. We never whipped this vote."


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 10, 2019, Democrats on the House Judiciary Committee announced they would levy two articles of impeachment, designated H. Res. 755: (1) abuse of power, and (2) obstruction of Congress, in its investigation of the President's conduct regarding Ukraine. Draft text of the articles was released later that day, as well as a report by the judiciary committee outlining the constitutional case for impeachment and asserting that "impeachment is part of democratic governance". The committee planned to vote on the articles on December 12, but postponed it to the next day after the 14-hour partisan debate on the final versions of the articles lasted until after 11:00 p.m. EST. On December 13, the Judiciary Committee voted along party lines to pass both articles of impeachment; both articles passed 23–17, with all Democrats present voting in support and all Republicans voting in opposition. Democrat Ted Lieu was ill and not present to vote.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 16, the House Judiciary Committee released a 658-page report on the articles of impeachment, specifying criminal bribery and wire fraud charges as part of the abuse of power article. The articles were forwarded to the full House for debate and a vote on whether to impeach the president on December 18.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: of the U.S. Constitution states that "The House of Representatives... shall have the sole Power of Impeachment."


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 17, the House Rules Committee held a hearing to write the rules governing the debate over impeachment. The first of three votes was on the rules governing debate: 228 to 197, with all Republicans and two Democrats voting no. This was followed by six hours of debate. One of the highlights of this contentious event was Georgia representative Barry Loudermilk comparing the impeachment inquiry of President Trump to the trial of Jesus Christ, saying that the Christian savior was treated far better by the authorities. Maryland representative Steny Hoyer contributed closing arguments: "All of us feel a sense of loyalty to party ... It's what makes our two-party system function. It's what helps hold presidents and majorities accountable. But party loyalty must have its limits."


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The formal impeachment vote in the House of Representatives took place on December 18, 2019. Shortly after 8:30 pm EST, both articles of impeachment passed. The votes for the charge of abuse of power were 230 in favor, 197 against, and 1 present: House Democrats all voted in support, except Collin Peterson and Jeff Van Drew, who voted against, and Tulsi Gabbard, who voted "present"; all House Republicans voted against, although Justin Amash, an independent who was previously Republican, voted in support of both articles. The votes for the charge of obstruction of Congress were 229 in favor, 198 against, and 1 present: all Democrats voted in support, except Peterson, Van Drew, and Jared Golden, who voted against; and Gabbard, who again voted "present"; all Republicans voted against.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Days before the impeachment vote, it was leaked that Jeff Van Drew was planning to switch parties from Democratic to Republican. A day after the vote, he officially announced that he was switching parties.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Three representatives pending retirement did not vote: Republican Duncan D. Hunter, who was banned from voting under the House's rules after pleading guilty to illegally using campaign funds; Democrat José E. Serrano, who had a health setback after being diagnosed with Parkinson's disease earlier in the year; and Republican John Shimkus, who was visiting his son in Tanzania.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: A day after Trump's impeachment, the evangelical magazine "Christianity Today" published an editorial calling for his removal from office, stating that the president "attempted to use his political power to coerce a foreign leader to harass and discredit one of the president's political opponents. That is not only a violation of the Constitution; more importantly, it is profoundly immoral."


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 21, conservative Bill Kristol and a group calling itself "Republicans for the Rule of Law" released an ad encouraging viewers to call their senators to demand top Trump officials be forced to testify in his impeachment trial.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Trump has questioned the validity of the impeachment, citing Harvard law professor Noah Feldman, who argued that the impeachment has technically not taken place until the articles are handed to the Senate. Jonathan Turley later refuted this argument in an op-ed. Trump tweeted or retweeted over 20 messages criticizing Pelosi's handling of the impeachment during the first week of his holiday vacation to Mar-a-Lago. On Christmas Day, he tweeted:


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Attorney George T. Conway III and others have noted that if the relevant witnesses are not allowed to testify, Trump's defenders will be negatively affected by "the very evidence they sought to suppress".


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Prior to the House impeachment vote, McConnell and Senate Judiciary Committee chairman Lindsey Graham expressed their intentions not to be impartial jurors, contrary to the oath they must take. McConnell said, "I'm not an impartial juror. This is a political process. There is not anything judicial about it. Impeachment is a political decision." Graham said, "I am trying to give a pretty clear signal I have made up my mind. I'm not trying to pretend to be a fair juror here... I will do everything I can to make [the impeachment trial] die quickly."


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 15, with the support of all 47 Senate Democrats, Senate Minority Leader Charles Schumer wrote a letter to McConnell calling for Mick Mulvaney, Robert Blair, John Bolton, and Michael Duffey to testify, suggesting that pre-trial proceedings take place on January 6, 2020. Two days later, McConnell rejected the call for witnesses to testify, saying that the Senate's role is simply to act as "judge and jury" and not to aid the impeachment process. He also suggested that witnesses be called during the trial, as had happened after Clinton's impeachment. Schumer said that he "did not hear a single sentence, a single argument as to why the witnesses I suggested should not give testimony", citing bipartisan public support for testimony which could fill in gaps caused by Trump having prevented his staff from testifying in the House investigation. On January 2, 2020, Schumer called newly unredacted emails from Trump administration officials "a devastating blow to Senator McConnell's push to have a trial without the documents and witnesses we've requested". At least four Republican senators needed to vote with Democrats for witnesses to be called.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Republicans have suggested calling Joe and Hunter Biden to testify; the former stated his objection to this, but said he would obey a subpoena. Rudy Giuliani has stated his willingness to testify or even try the impeachment "as a racketeering case", despite being Trump's personal attorney and allegedly attempting to help him politically while searching for evidence against the Bidens in Ukraine. On January 10, 2020, Trump told Laura Ingraham of Fox News that he would likely invoke executive privilege to keep Bolton from testifying "for the sake of the office".


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On December 18, 2019, the day of the impeachment, Pelosi declined to comment on when the impeachment resolution would be transmitted to the Senate, stating, "So far we haven't seen anything that looks fair to us." The following day, McConnell met with Schumer briefly to discuss the trial. After the Senate reconvened from its holiday break, Lindsey Graham proposed that he and McConnell "change the rules of the Senate so we could start the trial without [Pelosi], if necessary". On January 7, 2020, McConnell announced he had the caucus backing to pass a blueprint for the trial, which discussed witnesses and evidence after the opening arguments. Pelosi called for the resolution to be published before she could proceed with the next steps, but McConnell asserted that the House had no leverage and that there would be no negotiating over the trial. This prompted several Democratic senators to voice their readiness to have the trial begin. On January 9, Pelosi said she would deliver the articles soon, but continued to cite a need for Republican transparency in the Senate; that same day, McConnell informed members of his caucus that he expected the trial to begin the next week, and Senator Josh Hawley announced that McConnell had signed on as a co-sponsor to his resolution to dismiss articles of impeachment not sent to the Senate within 25 days. On January 10, Pelosi announced she had "asked Judiciary Committee Chairman Jerry Nadler to be prepared to bring to the Floor next week a resolution to appoint managers and transmit articles of impeachment to the Senate".


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On January 14, 2020, Pelosi announced the House managers who would prosecute the case in the Senate. On January 15, the House voted on Resolution 798, which appointed the impeachment managers and approved the articles of impeachment to be sent to the Senate. Later that afternoon, Pelosi held a rare public engrossment ceremony, followed by a stately procession of the managers and other House officers across the Capitol building, where the third impeachment of a U.S. president was announced to the senate. With the exception of the managers, who would conduct the trial, the House's involvement in the impeachment process came to an end.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: While the impeachment inquiry was underway, Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell started planning a possible trial. On October 8, 2019, he led a meeting on the subject, advising his caucus to say that they opposed the House process and as little else as possible. In November, he shot down the idea that the articles of impeachment should be dismissed, stating that "the rules of impeachment are very clear, we'll have to have a trial." On December 12, as the articles were being considered by the House Judiciary Committee, McConnell met with White House counsel Pat Cipollone and Director of Legislative Affairs Eric Ueland. McConnell stated later that day, "Everything I do during this I'm coordinating with the White House counsel. There will be no difference between the president's position and [ours]... I'm going to take my cues from the president's lawyers." McConnell added that the coordination with the White House would also pertain to whether witnesses would be allowed to testify, and told Sean Hannity of Fox News that there was no chance Trump would be convicted, expressing his hope that all Senate Republicans would acquit the president of both charges. Republican senators Lisa Murkowski and Susan Collins criticized McConnell's comments regarding coordinating with the White House. Collins has been critical of Democratic senator Elizabeth Warren for prejudging the trial.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The U.S. Constitution stipulates that the Chief Justice of the United States presides over impeachment proceedings. The current chief justice was John Roberts, who was appointed by President George W. Bush in 2005. The House managers, acting as prosecutors for the case, were several Democratic representatives, consisting of Adam Schiff as lead manager, Jerry Nadler, Zoe Lofgren, Hakeem Jeffries, Val Demings, Jason Crow, and Sylvia Garcia. Trump named a defense team led by White House Counsel Pat Cipollone and his private attorney Jay Sekulow, who previously represented Trump in the Russia investigation. They were joined by celebrity law professor Alan Dershowitz, former Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr, former Deputy Independent Counsel Robert Ray, former Florida Attorney General Pam Bondi, and former Federal Prosecutor Jane Raskin


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: of the U.S. Constitution states that "[t]he Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments." Per the Senate's impeachment rules adopted in 1986, the submission of the articles to the Senate initiated the trial. The articles were formally delivered on January 15, 2020, and were presented the following day.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: At the end of the session on January 21, the Senate voted along party lines to pass McConnell's proposed trial rules and reject 11 amendments proposed by Democrats. McConnell stated that he wanted to follow the rules laid down during the Clinton trial in 1999, which had the morning reserved for Senate business and the afternoon hours reserved for the trial, but his resolution increased the hours spent per day on opening arguments from six to eight hours. The resolution also included provisions for a vote on whether to subpoena witnesses or documents after opening arguments.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: The prosecution's opening arguments and presentation of evidence took place between January 22 and 24, 2020. On the first day, Schumer called the previous evening "a dark night for the Senate", when the White House, in response to a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit, released new evidence including a string of heavily redacted emails revealing details about how the Office of Management and Budget froze aid to Ukraine.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Trump's defense presentation began on January 25. The primary arguments were a lack of direct evidence of wrongdoing and that Democrats were attempting to use the impeachment to steal the 2020 election. Professor Alan Dershowitz argued that while a president can be impeached for committing a criminal act, irrespective of motive, the idea of a 'quid pro quo' being a basis for removal from office requires that the 'quo' be something illegal, and that simply having mixed motives for requesting a legal act (an investigation into alleged corruption) would not be sufficient grounds for impeachment. He observed that all politicians act with an eye and motive toward re-election and that such motive neither makes illegal acts lawful nor unlawful act legal. This position was criticized by Democratic political consultant and commentator Paul Begala in an editorial that did not address the legality/illegality aspect of the analysis.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: On January 31, after a planned debate session, the Senate voted against allowing subpoenas to call witnesses, including former national security advisor John Bolton (who wrote in his forthcoming book mentioning Ukraine aid freezing), or documents with a 51–49 vote. 51 Republican senators voted against calling witnesses, while 45 Democratic senators, two independents who typically voted Democratic, and two Republicans (Mitt Romney and Susan Collins) voted for witnesses.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Under the U.S. Constitution, a two-thirds majority of the Senate is required to convict the president. The possible penalties are the removal from office and disqualification from holding office in the future. On February 5, 2020, the Senate acquitted Trump on both counts. The votes were 52–48 to acquit on the first count and 53–47 to acquit on the second count. The votes were sharply divided along party lines. Mitt Romney became the first senator in history from an impeached president's party to vote to convict, voting "guilty" on the first count.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Before the trial, in mid January 2020, Americans were sharply divided on whether Trump should be removed from office, with Democrats largely supporting removal, Republicans largely opposing, and independents divided. A "USA Today"/Suffolk University poll conducted between December 10 and 14, 2019, found that 45% of respondents supported the impeachment and removal of Trump from office, while 51% opposed it. A CNN poll conducted from December 12 to 15 also found 45% supported impeachment and removal, compared to 47% who opposed the idea. A Gallup poll released on the day of Trump's impeachment found that the president's approval rating increased by six points during the impeachment process, while support for the impeachment fell. Another CNN poll conducted between January 16 and 19, 2020, found that 51% supported Trump's removal from office, compared to 45% who opposed it. An NBC/"Wall Street Journal" poll released on January 2, 2020, showed 46% favored removal from office and 49% opposed, with the in favor/opposed being almost exclusively along party lines.


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Two days after he was acquitted by the Senate in the impeachment trial, Trump fired two witnesses who testified in the impeachment inquiry about his conduct. On February 7, Gordon Sondland's ambassadorship was terminated, and Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Vindman was escorted from the White House after a dismissal from his job on the National Security Council. At the same time, Vindman's twin brother Yevgeny, likewise an Army lieutenant colonel on the National Security Council, was also dismissed. Shortly before the firings, Trump said he was "not happy" with Alexander Vindman; after the firings, Trump said he "didn't know" Alexander Vindman but he was "very insubordinate". Alexander Vindman's lawyer responded that his client "was asked to leave for telling the truth. His honor, his commitment to right, frightened the powerful." Sondland reacted by stating that he was "grateful to President Trump for the opportunity to serve".


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: In April 2020, Trump fired Michael K. Atkinson, the inspector general of the intelligence community. Trump further complained that Atkinson "never even came in to see me. How can you [forward the complaint] without seeing the person?"; he also concluded that Atkinson was "not a big Trump fan". Atkinson responded that he believed Trump had fired him for "having faithfully discharged my legal obligations as an independent and impartial inspector general, and from my commitment to continue to do so".


title: First impeachment of Donald Trump

text: Biden would be elected President of the United States that November. The subsequent storming of the U.S. Capitol would lead to Trump's unprecedented second impeachment.


title: J1 League

text: The , known as the for sponsorship reasons, is the top level of the system. Founded in 1992, it is one of the most successful leagues in Asian club football. Contested by 18 clubs, it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the J2 League. Until the 2014 season, it was known as the J League Division 1.


title: J1 League

text: Before the inception of the J.League, the highest level of club football was the Japan Soccer League (JSL), which consisted of amateur clubs. Despite being well-attended during the boom of the late 1960s and early 1970s (when Japan's national team won the bronze Olympic medal at the 1968 games in Mexico), the JSL went into decline in the 1980s, in general line with the deteriorating situation worldwide. Fans were few, the grounds were not of the highest quality, and the Japanese national team was not on a par with the Asian powerhouses. To raise the level of play domestically, to attempt to garner more fans, and to strengthen the national team, the Japan Football Association (JFA) decided to form a professional league.


title: J1 League

text: The professional association football league, J.League was formed in 1992, with eight clubs drawn from the JSL First Division, one from the Second Division, and the newly formed Shimizu S-Pulse. At the same time, JSL changed its name and became the former Japan Football League, a semi-professional league. Although the J.League did not officially launch until 1993, the Yamazaki Nabisco Cup competition was held between the ten clubs in 1992 to prepare for the inaugural season.


title: J1 League

text: Despite the success in the first three years, in early 1996 the league attendance declined rapidly. In 1997 the average attendance was 10,131, compared to more than 19,000 in 1994. Notably, Arsène Wenger managed Nagoya Grampus Eight during this period.


title: J1 League

text: The league's management finally realized that they were heading in the wrong direction. In order to solve the problem, the management came out with two solutions.


title: J1 League

text: First, they announced the J.League Hundred Year Vision, in which they aim to make 100 professional association football clubs in the nation of Japan by 2092, the hundredth season. The league also encouraged the clubs to promote football or non-football related sports and health activities, to acquire local sponsorships, and to build good relationship with their hometowns at the grass-root level. The league believed that this will allow the clubs to bond with their respective cities and towns and get support from local government, companies, and citizens. In other words, clubs will be able to rely on the locals, rather than major national sponsors.


title: J1 League

text: Second, the infrastructure of the league was heavily changed in 1999. The league acquired nine clubs from the semi-professional JFL and one club from J.League to create a two division system. The top flight became the J.League Division 1 (J1) with 16 clubs while J.League Division 2 (J2) was launched with ten clubs in 1999. The former second-tier Japan Football League now became the third-tier Japan Football League.


title: J1 League

text: Also, until 2004 (with the exception of 1996 season), the J1 season was divided into two. At the end of each full season, the champions from each half played a two-legged series to determine the overall season winners and runners-up. Júbilo Iwata in 2002, and Yokohama F. Marinos in 2003, won both "halves" of the respective seasons, thus eliminating the need for the playoff series. This was the part of the reason the league abolished the split-season system starting from 2005.


title: J1 League

text: Since the 2005 season, J.League Division 1 consisted of 18 clubs (from 16 in 2004) and the season format became more similar to European club football. The number of relegated clubs also increased from 2 to 2.5, with the 3rd-to-last club going into a promotion/relegation playoff with the third-placed J2 club. Since then, other than minor adjustments, the top flight has stayed consistent.


title: J1 League

text: Japanese teams did not treat the AFC Champions League seriously in the early years, in part due to the distances travelled and teams involved. However, in the 2008 Champions League, three Japanese sides made the quarter-finals.


title: J1 League

text: However, in recent years, with the inclusion of the A-League in Eastern Asia, introduction to the Club World Cup, and increased marketability in the Asian continent, both the league and the clubs paid more attention to Asian competition. For example, Kawasaki Frontale built up a notable fan base in Hong Kong, owing to their participation in the Asian Champions League during the 2007 season. Continuous effort led to the success of Urawa Red Diamonds in 2007 and Gamba Osaka in 2008. Thanks to excellent league management and competitiveness in Asian competition, the AFC awarded J.League the highest league ranking and a total of four slots starting from the 2009 season. The league took this as an opportunity to sell TV broadcasting rights to foreign countries, especially in Asia.


title: J1 League

text: Also starting from the 2008 season, the Emperor's Cup Winner was allowed to participate in the upcoming Champions League season, rather than waiting a whole year (i.e. 2005 Emperor's Cup winner, Tokyo Verdy, participated in the 2007 ACL season, instead of the 2006 season). In order to fix this one-year lag issue, the 2007 Emperor's Cup winner, Kashima Antlers' turn was waived. Nonetheless, Kashima Antlers ended up participating in the 2009 ACL season by winning the J.League title in the 2008 season.


title: J1 League

text: Three major changes were seen starting in the 2009 season. First, starting that season, four clubs entered the AFC Champions League. Secondly, the number of relegation slots increased to three. Finally, the AFC Player slot was implemented starting this season. Each club will be allowed to have a total of four foreign players; however, one slot is reserved for a player that derives from an AFC country other than Japan. Also, as a requirement of being a member of the Asian Football Confederation, in 2012 the J.League Club Licence became one criteria of whether a club was permitted to be promoted to a higher tier in professional level leagues. No major changes happened to J.League Division 1 as the number of clubs stayed at 18.


title: J1 League

text: In 2015 the J.League Division 1 was renamed J1 League. Also, the tournament format was changed to a three-stage system. The season was split into first and second stages, followed by a third and final championship stage. The third stage was composed of three to five teams. The top point accumulator in each stage and the top three point accumulators for the overall season qualified. If both of the stage winners finished in the top three teams for the season, then only three teams qualified for the championship stage. These teams then took part in a championship playoff stage to decide the winner of the league trophy.


title: J1 League

text: Despite the new multi-stage format being initially reported as locked in for five seasons, due to negative reaction from hardcore fans and failure to appeal to casual fans, after 2016 it was abandoned in favour of a return to a single-stage system. From 2017, the team which accumulates the most points will be named champion, with no championship stage taking place at the season's end, and from 2018, the bottom two clubs are relegated and the 16th-placed club enters a playoff with the J2 club that wins a promotion playoff series. If the J2 playoff winner prevails, the club is promoted, with the J1 club being relegated, otherwise the J1 club can retain its position in J1 League with the promotion failure of the J2 club.


title: J1 League

text: In November 2017, Urawa Red Diamonds played the AFC Champions League final against Al Hilal. After a draw in the first leg, Urawa Red Diamonds won the second leg 1-0 and were crowned Asian Champions. In the past 10–15 years, Japanese clubs have risen not only continentally, but also internationally. Clubs Gamba Osaka and Urawa Red Diamonds have been crowned Asian champions and participated in the Club World Cup, always targeting at least the semi-finals. Kashima Antlers were finalists of the 2016 edition and eventually lost to Real Madrid.


title: J1 League

text: Eighteen clubs play in double round-robin (home and away) format, a total of 34 games each. A club receives 3 points for a win, 1 point for a tie, and 0 points for a loss. The clubs are ranked by points, and tiebreakers are, in the following order:


title: J1 League

text: A draw would be conducted, if necessary. However, if two clubs are tied for first place, both clubs will be declared as co-champions. The top three clubs will qualify to the following year's AFC Champions League, while the bottom two clubs will be relegated to J2. The third-bottom club will play a playoff against the J2 playoffs winning team.


title: J1 League

text: The all-time J1 League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points, and goals of every team that has played in the J1 League. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2022 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2023 J1 League.


title: J1 League

text: Note: For statistical purposes, the traditional 3–1–0 points system is used for all matches. As in the season, 1993–1994 did not use the point system. In seasons 1995–1996 were using 3 pts for any win, 1 pt for PK loss, and 0 pts for regulation or extra time loss. In seasons 1997-1998 were using 3 pts for a regulation win, 2 pts for extra-time win, 1 pt for PK win, and 0 pts for any loss. And from seasons 1999–2002 were using 3 pts for a regulation win, 2 pts for an extra time win, and 1 pt for a tie.


title: J1 League

text: Only four clubs have never been relegated from J1. Among those, only two clubs – Kashima Antlers and Yokohama F. Marinos – have been participating in every league season since its establishment in 1993. Sagan Tosu were promoted to the first division in 2012, and remain there ever since. The former J.League club Yokohama Flügels never experienced relegation before their merger with Yokohama Marinos in 1999.


title: J1 League

text: JEF United Chiba holds the record for the longest top flight participation streak of 44 consecutive seasons in the first divisions of JSL and J.League that lasted since the establishment of JFL in 1965 and ended with their relegation in 2009. The longest ongoing top flight streak belongs to Yokohama F. Marinos who play in the top flight since 1982 (42 seasons as of 2022).


title: J1 League

text: When the league introduced the two-division system in 1999, they also reduced number of Division 1 club from 18 to 16. At the end of 1998 season, they hosted the J.League Promotion Tournament to determine two relegating clubs.


title: J1 League

text: Throughout 1999 to 2003 seasons, two bottom clubs were relegated to Division 2. To accommodate for split-season format, combined overall standings were used to determine the relegating clubs. This created a confusing situation, where for the championship race stage standing were used, while overall standing was used for relegation survival.


title: J1 League

text: At end of the 2004 season, Division 1 again expanded from 16 to 18 clubs. No clubs were relegated; however, last-placed (16th) club had to play Promotion/Relegation Series against 3rd placed club from J2. Again, to determine 16th placed club, overall standing was used instead of stage standing.


title: J1 League

text: For the next four seasons, 2005 to 2008, the number of relegating clubs was increased to 2.5, with two clubs from each division being promoted and relegated directly, and two more (15th in J1 and 3rd in J2) competed in Promotion/Relegation Series.


title: J1 League

text: In 2009, the pro/rele series were abandoned and three teams are directly exchanged between divisions. In 2012, promotion playoffs were introduced in J2, allowing teams that finished from 3rd to 6th to compete for J1 promotion place. For the 2018 and 2019 seasons and from 2022, the bottom two teams are relegated and the entry playoff has the 16th team play the J2 playoff winner.


title: J1 League

text: No teams descended to J2 after the 2020 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan and its effects. Instead, four relegations were in place for the 2021 season to bring back the number of teams from 20 to 18.


title: J1 League

text: All J1 matches are streamed live through DAZN until 2028 season, with selected matches also televised live plus highlights of other matches also available on public broadcaster NHK.


title: J1 League

text: The league is currently covered internationally (excluding China) by NHK World Premium (Japanese audio only) and Dentsu.


title: Rico Rodriguez (actor)

text: Rico Rodriguez II (born July 31, 1998) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Manny Delgado on the ABC sitcom "Modern Family", which ran for eleven seasons from 2009 to 2020. He received several Screen Actors Guild Awards for his performance. He has also appeared in numerous other television shows and movies, both as himself and other characters, before, during, and after the show's run, such as "Epic Movie", "Endgame", "", and Nickelodeon's "The Substitute" and "Unfiltered".


title: Rico Rodriguez (actor)

text: Rico Rodriguez II was born in Bryan, Texas, the son of Diane and Roy Rodriguez, who owned Rodriguez Tire Service. His siblings are brothers Ray and Roy Jr., and sister Raini Rodriguez, who is an actress. He is of Mexican descent.


title: Rico Rodriguez (actor)

text: At age nine, he played a character, also named Rico, in "Cory in the House". He later had guest appearances on the series "'Til Death", "ER", "iCarly", and "My Name is Earl".


title: Rico Rodriguez (actor)

text: In 2007, he appeared in the comedy film "Epic Movie" as the character Chanchito. The movie earned a score of 2% on Rotten Tomatoes, from 66 reviews. Jamie Russell of BBC referred to it as "the most excruciating, unfunny film you'll see this year...if not your entire lifetime".


title: Rico Rodriguez (actor)

text: In September 2009, he began playing Manny Delgado in "Modern Family". His role was said to be "crazy hard" to cast by co-creator Steve Levitan. In 2010, he said he is sometimes nothing like Manny, although he also named some similarities between them. Later, in 2016, Rodriguez said he had "grown into the character", finding more in common with him. For the role, he was nominated eight times, along with the rest of the cast of "Modern Family", for the Screen Actors Guild Awards, winning four of them.