title: Air France

text: On 29 May 2013, KLM and Air France launched a pilot to test inflight Wi-Fi. Both airlines have equipped one Boeing 777-300ER of each of their fleets with Wi-Fi. Using the inflight Wi-Fi, passengers can stay online using their Wi-Fi enabled smartphones, laptops, or tablets. Wireless service would commence once the flight has reached 20,000 feet.


title: Air France

text: Air France lounges are known as Le Salon, and are open to La Première, Business, and Premium Economy passengers, as well as Flying Blue Gold, Flying Blue Platinum, SkyTeam Elite and Elite Plus members. Worldwide, there are 530 Air France and Skyteam lounges in 300 international airports on every continent except Antarctica.


title: Air France

text: Flying Blue, the frequent flyer program of Air France-KLM, awards members points based on miles travelled and class of service. Membership into the program is free. The program is divided into standard (Explorer), Elite (Silver) and Elite Plus (Gold and Platinum) statuses. Explorer is the basic level which is attained upon entry into the program. Elite status is attained by accruing a certain number of miles within one calendar year. Elite Silver, Elite Plus Gold, and Elite Plus Platinum cards have added benefits. An invitation-only card called Club 2000 is attributed to some VIPs, celebrities and politicians. Officially, it provides the same benefits as Platinum status but numerous sources confirm it almost guarantees upgrade to Business or La Première. Flying Blue succeeded Air France's previous frequent flyer program, Fréquence Plus, which operated until the Air France-KLM merger in 2003.


title: Air France

text: On 14 November 2008, Air France released the first picture of an Airbus A320 that had been repainted in the full 1946 paint scheme to celebrate the airline's 75th anniversary. This heritage aircraft was planned to fly under the special colours until early 2010. In 2013 the aircraft was withdrawn from use for scrapping.


title: Air France

text: Air France has been involved in a number of major accidents and incidents. The airline's deadliest accident occurred on 1 June 2009, when Air France Flight 447, an Airbus A330-203, crashed into the Atlantic Ocean with 228 fatalities. Another notable crash in Air France's records occurred on July 25, 2000, when Air France Flight 4590, a Concorde, caught fire immediately after take-off due to metal debris on the runway damaging a tire, which produced debris that struck a fuel tank on the underside of the wing, catching fire. The fire started to disintegrate the aircraft's left wing and the plane started to list to its side. This caused the aircraft to crash into a hotel on the outskirts of Gonesse, France. All 109 passengers and crew inside Flight 4590, as well as three people inside the hotel died.


title: Zagreus

text: In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Zagreus () was sometimes identified with a god worshipped by the followers of Orphism, the "first Dionysus", a son of Zeus and Persephone, who was dismembered by the Titans and reborn. In the earliest mention of Zagreus, he is paired with Gaia and called the "highest" god, though perhaps only in reference to the gods of the underworld. Aeschylus, however, links Zagreus with Hades, possibly as Hades' son, or as Hades himself. Noting "Hades' identity as Zeus' "katachthonios" alter ego", Timothy Gantz postulated that Zagreus, originally the son of Hades and Persephone, later merged with the Orphic Dionysus, the son of Zeus and Persephone.


title: Zagreus

text: As interpreted by Karl Kerényi based on a Hesychian gloss, the Ionian Greek word for a hunter who catches living animals is called "zagreus", and the word "zagre" signifies a "pit for the capture of live animals". "We may justifiably ask," observes Kerényi, "why was this great mythical hunter, who in Greece became a mysterious god of the underworld, a capturer of wild animals and not a killer?" Kerényi links the figure of Zagreus with archaic Dionysiac rites in which small animals were torn limb from limb and their flesh devoured raw, "not as an emanation of the Greek Dionysian religion, but rather as a migration or survival of a prehistoric rite".


title: Zagreus

text: The early mentions of Zagreus, which occur only in fragments from lost works, connect Zagreus with the Greek underworld. The earliest is in a single quoted line from the (6th century BC?) epic "Alcmeonis":


title: Zagreus

text: Evidently for Aeschylus, Zagreus was, in fact, an underworld god. In a fragment from one of Aeschylus' lost "Sisyphus" plays (c. 5th century BC), Zagreus seems to be the son of Hades, while in Aeschylus' "Egyptians" ("Aigyptioi"), Zagreus was apparently identified with Hades himself. A fragment from Euripides' lost play "Cretan Men" ("Kretes") has the chorus describe themselves as initiates of Idaean Zeus and celebrants of "night-ranging Zagreus, performing his feasts of raw flesh".


title: Zagreus

text: The Zagreus from the Euripides fragment is suggestive of Dionysus, the wine god son of Zeus and Semele, and in fact, although it seems not to occur anywhere in Orphic sources, the name “Zagreus” is elsewhere identified with an Orphic Dionysus, who had a very different tradition from the standard one. This Dionysus was a son of Zeus and Persephone who was, as an infant, attacked and dismembered by the Titans, but later reborn as the son of Zeus and Semele.


title: Zagreus

text: The dismemberment of Dionysus-Zagreus (the "sparagmos") is often considered to be the most important myth of Orphism. As pieced together from various ancient sources, the reconstructed story, usually given by modern scholars, goes as follows. Zeus had intercourse with Persephone in the form of a serpent, producing Dionysus. He is taken to Mount Ida where (like the infant Zeus) he is guarded by the dancing Curetes. Zeus intended Dionysus to be his successor as ruler of the cosmos, but a jealous Hera incited the Titans to kill the child. Distracting the infant Dionysus with various toys, including a mirror, the Titans seized Dionysus and tore (or cut) him to pieces. The pieces were then boiled, roasted and partially eaten, by the Titans. But Athena managed to save Dionysus' heart, by which Zeus was able to contrive his rebirth from Semele.


title: Zagreus

text: Although the extant Orphic sources do not mention the name "Zagreus" in connection with this dismembered Dionysus (or anywhere else), the (c. 3rd century BC) poet Callimachus perhaps did. We know that Callimachus, as well as his contemporary Euphorion, told the story of the dismembered child, and Byzantine sources quote Callimachus as referring to the birth of a "Dionysos Zagreus", explaining that "Zagreus" was the poet's name for a "chthonic" Dionysus, the son of Zeus by Persephone. The earliest certain identification of Zagreus with the dismembered Dionysus occurs in the writings of the late 1st century – early 2nd century AD biographer and essayist Plutarch, while the c. 5th century AD Greek epic poet Nonnus' "Dionysiaca", which tells the story of this Orphic Dionysus, calls him the "older Dionysos ... illfated Zagreus", "Zagreus the horned baby", "Zagreus, the first Dionysos", "Zagreus the ancient Dionysos", and "Dionysos Zagreus".


title: Zagreus

text: The 1st century BC historian Diodorus Siculus says that according to "some writers of myths" there were two gods named Dionysus, an older one, who was the son of Zeus and Persephone, but that the "younger one [born to Zeus and Semele] also inherited the deeds of the older, and so the men of later times, being unaware of the truth and being deceived because of the identity of their names thought there had been but one Dionysus."


title: Zagreus

text: According to Diodorus, this older Dionysus, was represented in painting and sculpture with horns, because he "excelled in sagacity and was the first to attempt the yoking of oxen and by their aid to effect the sowing of the seed", and the younger was "called Dimetor (Of Two Mothers) ... because the two Dionysoi were born of one father, but of two mothers". He also said that Dionysus "was thought to have two forms ... the ancient one having a long beard, because all men in early times wore long beards, the younger one being youthful and effeminate and young."


title: Zagreus

text: Several accounts of the myth involved the Titans cooking and/or eating at least part of Dionysus. In the account attributed to Callimachus and Euphorion, the dismembered pieces of Dionysus were boiled in a cauldron, and Euphorion is quoted as saying that the pieces of Dionysus were placed over a fire. Diodorus also says that the pieces were "boiled", and the late 2nd century Christian writer Clement of Alexandria says that the pieces were "first boiled" in a cauldron, then pierced with spits and roasted. Arnobius, an early 4th century Christian apologist, says that Dionysus' severed parts were "thrown into pots that he might be cooked". None of these sources mention any actual eating, but other sources do. Plutarch says that the Titans "tasted his blood", the 6th century AD Neoplatonist Olympiodorus says that they ate "his flesh", and according to the 4th century euhemeristic account of the Latin astrologer and Christian apologist Firmicus Maternus, the Titans cooked the "members in various ways and devoured them" ("membra consumunt"), except for his heart.


title: Zagreus

text: In the version of the story apparently told by Callimachus and Euphorion, the cauldron containing the boiled pieces of Dionysus, is given to Apollo for burial, who "stowed it away beside his tripod" at Delphi. And according to Philodemus, citing Euphorion, the pieces of Dionysus were "reassembled by Rhea, and brought back to life", while according to Diodorus Siculus, the reassembly and resurrection of Dionysus was accomplished by Demeter. Later Orphic sources have Apollo receive Dionysus' remains from Zeus, rather than the Titans, and it was Apollo who reassembled Dionysus, rather than Rhea or Demeter.


title: Zagreus

text: In the accounts of Clement, and Firmicus Maternus cited above, as well as Proclus, and a scholium on Lycophron 355, Athena manages to save the heart of Dionysus, from which, according to Clement and the scholium, Athena received the name Pallas from the still beating ("πάλλειν") heart. In Proculus' account Athena takes the heart to Zeus, and Dionysus is born again from Semele. According to Hyginus, Zeus "ground up his heart, put it in a potion, and gave it to Semele to drink", and she became pregnant with Dionysus.


title: Zagreus

text: In the "interpretatio graeca" Dionysus is often identified with the Egyptian god Osiris. Stories of the dismemberment and resurrection of Osiris, parallel those of Dionysus Zagreus. According to Diodorus Siculus, Egyptian myths about Priapus said that the Titans conspired against Osiris, killed him, divided his body into equal parts, and "slipped them secretly out of the house". All but Osiris' penis, which since none of them "was willing to take it with him", they threw into the river. Isis, Osiris' wife, hunted down and killed the Titans, reassembled Osiris' body parts "into the shape of a human figure", and gave them "to the priests with orders that they pay Osiris the honours of a god". But since she was unable to recover the penis she ordered the priests "to pay to it the honours of a god and to set it up in their temples in an erect position."


title: Zagreus

text: Diodorus Siculus reports an allegorical interpretation of the myth of the dismemberment of Dionysus as representing the production of wine. Diodorus knew of a tradition whereby this Orphic Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Demeter, rather than Zeus and Persephone. This parentage was explained allegorically by identifying Dionysus with the grape vine, Demeter with the earth, and Zeus with the rain, saying that "the vine gets its growth both from the earth and from rains and so bears as its fruit the wine which is pressed out from the clusters of grapes". According to Diodorus, Dionysus' dismemberment by the Titans represented the harvesting of the grapes, and the subsequent "boiling" of his dismembered parts "has been worked into a myth by reason of the fact that most men boil the wine and then mix it, thereby improving its natural aroma and quality."


title: Zagreus

text: The Neronian-era Stoic Cornutus relates a similar allegorical interpretation, whereby the dismemberment represented the crushing of the grapes, and the rejoining of the dismembered pieces into a single body, represented the pouring of the juice into a single container.


title: Zagreus

text: Diodorus also reports a rationalized account of the older Dionysus. In this account this Dionysus was a wise man, who was the inventor of the plough, as well as many other agricultural inventions. And according to Diodorus, these inventions, which greatly reduced manual labor, so pleased the people that they "accorded to him honours and sacrifices like those offered to the gods, since all men were eager, because of the magnitude of his service to them, to accord to him immortality."


title: Zagreus

text: Firmicus Maternus gives a rationalized euhemeristic account of the myth whereby Liber (Dionysus) was the bastard son of a Cretan king named Jupiter (Zeus). When Jupiter left his kingdom in the boy's charge, the king's jealous wife Juno (Hera), conspired with her servants the Titans to murder the bastard child. Beguiling him with toys, the Titans ambushed and killed the boy. To dispose of the evidence of their crime, the Titans chopped the body into pieces, cooked, and ate them. However the boy's sister Minerva (Athena), who had been part of the murder plot, kept the heart. When her father the king returned, the sister turned informer and gave the boy's heart to the king. In his fury the king tortured and killed the Titans, and in his grief, he had a statue of the boy made, which contained the boy's heart in its chest, and a temple erected in the boy's honour. The Cretans, In order to pacify their furious savage and despotic king, established the anniversary of the boy's death as a holy day. Sacred rites were held, in which the celebrants howling and feigning insanity tore to pieces a live bull with their teeth, and the basket in which boy's heart had been saved, was paraded to the blaring of flutes and the crashing of cymbals.


title: Zagreus

text: Most sources make no mention of what happened to the Titans after the murder of Dionysus. In the standard account of the Titans, given in Hesiod's "Theogony" (which does not mention Dionysus), after being overthrown by Zeus and the other Olympian gods, in the ten-year-long Titanomachy, the Titans are imprisoned in Tartarus. This might seem to preclude any subsequent story of the Titans' killing Dionysus, and perhaps in an attempt to reconcile this standard account with the Dionysus Zagreus myth, according to Arnobius and Nonnus, the Titans end up imprisoned by Zeus in Tartarus, as punishment for their murder of Dionysus.


title: Zagreus

text: However, according to one source, from the fate of the Titans came a momentous event, the birth of humankind. Commonly presented as a part of the myth of the dismembered Dionysus Zagreus, is an Orphic anthropogony, that is an Orphic account of the origin of human beings. According to this widely held view, as punishment for the crime of the "sparagmos", Zeus struck the Titans with his thunderbolt, and from the remains of the destroyed Titans humankind was born, which resulted in a human inheritance of ancestral guilt, for this original sin of the Titans, and by some accounts "formed the basis for an Orphic doctrine of the divinity of man." However, when and to what extent there existed any Orphic tradition which included these elements is the subject of open debate.


title: Zagreus

text: The only ancient source to explicitly connect the "sparagmos" and the anthropogony is the 6th century AD Neoplatonist Olympiodorus, who writes that, according to Orpheus, after the Titans had dismembered and eaten Dionysus, "Zeus, angered by the deed, blasts them with his thunderbolts, and from the sublimate of the vapors that rise from them comes the matter from which men are created." Olympiodorus goes on to conclude that, because the Titans had eaten his flesh, we their descendants, are a part of Dionysus.


title: Zagreus

text: The 2nd century AD biographer and essayist Plutarch, does make a connection between the "sparagmos" and the punishment of the Titans, but makes no mention of the anthropogony, or Orpheus, or Orphism. In his essay "On the Eating of Flesh", Plutarch writes of "stories told about the sufferings and dismemberment of Dionysus and the outrageous assaults of the Titans upon him, and their punishment and blasting by thunderbolt after they had tasted his blood".


title: Zagreus

text: Earlier allusions to the myth possibly occur in the works of the poet Pindar, Plato, and Plato's student Xenocrates. A fragment from a poem, presumed to be by Pindar, mentions Persephone accepting "requital for ancient wrong", from the dead, which might be a reference to humans' inherited responsibility for the Titan's killing of Dionysus. Plato, in presenting a succession of stages whereby, because of excessive liberty, men degenerate from reverence for the law, to lawlessness, describes the last stage where "men display and reproduce the character of the Titans of story". This Platonic passage is often taken as referring to the anthropogony, however, whether men are supposed by Plato to "display and reproduce" this lawless character because of their Titanic heritage, or by simple imitation, is unclear. Xenocrates' reference to the Titans (and perhaps Dionysus) to explain Plato's use of the word "custody" ("φρούρα"), has also been seen as possible evidence of a pre-Hellenistic date for the myth.


title: Zagreus

text: Zagreus is the protagonist of the 2020 video game "Hades". In the game, Zagreus is the son of Hades and is attempting to escape the underworld to find his mother Persephone and learn why she left.


title: Into the Night (TV series)

text: Into the Night is a Belgian apocalyptic sci-fi drama thriller streaming television series created by Jason George, inspired by the 2015 Polish science fiction novel "The Old Axolotl" by Jacek Dukaj. The series premiered on Netflix on May 1, 2020. It is Netflix's first Belgian original series. On July 1, 2020, the series was renewed by Netflix for a second season. The second season premiered on September 8, 2021, while a Turkish language submarine-set spin-off, "Yakamoz S-245", was released on April 20, 2022.


title: Into the Night (TV series)

text: The first season follows a group of people whose plane is hijacked while they are on board a red-eye flight from Brussels. Terenzio (Cassetti), the hijacker, is an Italian NATO soldier. He forces his way onto the commercial aircraft and demands an early take-off. The handful of people in the aircraft now become some of the survivors from a deadly global event caused by exposure to sunlight. The plane heads west in an attempt to survive this catastrophe that kills all living organisms during daylight hours. The group – led by Mathieu (Capelluto), the pilot, and Sylvie (Pauline Étienne), a passenger – must work together to keep the sun behind them. The group must deal with fuel shortage, irradiated food, hidden agendas, and other problems in their race to reach an underground military bunker.


title: Into the Night (TV series)

text: In the second season, the remaining survivors secure their path to a NATO bunker, where they seek refuge from the deadly rays of the sun. Continuing their quest of survival with the military members in the bunker, they attempt to manage a burgeoning conflict and find a solution to the diminished supply of resources.


title: Into the Night (TV series)

text: On September 3, 2019, it was announced that Netflix had given the production a series order for a 6-episode first season. The series is created by Jason George who is also credited as an executive producer of the series alongside, D.J. Talbot, Tomek Baginski and Jacek Dukaj. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Entre chien et loup. On July 1, 2020, the series was renewed by Netflix for a second season, which premiered on September 8, 2021.


title: Into the Night (TV series)

text: On September 30, 2019 it was confirmed that Mehmet Kurtuluş, Astrid Whettnall, Pauline Etienne, Bebetida Sadjo, Laurent Capelluto, Alba Bellugi, Nabil Mallat, Regina Bikkinina, Vincent Londez, Jan Bijvoet, Stefano Cassetti, Ksawery Szlenkier, Yassine Fadel, Laura Sepul and Nicolas Aleshine had been cast in the series.


title: Into the Night (TV series)

text: In October 2020, Netflix announced their upcoming Turkish slate to include a submarine-set limited series, described as a "fast-paced action adventure story", starring Kıvanç Tatlıtuğ, directed by Tolga Karaçelik, and written by Atasay Koç, Cansu Çoban, Sami Berat Marçalı and Jason George. Ahead of the series release, Tatlıtuğ appeared as Arman in an episode of the second season of "Into the Night", revealing the in-development series to be a spin-off of "Into the Night", set concurrently with the first two seasons and titled "Yakamoz S-245".


title: Into the Night (TV series)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 88% approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 8.7/10, based on 18 reviews.


title: Amy Acker

text: Amy Louise Acker (born December 5, 1976) is an American actress. She is best known for starring as Winifred Burkle and Illyria on the supernatural drama series "Angel" (2001–2004), as Kelly Peyton on the action drama series "Alias" (2005–2006), and as Root on the science-fiction drama series "Person of Interest" (2012–2016). From 2017 to 2019, she starred as Caitlin Strucker on the superhero drama series "The Gifted", based on Marvel Comics' X-Men.


title: Amy Acker

text: Amy Louise Acker was born on December 5, 1976 and raised in Dallas, Texas, to a homemaker mother and a lawyer father. She studied ballet and modern dance for 14 years. She underwent knee surgery while in high school, ending her ballet career. Acker graduated from Lake Highlands High School in Dallas. She subsequently earned a bachelor's degree in theater from Southern Methodist University.


title: Amy Acker

text: In her junior year of college, Acker modeled for the J. Crew catalog. She received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in the same year. She worked as a stage actress for several seasons, including a stint at American Players Theatre in Spring Green, Wisconsin.


title: Amy Acker

text: Acker made her major television debut when she starred as Winifred "Fred" Burkle in "Angel" (seasons 2–5), and also as the character of Illyria for part of the show's fifth and final season. She won the 2003 Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television for her portrayal.


title: Amy Acker

text: Acker joined the cast of "Alias" in 2005 for its final season, playing villainess Kelly Peyton. Acker graduated from guest star to cast member as the show entered the final episodes in April and May 2006. Also in 2005, Acker provided voice acting for the character of Huntress on the animated series "Justice League Unlimited". She went on to make a guest appearance on "How I Met Your Mother", in which she was reunited with "Angel" co-star Alexis Denisof (the real-life husband of "HIMYM" star Alyson Hannigan), who had a recurring role on the show.


title: Amy Acker

text: Acker portrayed Dr. Claire Saunders/Whiskey, a recurring character, on Joss Whedon's "Dollhouse". She guest-starred in 10 of the 13 episodes of the first season and three episodes of the second.


title: Amy Acker

text: In 2010, Acker was a series regular in the ABC drama "Happy Town", portraying the character Rachel Conroy. That same year, she starred in the season-one finale of the Fox series "Human Target" as the mysterious Katherine Walters. On May 25, 2010, she appeared on CBS's "The Good Wife". She appeared in the horror movie "The Cabin in the Woods", released April 13, 2012. In 2012, she made guest performances in "Warehouse 13", "Once Upon a Time", and "Grimm". Also in 2012, she starred as Beatrice in Joss Whedon's film "Much Ado About Nothing".


title: Amy Acker

text: Acker appeared in season three of the sitcom "Husbands" as Claudia, Brad Kelt's ex-fiancée of who unexpectedly shows up. In March 2014, Acker was cast as Audrey, a former lover to Phil Coulson in an episode of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D."


title: Amy Acker

text: Between 2012 and 2016, Acker portrayed Samantha "Root" Groves on the CBS drama "Person of Interest"; Groves became a regular character starting in the series' third season. Starting with the series' 100th episode, Acker took on the voice role of the Machine. In the series finale, she also appeared as the visual manifestation of the Machine.


title: Amy Acker

text: In March 2017, Acker was cast as Caitlin Strucker in the pilot for the prospective Fox television series "The Gifted", which was picked up to series in May 2017. "The Gifted" began airing on October 2, 2017 and Fox canceled the series after two seasons on April 17, 2019.


title: Amy Acker

text: In 2019, Acker appeared in "What Just Happened??! with Fred Savage", a parody of aftershows. She plays Dr. Rachel Layne in the "show-within-a-show", a fictional drama series called "The Flare".


title: Amy Acker

text: On April 25, 2003, Acker married actor James Carpinello in California. They have a son, born in 2005, and a daughter, born in 2006.


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: Geoffrey Bond Lewis (July 31, 1935 – April 7, 2015) was an American character actor. He appeared in more than 200 films and television shows, and was principally known for his film roles alongside Clint Eastwood and Robert Redford. He typically portrayed villains or quirky characters. He played a bodyguard in the Jean-Claude van Damme film "Double Impact".


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis was born July 31, 1935, in Plainfield, New Jersey, but spent much of his youth in Wrightwood, California. He studied theater arts at San Bernardino Valley College for two years, then worked as a truck driver and at other odd jobs before launching his career as an actor. He took acting classes at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City and performed off-Broadway and at regional theaters in Massachusetts. He tried breaking into Hollywood in the 1960s.


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis appeared in TV series' including "Bonanza", "Gunsmoke", "Mannix", "", "Cannon," "Barnaby Jones", "Mork & Mindy", "The Golden Girls", "Lou Grant", "Mama's Family", "Magnum, P.I.", "The A-Team", "Titus", "Murder, She Wrote", "The X-Files", "Little House on the Prairie", "Highway to Heaven", "Starsky & Hutch", "Walker, Texas Ranger" and "". In 1979, he appeared in "Salem's Lot". He also played opposite Polly Holliday in the "Alice" spin-off "Flo" (1980–81) for which he received a Golden Globe nomination. He co-starred with Fred Dryer in "Land's End" (1995–96).


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: His film credits include such movies as "Down in the Valley", "The Butcher", "Maverick", and "When Every Day Was the Fourth of July".


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis worked frequently with actor-director Clint Eastwood in several films including "Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil", "Pink Cadillac", "Any Which Way You Can", "Bronco Billy", "Every Which Way but Loose", "Thunderbolt and Lightfoot", and "High Plains Drifter".


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: In the 1980s, Lewis was also a member of musical storytelling group Celestial Navigations with musician and songwriter Geoff Levin.


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis was married three times and had numerous children. Some news outlets reported he had nine surviving children, others, 10 children. One of his children is actress Juliette Lewis with whom he acted in at least two films, "Blueberry" (aka "Renegade") and "The Way of the Gun". His other children include his daughters Brandy, Hannah and Dierdre Lewis and Emily Colombier; his sons Peter, Lightfield, Miles and Matthew; and nine grandchildren.


title: Geoffrey Lewis (actor)

text: On April 7, 2015, he died of a heart attack at age 79. He had suffered the heart attack while working out at the Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital, according to his family. Miles Lewis told Variety he had been suffering from Parkinson’s and dementia.


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE Championship (formerly ONE Fighting Championship) is a Singaporean combat sports promotion. Founded on 14 July 2011 by entrepreneur Chatri Sityodtong and former ESPN Star Sports senior executive Victor Cui, its events have featured mixed martial arts (MMA), submission grappling, kickboxing, Muay Thai and Lethwei bouts.


title: ONE Championship

text: The promotion's first event was held on 3 September 2011 at the Singapore Indoor Stadium; they have since gone on to hold over 100 events across Asia. It is Asia's largest MMA promotion company, having been backed by Singapore's GIC and Temasek Holdings, in addition to ICONIQ Capital, Mission Holdings, Sequoia Capital and Greenoaks Capital. In 2020, ONE was included on Nielsen's list of the world's top 10 biggest sports media properties in terms of viewership and engagement.


title: ONE Championship

text: Chatri Sityodtong stated his reasons for founding the organisation in July 2011 was that he believed that martial arts was Asia's "cultural treasure", yet there was no Pan-Asian promotion to unite the continent. Unlike western promotions, the organisation's main goal was to promote "values of integrity, humility, honor, respect, courage, discipline, and compassion".


title: ONE Championship

text: On 13 January 2015, the promotion announced it would be changing its name to simply "ONE Championship". According to Victor Cui, the name change was made mostly for linguistic and cultural reasons.


title: ONE Championship

text: In July 2018, WBC Super flyweight world champion Srisaket Sor Rungvisai would make the next defense of his belt at a ONE Championship event in his home city of Bangkok, Thailand. In what would be their first boxing match to be promoted, ONE collaborated with Nakornloung Promotion to put the matchup together with Iran Diaz. The match would headline on 6 October 2018. As of December 2021, this is the only boxing match under the ONE Championship banner


title: ONE Championship

text: In August 2016, ONE Championship announced a grappling tournament that followed IBJJF no-gi rules with Shinya Aoki, Angela Lee and Michelle Nicolini among the participants


title: ONE Championship

text: In May 2017, a "grappling super fight" with submission-only rules was held between Shinya Aoki and Garry Tonon in Singapore. Shortly after, Eddie Bravo announced that he had been contacted by ONE to take part in a similar grappling super fight against Kazushi Sakuraba.


title: ONE Championship

text: In January 2018, another submission-only "grappling super fight" was held between Shinya Aoki and Marat Gafurov.


title: ONE Championship

text: In May 2021, ONE Championship announced that Gordon Ryan was due to debut in ONE Championship in a grappling match with Shinya Aoki to be held in August of that year. The match was later postponed by Ryan due to health issues.


title: ONE Championship

text: In February 2022, it was announced that Mei Yamaguchi would face Danielle Kelly and Reinier de Ridder would face André Galvão in a pair of grappling matches on March 26, 2022, in an event to celebrate the organization's tenth anniversary.


title: ONE Championship

text: On July 18, 2015, before its partnership with WLC, ONE held the first Lethwei fight in its history at the occasion of in Yangon, Myanmar. The fight showcased Burmese fighters Phyan Thway and Soe Htet Oo in a dark match and the result was a draw according to the traditional Lethwei rules.


title: ONE Championship

text: In 2017, ONE and World Lethwei Championship officially entered into a partnership to share athletes to fight in each other's organization. On June 30, 2017, ONE held another Lethwei match at , a contest between Thway Thit Win Hlaing and Soe Htet Oo. Thway Thit Win Hlaing would end up winning a decision according to WLC point system, where a winner must be chosen by judges decision if the fight goes the distance. Since then, ONE has not held more Lethwei fights, but CEO Chatri Sityodtong has expressed his love for the art and wanting to recruit Lethwei Champion Dave Leduc into the organization.


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE Championship uses the Global Martial Arts Rule Set, which "blends a combination of Best Practices from Asian and Non-Asian Rules". Matches vary in maximum length, depending on whether it is for a championship title. In all fights, each round can be no longer than five minutes. Most fights have a maximum of three rounds, with one minute breaks in between, but championship matches have a max of five rounds.


title: ONE Championship

text: Victory is attained by one of the following ways; knockout, submission, verbal tapout, technical knockout by referee stoppage, request for stoppage by cornerman, or by judges' decision. Three judges score the bout in its entirety, not round-by-round, utilizing the following criteria in descending order of importance:


title: ONE Championship

text: Illegal targets for strikes are the groin, throat, trachea, and the back of the head, neck or spine. Stomps to the head of a grounded opponent, small joint manipulation, head butting, hair pulling, eye gouging, orifice insertion, spitting, and grabbing onto the cage fence are also illegal. Takedowns must not result in "spiking or pile driver[s] to the head or neck". Soccer kicks to the head of a grounded opponent were previously legal in the competition, initially via an "open attack" rule, which required fighters to get permission from the referee to use them. In September 2012, the company adopted the Pride Fighting Championships' rules on the technique, allowing fighters to use soccer kicks without asking for permission from the referee. Soccer kicks were banned entirely in August 2016 as part of the company's worldwide expansion plans. Sityodtong stated that despite studies showing that soccer kicks are the same as a normal head kick to a standing opponent because you cannot generate any more pivotal force, the technique invites "bad publicity".


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE Super Series matches are contested over three rounds of three minutes each, with title fights being five rounds. Fights are scored using a ten-point must system.


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE Super Series kickboxing adopts the oriental ruleset, better known as K-1 rules. In kickboxing, fighters wear boxing gloves, with fighters weighing at or below 65.8 kilograms wearing 8-oz gloves and fighters weighing above wearing 10-oz gloves.


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE Super Series Muay Thai allows elbow strikes, clinch fighting, sweeps and throws. Additionally, fighters wear open-fingered 4-oz gloves as opposed to boxing gloves.


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE grappling matches are one round of twelve minutes. Initially, matches could only be won via submission and were automatically declared a draw after twelve minutes with no submission.


title: ONE Championship

text: On April 18, 2022, ONE Championship CEO Chatri Sityodtong announced a change to the ONE grappling ruleset, which would see a winner by decision. The time limit was also decreased to ten minutes. If neither combatant secures a submission at the end of ten minutes, a winner will be determined based on the "number of real submission attempts". Stalling will also result in a yellow card being issued. The new ruleset took effect on May 20, 2022.


title: ONE Championship

text: Unlike most MMA organizations, these weight limits are based on a competitor's "walking weight", rather than pre-fight weigh-ins.


title: ONE Championship

text: The change took place after the death of 21-year-old Chinese fighter, Yang Jian Bing (who was supposed to face Geje Eustaquio) on 11 December 2015, due to dehydration by weight-cutting in the Philippines.


title: ONE Championship

text: The promotion banned weight-cutting by dehydration in order to promote fighter safety. The promotion’s revised policy on weight mandated that athletes are monitored in their training camps, and have urine specific gravity tests to ensure they are hydrated up to three hours ahead of their bouts. Since the new measures took effect, there have been no further serious incidents.


title: ONE Championship

text: The new system was well received by athletes in the organization, as well as other stakeholders in the MMA industry.


title: ONE Championship

text: Category: - 2011 in ONE Championship - 2012 in ONE Championship - 2013 in ONE Championship - 2014 in ONE Championship - 2015 in ONE Championship - 2016 in ONE Championship - 2017 in ONE Championship - 2018 in ONE Championship - 2019 in ONE Championship - 2020 in ONE Championship - 2021 in ONE Championship - 2022 in ONE Championship ("upcoming")


title: ONE Championship

text: In November 2017, it was announced that ONE VP Rich Franklin would head up a competition called the "ONE Warrior Series", searching for up-and-coming martial artists in Asia. The prize is a six-figure contract with the organization, with the winner determined based on their performance instead of victories.


title: ONE Championship

text: On February 12, 2018, ONE Championship announced the establishment of the "ONE Super Series", which would feature kickboxing and Muay Thai bouts. The first event that featured bouts under Muay Thai and kickboxing rules was in Manila on 20 April 2018. The promotion signed notable names such as Giorgio Petrosyan, Nong-O Gaiyanghadao and Fabio Pinca to feature on the bill. Since the inception of ONE Super Series, some events have used a five-roped ring, instead of the ONE circular cage, which had been used exclusively up until 2018. The ONE Super Series kickboxing bouts adopt the oriental ruleset. As of 2020, ONE Super Series kickboxing bouts use boxing gloves. In ONE Super Series Muay Thai bouts, open-finger 4 oz gloves are used. The first ONE event to consist entirely of ONE Super Series contests was in Ho Chi Minh City on 6 September 2019.


title: ONE Championship

text: On 13 February 2020, ONE announced the launch of the "Infinity" series, events consisting of at least three championship fights and a minimum of 12 world champions.


title: ONE Championship

text: In September 2022, ONE announced a partnership with the Royal Thai Army to hold at least 52 shows in 2023 at the Lumpinee Stadium in Bangkok, Thailand. The weekly events will start in January 2023 and predominately feature Muay Thai, but will also include MMA, kickboxing, and submission grappling bouts. They will be broadcast live in 154 countries, and reportedly offer the highest purses in Muay Thai history.


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE Championship is operated by Group ONE Holdings, whose leadership and executive team are chairman and chief executive officer Chatri Sityodtong, vice chairman Saurabh Mittal, group president Hua Fung Teh, and chief financial officer Jesley Chua. Matches are made by matchmaker and Vice President of Operations, Matt Hume. In May 2014, former UFC Middleweight Champion Rich Franklin became a vice president of ONE Championship. The referees include Olivier Coste, Mohamad Sulaiman, Yuji Shimada, Kemp Cheng and Justin Brown for MMA matches, and Atsushi Onari and Elias Dolaptsis for ONE Super Series matches. The regular colour commentators for the English-language television broadcasts are Michael Schiavello and Mitch Chilson, although Josh Thomson, Jason Chambers, Bas Rutten and Renzo Gracie have appeared as guest commentators.


title: ONE Championship

text: ONE co-founder Victor Cui was CEO International until leaving the organization in early 2022 to become president and CEO of the Edmonton Elks. Former Strikeforce and UFC Women's Bantamweight Champion Miesha Tate was a vice president of ONE from 2018 until 2021, when she returned to active competition as a fighter.


title: ONE Championship

text: Fighter salaries in Asia are not publicly disclosed, unlike in the US, so information about ONE FC's fighter purses is not in the public domain. However, in January 2014 Ben Askren revealed that he was being paid a minimum of US$50,000 per fight as well as a US$50,000 win bonus.


title: ONE Championship

text: A cash bonus known as the "ONE Warrior bonus" was introduced on 9 July 2014 and implemented for the first time at on 11 July 2014.


title: ONE Championship

text: An award of US$50,000 is given out at the end of certain events to the fighter who impresses the most in terms of:


title: ONE Championship

text: Victor Cui stated that bonuses would be handed out on a discretionary basis: "For every event, the bar will be very, very high. If a few fighters impress me, then I will hand out the bonus to a few fighters. If no one impresses me, then no one will get it. Extraordinary performance deserves extraordinary rewards. Ordinary performances deserve ordinary rewards."


title: ONE Championship

text: The "ONE Warrior bonus" of $50,000 was re-introduced in January 2022, with a minimum of one bonus and a maximum of five bonuses awarded at each event.


title: ONE Championship

text: The rankings for ONE Championship's fighters are both recorded and updated when information has been obtained from the promotion's official website.


title: ONE Championship

text: In 2017, ONE entered into a partnership with World Lethwei Championship parties agreed on sending athletes to fight in each other's organization.


title: ONE Championship

text: In January 2019, ONE entered into a partnership with Shooto, according to which Shooto champions would be given a contract with ONE Championship.


title: ONE Championship

text: On February 18, 2021, ONE partnered with American promotion Ringside United Fighting (RUF Nation). The partnership saw RUF hosting a "Road to ONE" 16-man heavyweight MMA tournament, with the winner getting a $100,000 contract to compete in ONE Championship.


title: ONE Championship

text: On May 6, 2022, ONE partnered with Thailand-based Fairtex Fight Promotion. Fairtex Fight Promotion would begin hosting a series of "Road to ONE" Muay Thai tournaments for three different weight classes in July, offering a $100,000 contract to compete in ONE Championship.


title: ONE Championship

text: On 27 May 2022 ONE announced a partnership with UK-based Muay Thai Grand Prix. The partnership would see MTGP hosting "Road to ONE" tournaments in two different weight classes, with the winners receiving a ONE Championship contract worth $100,000.


title: ONE Championship

text: It has been broadcast by RCTI (2015–2017), GTV (2012, repeat only for 2020–2021), iNews (2015–2017, repeat only for 2020–present), Moji (repeat only for 2022–present), Indosiar (delayed in 2013–2014), SCTV (delayed in 2018–2022), Vidio (live in 2018–present), Netverse (live in 2022–present) and NET. (delayed in 2022–present) in Indonesia, MediaCorp Channel 5 (temporarily) in Singapore, ABS-CBN S+A/TV5/One Sports/LIGA Channel in the Philippines, MyTV in Cambodia, Astro Arena, TV9 and RTM in Malaysia, Workpoint TV and Thairath TV in Thailand, TV Tokyo and AbemaTV in Japan.


title: ONE Championship

text: On 30 January 2012, they signed a 10-year deal with ESPN Star Sports. ONE made its PPV debut at via iN DEMAND, Avail-TVN, DirecTV and Dish.


title: ONE Championship

text: Since May 2018, ONE events have been broadcast live and free on both their dedicated apps and YouTube channel in select locations.


title: ONE Championship

text: On 11 December 2018, ONE announced a three-year broadcast deal with Turner Sports in the United States that will bring live events to streaming service B/R Live and recap shows on TNT.


title: ONE Championship

text: On 23 March 2019 ONE announced it had signed a multi-year deal with Star Sports in India. On 19 September 2019, it was announced that sports streaming service FITE TV would broadcast the promotion's two-part, 100th numbered event, .


title: ONE Championship

text: In November 2020, ONE announced a partnership with Facebook to distribute ONE Championship content on Facebook Watch and IGTV.


title: ONE Championship

text: On April 27, 2022, ONE announced a five-year distribution deal with Amazon Prime Video, giving Amazon Prime exclusive broadcast rights for at least 12 live events annually during prime time hours in the United States and Canada.


title: ONE Championship

text: On September 29, 2022, ONE announced an exclusive multi-year partnership with beIN Sports to broadcast live ONE Championship events across the Middle East and North Africa for the first time. In addition to events, the partnership is set to include round-up shows, as well as related social media and digital content. beIN Sports will broadcast ONE's events to 24 MENA territories with both English and Arabic commentary.


title: ONE Championship

text: On December 8, 2022, ONE joined Tero Entertainment press conference on the broadcast the event One Lumpinee from Lumpinee Stadium, Bangkok via Thailand's Channel 7 to more than 154 countries every Friday evening. Starting on January 20, 2023, this broadcast is considered a big turn in the Thai television industry because Channel 7 had to remove the television drama after the evening news (prime time), which considered a regular identity and main income of the channel since its establishment in 1967.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidaria () is a phylum under kingdom Animalia containing over 11,000 species of aquatic animals found both in freshwater and marine environments, predominantly the latter.


title: Cnidaria

text: Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes, specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey. Their bodies consist of mesoglea, a non-living jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are mostly one cell thick.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidarians mostly have two basic body forms: swimming medusae and sessile polyps, both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. Both forms have a single orifice and body cavity that are used for digestion and respiration. Many cnidarian species produce colonies that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like zooids, or both (hence they are trimorphic). Cnidarians' activities are coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and simple receptors. Several free-swimming species of Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess balance-sensing statocysts, and some have simple eyes. Not all cnidarians reproduce sexually, but many species have complex life cycles of asexual polyp stages and sexual medusae stages. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, and the parasitic classes evolved to have neither form.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidarians were formerly grouped with ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Cnidarians are classified into four main groups: the almost wholly sessile Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pens); swimming Scyphozoa (jellyfish); Cubozoa (box jellies); and Hydrozoa (a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile members, such as "Hydra", and colonial swimmers, such as the Portuguese Man o' War). Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the highly derived parasitic Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa were firmly recognized as cnidarians in 2007.


title: Cnidaria

text: Most cnidarians prey on organisms ranging in size from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from dinoflagellates, and a few are parasites. Many are preyed on by other animals including starfish, sea slugs, fish, turtles, and even other cnidarians. Many scleractinian corals—which form the structural foundation for coral reefs—possess polyps that are filled with symbiotic photo-synthetic zooxanthellae. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow marine waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in polar regions, and in freshwater.


title: Cnidaria

text: Recent phylogenetic analyses support monophyly of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the sister group of bilaterians. Fossil cnidarians have been found in rocks formed about , and other fossils show that corals may have been present shortly before and diversified a few million years later. However, molecular clock analysis of mitochondrial genes suggests a much older age for the crown group of cnidarians, estimated around , almost 200 million years before the Cambrian period as well as any fossils.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidarians form a phylum of animals that are more complex than sponges, about as complex as ctenophores (comb jellies), and less complex than bilaterians, which include almost all other animals. Both cnidarians and ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have: cells bound by inter-cell connections and carpet-like basement membranes; muscles; nervous systems; and some have sensory organs. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having cnidocytes that fire harpoon like structures and are usually used mainly to capture prey. In some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Cnidarians are also distinguished by the fact that they have only one opening in their body for ingestion and excretion i.e. they don't have a separate mouth and anus.


title: Cnidaria

text: Like sponges and ctenophores, cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled diploblastic, along with sponges. However, both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of muscle that, in more complex animals, arises from the middle cell layer. As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic, and it has been suggested that cnidarians evolved from triploblastic ancestors.


title: Cnidaria

text: Most adult cnidarians appear as either free-swimming medusae or sessile polyps, and many hydrozoans species are known to alternate between the two forms.


title: Cnidaria

text: Both are radially symmetrical, like a wheel and a tube respectively. Since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as "oral" (nearest the mouth) and "aboral" (furthest from the mouth).


title: Cnidaria

text: Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with cnidocytes around their edges, and medusae generally have an inner ring of tentacles around the mouth. Some hydroids may consist of colonies of zooids that serve different purposes, such as defense, reproduction and catching prey. The mesoglea of polyps is usually thin and often soft, but that of medusae is usually thick and springy, so that it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted to squeeze water out, enabling medusae to swim by a sort of jet propulsion.


title: Cnidaria

text: In medusae the only supporting structure is the mesoglea. "Hydra" and most sea anemones close their mouths when they are not feeding, and the water in the digestive cavity then acts as a hydrostatic skeleton, rather like a water-filled balloon. Other polyps such as "Tubularia" use columns of water-filled cells for support. Sea pens stiffen the mesoglea with calcium carbonate spicules and tough fibrous proteins, rather like sponges.


title: Cnidaria

text: In some colonial polyps, a chitinous periderm gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps. Stony corals secrete massive calcium carbonate exoskeletons. A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments, which they attach to their outsides. Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with sediment particles.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidaria are diploblastic animals; in other words, they have two main cell layers, while more complex animals are triploblasts having three main layers. The two main cell layers of cnidarians form epithelia that are mostly one cell thick, and are attached to a fibrous basement membrane, which they secrete. They also secrete the jelly-like mesoglea that separates the layers. The layer that faces outwards, known as the ectoderm ("outside skin"), generally contains the following types of cells:


title: Cnidaria

text: In addition to epitheliomuscular, nerve and interstitial cells, the inward-facing gastroderm ("stomach skin") contains gland cells that secrete digestive enzymes. In some species it also contains low concentrations of cnidocytes, which are used to subdue prey that is still struggling.


title: Cnidaria

text: The mesoglea contains small numbers of amoeba-like cells, and muscle cells in some species. However, the number of middle-layer cells and types are much lower than in sponges.


title: Cnidaria

text: Polymorphism refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism. It is a characteristic feature of Cnidarians, particularly the polyp and medusa forms, or of zooids within colonial organisms like those in Hydrozoa. In Hydrozoans, colonial individuals arising from individuals zooids will take on separate tasks. For example, in "Obelia" there are feeding individuals, the gastrozooids; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the medusae.


title: Cnidaria

text: These "nettle cells" function as harpoons, since their s remain connected to the bodies of the cells by threads. Three types of cnidocytes are known:


title: Cnidaria

text: It is difficult to study the firing mechanisms of cnidocytes as these structures are small but very complex. At least four hypotheses have been proposed:


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidocytes can only fire once, and about 25% of a hydra's nematocysts are lost from its tentacles when capturing a brine shrimp. Used cnidocytes have to be replaced, which takes about 48 hours. To minimise wasteful firing, two types of stimulus are generally required to trigger cnidocytes: nearby sensory cells detect chemicals in the water, and their cilia respond to contact. This combination prevents them from firing at distant or non-living objects. Groups of cnidocytes are usually connected by nerves and, if one fires, the rest of the group requires a weaker minimum stimulus than the cells that fire first.


title: Cnidaria

text: Medusae swim by a form of jet propulsion: muscles, especially inside the rim of the bell, squeeze water out of the cavity inside the bell, and the springiness of the mesoglea powers the recovery stroke. Since the tissue layers are very thin, they provide too little power to swim against currents and just enough to control movement within currents.


title: Cnidaria

text: Hydras and some sea anemones can move slowly over rocks and sea or stream beds by various means: creeping like snails, crawling like inchworms, or by somersaulting. A few can swim clumsily by waggling their bases.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidarians are generally thought to have no brains or even central nervous systems. However, they do have integrative areas of neural tissue that could be considered some form of centralization. Most of their bodies are innervated by decentralized nerve nets that control their swimming musculature and connect with sensory structures, though each clade has slightly different structures. These sensory structures, usually called rhopalia, can generate signals in response to various types of stimuli such as light, pressure, and much more. Medusa usually have several of them around the margin of the bell that work together to control the motor nerve net, that directly innervates the swimming muscles. Most Cnidarians also have a parallel system. In scyphozoans, this takes the form of a diffuse nerve net, which has modulatory effects on the nervous system. As well as forming the "signal cables" between sensory neurons and motoneurons, intermediate neurons in the nerve net can also form ganglia that act as local coordination centers. Communication between nerve cells can occur by chemical synapses or gap junctions in hydrozoans, though gap junctions are not present in all groups. Cnidarians have many of the same neurotransmitters as many animals, including chemicals such as glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine.


title: Cnidaria

text: This structure ensures that the musculature is excited rapidly and simultaneously, and can be directly stimulated from any point on the body, and it also is better able to recover after injury.


title: Cnidaria

text: Medusae and complex swimming colonies such as siphonophores and chondrophores sense tilt and acceleration by means of statocysts, chambers lined with hairs which detect the movements of internal mineral grains called statoliths. If the body tilts in the wrong direction, the animal rights itself by increasing the strength of the swimming movements on the side that is too low. Most species have ocelli ("simple eyes"), which can detect sources of light. However, the agile box jellyfish are unique among Medusae because they possess four kinds of true eyes that have retinas, corneas and lenses. Although the eyes probably do not form images, Cubozoa can clearly distinguish the direction from which light is coming as well as negotiate around solid-colored objects.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidarians feed in several ways: predation, absorbing dissolved organic chemicals, filtering food particles out of the water, obtaining nutrients from symbiotic algae within their cells, and parasitism. Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some, including the corals "Hetroxenia" and "Leptogorgia", depend almost completely on their endosymbionts and on absorbing dissolved nutrients. Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae carbon dioxide, some nutrients, a place in the sun and protection against predators.


title: Cnidaria

text: Predatory species use their cnidocytes to poison or entangle prey, and those with venomous nematocysts may start digestion by injecting digestive enzymes. The "smell" of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth. In medusae the tentacles round the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by "oral arms", which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area. Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards, spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking. In species for which suspended food particles are important, the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of cilia whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth, and some produce nets of mucus to trap particles. Their digestion is both intra and extracellular.


title: Cnidaria

text: Once the food is in the digestive cavity, gland cells in the gastroderm release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity. Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by diffusion or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick mesogleas, are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea.


title: Cnidaria

text: Indigestible remains of prey are expelled through the mouth. The main waste product of cells' internal processes is ammonia, which is removed by the external and internal water currents.


title: Cnidaria

text: There are no respiratory organs, and both cell layers absorb oxygen from and expel carbon dioxide into the surrounding water. When the water in the digestive cavity becomes stale it must be replaced, and nutrients that have not been absorbed will be expelled with it. Some Anthozoa have ciliated grooves on their tentacles, allowing them to pump water out of and into the digestive cavity without opening the mouth. This improves respiration after feeding and allows these animals, which use the cavity as a hydrostatic skeleton, to control the water pressure in the cavity without expelling undigested food.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidaria that carry photosynthetic symbionts may have the opposite problem, an excess of oxygen, which may prove toxic. The animals produce large quantities of antioxidants to neutralize the excess oxygen.


title: Cnidaria

text: All cnidarians can regenerate, allowing them to recover from injury and to reproduce asexually. Medusae have limited ability to regenerate, but polyps can do so from small pieces or even collections of separated cells. This enables corals to recover even after apparently being destroyed by predators.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidarian sexual reproduction often involves a complex life cycle with both polyp and medusa stages. For example, in Scyphozoa (jellyfish) and Cubozoa (box jellies) a larva swims until it finds a good site, and then becomes a polyp. This grows normally but then absorbs its tentacles and splits horizontally into a series of disks that become juvenile medusae, a process called strobilation. The juveniles swim off and slowly grow to maturity, while the polyp re-grows and may continue strobilating periodically. The adults have gonads in the gastroderm, and these release ova and sperm into the water in the breeding season.


title: Cnidaria

text: This phenomenon of succession of differently organized generations (one asexually reproducing, sessile polyp, followed by a free-swimming medusa or a sessile polyp that reproduces sexually) is sometimes called "alternation of asexual and sexual phases" or "metagenesis", but should not be confused with the alternation of generations as found in plants.


title: Cnidaria

text: Shortened forms of this life cycle are common, for example some oceanic scyphozoans omit the polyp stage completely, and cubozoan polyps produce only one medusa. Hydrozoa have a variety of life cycles. Some have no polyp stages and some (e.g. "hydra") have no medusae. In some species, the medusae remain attached to the polyp and are responsible for sexual reproduction; in extreme cases these reproductive zooids may not look much like medusae. Meanwhile, life cycle reversal, in which polyps are formed directly from medusae without the involvement of sexual reproduction process, was observed in both Hydrozoa ("Turritopsis dohrnii" and "Laodicea undulata") and Scyphozoa ("Aurelia" sp.1). Anthozoa have no medusa stage at all and the polyps are responsible for sexual reproduction.


title: Cnidaria

text: Spawning is generally driven by environmental factors such as changes in the water temperature, and their release is triggered by lighting conditions such as sunrise, sunset or the phase of the moon. Many species of Cnidaria may spawn simultaneously in the same location, so that there are too many ova and sperm for predators to eat more than a tiny percentage — one famous example is the Great Barrier Reef, where at least 110 corals and a few non-cnidarian invertebrates produce enough gametes to turn the water cloudy. These mass spawnings may produce hybrids, some of which can settle and form polyps, but it is not known how long these can survive. In some species the ova release chemicals that attract sperm of the same species.


title: Cnidaria

text: The fertilized eggs develop into larvae by dividing until there are enough cells to form a hollow sphere (blastula) and then a depression forms at one end (gastrulation) and eventually becomes the digestive cavity. However, in cnidarians the depression forms at the end further from the yolk (at the animal pole), while in bilaterians it forms at the other end (vegetal pole). The larvae, called planulae, swim or crawl by means of cilia. They are cigar-shaped but slightly broader at the "front" end, which is the aboral, vegetal-pole end and eventually attaches to a substrate if the species has a polyp stage.


title: Cnidaria

text: Anthozoan larvae either have large yolks or are capable of feeding on plankton, and some already have endosymbiotic algae that help to feed them. Since the parents are immobile, these feeding capabilities extend the larvae's range and avoid overcrowding of sites. Scyphozoan and hydrozoan larvae have little yolk and most lack endosymbiotic algae, and therefore have to settle quickly and metamorphose into polyps. Instead, these species rely on their medusae to extend their ranges.


title: Cnidaria

text: All known cnidaria can reproduce asexually by various means, in addition to regenerating after being fragmented. Hydrozoan polyps only bud, while the medusae of some hydrozoans can divide down the middle. Scyphozoan polyps can both bud and split down the middle. In addition to both of these methods, Anthozoa can split horizontally just above the base. Asexual reproduction makes the daughter cnidarian a clone of the adult.


title: Cnidaria

text: Two classical DNA repair pathways, nucleotide excision repair and base excision repair, are present in hydra, and these repair pathways facilitate unhindered reproduction. The identification of these pathways in hydra is based, in part, on the presence in the hydra genome of genes homologous to genes in other genetically well studied species that have been demonstrated to play key roles in these DNA repair pathways.


title: Cnidaria

text: Cnidarians were for a long time grouped with Ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Modern cnidarians are generally classified into four main classes: sessile Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pens); swimming Scyphozoa (jellyfish) and Cubozoa (box jellies); and Hydrozoa, a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile members such as "Hydra" and colonial swimmers such as the Portuguese Man o' War. Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the parasitic Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa are now recognized as highly derived cnidarians rather than more closely related to the bilaterians.


title: Cnidaria

text: Stauromedusae, small sessile cnidarians with stalks and no medusa stage, have traditionally been classified as members of the Scyphozoa, but recent research suggests they should be regarded as a separate class, Staurozoa.


title: Cnidaria

text: The Myxozoa, microscopic parasites, were first classified as protozoans. Research then found that "Polypodium hydriforme", a non-Myxozoan parasite "within" the egg cells of sturgeon, is closely related to the Myxozoa and suggested that both "Polypodium" and the Myxozoa were intermediate between cnidarians and bilaterian animals. More recent research demonstrates that the previous identification of bilaterian genes reflected contamination of the Myxozoan samples by material from their host organism, and they are now firmly identified as heavily derived cnidarians, and more closely related to Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa than to Anthozoa.


title: Cnidaria

text: Some researchers classify the extinct conulariids as cnidarians, while others propose that they form a completely separate phylum.


title: Cnidaria

text: Many cnidarians are limited to shallow waters because they depend on endosymbiotic algae for much of their nutrients. The life cycles of most have polyp stages, which are limited to locations that offer stable substrates. Nevertheless, major cnidarian groups contain species that have escaped these limitations. Hydrozoans have a worldwide range: some, such as "Hydra", live in freshwater; "Obelia" appears in the coastal waters of all the oceans; and "Liriope" can form large shoals near the surface in mid-ocean. Among anthozoans, a few scleractinian corals, sea pens and sea fans live in deep, cold waters, and some sea anemones inhabit polar seabeds while others live near hydrothermal vents over below sea-level. Reef-building corals are limited to tropical seas between 30°N and 30°S with a maximum depth of , temperatures between , high salinity, and low carbon dioxide levels. Stauromedusae, although usually classified as jellyfish, are stalked, sessile animals that live in cool to Arctic waters. Cnidarians range in size from a mere handful of cells for the parasitic myxozoans through "Hydra"'s length of , to the Lion's mane jellyfish, which may exceed in diameter and in length.


title: Cnidaria

text: Prey of cnidarians ranges from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves. Some cnidarians are parasites, mainly on jellyfish but a few are major pests of fish. Others obtain most of their nourishment from endosymbiotic algae or dissolved nutrients. Predators of cnidarians include: sea slugs, which can incorporate nematocysts into their own bodies for self-defense; starfish, notably the crown of thorns starfish, which can devastate corals; butterfly fish and parrot fish, which eat corals; and marine turtles, which eat jellyfish. Some sea anemones and jellyfish have a symbiotic relationship with some fish; for example clown fish live among the tentacles of sea anemones, and each partner protects the other against predators.


title: Cnidaria

text: Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems. Common coral reef cnidarians include both Anthozoans (hard corals, octocorals, anemones) and Hydrozoans (fire corals, lace corals). The endosymbiotic algae of many cnidarian species are very effective primary producers, in other words converters of inorganic chemicals into organic ones that other organisms can use, and their coral hosts use these organic chemicals very efficiently. In addition, reefs provide complex and varied habitats that support a wide range of other organisms. Fringing reefs just below low-tide level also have a mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high-tide level and seagrass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.


title: Cnidaria

text: The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are rather modern-looking cnidarians, possibly from around , although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated approximately. The identification of some of these as embryos of animals has been contested, but other fossils from these rocks strongly resemble tubes and other mineralized structures made by corals. Their presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged. Although the Ediacaran fossil "Charnia" used to be classified as a jellyfish or sea pen, more recent study of growth patterns in "Charnia" and modern cnidarians has cast doubt on this hypothesis, leaving the Canadian polyp "Haootia" and the British "Auroralumina" as the only recognized cnidarian body fossils from the Ediacaran. "Auroralumina" is the earliest known animal predator. Few fossils of cnidarians without mineralized skeletons are known from more recent rocks, except in lagerstätten that preserved soft-bodied animals.


title: Cnidaria

text: A few mineralized fossils that resemble corals have been found in rocks from the Cambrian period, and corals diversified in the Early Ordovician. These corals, which were wiped out in the Permian–Triassic extinction event about , did not dominate reef construction since sponges and algae also played a major part. During the Mesozoic era rudist bivalves were the main reef-builders, but they were wiped out in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event , and since then the main reef-builders have been scleractinian corals.


title: Cnidaria

text: It is difficult to reconstruct the early stages in the evolutionary "family tree" of animals using only morphology (their shapes and structures), because the large differences between Porifera (sponges), Cnidaria plus Ctenophora (comb jellies), Placozoa and Bilateria (all the more complex animals) make comparisons difficult. Hence reconstructions now rely largely or entirely on molecular phylogenetics, which groups organisms according to similarities and differences in their biochemistry, usually in their DNA or RNA.


title: Cnidaria

text: It is now generally thought that the Calcarea (sponges with calcium carbonate spicules) are more closely related to Cnidaria, Ctenophora (comb jellies) and Bilateria (all the more complex animals) than they are to the other groups of sponges. In 1866 it was proposed that Cnidaria and Ctenophora were more closely related to each other than to Bilateria and formed a group called Coelenterata ("hollow guts"), because Cnidaria and Ctenophora both rely on the flow of water in and out of a single cavity for feeding, excretion and respiration. In 1881, it was proposed that Ctenophora and Bilateria were more closely related to each other, since they shared features that Cnidaria lack, for example muscles in the middle layer (mesoglea in Ctenophora, mesoderm in Bilateria). However more recent analyses indicate that these similarities are rather vague, and the current view, based on molecular phylogenetics, is that Cnidaria and Bilateria are more closely related to each other than either is to Ctenophora. This grouping of Cnidaria and Bilateria has been labelled "Planulozoa" because it suggests that the earliest Bilateria were similar to the planula larvae of Cnidaria.


title: Cnidaria

text: Within the Cnidaria, the Anthozoa (sea anemones and corals) are regarded as the sister-group of the rest, which suggests that the earliest cnidarians were sessile polyps with no medusa stage. However, it is unclear how the other groups acquired the medusa stage, since Hydrozoa form medusae by budding from the side of the polyp while the other Medusozoa do so by splitting them off from the tip of the polyp. The traditional grouping of Scyphozoa included the Staurozoa, but morphology and molecular phylogenetics indicate that Staurozoa are more closely related to Cubozoa (box jellies) than to other "Scyphozoa". Similarities in the double body walls of Staurozoa and the extinct Conulariida suggest that they are closely related.


title: Cnidaria

text: However, in 2005 Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid suggested that cnidarians and ctenophores are simplified descendants of triploblastic animals, since ctenophores and the medusa stage of some cnidarians have striated muscle, which in bilaterians arises from the mesoderm. They did not commit themselves on whether bilaterians evolved from early cnidarians or from the hypothesized triploblastic ancestors of cnidarians.


title: Cnidaria

text: In molecular phylogenetics analyses from 2005 onwards, important groups of developmental genes show the same variety in cnidarians as in chordates. In fact cnidarians, and especially anthozoans (sea anemones and corals), retain some genes that are present in bacteria, protists, plants and fungi but not in bilaterians.


title: Cnidaria

text: The mitochondrial genome in the medusozoan cnidarians, unlike those in other animals, is linear with fragmented genes. The reason for this difference is unknown.


title: Cnidaria

text: Jellyfish stings killed about 1,500 people in the 20th century, and cubozoans are particularly dangerous. On the other hand, some large jellyfish are considered a delicacy in East and Southeast Asia. Coral reefs have long been economically important as providers of fishing grounds, protectors of shore buildings against currents and tides, and more recently as centers of tourism. However, they are vulnerable to over-fishing, mining for construction materials, pollution, and damage caused by tourism.


title: Cnidaria

text: Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas. However, despite their great productivity, reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the organic carbon they produce is exhaled as carbon dioxide by organisms at the middle levels of the food chain and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen. Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands, attracting photographers, divers and sports fishermen. However, human activities damage reefs in several ways: mining for construction materials; pollution, including large influxes of fresh water from storm drains; commercial fishing, including the use of dynamite to stun fish and the capture of young fish for aquariums; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs. Coral, mainly from the Pacific Ocean has long been used in jewellery, and demand rose sharply in the 1980s.


title: Cnidaria

text: Some large jellyfish species of the Rhizostomae order are commonly consumed in Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia. In parts of the range, fishing industry is restricted to daylight hours and calm conditions in two short seasons, from March to May and August to November. The commercial value of jellyfish food products depends on the skill with which they are prepared, and "Jellyfish Masters" guard their trade secrets carefully. Jellyfish is very low in cholesterol and sugars, but cheap preparation can introduce undesirable amounts of heavy metals.


title: Cnidaria

text: The "sea wasp" "Chironex fleckeri" has been described as the world's most venomous jellyfish and is held responsible for 67 deaths, although it is difficult to identify the animal as it is almost transparent. Most stingings by "C. fleckeri" cause only mild symptoms. Seven other box jellies can cause a set of symptoms called Irukandji syndrome, which takes about 30 minutes to develop, and from a few hours to two weeks to disappear. Hospital treatment is usually required, and there have been a few deaths.


title: Cnidaria

text: A number of the parasitic Myxozoans are commercially important pathogens in salmonid aquaculture. A Scyphozoa species – "Pelagia noctiluca" – and a Hydrozoa – "Muggiaea atlantica" – have caused repeated mass mortality in salmon farms over the years around Ireland. A loss valued at £1 million struck in November 2007, 20,000 died off Clare Island in 2013 and four fish farms collectively lost tens of thousands of salmon in September 2017.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Anabolic steroids, also known more properly as anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), are steroidal androgens that include natural androgens like testosterone as well as synthetic androgens that are structurally related and have similar effects to testosterone. They increase protein within cells, especially in skeletal muscles, and also have varying degrees of virilizing effects, including induction of the development and maintenance of masculine secondary sexual characteristics such as the growth of facial and body hair. The word "anabolic", referring to anabolism, comes from the Greek ἀναβολή "anabole", "that which is thrown up, mound". Androgens or AAS are one of three types of sex hormone agonists, the others being estrogens like estradiol and progestogens like progesterone.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: AAS were synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to stimulate muscle growth and appetite, induce male puberty and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and . The American College of Sports Medicine acknowledges that AAS, in the presence of adequate diet, can contribute to increases in body weight, often as lean mass increases and that the gains in muscular strength achieved through high-intensity exercise and proper diet can be additionally increased by the use of AAS in some individuals.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Health risks can be produced by long-term use or excessive doses of AAS. These effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased low-density lipoprotein and decreased high-density lipoprotein), acne, high blood pressure, liver damage (mainly with most oral AAS), and dangerous changes in the structure of the left ventricle of the heart. These risks are further increased when athletes take steroids alongside other drugs, causing significantly more damage to their bodies. The effect of anabolic steroids on the heart can cause myocardial infarction and strokes. Conditions pertaining to hormonal imbalances such as gynecomastia and testicular size reduction may also be caused by AAS. In women and children, AAS can cause irreversible masculinization.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Ergogenic uses for AAS in sports, racing, and bodybuilding as performance-enhancing drugs are controversial because of their adverse effects and the potential to gain unfair advantage in physical competitions. Their use is referred to as doping and banned by most major sporting bodies. Athletes have been looking for drugs to enhance their athletic abilities since the Olympics started in Ancient Greece. For many years, AAS have been by far the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories. In countries where AAS are controlled substances, there is often a black market in which smuggled, clandestinely manufactured or even counterfeit drugs are sold to users.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Since the discovery and synthesis of testosterone in the 1930s, AAS have been used by physicians for many purposes, with varying degrees of success. These can broadly be grouped into anabolic, androgenic, and other uses.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Most steroid users are not athletes. In the United States, between 1 million and 3 million people (1% of the population) are thought to have used AAS. Studies in the United States have shown that AAS users tend to be mostly middle-class men with a median age of about 25 who are noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes and use the drugs for cosmetic purposes. "Among 12- to 17-year-old boys, use of steroids and similar drugs jumped 25 percent from 1999 to 2000, with 20 percent saying they use them for looks rather than sports, a study by insurer Blue Cross Blue Shield found."(Eisenhauer) Another study found that non-medical use of AAS among college students was at or less than 1%. According to a recent survey, 78.4% of steroid users were noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes, while about 13% reported unsafe injection practices such as reusing needles, sharing needles, and sharing multidose vials, though a 2007 study found that sharing of needles was extremely uncommon among individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes, less than 1%. Another 2007 study found that 74% of non-medical AAS users had post-secondary degrees and more had completed college and fewer had failed to complete high school than is expected from the general populace. The same study found that individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population. AAS users tend to research the drugs they are taking more than other controlled-substance users; however, the major sources consulted by steroid users include friends, non-medical handbooks, internet-based forums, blogs, and fitness magazines, which can provide questionable or inaccurate information.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: AAS users tend to be unhappy with the portrayal of AAS as deadly in the media and in politics. According to one study, AAS users also distrust their physicians and in the sample 56% had not disclosed their AAS use to their physicians. Another 2007 study had similar findings, showing that, while 66% of individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes were willing to seek medical supervision for their steroid use, 58% lacked trust in their physicians, 92% felt that the medical community's knowledge of non-medical AAS use was lacking, and 99% felt that the public has an exaggerated view of the side-effects of AAS use. A recent study has also shown that long term AAS users were more likely to have symptoms of muscle dysmorphia and also showed stronger endorsement of more conventional male roles. A recent study in the Journal of Health Psychology showed that many users believed that steroids used in moderation were safe.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: AAS have been used by men and women in many different kinds of professional sports to attain a competitive edge or to assist in recovery from injury. These sports include bodybuilding, weightlifting, shot put and other track and field, cycling, baseball, wrestling, mixed martial arts, boxing, football, and cricket. Such use is prohibited by the rules of the governing bodies of most sports. AAS use occurs among adolescents, especially by those participating in competitive sports. It has been suggested that the prevalence of use among high-school students in the U.S. may be as high as 2.7%.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: The AAS that have been used most commonly in medicine are testosterone and its many esters (but most typically testosterone undecanoate, testosterone enanthate, testosterone cypionate, and testosterone propionate), nandrolone esters (typically nandrolone decanoate and nandrolone phenylpropionate), stanozolol, and metandienone (methandrostenolone). Others that have also been available and used commonly but to a lesser extent include methyltestosterone, oxandrolone, mesterolone, and oxymetholone, as well as drostanolone propionate (dromostanolone propionate), metenolone (methylandrostenolone) esters (specifically metenolone acetate and metenolone enanthate), and fluoxymesterone. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT), known as androstanolone or stanolone when used medically, and its esters are also notable, although they are not widely used in medicine. Boldenone undecylenate and trenbolone acetate are used in veterinary medicine.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Designer steroids are AAS that have not been approved and marketed for medical use but have been distributed through the black market. Examples of notable designer steroids include 1-testosterone (dihydroboldenone), methasterone, trenbolone enanthate, desoxymethyltestosterone, tetrahydrogestrinone, and methylstenbolone.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: There are four common forms in which AAS are administered: oral pills; injectable steroids; creams/gels for topical application; and skin patches. Oral administration is the most convenient. Testosterone administered by mouth is rapidly absorbed, but it is largely converted to inactive metabolites, and only about one-sixth is available in active form. In order to be sufficiently active when given by mouth, testosterone derivatives are alkylated at the 17α position, e.g. methyltestosterone and fluoxymesterone. This modification reduces the liver's ability to break down these compounds before they reach the systemic circulation.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Testosterone can be administered parenterally, but it has more irregular prolonged absorption time and greater activity in muscle in enanthate, undecanoate, or cypionate ester form. These derivatives are hydrolyzed to release free testosterone at the site of injection; absorption rate (and thus injection schedule) varies among different esters, but medical injections are normally done anywhere between semi-weekly to once every 12 weeks. A more frequent schedule may be desirable in order to maintain a more constant level of hormone in the system. Injectable steroids are typically administered into the muscle, not into the vein, to avoid sudden changes in the amount of the drug in the bloodstream. In addition, because estered testosterone is dissolved in oil, intravenous injection has the potential to cause a dangerous embolism (clot) in the bloodstream.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Transdermal patches (adhesive patches placed on the skin) may also be used to deliver a steady dose through the skin and into the bloodstream. Testosterone-containing creams and gels that are applied daily to the skin are also available, but absorption is inefficient (roughly 10%, varying between individuals) and these treatments tend to be more expensive. Individuals who are especially physically active and/or bathe often may not be good candidates, since the medication can be washed off and may take up to six hours to be fully absorbed. There is also the risk that an intimate partner or child may come in contact with the application site and inadvertently dose themselves; children and women are highly sensitive to testosterone and can develop unintended masculinization and health effects, even from small doses. Injection is the most common method used by individuals administering AAS for non-medical purposes.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: The traditional routes of administration do not have differential effects on the efficacy of the drug. Studies indicate that the anabolic properties of AAS are relatively similar despite the differences in pharmacokinetic principles such as first-pass metabolism. However, the orally available forms of AAS may cause liver damage in high doses.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Depending on the length of drug use, there is a chance that the immune system can be damaged. Most of these side-effects are dose-dependent, the most common being elevated blood pressure, especially in those with pre-existing hypertension. In addition to morphological changes of the heart which may have a permanent adverse effect on cardiovascular efficiency.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: AAS have been shown to alter fasting blood sugar and glucose tolerance tests. AAS such as testosterone also increase the risk of cardiovascular disease or coronary artery disease. Acne is fairly common among AAS users, mostly due to stimulation of the sebaceous glands by increased testosterone levels. Conversion of testosterone to DHT can accelerate the rate of premature baldness for males genetically predisposed, but testosterone itself can produce baldness in females.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: A number of severe side effects can occur if adolescents use AAS. For example, AAS may prematurely stop the lengthening of bones (premature epiphyseal fusion through increased levels of estrogen metabolites), resulting in stunted growth. Other effects include, but are not limited to, accelerated bone maturation, increased frequency and duration of erections, and premature sexual development. AAS use in adolescence is also correlated with poorer attitudes related to health.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: WHO organization International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) list AAS under Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Other side-effects can include alterations in the structure of the heart, such as enlargement and thickening of the left ventricle, which impairs its contraction and relaxation, and therefore reducing ejected blood volume. Possible effects of these alterations in the heart are hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, heart attacks, and sudden cardiac death. These changes are also seen in non-drug-using athletes, but steroid use may accelerate this process. However, both the connection between changes in the structure of the left ventricle and decreased cardiac function, as well as the connection to steroid use have been disputed.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: AAS use can cause harmful changes in cholesterol levels: Some steroids cause an increase in LDL cholesterol and a decrease in HDL cholesterol.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: AAS use in adolescents quickens bone maturation and may reduce adult height in high doses. Low doses of AAS such as oxandrolone are used in the treatment of idiopathic short stature, but this may only quicken maturation rather than increasing adult height.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: There are also sex-specific side effects of AAS. Development of breast tissue in males, a condition called gynecomastia (which is usually caused by high levels of circulating estradiol), may arise because of increased conversion of testosterone to estradiol by the enzyme aromatase. Reduced sexual function and temporary infertility can also occur in males. Another male-specific side-effect that can occur is testicular atrophy, caused by the suppression of natural testosterone levels, which inhibits production of sperm (most of the mass of the testes is developing sperm). This side-effect is temporary; the size of the testicles usually returns to normal within a few weeks of discontinuing AAS use as normal production of sperm resumes.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Female-specific side effects include increases in body hair, permanent deepening of the voice, enlarged clitoris, and temporary decreases in menstrual cycles. Alteration of fertility and ovarian cysts can also occur in females. When taken during pregnancy, AAS can affect fetal development by causing the development of male features in the female fetus and female features in the male fetus.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Kidney tests revealed that nine of the ten steroid users developed a condition called focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, a type of scarring within the kidneys. The kidney damage in the bodybuilders has similarities to that seen in morbidly obese patients, but appears to be even more severe.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: High doses of oral AAS compounds can cause liver damage. Peliosis hepatis has been increasingly recognised with the use of AAS.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: A 2005 review in "CNS Drugs" determined that "significant psychiatric symptoms including aggression and violence, mania, and less frequently psychosis and suicide have been associated with steroid abuse. Long-term steroid abusers may develop symptoms of dependence and withdrawal on discontinuation of AAS". High concentrations of AAS, comparable to those likely sustained by many recreational AAS users, produce apoptotic effects on neurons, raising the specter of possibly irreversible neurotoxicity. Recreational AAS use appears to be associated with a range of potentially prolonged psychiatric effects, including dependence syndromes, mood disorders, and progression to other forms of substance abuse, but the prevalence and severity of these various effects remains poorly understood. There is no evidence that steroid dependence develops from "therapeutic" use of AAS to treat medical disorders, but instances of AAS dependence have been reported among weightlifters and bodybuilders who chronically administered supraphysiologic doses. Mood disturbances (e.g. depression, [hypo-]mania, psychotic features) are likely to be dose- and drug-dependent, but AAS dependence or withdrawal effects seem to occur only in a small number of AAS users.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Large-scale long-term studies of psychiatric effects on AAS users are not currently available. In 2003, the first naturalistic long-term study on ten users, seven of which having completed the study, found a high incidence of mood disorders and substance abuse, but few clinically relevant changes in physiological parameters or laboratory measures were noted throughout the study, and these changes were not clearly related to periods of reported AAS use. A 13-month study, which was published in 2006 and which involved 320 body builders and athletes suggests that the wide range of psychiatric side-effects induced by the use of AAS is correlated to the severity of abuse.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: DSM-IV lists General diagnostic criteria for a personality disorder guideline that "The pattern must not be better accounted for as a manifestation of another mental disorder, or to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g. drug or medication) or a general medical condition (e.g. head trauma).". As a result, AAS users may get misdiagnosed by a psychiatrist not told about their habit.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Cooper, Noakes, Dunne, Lambert, and Rochford identified that AAS-using individuals are more likely to score higher on borderline (4.7 times), antisocial (3.8 times), paranoid (3.4 times), schizotypal (3.1 times), histrionic (2.9 times), passive-aggressive (2.4 times), and narcissistic (1.6 times) personality profiles than non-users. Other studies have suggested that antisocial personality disorder is slightly more likely among AAS users than among non-users (Pope & Katz, 1994). Bipolar dysfunction, substance dependency, and conduct disorder have also been associated with AAS use.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: Affective disorders have long been recognised as a complication of AAS use. Case reports describe both hypomania and mania, along with irritability, elation, recklessness, racing thoughts and feelings of power and invincibility that did not meet the criteria for mania/hypomania. Of 53 bodybuilders who used AAS, 27 (51%) reported unspecified mood disturbance.


title: Anabolic steroid

text: A 2005 review determined that some, but not all, randomized controlled studies have found that AAS use correlates with hypomania and increased aggressiveness, but pointed out that attempts to determine whether AAS use triggers violent behavior have failed, primarily because of high rates of non-participation. A 2008 study on a nationally representative sample of young adult males in the United States found an association between lifetime and past-year self-reported AAS use and involvement in violent acts. Compared with individuals that did not use steroids, young adult males that used AAS reported greater involvement in violent behaviors even after controlling for the effects of key demographic variables, previous violent behavior, and polydrug use. A 1996 review examining the blind studies available at that time also found that these had demonstrated a link between aggression and steroid use, but pointed out that with estimates of over one million past or current steroid users in the United States at that time, an extremely small percentage of those using steroids appear to have experienced mental disturbance severe enough to result in clinical treatments or medical case reports.