title: Kelis

text: Kelis revealed to "i-D" magazine in 2019 that she was working on an EP that, at the time of the interview, was intended for release in 2020; in 2021, she said an album, "Dirt", would be released in 2022. Kelis released the single "Midnight Snacks" in 2021 and "Feed Them" in 2022, the latter in collaboration with the meal delivery service Daily Harvest.


title: Kelis

text: An interpolation of Kelis's "Milkshake" was used in the Beyoncé song "Energy", on her 2022 album "Renaissance". The song was updated on some streaming services to remove the interpolation after Kelis said that she was not notified nor asked for approval for the song's use. Kelis said that Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo of the Neptunes, the credited songwriters on "Milkshake", had "stolen" and "swindled" her publishing rights for the song.


title: Kelis

text: Between 2006 and 2010, Kelis trained part-time as a saucier, eventually graduating from Le Cordon Bleu culinary school.


title: Kelis

text: In 2013, Kelis debuted her sauce line, Feast, at the Beverly Hills Food & Wine Festival. Kelis has described sauce as "what accessories are to a woman's outfit. Sauce defines where the dish is from and who's making it [...] I think everything is better smothered, poured, or dipped." The line went on general sale in 2015 under the new name of Bounty & Full. Kelis's first cookbook, "My Life on a Plate", was released in 2015; Kelis describes it as "an exploration of tastes and cultures, and my experience as a chef, musician, mother and wife". Kelis had previously written an unreleased cookbook with Lauren Pesavento in 2006.


title: Kelis

text: In 2014, Kelis set up a food truck to cook for attendees of the American music festival SXSW. She promoted her 2014 album "Food" by sharing her recipes for apple farro, jerk ribs, New York vanilla bean cheesecake, and more on the Spotify app Supper. In 2016, Kelis and cooking duo Le Bun opened a pop-up restaurant in London that she subsequently adapted as a food truck to tour around UK music festivals. In 2017, she released a milkshake recipe in collaboration with Baileys. In 2019, Kelis developed an exclusive menu with a local street food vendor for Jam on Rye Festival in London.


title: Kelis

text: In 2014, the Cooking Channel aired a cooking TV series starring Kelis, called "Saucy and Sweet". Kelis appears in "Cooked with Cannabis", a competition cooking series that Netflix launched on April 20, 2020.


title: Kelis

text: In 2006, Kelis designed her own line of fashion accessories, called Cake. In 2007, she was in talks to host a "Project Runway"-esque show for VH1 and auditioned for various film and TV roles.


title: Kelis

text: In 2017, Kelis joined BBC One's singing contest "Pitch Battle" as a judge of the competition alongside Gareth Malone. In 2020, Kelis competed as the Daisy in the British version of "The Masked Singer", where she was eliminated in the fifth episode.


title: Kelis

text: Kelis met rapper Nas at an MTV Video Music Awards party in 2002; they dated for one year before becoming engaged in 2004, and marrying in January 2005. In April 2009, she filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. She was seven months pregnant at the time. In July 2009, Kelis gave birth to her first son, Knight. The couple's divorce was finalized in May 2010. Kelis has described her relationship with Nas as physically and mentally abusive, crediting the anticipated birth of her child as a factor in her decision to end her marriage. Kelis also recalled that the domestic violence incident between Rihanna and Chris Brown influenced her decision to leave Nas. After she saw pictures of Rihanna battered she felt embarrassed because she also had bruises all over her body, but she was hesitant to speak out. Nas replied to the accusations on social media, accusing Kelis of attempting to slander him in the time of a custody battle and accusing Kelis of abusing his daughter. In addition to the domestic abuse claims, she alleged that Nas' drinking habit began to damage their relationship, and he had been having adulterous affairs for two years. They are involved in an ongoing custody battle over their son. In April 2018, Kelis claimed that until 2012, she had not seen "a single cent" from Nas in child support and he has not been an active parent. She explained, "He doesn't participate. He shows up when it's fun, he shows up when there's a good photo-op... I don't think it should be 50/50 just because you had sperm involved."


title: Kelis

text: In March 2007, Kelis was detained by police in Miami Beach, Florida, and charged with disorderly conduct. The arrest report said an operation in which officers posed as prostitutes in the South Beach nightclub district was disrupted when Kelis started screaming racial profanities at them. She was sent to Miami-Dade County Jail, and was later released on a $1,500 bond. In September 2008, Kelis was acquitted of the charges. A spokesman for Kelis further commented that the singer would file a lawsuit against the Miami Beach Police, claiming unlawful arrest and the violation of her civil rights.


title: Kelis

text: Kelis married photographer Mike Mora in 2014, and she gave birth to her second son Shepherd in November 2015. Since January 2020, Kelis has been living on a remote farm outside Los Angeles that she manages, when not performing around the world. In September 2020, she gave birth to her and Mora's second child, a daughter named named Galilee. In September 2021, Mora revealed publicly that he was battling stage-4 stomach cancer. In an Instagram post, he stated he had been diagnosed with advanced gastric adenocarcinoma in September 2020 and given eighteen months to live. Mora died on March 14, 2022, at age 37.


title: Kelis

text: AXS called Kelis a "punky, rebellious" singer-songwriter. "The New York Times" considered Kelis's vocals "dynamic" and commended her for being "well schooled in the intricacies of heartache". IGN described Kelis as being "strange, weird, and eccentric". The "Chicago Tribune" stated that Kelis made the most of "a voice that lives in the basement".


title: Kelis

text: Kelis's debut album "Kaleidoscope" took influence from a variety of 1970s genres, which included urban, rock, jazz, hip hop, R&B, soul, and disco music. Kelis cited early Sarah Vaughan, Ella Fitzgerald and Dinah Washington as major influences for the album. Several of the album's tracks were designed for clubs, and contained electro beats meant for dancing. Her second studio album "Wanderland" resembles musically its predecessor while exploring more modern funk sounds, dabbling heavily into genres such as soul and rap. It carried on the same themes developed in "Kaleidoscope", and was criticized for doing so.


title: Kelis

text: Kelis's sixth album, "Food" (2014), contains influences of soul, funk, gospel, and Afrobeat—Kelis said of the album, "You know, those records in your life that your parents played and they resonate with who you are? They make you nostalgic. I wanted to find out how to get that feeling."


title: Ivana Miličević

text: Ivana Miličević (; born April 26, 1974) is a Bosnian-born Croat-American actress and model. She is best known for her starring roles in the Cinemax action drama series "Banshee" (2013–2016) and The CW science fiction drama series "The 100" (2018–2020).


title: Ivana Miličević

text: Miličević had roles in films such as "Vanilla Sky" (2001), "Down with Love" (2003), "Love Actually" (2003), "Just like Heaven" (2005), "Casino Royale" (2006), "Running Scared" (2006), "What's Your Number?" (2011), and "Catfight" (2016).


title: Ivana Miličević

text: She guest starred in numerous television series, including "Seinfeld" (1997), "Felicity" (1998–1999), "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (2002), "Friends" (2003), "Charmed" (2003), "One on One" (2004), "American Dad!" (2006–2008), "Ugly Betty" (2007), "Chuck" (2008), "Power", and "Gotham" (2016–2017).


title: Ivana Miličević

text: Miličević was born in Sarajevo, SFR Yugoslavia (modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina), to Bosnian Croat parents. She immigrated to the United States at the age of five and was raised in Detroit, Michigan. Miličević's younger brother is Tomo Miličević, who was previously the lead guitarist of the rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars. She also had a younger brother, Filip, who died in August 2016.


title: Ivana Miličević

text: Miličević worked as a model while attending Athens High School in Troy, Michigan. She was also a dancer for the Troy Kids on the Block, a New Kids on the Block tribute group, before leaving Michigan. She became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1992, Miličević graduated from high school and moved to Los Angeles in pursuit of an acting career. She was a struggling stand-up comedian, trying to win over crowds with her stories of the modeling business.


title: Ivana Miličević

text: Miličević began acting after graduation, appearing in the 1998 thriller film "Enemy of the State". She then had guest appearances in numerous television series, including "Charmed", "Seinfeld", "Felicity", "Nash Bridges", "The Nanny" (with former Bond girl Lois Chiles), "Buzzkill", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Yes, Dear", "Chuck", "House", "Friends", and "Hawaii Five-0". Her acting career included a regular role on the HBO comedy series "The Mind of the Married Man". She was on the cover of "Paper" in 2002.


title: Ivana Miličević

text: In 2006, she starred in the CBS comedy series "Love Monkey" and played the role of Valenka in the "James Bond" film "Casino Royale". In 2007, she played Lena on "Ugly Betty". In 2008, she starred in "Witless Protection", and featured in guest appearances in "House" and "Pushing Daisies". Miličević played the Soviet intelligence officer Dasha Fedorovich in "" and in "". From 8 to 29 January 2011, she starred alongside Maggie Lawson, Kurt Fuller, and Peter Mackenzie in the Red Dog Squadron production of "Greedy" by Karl Gajdusek at the El Centro Theatre in Hollywood.


title: Ivana Miličević

text: In 2018, she joined the cast in the fifth season of the CW science fiction drama series "The 100", recurring until its conclusion in 2020. Also in 2020, she had starring roles as Striga in the animated fantasy series "Castlevania" and as Arianna Demachi in the action drama series "".


title: Ivana Miličević

text: On April 14, 2018, Miličević gave birth to a son. Miličević and Paddy Hogan married on December 29, 2018.


title: Jana Kramer

text: Jana Rae Kramer (born December 2, 1983) is an American country music singer and actress. She is known for her role as Alex Dupre on the television series "One Tree Hill".


title: Jana Kramer

text: Kramer began her musical career in 2012 and has released two albums: "Jana Kramer" (2012) and "Thirty One" (2015). The albums produced seven charted singles on Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay, including the top 10 hits "Why Ya Wanna" and "I Got the Boy". She competed on season 23 of "Dancing with the Stars", finishing in fourth place.


title: Jana Kramer

text: Kramer was born in Rochester Hills, Michigan, to Nora and Martin Kramer, who is of German descent. Kramer attended Rochester Adams High School. She speaks some German. She has an older brother, Steve, who is a sergeant at the Oakland County Sheriff's Office. She lived in Dearborn, Michigan, for some time after her parents divorced. She moved to California when she was 18 for two years, then moved to Tennessee.


title: Jana Kramer

text: In 2002, Kramer made her acting debut in the low-budget independent horror film "Dead/Undead". The following year Kramer guest appeared on "All My Children", which marked Kramer's television debut. Kramer has since continued to appear in a number of television shows such as "", "Grey's Anatomy", "Private Practice" and "". She has also had small supporting roles in films such as "", "Click", "Prom Night", "Heart of the Country", and "Country Crush". She was also in "Spring Breakdown".


title: Jana Kramer

text: In 2007, Kramer appeared in a recurring role on the NBC sports drama television series "Friday Night Lights". She played the role of Noelle Davenport in the series' second season. In 2008, Kramer appeared in The CW teen drama series "90210", a reboot of the 1990s teen drama television series "Beverly Hills 90210". Kramer played the role of high school student Portia Ranson and made her debut in the first season's second episode "The Jet Set". Her role went on for six episodes and Kramer made her final appearance in "The Party's Over", which aired May 5, 2009. In 2009, Kramer appeared on the HBO dramedy television series "Entourage". Kramer played the role of a sorority girl who seduces the character Turtle (Jerry Ferrara), and appeared in four episodes.


title: Jana Kramer

text: In June 2009, it was announced Kramer would star in the CW drama television series seventh season of "One Tree Hill". Kramer played the role of Alex Dupre, an actress and tabloid darling who becomes the new face of Brooke Davis's fashion line, "Clothes Over Bros", and creates havoc for the residents of Tree Hill. Kramer made her debut in the season's first episode. Initially Kramer's appearance on the show was meant to be in a recurring form, but her role was upgraded to a series regular by the season's fourteenth episode, "Family Affair". In March 2012, Kramer announced she would not appear regularly in the show's ninth and final season in order to pursue her music career. Kramer made her final appearance in the second episode of the ninth season, "In the Room Where You Sleep", which aired on January 18, 2012.


title: Jana Kramer

text: In February 2011, Kramer signed a recording contract with Elektra Records. That same month she premiered her promo track, "I Won't Give Up", which premiered in the "One Tree Hill" episode, "Holding Out for a Hero", and was released the following day exclusively on iTunes and Amazon. The song reached number 75 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The following month Kramer began work on her debut album. Country music producer Scott Hendricks produced the majority of the record. In April 2011, Kramer released another promo track, titled "Whiskey", which she also performed on "One Tree Hill". The song reached number 99 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart on digital sales alone.


title: Jana Kramer

text: In February 2012, Kramer was cast as the protagonist in the independent drama film, "Heart of the Country", playing the role of a privileged young woman, Faith Carraday, who is following her show-biz dreams but leaves it all and moves to rural North Carolina after her husband is jailed for Wall Street fraud. Kramer is also attached to a horror film named "The Gatekeeper".


title: Jana Kramer

text: On January 16, 2012, Kramer released her official debut single, "Why Ya Wanna". Kramer premiered the official music video, directed by Kristin Barlowe, on February 6, 2012. The song peaked at number 52 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 3 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Songs chart. "Whiskey" is the album's second official single. On June 1, 2012, Kramer made her first televised live performance on "Fox & Friends" to promote her debut album. She performed "Why Ya Wanna" in front of a crowd of fans in New York City. On June 5, 2012, Kramer released her self-titled debut album "Jana Kramer". The record received positive reviews from critics with many praising Kramer's vocal performance.


title: Jana Kramer

text: On June 5, 2013, Nationwide Insurance released the first of a series of commercials in its "Join the Nation" campaign, featuring Kramer as a stealthy woman dressed in black leather who follows a team of burglars and replaces the items they steal with newer versions to promote Nationwide's "Brand New Belongings" initiative. Nationwide had signed Kramer to sing the Nationwide jingle in August 2012. A second commercial, released in April 2014, featured Kramer's character replacing items in a fire-blackened apartment to promote Nationwide's renters' insurance. In November 2014, Jana reprised her Nationwide role, this time as a sexy Santa Claus-like figure replacing items during Christmas season. Nationwide's advertising partner McKinney is behind the spots.


title: Jana Kramer

text: In July 2013, Kramer opened for Blake Shelton on his Ten Times Crazier Tour in Virginia Beach, VA. In August 2013, the independent film "Approaching Midnight" starring Kramer had its world premiere at the Emagine Royal Oak in Michigan.


title: Jana Kramer

text: Kramer married Michael Gambino in 2004. They divorced several months later, after Kramer suffered severe domestic abuse that led to Gambino's 2005 conviction on attempted murder charges. On December 22, 2009, Kramer became engaged to actor Johnathon Schaech, whom she had met on the set of "Prom Night". They married on July 4, 2010, in Michigan. The couple separated a month later. Their divorce was finalized in June 2011. Kramer met country music singer Brantley Gilbert in June 2012 CMT Music Awards. They later began dating and became engaged on January 20, 2013, his 28th birthday, but ended their relationship in August 2013.


title: Jana Kramer

text: In August 2014, Kramer began dating Washington Redskins tight end Mike Caussin, whom she met on Twitter. She announced just weeks later on social media and during a show, however, that they had split up because he cheated on her. Shortly after that, she publicly forgave him, and they got back together. During CMA week in November 2014, Kramer spoke for the first time about her failed relationship with Gilbert, saying she was in an unhealthy place and as a result, picked unhealthy relationships. She spoke of her relationship with Caussin saying she was now in a healthy place and a healthy relationship. Kramer and Caussin became engaged in December 2014 on her 31st birthday, and were married on May 22, 2015.


title: Jana Kramer

text: On August 10, 2015, the couple revealed they were expecting their first child, a girl. Kramer gave birth to their daughter, Jolie Rae Caussin, on January 31, 2016. By August 2016, Kramer and Caussin had separated in the midst of Caussin's admission into rehab for undisclosed purposes. They reconciled the following year and renewed their wedding vows in December 2017. In April 2018, Kramer and Caussin shared their battle with his sex addiction, revealing that the addiction was a root cause for his infidelities. In July of that year, Kramer announced she was expecting her second child, a boy. Kramer gave birth to their son, Jace Joseph Caussin, on November 29, 2018.


title: Jana Kramer

text: On April 20, 2021, Kramer filed for divorce from Caussin, citing "inappropriate marital conduct, irreconcilable differences and adultery". Two days after the pair split, a temporary restraining order was issued by the Williamson County, Tennessee, court. Per E! News it was speculated that Caussin had cheated on Kramer with more than 13 women.


title: Jana Kramer

text: On May 20, 2021, it was reported that Kramer and Caussin reached an agreement with custody and child support. According to the documents, Kramer was awarded primary custody of Jolie and Jace. She will have the children 240 days out of the year, while Caussin will have them for the remaining 125 days. In addition, Caussin is to pay Kramer $3,200 per month in child support. The divorce was finalized on July 22, 2021.


title: Jana Kramer

text: On January 11, 2022, Kramer publicly confirmed, on Instagram, her relationship with fitness trainer and Navy veteran, Ian Schinelli. It was reported that the two had been dating since late 2021. The relationship ended in April 2022.


title: Jana Kramer

text: On August 30, 2016, Kramer was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 23 of "Dancing with the Stars". She was partnered with professional partner Gleb Savchenko. Kramer and Savchenko reached the finals of the show and finished in 4th place.


title: Alyson Stoner

text: Alyson Rae Stoner (born August 11, 1993) is an American actress, singer, and dancer. Her film roles include "Cheaper by the Dozen" (2003), "Cheaper by the Dozen 2" (2005), and the "Step Up" franchise (2006–2014). Her television roles include serving as the host of Disney Channel's "Mike's Super Short Show" (2001–2007), playing Max in "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" (2005–2007) and voicing Isabella Garcia-Shapiro in "Phineas and Ferb" (2007–2015), and portraying Caitlyn in "Camp Rock" (2008) and "" (2010).


title: Alyson Stoner

text: Stoner has been a background dancer for several artists including Missy Elliott, Eminem, Kumbia Kings, Outkast, and Will Smith. She lent her voice to the "Kingdom Hearts" franchise (2008–2020) and the "Holly Hobbie & Friends" series of animated television specials (2006–2008). She has also released twelve singles and two extended plays.


title: Alyson Stoner

text: Stoner was born in Toledo, Ohio, the daughter of LuAnne Hodges (née Adams), a former executive secretary at Owens-Illinois, and Charlie Stoner. While growing up in Toledo, Stoner attended Maumee Valley Country Day School and studied ballet, tap dance, and jazz dance at the O'Connell's Dance Studio. She also modeled and trained at the Margaret O'Brien Modeling Studio. She won Best Model of the Year at the International Modeling and Talent Association Convention in New York City under O'Brien's studio in 2000.


title: Alyson Stoner

text: In 2001, Stoner became the co-host of the Disney Channel "Mike's Super Short Show" along with Michael Alan Johnson, an infomercial segment regarding forthcoming Disney releases. In 2003 and 2005, she appeared as Sarah, one of the twelve Baker children, in the successful comedies "Cheaper by the Dozen" and "Cheaper by the Dozen 2". She has also appeared in several television shows aimed at the preteen audience, including "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody", "That's So Raven" and "Drake & Josh".


title: Alyson Stoner

text: In 2006, she had a small film role in "Step Up" as Camille, Channing Tatum's character's younger foster sister. She provided the voice of Isabella Garcia-Shapiro and Jenny (until Season 4) in the Disney Channel animated series "Phineas and Ferb" from 2007 to 2015. In 2008, she starred in the Disney Channel Original movie "Camp Rock" as Caitlyn Gellar, an aspiring music producer. Her reception in "Camp Rock" was particularly strong, with various media outlets suggesting it was about time she played a main character role having backed up for other big names such as Will Smith and Eminem. Stoner starred as Alice McKinley in the movie "Alice Upside Down", based loosely on the Alice series, particularly "The Agony of Alice" by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor. This was her second starring role and, according to an interview that appears on the direct-to-DVD release, she states that this was the first time she has had to appear in every scene in a movie.


title: Alyson Stoner

text: In 2008, she sang two songs, "Lost and Found" and "Free Spirit", from the soundtrack of the movie "Alice Upside Down," in which she plays the lead role. She has also recorded a cover version of the song "Dancing in the Moonlight" for the 2009 Disney DVD/Blu-ray movie, "Space Buddies". In 2010, Stoner appeared in the third "Step Up" film "Step Up 3D" opposite Adam Sevani where she reprised the role. Stoner uploaded a video onto her official YouTube page of her final dance rehearsal which introduced other cast members. The same year, Stoner returned to reprise her role as Caitlyn Gellar in "", a sequel to "Camp Rock". Stoner also guest-starred in the television drama series "House" as a skater.


title: Alyson Stoner

text: In 2011, Stoner started working with record producers, songwriters and a vocal coach to change her vocal style from "kiddie-pop" to a more soulful pop vibe with a little alternative edge for her first studio album. On April 4, 2010, Stoner posted a video to her YouTube Channel announcing the release of her debut single "Flying Forward" on April 20, 2010. Stoner released her debut EP entitled "Beat the System" in 2011. She also appeared in "Wii Fit" related videos on the Nintendo Channel on the Wii video game console demonstrating balance exercises. Stoner replaced Hayden Panettiere as the voice of Kairi in "", Xion in "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days", and both characters in "Kingdom Hearts III". She voiced the character Opal in seasons three and four of "The Legend of Korra".


title: Alyson Stoner

text: After choreography training in Los Angeles, Stoner appeared as a backup dancer in several music videos, notably Missy Elliott's "Work It", "Gossip Folks", "I'm Really Hot", Eminem's "Just Lose It", and "No Tengo Dinero" by the Kumbia Kings. She has also been a backup dancer for Outkast at the 2004 Kids' Choice Awards and for Will Smith at the 2005 show. Stoner danced with a dancing group called The JammX Kids between 2003 and 2006. She quit the group in early 2006 due to scheduling conflicts, but continues to work with the individual kids on different jobs. She was also one of the dancers in the special features for the "Shark Tale" DVD.


title: Alyson Stoner

text: Stoner teaches hip hop classes at the Millennium Dance Complex, and is credited as the youngest person to teach a master class there. She also appeared in Debby Ryan's "We Got the Beat" for Disney Channel's "Radio Rebel". In February 2015, she released a dance tribute video to Missy Elliot featuring a mash up medley of Missy Elliott videos she had danced in when she was younger. Within the first week, it received more than 12 million views. Missy Elliott invited Alyson to perform "Work It" with her at the 2019 MTV Video Music Awards.


title: Alyson Stoner

text: Stoner was the "dance editor" for "KEWL Magazine". In February 2009, Stoner released the "Alyson Stoner Project" described as "a dance video hybrid — melding many styles of entertainment into one package". It was directed by Kevin Schmidt, her co-star from "Cheaper by the Dozen".


title: Alyson Stoner

text: In March 2018, Stoner came out in an article on "Teen Vogue", stating she was "attracted to men, women, and people who identify in other ways." In November 2018, Stoner tweeted a link to a podcast called "Queerology: A podcast on belief and being" where she discussed her faith and sexuality. The podcast featured Stoner on episode 62 in which she stated "I don't feel comfortable labeling my sexual orientation or even faith at the moment. Not because I'm afraid of the words themselves, or being stereotyped, but because there's a certain magic happening in letting the sediment keep swirling in the water, versus forcing it to settle and land somewhere. And I'm being so transformed because of mystery that I want to stay here for now. I seem to be able to love better, wider, and deeper from here for now."


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin is a plant flavonol from the flavonoid group of polyphenols. It is found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves, seeds, and grains; capers, red onions, and kale are common foods containing appreciable amounts of it. It has a bitter flavor and is used as an ingredient in dietary supplements, beverages, and foods.


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in nature. The name has been used since 1857, and is derived from "quercetum" (oak forest), after the oak genus "Quercus". It is a naturally occurring polar auxin transport inhibitor.


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin is one of the most abundant dietary flavonoids, with an average daily consumption of 25–50 milligrams.


title: Quercetin

text: In red onions, higher concentrations of quercetin occur in the outermost rings and in the part closest to the root, the latter being the part of the plant with the highest concentration. One study found that organically grown tomatoes had 79% more quercetin than non-organically grown fruit. Quercetin is present in various kinds of honey from different plant sources.


title: Quercetin

text: In plants, phenylalanine is converted to 4-coumaroyl-CoA in a series of steps known as the general phenylpropanoid pathway using phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, cinnamate-4-hydroxylase, and 4-coumaroyl-CoA-ligase. One molecule of 4-coumaroyl-CoA is added to three molecules of malonyl-CoA to form tetrahydroxychalcone using 7,2′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavanol synthase. Tetrahydroxychalcone is then converted into naringenin using chalcone isomerase.


title: Quercetin

text: Naringenin is converted into eriodictyol using flavanoid 3′-hydroxylase. Eriodictyol is then converted into dihydroquercetin with flavanone 3-hydroxylase, which is then converted into quercetin using flavonol synthase.


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin is the aglycone form of a number of other flavonoid glycosides, such as rutin (also known as quercetin-3-O-rutinoside) and quercitrin, found in citrus fruit, buckwheat and onions. Quercetin forms the glycosides quercitrin and rutin together with rhamnose and rutinose, respectively. Likewise guaijaverin is the 3-"O"-arabinoside, hyperoside is the 3-"O"-galactoside, isoquercitin is the 3-"O"-glucoside and spiraeoside is the 4′-"O"-glucoside. CTN-986 is a quercetin derivative found in cottonseeds and cottonseed oil. Miquelianin is the quercetin 3-"O"-β--glucuronopyranoside.


title: Quercetin

text: The enzyme quercitrinase can be found in "Aspergillus flavus". This enzyme hydrolyzes the glycoside quercitrin to release quercetin and -rhamnose. It is an enzyme in the rutin catabolic pathway.


title: Quercetin

text: The bioavailability of quercetin in humans after oral intake is very low, with one study concluding it must be less than 1%. Intravenous injection of quercetin shows a rapid decay in concentration described by a two-compartment model (initial half-life of 8.8 minutes, terminal half-life of 2.4 hours). Because it undergoes rapid and extensive metabolism, the biological effects presumed from "in vitro" studies are unlikely to apply "in vivo". Quercetin supplements in the aglycone form are less bioavailable than the quercetin glycoside often found in foods, especially red onions. Ingestion with high-fat foods may increase bioavailability compared to ingestion with low-fat foods, and carbohydrate-rich foods may increase absorption of quercetin by stimulating gastrointestinal motility and colonic fermentation.


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin is rapidly metabolized (via glucuronidation) after the ingestion of quercetin foods or supplements. Five metabolites (quercetin glucuronides) have been found in human plasma after quercetin ingestion. Taken together, the quercetin glucuronides have a half life around 11-12 hours.


title: Quercetin

text: In rats, quercetin did not undergo any significant phase I metabolism. In contrast, quercetin did undergo extensive phase II (conjugation) to produce metabolites that are more polar than the parent substance and hence are more rapidly excreted from the body. In vitro, the meta-hydroxyl group of catechol is methylated by catechol-O-methyltransferase. Four of the five hydroxyl groups of quercetin are glucuronidated by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. The exception is the 5-hydroxyl group of the flavonoid ring which generally does not undergo glucuronidation. The major metabolites of orally absorbed quercetin are quercetin-3-glucuronide, 3'-methylquercetin-3-glucuronide, and quercetin-3'-sulfate. A methyl metabolite of quercetin has been shown in vitro to be more effective than quercetin at inhibiting lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages.


title: Quercetin

text: Compared to other flavonoids quercetin is one of the most effective inducers of the phase II detoxification enzymes.


title: Quercetin

text: In-vitro studies show that quercetin is a strong inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 and a moderate inhibitor of CYP2D6. Drugs that are metabolized by these pathways may have increased effect. An in-vivo study found that quercetin supplementation slows the metabolism of caffeine to a statistically significant extent in a particular genetic sub-population, but in absolute terms the effect was almost negligible.


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin has been reported to inhibit the oxidation of other molecules and hence is classified as an antioxidant in vitro. It contains a polyphenolic chemical substructure that stops oxidation in vitro by acting as a scavenger of free radicals. Quercetin has been shown to inhibit the PI3K/AKT pathway leading to downregulation of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-w. Quercetin activates or inhibits the activities of a number of proteins in vitro. For example, it is a nonspecific protein kinase enzyme inhibitor.


title: Quercetin

text: In 2010, the FDA acknowledged high-purity quercetin as GRAS for use as an ingredient in various specified food categories at levels up to 500 milligrams per serving.


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin has been studied in basic research and small clinical trials. While supplements have been promoted for the treatment of cancer and various other diseases, there is no high-quality evidence that quercetin (via supplements or in food) is useful to treat cancer or any other disease.


title: Quercetin

text: The US Food and Drug Administration has issued warning letters to several manufacturers advertising on their product labels and websites that quercetin product(s) can be used to treat diseases. The FDA regards such quercetin advertising and products as unapproved – with unauthorized health claims concerning the anti-disease products – as defined by "sections 201(g)(1)(B) and/or 201 (g)(1)(C) of the Act [21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(B) and/or 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(C)] because they are intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease", conditions not met by the manufacturers.


title: Quercetin

text: There has been little research into the safety of quercetin supplementation in humans, and the results are insufficient to give confidence that the practice is safe. In particular, there is a lack of safety information on the effect of quercetin supplementation for pregnant women, breastfeeding women, children, and adolescents. The hormonal effects of quercetin found in animal studies raise the suspicion of a parallel effect in humans, particularly in respect of estrogen-dependent tumors.


title: Quercetin

text: Quercetin supplementation can interfere with the effects of medications. The precise nature of this interaction is known for some common medicines, but for many, it is not.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: Polly Hannah Klaas (January 3, 1981 – October 1, 1993) was an American murder victim whose case garnered national media attention. On October 1, 1993, at age twelve, she was kidnapped at knifepoint during a slumber party at her mother's home in Petaluma, California, and was later strangled. Richard Allen Davis was convicted of her murder in 1996 and sentenced to death.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: On October 1, 1993, Polly Klaas and two friends were having a slumber party. Around 10:30 pm, an intoxicated Richard Allen Davis entered their bedroom, carrying a knife from the Klaas's kitchen. He told the girls he was there to do no harm and was only there for money. Davis tied both of her friends up, pulled pillowcases over their heads, and told them to count to 1,000. He then kidnapped Klaas.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: Over the next two months, about 4,000 people helped search for Klaas. TV shows such as "20/20" and "America's Most Wanted" covered the kidnapping. An APB (all-points bulletin) with the suspect's information was broadcast within 30 minutes of the kidnapping. The broadcast, however, only went out over Sonoma County Sheriff's Channel 1.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: Within hours of the kidnapping, in a rural area of Santa Rosa, about north of Petaluma, a babysitter on her way home noted a suspicious vehicle stuck in a ditch on her employer's private driveway. She phoned the property owner, who decided to leave with her daughter. As she drove down the long driveway to Pythian Road, the owner passed Davis. She called 911 when she got to a service station and two deputies were dispatched on the call. The deputies did not know of the kidnapping or the suspect's description, due to Sonoma Valley units being on Channel 3. The deputies ran Davis's driver's license and license plate number, but they came back with no wants or warrants. The deputies tried to convince the property owner to perform a citizen's arrest for trespassing. Under California law, a civilian may make an arrest for this type of misdemeanor. The property owner would have had to go to the car with the deputies and say "I arrest you." The deputies then would have taken Davis into custody. The property owner refused.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: The deputies called for a tow truck to get Davis's car out of the ditch. They searched it thoroughly before the arrival of the tow truck and did not find evidence of anyone else in the car. The only possible violation was an open container of beer, but Davis was not driving at the time of the deputies' contact and mere possession of an open container was not illegal. Before Davis was allowed to leave, he was instructed to pour out the beer and the deputies filled out an FI (Field Interrogation) card with his information and the FI card was filed.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: On November 28, 1993, the property owner was inspecting her property after loggers had partially cleared the property of trees. She discovered items that made her think they might have matched those used in the kidnapping. She called the sheriff's department to report her discovery, and deputies and crime scene investigators were dispatched. One of the items found, a torn pair of ballet leggings, was matched by the FBI Crime Laboratory to the other part of the leggings that were taken as evidence on the night of the kidnapping. A review of calls in the area the day of the kidnapping turned up the contact with Davis, who had only been identified because both deputies had filled out and filed the FI card. Once the identity of Davis was revealed, his palm print at the scene of the kidnapping was also traced to him. Authorities had been unable to match the partial print earlier due to the poor quality of the print left.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: The Sonoma County Sheriff's Department, in cooperation with Petaluma Police and the FBI, launched a search of the property and the Pythian Road area during a heavy rainstorm. The first two days of the search were kept as low-key as possible, since Davis was under surveillance at an Indian rancheria near Ukiah, California. When nothing was found during the initial search and the surveillance of Davis also produced no results, the decision was made to arrest him for the kidnapping of Klaas.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: While Davis was being interrogated by Petaluma PD and the FBI, a massive search was launched on Friday, December 3. The Sonoma County Sheriff's Department was assisted by over 500 search team members from 24 agencies, coming from as far away as Kern County, California, and Washoe County, Nevada. The mutual aid effort was coordinated by the California State Office of Emergency Services (now known as the California Governor's Office of Emergency Services), FBI Crime Scene teams, and numerous other state and federal agencies. The search remains today as one of the largest ever conducted in California. The search continued through Saturday, December 4. The search effort produced other items of evidence, but did not produce any evidence of human remains. The search was planned to continue on Sunday, December 5, but on the evening of December 4, Davis confessed to kidnapping and murdering Klaas and led investigators to her body. He had buried her in a shallow grave just off Highway 101, about a mile south of the city limits of Cloverdale, California. The gravesite is about 20 air miles and about 30 road miles from the search site.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: Although Davis admitted to strangling Klaas to death, he refused to give investigators a timeline of the events from October 1. Investigators thought he was fearful that both people who passed him would call the sheriff's department. It is believed that he killed her before the arrival of deputies and hid her body in the thick brush on the hillside above where his car was stuck. He then waited for an undetermined period of time after being escorted back to Highway 12, about 1.5 miles from where his car was stuck, and drove back up to retrieve her body. He was reportedly out of breath, sweating profusely (despite it being a cool night), and had twigs and leaves in his hair when contacted by deputies. It is also believed that he had chosen the gravesite in advance, since it would not have been discovered by a casual observer. The gravesite area would be directly visible from Highway 101, but not the grave itself. He had to drive from the Indian Rancheria in Ukiah once a week to meet with his parole officer and he would have seen any police activity in the area.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: After a long and tumultuous trial, Davis was convicted on June 18, 1996, of first-degree murder with four special circumstances (robbery, burglary, kidnapping, and attempted lewd act on a child) in Klaas's death. A San Jose Superior Court jury returned a verdict of death. At his formal sentencing, Davis provoked national outrage by taunting his victim's family, extending both middle fingers at a courtroom camera and later saying that Klaas's last words just before he killed her implied that her father molested her. Judge Thomas Hastings then formally sentenced Davis to death, telling Davis that his conduct in the courtroom made the decision to pass the death sentence significantly easier.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: Actress Winona Ryder, who had been raised in Petaluma, offered a $200,000 reward for Klaas's safe return during the search. Ryder starred in a film version of "Little Women" after Klaas's death and dedicated it to her memory, because it had been Klaas's favorite book.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: Klaas's body was cremated and her ashes were spread over the Pacific Ocean by her friends and family.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: In the wake of the murder, Klaas's father, Marc Klaas, became a child advocate and established the KlaasKids Foundation. He has made himself available to parents of kidnapped children and has appeared frequently on "Larry King Live", "CNN Headline News" and "Nancy Grace".


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: The all-points bulletin was broadcast on the CHP (California Highway Patrol) channel, which only CHP radios could receive. CHP practice changed after the case. The radio system was upgraded and such bulletins are now broadcast on all police channels through a centralized 911 dispatch system.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: In October 1998, a performing arts center was named in her honor in Petaluma, but was closed in 2000 because of a lack of funding. As of August 2022, a renovation of the building was expected to be completed by the end of the year so the center could reopen.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: In the wake of the murder, politicians in California and other U.S. states supported three strikes laws and California's Three Strikes act was signed into law on March 8, 1994.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: Investigation Discovery re-enacted the kidnapping and murder in "Motives & Murder: Cracking the Case: Who Took Polly Klaas?" (Season 4 Episode 4, 10/22/2014).


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: The A&E television series "American Justice" released the episode "Free to Kill: The Polly Klaas Murder". The episode exposes the challenges of the penal system to rehabilitate inmates. Davis had been in and out of jail, his convictions ranging from kidnapping to burglary. The episode originally aired October 23, 1996.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: The Discovery Channel crime series "The FBI Files"' first episode's topic was the Polly Klaas case. The episode reveals the details of the FBI agents' collection of evidence and their hunt for the criminal, and originally aired October 20, 1998.


title: Murder of Polly Klaas

text: On May 9, 2022, Crime Junkie released an episode on Polly Klaas and discussed how the case set a precedent for California's Three Strikes law.


title: Ion

text: The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convention. The net charge of an ion is not zero because its total number of electrons is unequal to its total number of protons.


title: Ion

text: A cation is a positively charged ion with fewer electrons than protons while an anion is a negatively charged ion with more electrons than protons. Opposite electric charges are pulled towards one another by electrostatic force, so cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds.


title: Ion

text: Ions consisting of only a single atom are termed atomic or monatomic ions, while two or more atoms form molecular ions or polyatomic ions. In the case of physical ionization in a fluid (gas or liquid), "ion pairs" are created by spontaneous molecule collisions, where each generated pair consists of a free electron and a positive ion. Ions are also created by chemical interactions, such as the dissolution of a salt in liquids, or by other means, such as passing a direct current through a conducting solution, dissolving an anode via ionization.


title: Ion

text: The word "ion" was coined from Greek neuter present participle of "ienai" (), meaning "to go". A cation is something that moves down ( pronounced "kato", meaning "down") and an anion is something that moves up (, meaning "up"). They are so called because ions move toward the electrode of opposite charge. This term was introduced (after a suggestion by the English polymath William Whewell) by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that "goes" from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. Faraday did not know the nature of these species, but he knew that since metals dissolved into and entered a solution at one electrode and new metal came forth from a solution at the other electrode; that some kind of substance has moved through the solution in a current. This conveys matter from one place to the other. In correspondence with Faraday, Whewell also coined the words "anode" and "cathode", as well as "anion" and "cation" as ions that are attracted to the respective electrodes.


title: Ion

text: Svante Arrhenius put forth, in his 1884 dissertation, the explanation of the fact that solid crystalline salts dissociate into paired charged particles when dissolved, for which he would win the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Arrhenius' explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into Faraday's ions, he proposed that ions formed even in the absence of an electric current.


title: Ion

text: Ions in their gas-like state are highly reactive and will rapidly interact with ions of opposite charge to give neutral molecules or ionic salts. Ions are also produced in the liquid or solid state when salts interact with solvents (for example, water) to produce "solvated ions", which are more stable, for reasons involving a combination of energy and entropy changes as the ions move away from each other to interact with the liquid. These stabilized species are more commonly found in the environment at low temperatures. A common example is the ions present in seawater, which are derived from dissolved salts.


title: Ion

text: As charged objects, ions are attracted to opposite electric charges (positive to negative, and vice versa) and repelled by like charges. When they move, their trajectories can be deflected by a magnetic field.


title: Ion

text: Electrons, due to their smaller mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms and molecules that possess any electrons at all. Thus, anions (negatively charged ions) are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron(s) repel each other and add to the physical size of the ion, because its size is determined by its electron cloud. Cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of the electron cloud. One particular cation (that of hydrogen) contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - "much smaller" than the parent hydrogen atom.


title: Ion

text: Since the electric charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, the net electric charge on an ion is equal to the number of protons in the ion minus the number of electrons.


title: Ion

text: An (−) ( , from the Greek word ἄνω ("ánō"), meaning "up") is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged).


title: Ion

text: A (+) ( , from the Greek word κάτω ("káto"), meaning "down") is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, giving it a positive charge.


title: Ion

text: There are additional names used for ions with multiple charges. For example, an ion with a −2 charge is known as a dianion and an ion with a +2 charge is known as a dication. A zwitterion is a neutral molecule with positive and negative charges at different locations within that molecule.


title: Ion

text: Cations and anions are measured by their ionic radius and they differ in relative size: "Cations are small, most of them less than 10 m (10 cm) in radius. But most anions are large, as is the most common Earth anion, oxygen. From this fact it is apparent that most of the space of a crystal is occupied by the anion and that the cations fit into the spaces between them."


title: Ion

text: The terms "anion" and "cation" (for ions that respectively travel to the anode and cathode during electrolysis) were introduced by Michael Faraday in 1834 following his consultation with William Whewell.


title: Ion

text: Ions are ubiquitous in nature and are responsible for diverse phenomena from the luminescence of the Sun to the existence of the Earth's ionosphere. Atoms in their ionic state may have a different color from neutral atoms, and thus light absorption by metal ions gives the color of gemstones. In both inorganic and organic chemistry (including biochemistry), the interaction of water and ions is extremely important; an example is energy that drives the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).


title: Ion

text: Ions can be non-chemically prepared using various ion sources, usually involving high voltage or temperature. These are used in a multitude of devices such as mass spectrometers, optical emission spectrometers, particle accelerators, ion implanters, and ion engines.


title: Ion

text: As reactive charged particles, they are also used in air purification by disrupting microbes, and in household items such as smoke detectors.


title: Ion

text: As signalling and metabolism in organisms are controlled by a precise ionic gradient across membranes, the disruption of this gradient contributes to cell death. This is a common mechanism exploited by natural and artificial biocides, including the ion channels gramicidin and amphotericin (a fungicide).


title: Ion

text: Inorganic dissolved ions are a component of total dissolved solids, a widely known indicator of water quality.


title: Ion

text: The ionizing effect of radiation on a gas is extensively used for the detection of radiation such as alpha, beta, gamma, and X-rays. The original ionization event in these instruments results in the formation of an "ion pair"; a positive ion and a free electron, by ion impact by the radiation on the gas molecules. The ionization chamber is the simplest of these detectors, and collects all the charges created by "direct ionization" within the gas through the application of an electric field.


title: Ion

text: The Geiger–Müller tube and the proportional counter both use a phenomenon known as a Townsend avalanche to multiply the effect of the original ionizing event by means of a cascade effect whereby the free electrons are given sufficient energy by the electric field to release further electrons by ion impact.


title: Ion

text: When writing the chemical formula for an ion, its net charge is written in superscript immediately after the chemical structure for the molecule/atom. The net charge is written with the magnitude "before" the sign; that is, a doubly charged cation is indicated as 2+ instead of +2. However, the magnitude of the charge is omitted for singly charged molecules/atoms; for example, the sodium cation is indicated as and "not" .


title: Ion

text: An alternative (and acceptable) way of showing a molecule/atom with multiple charges is by drawing out the signs multiple times, this is often seen with transition metals. Chemists sometimes circle the sign; this is merely ornamental and does not alter the chemical meaning. All three representations of , , and shown in the figure, are thus equivalent.


title: Ion

text: Monatomic ions are sometimes also denoted with Roman numerals, particularly in spectroscopy; for example, the example seen above is referred to as or . The Roman numeral designates the "formal oxidation state" of an element, whereas the superscripted Indo-Arabic numerals denote the net charge. The two notations are, therefore, exchangeable for monatomic ions, but the Roman numerals "cannot" be applied to polyatomic ions. However, it is possible to mix the notations for the individual metal centre with a polyatomic complex, as shown by the uranyl ion example.


title: Ion

text: If an ion contains unpaired electrons, it is called a "radical" ion. Just like uncharged radicals, radical ions are very reactive. Polyatomic ions containing oxygen, such as carbonate and sulfate, are called "oxyanions". Molecular ions that contain at least one carbon to hydrogen bond are called "organic ions". If the charge in an organic ion is formally centred on a carbon, it is termed a "carbocation" (if positively charged) or "carbanion" (if negatively charged).


title: Ion

text: Monatomic ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons to the valence shell (the outer-most electron shell) in an atom. The inner shells of an atom are filled with electrons that are tightly bound to the positively charged atomic nucleus, and so do not participate in this kind of chemical interaction. The process of gaining or losing electrons from a neutral atom or molecule is called "ionization".


title: Ion

text: Atoms can be ionized by bombardment with radiation, but the more usual process of ionization encountered in chemistry is the transfer of electrons between atoms or molecules. This transfer is usually driven by the attaining of stable ("closed shell") electronic configurations. Atoms will gain or lose electrons depending on which action takes the least energy.


title: Ion

text: For example, a sodium atom, Na, has a single electron in its valence shell, surrounding 2 stable, filled inner shells of 2 and 8 electrons. Since these filled shells are very stable, a sodium atom tends to lose its extra electron and attain this stable configuration, becoming a sodium cation in the process


title: Ion

text: On the other hand, a chlorine atom, Cl, has 7 electrons in its valence shell, which is one short of the stable, filled shell with 8 electrons. Thus, a chlorine atom tends to "gain" an extra electron and attain a stable 8-electron configuration, becoming a chloride anion in the process:


title: Ion

text: This driving force is what causes sodium and chlorine to undergo a chemical reaction, wherein the "extra" electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine, forming sodium cations and chloride anions. Being oppositely charged, these cations and anions form ionic bonds and combine to form sodium chloride, NaCl, more commonly known as table salt.


title: Ion

text: Polyatomic and molecular ions are often formed by the gaining or losing of elemental ions such as a proton, , in neutral molecules. For example, when ammonia, , accepts a proton, —a process called protonation—it forms the ammonium ion, . Ammonia and ammonium have the same number of electrons in essentially the same electronic configuration, but ammonium has an extra proton that gives it a net positive charge.


title: Ion

text: Ammonia can also lose an electron to gain a positive charge, forming the ion . However, this ion is unstable, because it has an incomplete valence shell around the nitrogen atom, making it a very reactive radical ion.


title: Ion

text: Due to the instability of radical ions, polyatomic and molecular ions are usually formed by gaining or losing elemental ions such as , rather than gaining or losing electrons. This allows the molecule to preserve its stable electronic configuration while acquiring an electrical charge.


title: Ion

text: The energy required to detach an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the "ionization potential", or "ionization energy". The "n"th ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to detach its "n"th electron after the first electrons have already been detached.


title: Ion

text: Each successive ionization energy is markedly greater than the last. Particularly great increases occur after any given block of atomic orbitals is exhausted of electrons. For this reason, ions tend to form in ways that leave them with full orbital blocks. For example, sodium has one "valence electron" in its outermost shell, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one lost electron, as . On the other side of the periodic table, chlorine has seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as . Caesium has the lowest measured ionization energy of all the elements and helium has the greatest. In general, the ionization energy of metals is much lower than the ionization energy of nonmetals, which is why, in general, metals will lose electrons to form positively charged ions and nonmetals will gain electrons to form negatively charged ions.


title: Ion

text: "Ionic bonding" is a kind of chemical bonding that arises from the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions. Ions of like charge repel each other, and ions of opposite charge attract each other. Therefore, ions do not usually exist on their own, but will bind with ions of opposite charge to form a crystal lattice. The resulting compound is called an "ionic compound", and is said to be held together by "ionic bonding". In ionic compounds there arise characteristic distances between ion neighbours from which the spatial extension and the ionic radius of individual ions may be derived.


title: Ion

text: The most common type of ionic bonding is seen in compounds of metals and nonmetals (except noble gases, which rarely form chemical compounds). Metals are characterized by having a small number of electrons in excess of a stable, closed-shell electronic configuration. As such, they have the tendency to lose these extra electrons in order to attain a stable configuration. This property is known as "electropositivity". Non-metals, on the other hand, are characterized by having an electron configuration just a few electrons short of a stable configuration. As such, they have the tendency to gain more electrons in order to achieve a stable configuration. This tendency is known as "electronegativity". When a highly electropositive metal is combined with a highly electronegative nonmetal, the extra electrons from the metal atoms are transferred to the electron-deficient nonmetal atoms. This reaction produces metal cations and nonmetal anions, which are attracted to each other to form a "salt".


title: Tulip

text: Tulips ("Tulipa") are a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes (having bulbs as storage organs). The flowers are usually large, showy and brightly coloured, generally red, pink, yellow, or white (usually in warm colours). They often have a different coloured blotch at the base of the tepals (petals and sepals, collectively), internally. Because of a degree of variability within the populations, and a long history of cultivation, classification has been complex and controversial. The tulip is a member of the lily family, Liliaceae, along with 14 other genera, where it is most closely related to "Amana", "Erythronium" and "Gagea" in the tribe Lilieae.


title: Tulip

text: There are about 75 species, and these are divided among four subgenera. The name "tulip" is thought to be derived from a Persian word for turban, which it may have been thought to resemble by those who discovered it. Tulips originally were found in a band stretching from Southern Europe to Central Asia, but since the seventeenth century have become widely naturalised and cultivated ("see map"). In their natural state they are adapted to steppes and mountainous areas with temperate climates. Flowering in the spring, they become dormant in the summer once the flowers and leaves die back, emerging above ground as a shoot from the underground bulb in early spring.


title: Tulip

text: Growing wild over much of the Near East and Central Asia, tulips were cultivated in Constantinople as early as 1055. By the 15th century, tulips were among the most prized flowers; becoming the symbol of the Ottomans. While tulips had probably been cultivated in Persia from the tenth century, they did not come to the attention of the West until the sixteenth century, when Western diplomats to the Ottoman court observed and reported on them. They were rapidly introduced into Europe and became a frenzied commodity during tulip mania. Tulips were frequently depicted in Dutch Golden Age paintings, and have become associated with the Netherlands, the major producer for world markets, ever since. In the seventeenth century Netherlands, during the time of the tulip mania, an infection of tulip bulbs by the tulip breaking virus created variegated patterns in the tulip flowers that were much admired and valued. While truly broken tulips are not cultivated anymore, the closest available specimens today are part of the group known as the Rembrandts – so named because Rembrandt painted some of the most admired breaks of his time.


title: Tulip

text: Breeding programmes have produced thousands of hybrid and cultivars in addition to the original species (known in horticulture as botanical tulips). They are popular throughout the world, both as ornamental garden plants and as cut flowers.


title: Tulip

text: "Tulipa" (tulips) is a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb. Depending on the species, tulip plants can be between high.


title: Tulip

text: Flowers: The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. "Tulipa turkestanica"), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette. In structure, the flower is generally cup or star shaped. As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each. The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals, but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical. The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface. The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.


title: Tulip

text: Androecium: The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy. The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.


title: Tulip

text: Gynoecium: The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and the ovaries are superior, with three chambers.


title: Tulip

text: Fruit: The tulip's fruit is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape. Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber. These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that does not normally fill the entire seed.


title: Tulip

text: Leaves: Tulip stems have few leaves. Larger species tend to have multiple leaves. Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12. The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem. These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex. They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside.


title: Tulip

text: The "Semper Augustus" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania. “The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top” – wrote Nicolas van Wassenaer in 1624 after seeing the tulip in the garden of one Dr Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company. With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.


title: Tulip

text: Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with "blue" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries. Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters. The Dutch regarded this lack of scent as a virtue, as it demonstrates the flower's chasteness.


title: Tulip

text: While tulips can be bred to display a wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve. The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple - nonetheless, an effect prized by the Dutch. The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands. The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.


title: Tulip

text: Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies. Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a common allergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A. It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves. Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs. The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour. The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour. The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak.


title: Tulip

text: The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes "T. Hungarica" as "strongly scented", and among cultivars, some such as "Monte Carlo" and "Brown Sugar" are "scented", and "Creme Upstar" "fragrant".


title: Tulip

text: "Tulipa" is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae, once one of the largest families of monocots, but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera. Within Liliaceae, "Tulipa" is placed within Lilioideae, one of three subfamilies, with two tribes. Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to "Tulipa".


title: Tulip

text: The word "tulip", first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the "Turkish Letters" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English as "tulipa" or "tulipant", entering the language by way of and its obsolete form "tulipan" or by way of Modern Latin "tulipa", from Ottoman Turkish "tülbend" ("muslin" or "gauze"), and may be ultimately derived from the "delband" ("Turban"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban. This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans. The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.


title: Tulip

text: Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the "Turks" used the word "tulipan" to describe the flower. Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is "lale". It is from this speculation that "tulipan" being a translation error referring to turbans is derived. This Etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors. At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it was used by the "Turks". On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides. Until recent times "Turk" was a common term when referring to Hungarians. The word "tulipan" is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip. As long as one recognizes "Turk" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form. Busbecq was simply repeating the word used by his "Turk/Hungarian" guides.


title: Tulip

text: The Hungarian word "tulipan" may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, "tala" meaning bottom or underworld and "pAna" meaning defence. Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.


title: Tulip

text: Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe (Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Southern Serbia, Bulgaria, most part of Romania, Ukraine, Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula. From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan, (Armenia) and Baku (Azerbaijan) and on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan, Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity. Further to the east, "Tulipa" is found in the western Himalayas, southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China. While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native, subsequent identification of "Tulipa sylvestris" subsp. "australis" as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification. In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans. In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine. Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution. Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised ("see map"). For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native. These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.


title: Tulip

text: Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates, where they are a common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation. They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers. Tulips are most commonly found in meadows, steppes and chaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.


title: Tulip

text: "Botrytis tulipae" is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of the plant. Other pathogens include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, blight caused by "Sclerotium rolfsii", bulb nematodes, other rots including blue molds, black molds and mushy rot.


title: Tulip

text: The fungus "Trichoderma viride" can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses.


title: Tulip

text: Variegated tulips admired during the Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus, a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid, "Myzus persicae". While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced. Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.


title: Tulip

text: Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called "broken"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed. Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields. The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.


title: Tulip

text: Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions. Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation. Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< ). Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals.


title: Tulip

text: Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran (Persia), probably in the 10th century. Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour. The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks. In the Ottoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey. Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi. Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow. The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.


title: Tulip

text: A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered the Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs. However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth ("sümbüll"), originally Indian spikenard ("Nardostachys jatamansi") have been confused. Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of "Kefe Lale" (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably "Tulipa schrenkii") from Kefe in Crimea, for his gardens in the Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul.


title: Tulip

text: It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west. The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.


title: Tulip

text: Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures ("Yayla") at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa. They seem to have consisted of wild tulips. However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods. Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.


title: Tulip

text: The gardening book "Revnak'ı Bostan" (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies. However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate. In 1515, the scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones ("shaqayq al-nu'man"), but described the crown imperial as "laleh kakli".


title: Tulip

text: In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips ("lale"). Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, also names tulips in the Baburnama. He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.


title: Tulip

text: In Moorish Andalus, a "Makedonian bulb" ("basal al-maqdunis") or "bucket-Narcissus" ("naryis qadusi") was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens. It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.


title: Tulip

text: Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand I to Suleyman the Magnificent. According to a letter, he saw "an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus, hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers." However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg, Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart. In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter. It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year. Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.


title: Tulip

text: Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573. He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the variations in colour. After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University's newly established Hortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593. Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier. These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands. Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.


title: Tulip

text: Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century. These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished and especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy. "Nouveaux riches" seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable. A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb. The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower. An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers. The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.


title: Tulip

text: Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later. Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs. Around this time, the ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem. Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting. To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called "Dutch tulips". The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof.


title: Tulip

text: The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxon "Tulipa ×gesneriana". They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from "Tulipa suaveolens" (today often regarded as a synonym with "Tulipa schrenkii"). "Tulipa ×gesneriana" is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.


title: Tulip

text: The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c.1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House, near Calne in Wiltshire.


title: Tulip

text: It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem, Massachusetts. From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem. Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.


title: Tulip

text: The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.


title: Tulip

text: "Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination. Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs. Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms."


title: Tulip

text: Tulips can be propagated through bulb offsets, seeds or micropropagation. Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity. Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids. Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations. Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile.


title: Tulip

text: Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower. Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size. To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads. The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen. Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.


title: Tulip

text: Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct. Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.


title: Tulip

text: In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.


title: Tulip

text: A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae. These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries. The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation. Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips. These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolourous tepals.


title: Tulip

text: Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils. Tulips should be planted apart from each other. The recommended hole depth is deep, and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface. Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes. Species tulips are normally planted deeper.


title: Tulip

text: The celebration of Persian New Year, or Nowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.


title: Tulip

text: A sixth-century legend, similar to the tale of "Romeo and Juliet", tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.


title: Tulip

text: The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century. The poem "Gulistan" by Musharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with "The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...". In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems of Simin Behbahani.


title: Tulip

text: The tulip is the national symbol for martyrdom in Iran (and Shi'ite Islam generally), and has been used on postage stamps and coins. It was common as a symbol used in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, and a red tulip adorns the flag redesigned in 1980. The sword in the centre, with four crescent-shaped petals around it, create the word "Allah" as well as symbolising the five pillars of Islam. The tomb of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is decorated with 72 stained glass tulips, representing 72 martyrs who died at the Battle of Karbala in 680CE. It was also used as a symbol on billboards celebrating casualties of the 1980–1988 war with Iraq.


title: Tulip

text: The tulip also became a symbol of protest against the Iranian government after the presidential election in June 2009, when millions turned out on the streets to protest the re-election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. After the protests were harshly suppressed, the Iranian Green Movement adopted the tulip as a symbol of their struggle.


title: Tulip

text: The word for tulip in Persian is "laleh" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name. The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such as Laleh Park and Laleh Hospital, and the tulip motif remains common in Iranian culture.


title: Tulip

text: Tulips are called "lale" in Turkish (from Persian: "laleh" لاله). When written in Arabic letters, "lale" has the same letters as "Allah", which is why the flower became a holy symbol. It was also associated with the House of Osman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in the Ottoman Empire. The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence. The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called the Tulip era or "Lale Devri" in Turkish.


title: Tulip

text: Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was a symbol of paradise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.


title: Tulip

text: In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love. White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter. In Calvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.


title: Tulip

text: By contrast to other flowers such as the coneflower or lotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values. In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that “nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know”. When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become "feathered" and "flamed". However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into “paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment”. This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.


title: Tulip

text: "The Black Tulip" (1850) is an historical romance by Alexandre Dumas, père. The story takes place in the Dutch city of Haarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.


title: Tulip

text: The tulip occurs on a number of the Major Arcana cards of occultist Oswald Wirth's deck of Tarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 work "Le Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge".


title: Tulip

text: Tulip festivals are held around the world, for example in the Netherlands and Spalding, England. There is also a popular festival in Morges, Switzerland. Every spring, there are tulip festivals in North America, including the Tulip Time Festival in Holland, Michigan, the Skagit Valley Tulip Festival in Skagit Valley, Washington, the Tulip Time Festival in Orange City and Pella, Iowa, and the Canadian Tulip Festival in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Tulips are also popular in Australia and several festivals are held in September and October, during the Southern Hemisphere's spring.


title: Tulip

text: Tulip petals are edible flowers. The taste varies by variety and season, and is roughly similar to lettuce or other salad greens. Some people are allergic to tulips.


title: Tulip

text: Tulip bulbs look similar to onions, but should not generally be considered food. The toxicity of bulbs is not well-understood, nor is there an agreed-upon method of safely preparing them for human consumption. There have been reports of illness when eaten, depending on quantity. During the Dutch famine of 1944–45, tulip bulbs were eaten out of desperation, and Dutch doctors provided recipes.


title: Tulip

text: As with other plants of the lily family, tulips are poisonous to domestic animals including horses, cats and dogs. In cats, ingestion of small amounts of tulips can include vomiting, depression, diarrhea, hypersalivation, and irritation of the mouth and throat, and larger amounts can cause abdominal pain, tremors, tachycardia, convulsions, tachypnea, difficulty breathing, cardiac arrhythmia, and coma. All parts of the tulip plant are poisonous to cats, while the bulb is especially dangerous. A veterinarian should be contacted immediately if a cat has ingested tulip.


title: Hampi

text: Hampi or Hampe, also referred to as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Hampi town, Vijayanagara district, east-central Karnataka, India.


title: Hampi

text: Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century. It was a fortified city. Chronicles left by Persian and European travellers, particularly the Portuguese, say that Hampi was a prosperous, wealthy and grand city near the Tungabhadra River, with numerous temples, farms and trading markets. By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world's second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing, and probably India's richest at that time, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal. The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates; its capital was conquered, pillaged and destroyed by sultanate armies in 1565, after which Hampi remained in ruins.


title: Hampi

text: Located in Karnataka near the modern-era city of Hosapete, Hampi's ruins are spread over and it has been described by UNESCO as an "austere, grandiose site" of more than 1,600 surviving remains of the last great Hindu kingdom in South India that includes "forts, riverside features, royal and sacred complexes, temples, shrines, pillared halls, mandapas, memorial structures, water structures and others".


title: Hampi

text: Hampi predates the Vijayanagara Empire, it is mentioned in the "Ramayana" and the Puranas of Hinduism as Pampaa Devi Tirtha Kshetra. Hampi continues to be an important religious centre, housing the Virupaksha Temple, an active Adi Shankara-linked monastery and various monuments belonging to the old city.


title: Hampi

text: Hampi is situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the eastern part of central Karnataka near the state border with Andhra Pradesh. It is from Bengaluru, and from Hubli. The closest railway station is in Hosapete (Hospet), away and the closest airport is Jindal Vijaynagar Airport in Toranagallu which has connectivity to Bengaluru. Overnight buses and trains also connect Hampi with Goa, and Bengaluru. It is southeast of the Badami and Aihole archaeological sites.


title: Hampi

text: The synonym "Hampi"—traditionally known as "Pampa-kshetra", "Kishkindha-kshetra" or "Bhaskara-kshetra"—is derived from Pampa, another name of the goddess Parvati in Hindu theology. According to mythology, the maiden Parvati (who is a reincarnation of Shiva's previous wife, Sati) resolves to marry the loner ascetic Shiva. Her parents learn of her desire and discourage her, but she pursues her desire. Shiva is lost in yogic meditation, oblivious to the world; Parvati appeals to the gods for help to awaken him and gain his attention. Indra sends Kamadeva — the Hindu god of desire, erotic love, attraction, and affection—to awake Shiva from meditation. Kama reaches Shiva and shoots an arrow of desire. Shiva opens his third eye in his forehead and burns Kama to ashes. Parvati does not lose her hope or her resolve to win over Shiva; she begins to live like him and engage in the same activities—asceticism, yogin and tapasya—awakening him and attracting his interest. Shiva meets Parvati in disguised form and tries to discourage her, telling her Shiva's weaknesses and personality problems. Parvati refuses to listen and insists in her resolve. Shiva finally accepts her and they get married. Kama was later brought back to life after the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. According to Sthala Purana, Parvati (Pampa) pursued her ascetic, yogini lifestyle on Hemakuta Hill, now a part of Hampi, to win and bring ascetic Shiva back into householder life. Shiva is also called Pampapati (meaning "husband of Pampa"). The river near the Hemakuta Hill came to be known as Pampa river. The Sanskrit word Pampa morphed into the Kannada word Hampa and the place Parvati pursued Shiva came to be known as Hampe or Hampi.


title: Hampi

text: The site was an early medieval era pilgrimage place known as Pampakshetra. Its fame came from the Kishkindha chapters of the Hindu epic Ramayana, where Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, Sugriva and the monkey army in their search for kidnapped Sita. The Hampi area has many close resemblances to the place described in the epic. The regional tradition believes that it is that place mentioned in the Ramayana, attracting pilgrims. It was brought to light by an engineer named colonel Colin Mackenzie during the 1800s.


title: Hampi

text: Emperor Ashoka's Rock Edicts in Nittur and Udegolan—both in Bellary district 269-232 BCE—suggest this region was part of the Maurya Empire during the 3rd century BCE. A Brahmi inscription and a terracotta seal dating to about the 2nd century CE have been found during site excavations. The town is mentioned in Badami Chalukya's inscriptions as Pampapura; dating from between the 6th and 8th centuries.


title: Hampi

text: By the 10th century, it had become a centre of religious and educational activities during the rule of the Hindu kings Kalyana Chalukyas, whose inscriptions state that the kings made land grants to the Virupaksha temple. Several inscriptions from the 11th to 13th centuries are about the Hampi site, with a mention of gifts to goddess Hampa-devi. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Hindu kings of the Hoysala Empire of South India built temples to Durga, Hampadevi and Shiva, according to an inscription dated about 1,199 CE. Hampi became the second royal residence; one of the Hoysala kings was known as "Hampeya-Odeya" or "lord of Hampi". According to Burton Stein, the Hoysala-period inscriptions call Hampi by alternate names such as Virupakshapattana, Vijaya Virupakshapura in honour of the old Virupaksha (Shiva) temple there.


title: Hampi

text: The armies of the Delhi Sultanate, particularly those of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, invaded and pillaged South India. The Hoysala Empire and its capital Dvarasamudra in southern Karnataka was plundered and destroyed in the early 14th century by the armies of Alauddin Khalji, and again in 1326 CE by the army of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.


title: Hampi

text: The Kampili kingdom in north-central Karnataka followed the collapse of Hoysala Empire. It was a short-lived Hindu kingdom with its capital about from Hampi. The Kampili kingdom ended after an invasion by the Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The Hindu women of Kampili committed "jauhar" (ritual mass suicide) when the Kampili soldiers faced defeat by Tughlaq's army. In 1336 CE, the Vijayanagara Empire arose from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom. It grew into one of the famed Hindu empires of South India that ruled for over 200 years.