text: The Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn faced growing criticism from his party, which had supported remaining within the EU, for poor campaigning. On 26 June 2016, Corbyn sacked Hilary Benn (the shadow foreign secretary) for apparently leading a coup against him. This led to a string of Labour MPs quickly resigning their roles in the party. A no confidence motion was held on 28 June; Corbyn lost the motion with more than 80% (172) of MPs voting against him. Corbyn responded with a statement that the motion had no "constitutional legitimacy" and that he intended to continue as the party's leader. The vote did not require the party to call a leadership election but after Angela Eagle and Owen Smith launched leadership challenges to Corbyn, the 2016 Labour Party leadership election was triggered. Corbyn won the contest, with a larger share of the vote than in 2015.


title: 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum

text: On 4 July 2016 Nigel Farage stood down as the leader of UKIP, stating that his "political ambition has been achieved" following the result of the referendum. Following the resignation of the party leader Diane James, Farage became an interim leader on 5 October 2016. He was succeeded by Paul Nuttall on 28 November 2016.


text: Scottish First Minister Nicola Sturgeon said on 24 June 2016 that it was "clear that the people of Scotland see their future as part of the European Union" and that Scotland had "spoken decisively" with a "strong, unequivocal" vote to remain in the European Union. On the same day, the Scottish Government announced that officials would plan for a "highly likely" second referendum on independence from the United Kingdom and start preparing legislation to that effect. Former First Minister Alex Salmond said that the vote was a "significant and material change" in Scotland's position within the United Kingdom, and that he was certain his party would implement its manifesto on holding a second referendum. Sturgeon said she will communicate to all EU member states that "Scotland has voted to stay in the EU and I intend to discuss all options for doing so."


text: In reaction to the lack of a unified pro-EU voice following the referendum, the Liberal Democrats and others discussed the launch of a new centre-left political movement. This was officially launched on 24 July 2016 as More United.


text: On the morning of 24 June, the pound sterling fell to its lowest level against the US dollar since 1985. The drop over the day was 8% – the biggest one-day fall in the pound since the introduction of floating exchange rates following the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971.


text: The FTSE 100 initially fell 8%, then recovered to be 3% down by the close of trading on 24 June. The FTSE 100 index fully recovered by 29 June and subsequently rose above its pre-referendum levels.


text: The referendum result also had an immediate impact on some other countries. The South African rand experienced its largest single-day decline since 2008, dropping over 8% against the United States dollar. Other countries affected included Canada, whose stock exchange fell 1.70%, Nigeria and Kenya.


text: On 28 June 2016, former governor of Bank of England Mervyn King said that current governor Mark Carney would help to guide Britain through the next few months, adding that the BOE would undoubtedly lower the temperature of the post-referendum uncertainty, and that British citizens should keep calm, wait and see.


text: On 5 January 2017, Andy Haldane, chief economist and the executive director of monetary analysis and statistics at the Bank of England, admitted that the bank's forecasts (predicting an economic downturn should the referendum favour Brexit) had proved inaccurate given the subsequent strong market performance. He stated that the bank's models "were rather narrow and fragile [and] ill-equipped to making sense of behaviours that were deeply irrational" and said that his "profession is to some degree in crisis" due to this and the unforeseen 20072008 crisis.


text: In August 2016, the Electoral Reform Society published a highly critical report on the referendum and called for a review of how future events are run. Contrasting it very unfavourably with the 'well-informed grassroots' campaign for Scottish independence, Katie Ghose described it as "dire" with "glaring democratic deficiencies" which left voters bewildered. Ghose noted a generally negative response to establishment figures with 29% of voters saying David Cameron made them more likely to vote leave whereas only 14% said he made them want to vote remain. Looking ahead, the society called for an official organisation to highlight misleading claims and for Office of Communications (Ofcom) to define the role that broadcasters were expected to play.


text: The BBC, ITV and Sky News all provided live coverage of the counts and the reaction to the result. The BBC's coverage, presented by David Dimbleby, Laura Kuenssberg and John Curtice, was simulcast domestically on BBC One and the BBC News Channel, and internationally on BBC World News. ITV's coverage was presented by Tom Bradby, Robert Peston and Allegra Stratton.


text: The BBC called the referendum result for Leave with its projected forecast at 04:40 BST on 24 June. David Dimbleby announced it with the words:


text: On 9 May 2016, Leave.EU was fined £50,000 by the UK Information Commissioner's Office 'for failing to follow the rules about sending marketing messages': they sent people text messages without having first gained their permission to do so.


text: In February 2017, the Electoral Commission announced that it was investigating the spending of Stronger in and Vote Leave, along with smaller parties, as they had not submitted all the necessary invoices, receipts, or details to back up their accounts. In April 2017, the Commission specified that 'there were reasonable grounds to suspect that potential offences under the law may have occurred' in relation to Leave.EU.


text: On 4 March 2017, the Information Commissioner's Office also reported that it was 'conducting a wide assessment of the data-protection risks arising from the use of data analytics, including for political purposes' in relation to the Brexit campaign. It was specified that among the organisations to be investigated was Cambridge Analytica and its relationship with the Leave.EU campaign.


text: In May 2017, "The Irish Times" reported that £425,622 donated by the Constitutional Research Council to the Democratic Unionist Party for spending during the referendum may have originated in Saudi Arabia.


text: In November 2017, the Electoral Commission said that it was investigating allegations that Arron Banks, an insurance businessman and the largest single financial supporter of Brexit, violated campaign spending laws. The commission's investigation focuses on both Banks and Better for the Country Limited, a company of which Banks is a director and majority shareholder. The company donated £2.4 million to groups supporting British withdrawal from the EU. The investigation began after the Commission found "initial grounds to suspect breaches of electoral law". The Commission specifically seeks to determine "whether or not Mr Banks was the true source of loans reported by a referendum campaigner in his name" and "whether or not Better for the Country Limited was the true source of donations made to referendum campaigners in its name, or if it was acting as an agent".


text: In December 2017, the Electoral Commission announced several fines related to breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign. The Liberal Democrats were fined £18,000 and Open Britain (formerly Britain Stronger in Europe) paid £1,250 in fines. The maximum possible fine was £20,000.


text: In March 2018, Deutsche Welle reported that Canadian whistleblower Christopher Wylie "told UK lawmakers during a committee hearing...that a firm linked to Cambridge Analytica helped the official Vote Leave campaign [the official pro-Brexit group headed by Boris Johnson and Michael Gove] circumvent campaign financing laws during the Brexit referendum".


text: In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU £70,000 for unlawfully overspending by a minimum of £77,380 – exceeding the statutory spending limit by more than 10%, inaccurately reporting three loans it had received from Aaron Banks totalling £6 million including "a lack of transparency and incorrect reporting around who provided the loans, the dates the loans were entered into, the repayment date and the interest rate", and failing to provide the required invoices for "97 payments of over £200, totalling £80,224". The Electoral Commission's director of political finance and regulation and legal counsel said that the "level of fine we have imposed has been constrained by the cap on the commission's fines". In the same month, the Electoral Commission issued a £2,000 fine to the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future Limited; it also fined Unison £1,500 for inaccurately reporting a donation to Best for Our Future and failing to pay an invoice; and it fined GMB £500 for inaccurately reporting a donation to Best for Our Future.


text: In July 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Vote Leave £61,000 for not declaring £675,000 incurred under a common plan with BeLeave, unlawfully overspending by £449,079, inaccurately reporting 43 items of spending totalling £236,501, failing to provide the required invoices for "8 payments of over £200, totalling £12,850", and failing to comply with an investigation notice issued by the commission. Darren Grimes representing BeLeave was fined £20,000, the maximum permitted individual fine, for exceeding its spending limit as an unregistered campaigner by more than £660,000 and delivering an inaccurate and incomplete spending return. Veterans for Britain was also fined £250 for inaccurately reporting a donation it received from Vote Leave. The Electoral Commission referred the matter to the police. On 14 September 2018, following a High Court of Justice case, the court found that Vote Leave had received incorrect advice from the UK Electoral Commission, but confirmed that the overspending had been illegal. Vote Leave subsequently said they would not have paid it without the advice.


text: In February 2019, the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee's 18-month investigation into disinformation and fake news published its final report, calling for and inquiry to establish, in relation to the referendum, "what actually happened with regard to foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data, so that appropriate changes to the law can be made and lessons can be learnt for future elections and referenda".


text: In the run-up to the Brexit referendum, Russian President Vladimir Putin refrained from taking a public position on Brexit, but Prime Minister David Cameron suggested that Russia "might be happy" with a positive Brexit vote, while the Remain campaign accused the Kremlin of secretly backing a "Leave" vote in the referendum. Russian Foreign Ministry spokesperson Maria Zakharova denied these allegations, saying that "Russia is blamed for everything. Not only in the UK but all over the world. (...) But Russia has nothing to do with Brexit at all. We're not involved in this process." Steve Rosenberg, the Moscow correspondent for BBC News, suggested on 26 June 2016 that the Russian government stood to gain from Brexit in several ways: (1) enabling Russian state media "to contrast post-referendum upheaval and uncertainty abroad with a picture of 'stability' back home and images of a 'strong' President Putin at the helm" in a way that bolstered the ruling United Russia party; (2) to place the value of the British pound under pressure and thereby exact retaliation for sanctions against Russia imposed after its occupation of Crimea; (3) to "make the European Union more friendly towards Russia" in the absence of British membership; and (4) to force the resignation of Cameron, who had been critical of Russian actions. After the referendum result Putin said that Brexit brought "positives and negatives".


text: In December 2016, MP Ben Bradshaw speculated in Parliament that Russia may have interfered in the referendum. In February 2017, he called on the GCHQ intelligence service to reveal the information it had on Russian interference. In April 2017, the House of Commons Public Administration and Constitutional Affairs Select Committee (PACAC) issued a report suggesting that there were technical indications that a June 2016 crash of the voter-registration website was caused by a distributed denial-of-service attack using botnets. The Cabinet Office, in response, stated that it did not believe that "malign intervention" had caused the crash, and instead attributed the crash "to a spike in users just before the registration deadline".


text: In October 2017, MP Damian Collins, chairman of the House of Commons Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, sent a letter to Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg requesting documents relating to possible Russian government manipulation of Facebook during the Brexit referendum and the general election the following year.


text: In October 2017, a study by researchers at City, University of London was published in the journal "Social Science Computer Review". The article identified 13,493 Twitter accounts that posted a total of about 65,000 messages in the last four weeks of the Brexit referendum campaign, the vast majority campaigning for a "Leave" vote; they were deleted shortly after the referendum. A further 26,538 Twitter accounts suddenly changed their username. The research findings "raised questions about the possibility that a coordinated 'bot army' was deployed, and also about the possibility that Twitter itself may have detected and removed them without disclosing the manipulation".


text: In November 2017, the Electoral Commission told "The Times" that it had launched an inquiry to "examine the growing role of social media in election campaigns amid concerns from the intelligence and security agencies that Russia is trying to destabilise the democratic process in Britain". The commission was in contact with Facebook and Twitter as part of the inquiry.


text: According to Facebook, Russian-based operatives spent 97 cents to place three adverts on the social network in the run-up to the referendum, which were viewed 200 times.


text: On 10 June 2018, "The Guardian" reported that investigators from "The Observer" had seen evidence that Leave.EU funder Arron Banks had met Russian officials "multiple times" from 2015 to 2017 and had discussed "a multibillion dollar opportunity to buy Russian goldmines".


text: In July 2020, the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament published a report on Russian interference in British politics, which concluded that the government "had not seen or sought evidence of successful interference in UK democratic processes" and criticised the government for failing to conduct an assessment of Russian attempts to interfere in the Brexit referendum.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the intelligence agency of the United States during World War II. The OSS was formed as an agency of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) to coordinate espionage activities behind enemy lines for all branches of the United States Armed Forces. Other OSS functions included the use of propaganda, subversion, and post-war planning.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The OSS was dissolved a month after the end of the war. Intelligence tasks were shortly later resumed and carried over by its successors the Department of State's Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), and the independent Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: Prior to the formation of the OSS, the various departments of the executive branch, including the State, Treasury, Navy, and War Departments conducted American intelligence activities on an "ad hoc" basis, with no overall direction, coordination, or control. The US Army and US Navy had separate code-breaking departments: Signal Intelligence Service and OP-20-G. (A previous code-breaking operation of the State Department, the MI-8, run by Herbert Yardley, had been shut down in 1929 by Secretary of State Henry Stimson, deeming it an inappropriate function for the diplomatic arm, because "gentlemen don't read each other's mail.") The FBI was responsible for domestic security and anti-espionage operations.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: President Franklin D. Roosevelt was concerned about American intelligence deficiencies. On the suggestion of William Stephenson, the senior British intelligence officer in the western hemisphere, Roosevelt requested that William J. Donovan draft a plan for an intelligence service based on the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) and Special Operations Executive (SOE). Donovan envisioned a single agency responsible for foreign intelligence and special operations involving commandos, disinformation, partisan and guerrilla activities. After submitting his work, "Memorandum of Establishment of Service of Strategic Information", he was appointed "coordinator of information" on July 11, 1941, heading the new organization known as the office of the Coordinator of Information (COI).


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: Thereafter the organization was developed with British assistance; Donovan had responsibilities but no actual powers and the existing US agencies were skeptical if not hostile. Until some months after Pearl Harbor, the bulk of OSS intelligence came from the UK. British Security Co-ordination (BSC) trained the first OSS agents in Canada, until training stations were set up in the US with guidance from BSC instructors, who also provided information on how the SOE was arranged and managed. The British immediately made available their short-wave broadcasting capabilities to Europe, Africa, and the Far East and provided equipment for agents until American production was established.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The Office of Strategic Services was established by a Presidential military order issued by President Roosevelt on June 13, 1942, to collect and analyze strategic information required by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and to conduct special operations not assigned to other agencies. During the war, the OSS supplied policymakers with facts and estimates, but the OSS never had jurisdiction over all foreign intelligence activities. The FBI was left responsible for intelligence work in Latin America, and the Army and Navy continued to develop and rely on their own sources of intelligence.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: OSS proved especially useful in providing a worldwide overview of the German war effort, its strengths and weaknesses. In direct operations it was successful in supporting Operation Torch in French North Africa in 1942, where it identified pro-Allied potential supporters and located landing sites. OSS operations in neutral countries, especially Stockholm, Sweden, provided in-depth information on German advanced technology. The Madrid station set up agent networks in France that supported the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944. Most famous were the operations in Switzerland run by Allen Dulles that provided extensive information on German strength, air defenses, submarine production, and the V-1 and V-2 weapons. It revealed some of the secret German efforts in chemical and biological warfare. Switzerland's station also supported resistance fighters in France, Austria and Italy, and helped with the surrender of German forces in Italy in 1945.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: For the duration of World War II, the Office of Strategic Services was conducting multiple activities and missions, including collecting intelligence by spying, performing acts of sabotage, waging propaganda war, organizing and coordinating anti-Nazi resistance groups in Europe, and providing military training for anti-Japanese guerrilla movements in Asia, among other things. At the height of its influence during World War II, the OSS employed almost 24,000 people.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: From 1943–1945, the OSS played a major role in training Kuomintang troops in China and Burma, and recruited Kachin and other indigenous irregular forces for sabotage as well as guides for Allied forces in Burma fighting the Japanese Army. Among other activities, the OSS helped arm, train, and supply resistance movements in areas occupied by the Axis powers during World War II, including Mao Zedong's Red Army in China (known as the Dixie Mission) and the Viet Minh in French Indochina. OSS officer Archimedes Patti played a central role in OSS operations in French Indochina and met frequently with Ho Chi Minh in 1945.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: One of the greatest accomplishments of the OSS during World War II was its penetration of Nazi Germany by OSS operatives. The OSS was responsible for training German and Austrian individuals for missions inside Germany. Some of these agents included exiled communists and Socialist party members, labor activists, anti-Nazi prisoners-of-war, and German and Jewish refugees. The OSS also recruited and ran one of the war's most important spies, the German diplomat Fritz Kolbe.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: From 1943 the OSS was in contact with the Austrian resistance group around Kaplan Heinrich Maier. As a result, plans and production facilities for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft (Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, etc.) were passed on to Allied general staffs in order to enable Allied bombers to get accurate air strikes. The Maier group informed very early about the mass murder of Jews through its contacts with the Semperit factory near Auschwitz. The group was gradually dismantled by the German authorities because of a double agent who worked for both the OSS and the Gestapo. This uncovered a transfer of money from the Americans to Vienna via Istanbul and Budapest, and most of the members were executed after a People's Court hearing.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: In 1943, the Office of Strategic Services set up operations in Istanbul. Turkey, as a neutral country during the Second World War, was a place where both the Axis and Allied powers had spy networks. The railroads connecting central Asia with Europe, as well as Turkey's close proximity to the Balkan states, placed it at a crossroads of intelligence gathering. The goal of the OSS Istanbul operation called Project Net-1 was to infiltrate and extenuate subversive action in the old Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The head of operations at OSS Istanbul was a banker from Chicago named Lanning "Packy" Macfarland, who maintained a cover story as a banker for the American lend-lease program. Macfarland hired Alfred Schwarz, a Czechoslovakian engineer and businessman who came to be known as "Dogwood" and ended up establishing the Dogwood information chain. Dogwood in turn hired a personal assistant named Walter Arndt and established himself as an employee of the Istanbul Western Electrik Kompani. Through Schwartz and Arndt the OSS was able to infiltrate anti-fascist groups in Austria, Hungary, and Germany. Schwartz was able to convince Romanian, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and Swiss diplomatic couriers to smuggle American intelligence information into these territories and establish contact with elements antagonistic to the Nazis and their collaborators. Couriers and agents memorized information and produced analytical reports; when they were not able to memorize effectively they recorded information on microfilm and hid it in their shoes or hollowed pencils. Through this process information about the Nazi regime made its way to Macfarland and the OSS in Istanbul and eventually to Washington.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: While the OSS "Dogwood-chain" produced a lot of information, its reliability was increasingly questioned by British intelligence. By May 1944, through collaboration between the OSS, British intelligence, Cairo, and Washington, the entire Dogwood-chain was found to be unreliable and dangerous. Planting phony information into the OSS was intended to misdirect the resources of the Allies. Schwartz's Dogwood-chain, which was the largest American intelligence gathering tool in occupied territory, was shortly thereafter shut down.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The OSS purchased Soviet code and cipher material (or Finnish information on them) from émigré Finnish army officers in late 1944. Secretary of State Edward Stettinius, Jr., protested that this violated an agreement President Roosevelt made with the Soviet Union not to interfere with Soviet cipher traffic from the United States. General Donovan might have copied the papers before returning them the following January, but there is no record of Arlington Hall receiving them, and CIA and NSA archives have no surviving copies. This codebook was in fact used as part of the Venona decryption effort, which helped uncover large-scale Soviet espionage in North America.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: RYPE was the codename of the airborne unit who was dropped in the Norwegian mountains of Snåsa on March 24, 1945 to carry out sabotage actions behind enemy lines. From the base at the Gjefsjøen mountain farm, the group conducted successful railroad sabotages, with the intention of preventing the withdrawal of German forces from northern Norway. Operasjon Rype was the only U.S. operation on German-occupied Norwegian soil during WW2. The group consisted mainly of Norwegian Americans recruited from the 99th Infantry Battalion. Operasjon Rype was led by William Colby.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The OSS sent four teams of two under Captain Stephen Vinciguerra (codename "Algonquin", teams Alsace, Poissy, S&S and Student), with Operation Varsity in March 1945 to infiltrate and report from behind enemy lines, but none succeeded. Team S&S had two agents in Wehrmacht uniforms and a captured Kϋbelwagon; to report by radio. But the Kϋbelwagon was put out of action while in the glider; three tires and the long-range radio were shot up (German gunners were told to attack the gliders not the tow planes).


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The OSS espionage and sabotage operations produced a steady demand for highly specialized equipment. General Donovan invited experts, organized workshops, and funded labs that later formed the core of the Research & Development Branch. Boston chemist Stanley P. Lovell became its first head, and Donovan humorously called him his "Professor Moriarty". Throughout the war years, the OSS Research & Development successfully adapted Allied weapons and espionage equipment, and produced its own line of novel spy tools and gadgets, including silenced pistols, lightweight sub-machine guns, "Beano" grenades that exploded upon impact, explosives disguised as lumps of coal ("Black Joe") or bags of Chinese flour ("Aunt Jemima"), acetone time delay fuses for limpet mines, compasses hidden in uniform buttons, playing cards that concealed maps, a 16mm Kodak camera in the shape of a matchbox, tasteless poison tablets ("K" and "L" pills), and cigarettes laced with tetrahydrocannabinol acetate (an extract of Indian hemp) to induce uncontrollable chattiness.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The OSS also developed innovative communication equipment such as wiretap gadgets, electronic beacons for locating agents, and the "Joan-Eleanor" portable radio system that made it possible for operatives on the ground to establish secure contact with a plane that was preparing to land or drop cargo. The OSS Research & Development also printed fake German and Japanese-issued identification cards, and various passes, ration cards, and counterfeit money.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: On August 28, 1943, Stanley Lovell was asked to make a presentation in front of a hostile Joint Chiefs of Staff, who were skeptical of OSS plans beyond collecting military intelligence and were ready to split the OSS between the Army and the Navy. While explaining the purpose and mission of his department and introducing various gadgets and tools, he reportedly casually dropped into a waste basket a Hedy, a panic-inducing explosive device in the shape of a firecracker, which shortly produced a loud shrieking sound followed by a deafening boom. The presentation was interrupted and did not resume since everyone in the room fled. In reality, the Hedy, jokingly named after Hollywood movie star Hedy Lamarr for her ability to distract men, later saved the lives of some trapped OSS operatives.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: Not all projects worked. Some ideas were odd, such as a failed attempt to use insects to spread anthrax in Spain. Stanley Lovell was later quoted saying, "It was my policy to consider any method whatever that might aid the war, however unorthodox or untried".


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: In 1939, a young physician named Christian J. Lambertsen developed an oxygen rebreather set (the Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit) and demonstrated it to the OSS—after already being rejected by the U.S. Navy—in a pool at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington D.C., in 1942. The OSS not only bought into the concept, they hired Lambertsen to lead the program and build up the dive element for the organization. His responsibilities included training and developing methods of combining self-contained diving and swimmer delivery including the Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit for the OSS "Operational Swimmer Group". Growing involvement of the OSS with coastal infiltration and water-based sabotage eventually led to creation of the OSS Maritime Unit.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: At Camp X, near Whitby, Ontario, an "assassination and elimination" training program was operated by the British Special Operations Executive, assigning exceptional masters in the art of knife-wielding combat, such as William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes, to instruct trainees. Many members of the Office of Strategic Services also were trained there. It was dubbed "the school of mayhem and murder" by George Hunter White who trained at the facility in the 1950s.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: From these incipient beginnings, the Office of Strategic Services opened camps in the United States, and finally abroad. Prince William Forest Park (then known as Chopawamsic Recreational Demonstration Area) was the site of an OSS training camp that operated from 1942 to 1945. Area "C", consisting of approximately , was used extensively for communications training, whereas Area "A" was used for training some of the OGs (Operational Groups). Catoctin Mountain Park, now the location of Camp David, was the site of OSS training Area "B" where the first Special Operations, or SO, were trained. Special Operations was modeled after Great Britain's Special Operations Executive, which included parachute, sabotage, self-defense, weapons, and leadership training to support guerrilla or partisan resistance. Considered most mysterious of all was the "cloak and dagger" Secret Intelligence, or SI branch. Secret Intelligence employed "country estates as schools for introducing recruits into the murky world of espionage. Thus, it established Training Areas E and RTU-11 ("the Farm") in spacious manor houses with surrounding horse farms." Morale Operations training included psychological warfare and propaganda. The Congressional Country Club (Area F) in Bethesda, Maryland, was the primary OSS training facility. The Facilities of the Catalina Island Marine Institute at Toyon Bay on Santa Catalina Island, Calif., are composed (in part) of a former OSS survival training camp. The National Park Service commissioned a study of OSS National Park training facilities by Professor John Chambers of Rutgers University.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The main OSS training camps abroad were located initially in Great Britain, French Algeria, and Egypt; later as the Allies advanced, a school was established in southern Italy. In the Far East, OSS training facilities were established in India, Ceylon, and then China. The London branch of the OSS, its first overseas facility, was at 70 Grosvenor Street, W1. In addition to training local agents, the overseas OSS schools also provided advanced training and field exercises for graduates of the training camps in the United States and for Americans who enlisted in the OSS in the war zones. The most famous of the latter was Virginia Hall in France.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The OSS's Mediterranean training center in Cairo, Egypt, known to many as the "Spy School", was a lavish palace belonging to King Farouk's brother-in-law, called "Ras el Kanayas". It was modeled after the SOE's training facility STS 102 in Haifa, Palestine. Americans whose heritage stemmed from Italy, Yugoslavia, and Greece were trained at the "Spy School" and also sent for parachute, weapons, and commando training, and Morse code and encryption lessons at STS 102. After completion of their spy training, these agents were sent back on missions to the Balkans and Italy where their accents would not pose a problem for their assimilation.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The names of all 13,000 OSS personnel and documents of their OSS service, previously a closely guarded secret, were released by the US National Archives on August 14, 2008. Among the 24,000 names were those of Sterling Hayden, Carl C. Cable, Julia Child, Ralph Bunche, Arthur Goldberg, Saul K. Padover, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., Bruce Sundlun, William Colby, René Joyeuse, and John Ford. The 750,000 pages in the 35,000 personnel files include applications of people who were not recruited or hired, as well as the service records of those who served.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: OSS soldiers were primarily inducted from the United States Armed Forces. Other members included foreign nationals including displaced individuals from the former czarist Russia, an example being Prince Serge Obolensky.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: Donovan sought independent thinkers, and in order to bring together those many intelligent, quick-witted individuals who could think out-of-the box, he chose them from all walks of life, backgrounds, without distinction to culture or religion. Donovan was quoted as saying, "I'd rather have a young lieutenant with enough guts to disobey a direct order than a colonel too regimented to think for himself." In a matter of a few short months, he formed an organization which equalled and then rivalled Great Britain's Secret Intelligence Service and its Special Operations Executive. Donovan, inspired by Britain's SOE, assembled an outstanding group of clinical psychologists to carry out evaluations of potential OSS candidates at a variety of sites, primary among these was Station S in Northern Virginia near where Dulles International Airport now stands. Recent research from remaining records from the OSS Station S program describes how those characteristics (independent thought, effective intelligence, interpersonal skills) were found among OSS candidates


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: René Joyeuse M.D., MS, FACS was a Swiss, French and American soldier, physician and researcher, who distinguished himself as an agent of Allied intelligence in German-occupied France during World War II. He received the US Army Distinguished Service Cross for his actions with the OSS, after the war he became a Physician, Researcher and was a co-founder of The American Trauma Society.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: "Jumping Joe" Savoldi (code name Sampson) was recruited by the OSS in 1942 because of his hand-to-hand combat and language skills as well as his deep knowledge of the Italian geography and Benito Mussolini's compound. He was assigned to the Special Operations branch and took part in missions in North Africa, Italy, and France during 1943–1945.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: Taro and Mitsu Yashima, both Japanese political dissidents who were imprisoned in Japan for protesting its militarist regime, worked for the OSS in psychological warfare against the Japanese Empire.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: In late 1943, a representative from OSS visited the 442nd Infantry Regiment looking to recruit volunteers willing to undertake "extremely hazardous assignment." All selected were Nisei. The recruits were assigned to OSS Detachments 101 and 202, in the China-Burma-India Theater. "Once deployed, they were to interrogate prisoners, translate documents, monitor radio communications, and conduct covert operations... Detachment 101 and 102's clandestine operations were extremely successful."


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: On September 20, 1945, President Truman signed Executive Order 9621, terminating the OSS. The State Department took over the Research and Analysis Branch; it became the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, The War Department took over the Secret Intelligence (SI) and Counter-Espionage (X-2) Branches, which were then housed in the new Strategic Services Unit (SSU). Brigadier General John Magruder (formerly Donovan's Deputy Director for Intelligence in OSS) became the new SSU director. He oversaw the liquidation of the OSS and managed the institutional preservation of its clandestine intelligence capability.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: In January 1946, President Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG), which was the direct precursor to the CIA. SSU assets, which now constituted a streamlined "nucleus" of clandestine intelligence, were transferred to the CIG in mid-1946 and reconstituted as the Office of Special Operations (OSO). The National Security Act of 1947 established the Central Intelligence Agency, which then took up some OSS functions. The direct descendant of the paramilitary component of the OSS is the CIA Special Activities Division.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: Today, the joint-branch United States Special Operations Command, founded in 1987, uses the same spearhead design on its insignia, as homage to its indirect lineage. The Defense Intelligence Agency currently manages the OSS’ mandate to provide strategic military intelligence to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of Defense and to coordinate human espionage activities across the United States Armed Forces (through the Defense Clandestine Service) and was awarded status as an OSS Heritage organization by the OSS Society.


title: Office of Strategic Services

text: The OSS also is mentioned in Pelgrane Press "The Fall of DELTA GREEN". Player Characters can be ex-OSS agents in other agencies such as the CIA, which can be beneficial due to the claim and carry authenticity, experience and authority due to their past career in the OSS.


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach is an American rock band from Vacaville, California, formed in 1993. The original lineup consisted of lead vocalist Jacoby Shaddix, guitarist Jerry Horton, drummer Dave Buckner, bassist Will James, and trombonist Ben Luther.


title: Papa Roach

text: After two EPs, James left and was replaced by Tobin Esperance. The band independently released two more EPs before signing with DreamWorks Records in 1999, subsequently releasing the triple-platinum "Infest" in 2000, the gold album "Lovehatetragedy" in 2002 and the platinum album "Getting Away with Murder" in 2004. A year after "The Paramour Sessions", Buckner left in 2007, and was replaced by Tony Palermo. Papa Roach then made "Metamorphosis" (2009), "Time for Annihilation" (2010), "The Connection" (2012), "F.E.A.R." (2015), "Crooked Teeth" (2017) and "Who Do You Trust?" (2019). Their eleventh studio album "Ego Trip", was released on April 8, 2022.


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach's formation began in January 1993, when lead singer Jacoby Shaddix and drummer Dave Buckner met on the Vacaville High School football field. They were later joined by lead guitarist Jerry Horton from nearby Vanden High School, rhythm guitarist Anne Mikolajcik, trombonist Ben Luther and bassist Will James. They decided to enter the school's talent show, performing a version of Jimi Hendrix's song "Fire". They ultimately ended up losing the talent show. In March 1993, Ben Luther left the band, and Anne Mikolajcik left as well. At this point, Papa Roach was practicing every day and touring, playing every gig they could get. Their first tour van was called Moby Dick, where Shaddix was inspired to come up with his first stage name "Coby Dick". Initially, the band was called "Papa Gato" as suggested by Buckner but Shaddix changed it to Papa Roach based on the nickname of his step-grandfather, Howard William "Papa" Roatch, Sr.


title: Papa Roach

text: In 1994, Papa Roach released their first EP titled "Potatoes for Christmas". Drummer Dave Buckner was temporarily replaced by Ryan Brown, as Buckner was spending the year in Seattle studying art. In 1995, they released a demo at Sound Farm Studios titled "Caca Bonita". By this time Buckner was back. In 1996, they replaced original bassist Will James with longtime roadie Tobin Esperance, as James' involvement in a church summer camp would limit the band's summer practicing and touring.


title: Papa Roach

text: On February 4, 1997, the band produced their debut studio album, entitled "Old Friends from Young Years". Still touring heavily, they supported bands such as Incubus, Powerman 5000, Hed PE, Snot, Far, and Static-X.


title: Papa Roach

text: In 1998, they released an EP titled "5 Tracks Deep". It sold more than 1,000 copies in its first month of release. In 1999, they produced another EP, which would end up being their last independent release, titled "Let 'Em Know". Its success caught the attention of Warner Music Group, who as part of a development deal provided a small amount of money for the production of a five-track promo-demo CD. The band decided they wanted influential rock producer Jay Baumgardner on board to produce the record. In an interview with HitQuarters, Baumgardner said, "At first I wasn't really convinced it would work out, but then I saw a video of them performing at a club - I saw all these kids going wild, knowing the songs by heart - and that's when I realized that they definitely had potential."


title: Papa Roach

text: Warner Bros. was not impressed with the demo, and elected not to sign them. The unreleased disc included the songs "Infest", "Last Resort", "Broken Home", "Dead Cell", and "She Loves Me Not".


title: Papa Roach

text: After signing with DreamWorks Records in October 1999, they immediately entered the studio to record their major-label debut album titled "Infest". The album included old songs from their independent releases, these being "Infest", "Last Resort", "Broken Home", "Dead Cell" from the Warner Bros. demo CD; "Revenge In Japanese" as "Revenge" and "Thrown Away" from their "5 Tracks Deep" EP; "Legacy", "Binge", "Snakes", and a softer version of the originally heavier "Tightrope" from the "Let 'Em Know" EP; which were re-recorded, and three additional newly written songs: "Obsession" (later known as "Between Angels and Insects"), "Blood Brothers", and "Never Enough". "Infest" was released on April 25, 2000, and sold 30,001 copies in its first week of release.


title: Papa Roach

text: With their second album released, and the music video for "Last Resort" recorded, they embarked on the Vans Warped Tour and numerous other large tours, including the Anger Management Tour with Limp Bizkit and rap acts such as Eminem, E-40, Xzibit, and Ludacris. They embarked on their headlining "Master Bay" tour in 2000, with support from Linkin Park and Hed PE. The band was nominated for "Best New Artist in a Video" at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards for "Last Resort".


title: Papa Roach

text: In late 2000, they toured the United Kingdom, highlighting how quickly their popularity had spread worldwide. In 2001, the band toured Ozzfest, where they performed on the prestigious main stage, on both the United States and United Kingdom tours. The song "Blood Brothers" was also featured on the popular video game "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2".


title: Papa Roach

text: After touring worldwide, the band returned to the studio to record their third album which was to be titled "Born to Rock", but was later renamed to "Lovehatetragedy". The album was released in the United States on June 18, 2002, and though it did not outsell "Infest", it managed to chart higher in both the United States and United Kingdom album charts. The album has sold over 500,000 copies and has been certified gold. The album features a bigger focus on singing over rapping, though the band retained their nu metal sound. The album had two singles which were She Loves Me Not and Time and Time Again, both had rapping and both had the rap metal sound of "Infest". The music video for the single "Time and Time Again" was featured on the Pepsi Blue commercial. In 2002, Papa Roach also embarked on some tours including the second Anger Management Tour in 2002. The tour from Lovehatetragedy was from 2002 to early of 2003.


title: Papa Roach

text: In late 2003, Papa Roach wrote and recorded their third album with the working title "Dancing In the Ashes", but released as "Getting Away with Murder". The band worked with well-recognized producer Howard Benson. After completion, the band filmed a music video for the title track, "Getting Away with Murder", and went on a small summer club tour to warm-up for the tours that would follow. The album introduced a different approach for the band, becoming their first album not to feature the nu metal style of their previous albums. It was also the band's first album not to feature rapping. "Getting Away with Murder" outsold "Lovehatetragedy", mainly due to the popularity of the album's second single, "Scars". To date, the album has sold over one million copies and has been certified Platinum. On November 9, 2004, the band released their fifth EP, "Rolling Stone Original", an EP only available digitally. On November 22, 2005 they released their first live album, "".


title: Papa Roach

text: In 2005, the band spent much of their time on tour. This included a full United States and European tour alongside bands such as Dead Poetic, Trust Company, Chronic Future, Skindred, 311 and Unwritten Law.


title: Papa Roach

text: On September 12, 2006 Papa Roach released their fourth album "The Paramour Sessions". The band named the title after the recording location, the Paramour Mansion. The band came up with the idea of doing an album in a mansion while they were recording "Getting Away with Murder", Shaddix stated that recording in a manor was becoming popular for the unique sound and feeling it generates (which is reflected on the lyrics). "...To Be Loved" was the first single to be released from the album, and was the official theme song for "WWE Raw" from 2006 to 2009 until it was replaced by "Burn It to the Ground" by Nickelback. The album continued in an alternative rock-based direction but still contained softer ballads akin to "Getting Away with Murder". The album debuted at No. 16 on the Billboard 200 Charts.


title: Papa Roach

text: The band started touring in support of the album in August 2006, with an American tour followed by another in Europe. In October 2006, Papa Roach toured with bands such as Guns N' Roses, during their Chinese Democracy tour, and Deftones throughout the United States, having major success. They were also the special guest band during the Zippo Hot Tour with Hed PE and Stealing December.


title: Papa Roach

text: On October 10, 2006 a String Quartet tribute album entitled "Perfect Murder: Strung Out on Papa Roach" was released by Vitamin Records.


title: Papa Roach

text: The band originally planned to release a compilation of acoustic recordings for their songs, such as "Forever", "Scars", and "Not Coming Home", which was recorded for KROQ-FM's charity Christmas album, "Kevin and Bean's Super Christmas". The acoustic compilation was later shelved. In an interview with billboard.com, Shaddix stated that he didn't think fans were ready for an acoustic direction from the band.


title: Papa Roach

text: On April 25, 2007, it was announced that drummer Dave Buckner would be sitting out the band's touring schedule due to personal matters. He was expected to rejoin the group shortly afterwards. Shaddix later confirmed in an interview with Launch Radio Networks that Dave had entered rehab to "go clean his act up 'cause he was out of his mind." Unwritten Law drummer Tony Palermo filled in on drums.


title: Papa Roach

text: In the summer of 2007 the band went on the Bad Boys of Rock tour, supporting Hinder. During the tour frontman Shaddix and Hinder lead singer Austin Winkler created a very tight friendship, causing the band to tour with Hinder on multiple tours in later years. It was revealed in 2015 that Shaddix and Austin wrote and recorded a song together for a part of Winkler's solo project, although the two said they were not for sure if the song would ever see the light of day.


title: Papa Roach

text: On January 28, 2008 Shaddix announced on Papa Roach's MySpace that Buckner would officially be parting ways with Papa Roach for good. He stated that Dave was still trying to get his life back together. Shaddix also mentioned that the band would be going back to the Paramour Mansion to begin work on their fifth studio album.


title: Papa Roach

text: On July 17, the band released their sixth EP, "Live Session (iTunes Exclusive)". On July 24, they released their seventh EP, "". Both EPs are available exclusively through iTunes.


title: Papa Roach

text: In an interview in February 2008 with 99.7 The Blitz, Shaddix stated that the band was working on their next album, which was to be titled "Days of War, Nights of Love". However, the album was renamed to "Metamorphosis" to mark the band's tenth anniversary of signing with DreamWorks Records in 1999 and all of the changes the band had experienced in that time.


title: Papa Roach

text: On April 15, Papa Roach announced they would be touring as part of Mötley Crüe's "Crüe Fest", along with Buckcherry, , and Trapt. The tour began on July 1 in West Palm Beach, Florida. The release date for the album was confirmed as August 26 during "Crüe Fest".


title: Papa Roach

text: The band also went on tour with Seether, Staind, and Red later in the year. They changed the release date of "Metamorphosis" to March 24, 2009 during that tour.


title: Papa Roach

text: On October 26, Papa Roach released the music video for the song, "Hollywood Whore", which was released as an EP in Canada and as a digital single on October 28. The album's first official single, "Lifeline", was released on the band's MySpace profile on January 9, 2009. The band also went on tour with Buckcherry, Avenged Sevenfold, and Burn Halo in early 2009. The "Crüe Fest" DVD was released on March 24, the same day "Metamorphosis" was released. The second single, "I Almost Told You That I Loved You", was released on June 1. On June 23, they released their ninth EP, "". The EP is available through the Zune Marketplace, iTunes, and Rhapsody.


title: Papa Roach

text: "Metamorphosis" made it to top 10 on the Billboard 100, reaching number 8, the band's first top ten album since 2002.


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach toured with Nickelback on their Dark Horse Tour through Live Nation outdoor amphitheater's along with Hinder and Saving Abel in the summer, and ever Breaking Benjamin.


title: Papa Roach

text: "Lifeline" was nominated for Fuse TV's Best Video of 2009 contest, beating Metallica's "All Nightmare Long", Daughtry's "No Surprise", Shinedown's "Sound of Madness", and Paramore's "Ignorance", before finishing 2nd to Britney Spears for her song "Circus" in the final round.


title: Papa Roach

text: On January 8, 2010, Shaddix announced on Papa Roach's official Twitter account that the band was about to start working on new material. On February 8, 2010, Jerry Horton said that he was at the studio starting to write.


title: Papa Roach

text: On February 23, 2010, Jerry Horton officially announced that the band were releasing a new album, which was recorded on the last run of their 2009 co-headlining tour with Shinedown at the Binghamton, New York.


title: Papa Roach

text: In April, the band played two new songs, "Burn" at the Chili Cook Off in Richmond, Virginia on April 17, 2010, and "Kick In the Teeth" on April 30, 2010. In May, Jerry Horton said in an interview that the name of the album would be "Time for Annihilation", and would feature nine live tracks and five new songs, making it a combined live album and an EP. He also said that the first single would be "Kick In the Teeth" and that the band switched labels to Eleven Seven Music. Later, Shaddix added on that the album would be released on August 31. "Kick In the Teeth" was released as a single on June 22, 2010.


title: Papa Roach

text: On June 29, 2010, the band's former label, Geffen Records, released a greatest hits compilation of the band's biggest hits, titled "". The band, however, told fans not to buy it, saying that the band was making no money off of the album's sales and that the label released the album against the band's will. Masters and/or copyrights by Papa Roach are represented by Downtown Music Publishing. The band no longer owns the rights to their songs, but continue to play them live.


title: Papa Roach

text: "Time for Annihilation" was released on August 31, 2010. The band announced that the next singles from the album would be "Burn" and "No Matter What". They also said they were interested in releasing another live DVD, but wanted to wait until they had a headlining show in Europe. In October 2010, Papa Roach began the "Monsters of Annihilation" tour with Skillet. From November 15, 2010 to December 13, 2010, The band toured with Disturbed, Buckcherry and Halestorm on the Taste of Chaos tour, and from March 1, 2011 to 18, Papa Roach co-headlined the Canada leg of the Jägermeister Music Tour with Buckcherry, and special guests My Darkest Days and Bleeker Ridge.


title: Papa Roach

text: In an interview, guitarist Jerry Horton said that the band was going to release a new album in 2012. He also mentioned that Papa Roach would explore "electronic sounds" for this upcoming release.<ref name="Papa Roach : Interview 2010 / 2011"></ref>


title: Papa Roach

text: In an interview with Upvenue, Tobin Esperance said of "Time for Annihilation" that "We put out five major label, full-length records, and we were transitioning from a major label, going independent, and we wanted to do something different [...] we'd always talked about doing a live record, and it turned into 'let's add a couple of bonus songs' [...] and now it's half live, half new songs and it's kind of the past and present of Papa Roach, and I think it's a good representation and a good reminder of what this band's about, [...] and it gives you a look at where our sound can go."


title: Papa Roach

text: Starting April 25, 2011, Papa Roach headlined the Raid The Nation tour, the first leg consisting of Finger Eleven, and the second leg with Escape the Fate, both legs of the tour also had special guests Pop Evil. On June 23 and 25, the band co-headlined the Sonisphere Festival with Linkin Park.


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach played two intimate shows in London and Sheffield in July 2011 with the band Yashin. They also co-headlined the Rock Allegiance Tour from August 24, 2011 to September 25, 2011 with Buckcherry. Also on the tour was Puddle of Mudd, P.O.D., Red, Crossfade, and Drive A.


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach entered the studio on November 2011 to work on their next album, aiming for a mid-2012 release. While in the studio, the band released the single, "Even If I Could", which appeared in "The Avengers" soundtrack.


title: Papa Roach

text: On June 15, 2012 the band announced in a live chat with fans on YouTube that the next album would be released on October 2. The album was later given the name, "The Connection".


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach started off touring for 2012 Co-Headlining dates with Shinedown, along with other supporting acts such as Adelitas Way and In This Moment. Following up the short Co-Headliner, Papa Roach headed out on a short headlining tour bringing out bands such as In This Moment, Art of Dying, and Mindset Evolution. Papa Roach participated on the main stage of the 2012 Uproar Festival alongside Shinedown, Godsmack, Staind, and Adelitas Way.


title: Papa Roach

text: The band released their first music video for the album on August 30, 2012. The video idea for Still "Swingin'" came from Jacoby's eight-year-old son.


title: Papa Roach

text: On September 8, 2012, Papa Roach announced dates in Belarus, Russia, Poland, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and the UK. They played two dates (December 10 and 11) in London co-headlining with rockers Stone Sour on their UK tour. They only played on those two dates of the tour. They then toured the United States with Stone Sour starting on January 20, 2013, and played at 2013 Download Festival at Donington Park, UK on the Main Stage on Friday, June 14. In September, the band was rejoined by original drummer Buckner for a one-off performance of "Last Resort". October 2013 saw the band perform across Canada and the US in support of "The Connection" with Pop Evil and Age of Days also on the bill.


title: Papa Roach

text: On February 3, 2014 the band announced that they will be going into the studio, recording a new album. On February 18, 2014 on Twitter Jerry stated that the first single should come out "somewhere around July". They did a live studio chat on YouTube on February 25, 2014. In the live chat, they mentioned that they have already written four songs. They revealed the titles of three songs: "Just as Broken as Me", "Gravity" and "War Over Me". On April 24, 2014, on an interview for Loudwire, Jacoby revealed a few more song titles from the upcoming album, the titles were "Never Have to Say Goodbye" and "Face Everything and Rise".


title: Papa Roach

text: On July 10, 2014, it was announced that the band will release their new album, titled "F.E.A.R.", in early 2015. On October 9, 2014, it was announced that the new album will release on January 27, 2015 via Eleven Seven Music. During an interview, bassist Tobin Esperance has admitted that the new release is heavier than previous albums and describes how "F.E.A.R." is the first time they've allowed other artists to feature on their records.


title: Papa Roach

text: On May 19, 2015, The band announced a co-headlining North American Tour with longtime friends Five Finger Death Punch. They will be accompanied by In This Moment as special guests with support from "From Ashes to New" for the tour.


title: Papa Roach

text: On January 26, 2016, Papa Roach announced that they will begin writing their new album the following week. In July, they played live at the Alternative Press Music Awards. In an interview they said, that the new record will be released in early 2017, with a first single appearing this year. The recording of the album was supported through crowdfunding service PledgeMusic.


title: Papa Roach

text: On November 1, 2016, "Crooked Teeth" was the first song to be released from the upcoming record. The first official single, titled "Help" was released on February 17, 2017. On March 24, 2017, the band announced the new album, "Crooked Teeth" to be released on May 19, 2017. A second single, "American Dreams", was released in April 2017, and a third single, "Born for Greatness", was released towards the end of the year. "Born for Greatness" became the official main theme of WWE Raw in February 2018, replacing "Enemies" by Shinedown. Both "Help" and "Born for Greatness" made it to number 1 on the Mainstream Rock Charts, the first time the band had two songs off one album achieve the feat.


title: Papa Roach

text: In October 2017, the band revealed they had already written six songs for the follow up to "Crooked Teeth", with plans to start work on recording the album in June 2018. On October 5, 2018, Papa Roach released two singles, "Renegade Music" and "Who Do You Trust?", with the latter being accompanied by a music video, where frontman and vocalist Jacoby Shaddix stars as news reporter Larry Dickman. Later, information leaked that the new album will be called "Who Do You Trust?" and was released on January 19, 2019. An interview with Papa Roach from November 9 confirmed this. On November 16, 2018, the band released the new song "Not the Only One". A third single, "Come Around", was released in September 2019. In November 2020, the fourth single, "The Ending", was released.


title: Papa Roach

text: On December 25, 2020, the band released a compilation called 20/20, which consisted of the Infest studio recordings they had uploaded to YouTube prior, as well re-recordings of Tightrope, Last Resort, Scars, Getting Away With Murder and Between Angels and Insects. On March 19, 2021, the band released their second greatest hit compilation, "Greatest Hits Vol.2 - The Better Noise Years".


title: Papa Roach

text: On August 1, 2021, the band released a new single entitled "Swerve", featuring Jason Aalon Butler of Fever 333 and American rapper Sueco. On September 9, 2021, Papa Roach released the first radio single "Kill The Noise" from their upcoming eleventh studio album in 2022. On October 29, 2021, the band released a new song "Dying To Believe". On January 21, 2022, "Stand Up" followed as the album's fourth single. A fifth single "Cut the Line" was released on March 1, 2022. The album "Ego Trip" was announced on the same day and was released on April 8, 2022. On June 14, 2022, the band released sixth single "No Apologies", accompanied by a music video.


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach has been described as alternative metal, hard rock, rap metal, alternative rock, nu metal, rap rock, punk rock, pop rock, and rapcore. The band also utilizes elements of pop, electronic, and hip hop. The band started as a hardcore punk band. In their early independent releases and on their first two major label albums, "Infest" and "Lovehatetragedy", the band tended to use nu metal and rap metal. Before Papa Roach released their major label albums, Jacoby Shaddix's singing style was compared to Chino Moreno and Lynn Strait of Snot. Additionally, with their 2009 album, "Metamorphosis", as the name expresses, the band felt that their music was going through a transformation to "stuff that's...harder and faster". AllMusic has compared the band's recent work to 1980s glam metal, Allmusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote "At the close of the 2000s, the quartet has shed the rap and the angst, ditching all the alt-metal accoutrements to become a knowing update of an '80s Sunset Strip sleaze rock outfit." With the release of "F.E.A.R.", both MetalSucks and Metal Injection noted that the band has acquired some djent influences.


title: Papa Roach

text: In 2004, frontman Jacoby Shaddix said the following in an interview with the Dallas Music Guide regarding the band no longer using rapping in their music: "...the rapping's gone! I don't feel like rapping. I'm just over that...I just want to be a rocker. It's what I wanted to be when I was a kid". Shaddix has added this remark in another interview: "We're a band that tries to walk that line between metal, hardcore, punk rock and pop music, and we do our best at trying to make it all cool".


title: Papa Roach

text: Prior to the release of "The Connection", guitarist Jerry Horton said in an interview by VerdamMnis Magazine that "It's kind of a natural thing for us, we've always been changing throughout the years. Of course, there are some things that stay the same in our sound but we do like to try new things to sort of stretch out a little bit our basis and therefore make it more interesting". He also said that the band was going to explore "electronic sounds for the next record".


title: Papa Roach

text: The band's influences include Faith No More, Social Distortion, Metallica, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Wu-Tang Clan, Fugees, Refused, Queen, and Led Zeppelin. Jacoby Shaddix acknowledges Faith No More's Mike Patton and Social Distortion's Mike Ness as major influences, stating that "the way that I sing, I definitely was inspired by Mike Patton", "but I like the storytelling that Mike Ness does so I kind of fused both those two guys together at an early age, and it inspired me to become my own thing."


title: Papa Roach

text: In the beginning, Papa Roach's biggest influence was experimental band Mr. Bungle (fronted by Mike Patton from Faith No More), which was reflected in the adventurousness of their 1994 debut release "Potatoes for Christmas".


title: Papa Roach

text: In a 2021 interview, Jacoby Shaddix reflected about the band's long-held association with the nu metal genre, saying "I love being one of the forefathers of nu metal, that’s dope, but we’ve been able to outlive it and celebrate it at the same time".


title: Papa Roach

text: Papa Roach is considered one of the bands that defined the nu metal sound. Alternative Press said: "Despite distancing from their distinctive sound in recent years, Papa Roach’s early output shaped the side of nü metal that the mainstream welcomed with open arms—riff-laden, radio-friendly (at least, after a few bleeps) singles with dark earworm lyrics to piss off parents. Jacoby Shaddix’s in-your-face tones were the introduction to many teenagers’ nü-metal awakening, backed by completely singable and seductive guitar lines that made this outfit so instrumental in the genre. So much so that a feature from Shaddix is a seal of approval for any album."


title: Papa Roach

text: About the band's album "Infest", Kerrang! magazine said: "Straining vocal chords and detonating dancefloors with Last Resort, tugging the heartstrings with Broken Home and earworming their way under our skin with Between Angels And Insects, Jacoby Shaddix’s Californian mob didn’t just deliver an angst overload – they unleashed every ounce of feeling via arguably the catchiest songwriting nu-metal would ever see. Adolescence never really ends and, even now, these are absolutely essential sounds."


title: Nelk

text: Nelk (stylized as NELK), also referred to as the Nelk Boys, is a Canadian-American YouTube channel and entertainment company.


title: Nelk

text: They are known for their prank videos, vlogs, and their brand Full Send Entertainment. The group's founder, Kyle Forgeard, and Jesse Sebastiani (bought out of the company) have been referred to as "two of the most recognizable personalities for young people in North America".


title: Nelk

text: Nelk's videos, in addition to pranks, are themed around North American college culture. The group's videos combine vlogs of their party lifestyle with footage of their actual pranks.


title: Nelk

text: Nelk is known for popularizing and later trademarking the slang term "Full Send" (stylized as FULL SEND) which Forgeard defined as meaning "any activity you do, give it your absolute best". The group has also popularized a number of other terms, including "Rona Season," a reference to the group's constant consumption of Corona beer. Sebastiani has referred to the group's trademark words as "Canadian-influenced slang".


title: Nelk

text: Nelk operates the Full Send clothing brand. The clothing is sold in one-time Supreme-style "drops", where each style of clothing has limited availability and is only available once. Once the entire drop is sold out, no Full Send clothing can be purchased until the next drop, when new styles will become available. Nelk sells almost $100 million worth of apparel every year.


title: Nelk

text: The group hosts a podcast called the Full Send Podcast. Most episodes have featured a guest. Many notable guests have been on the podcast including Donald Trump, Mike Tyson, Elon Musk, Andrew Tate and others.


title: Nelk

text: Current and recurring members include Kyle Forgeard, Stephen “SteveWillDoIt” Deleonardis, Salim Sirur, Gabriel Poncio, Aaron "Steiny" Steinberg, "Jimmy Gambles" (Arthur Kulik), and "Cousin Jay" (Jordan Nwanne). Canadian filmmaker Austin Ermes is Nelk’s Director of Content. Nelk Headquarters is located in Newport Beach, California. Nelk also has an offshoot location in Miami, Florida under "SteveWillDoIt LLC." The group previously resided in Ontario, Canada, and Los Angeles.


title: Nelk

text: Jesse Sebastiani was a founding member of the group. Prior to joining Nelk, was known for his self-published documentary, "Saved by the Status", and his role in the MTV show "Careless Teens". Years after joining, he expressed his displeasure with his and the group's lifestyle. In a tweet posted on January 29, 2020, he wrote, "I hate fame... I've lost almost everything I use to love about life". He eventually became less active in Nelk videos, and in late 2020, he began primarily working on the Full Send brand. In 2022, he officially took distance from the group and the company and started his own brand called “Sunday”.


title: Nelk

text: Other former members of the group include Niko and Marko Martinovic, Lucas Gasparini, and Jason Pagaduan. Niko and Marko, who are twins, were members of Nelk in the early development, but left in 2015 to pursue YouTube independently. Gasparini left in 2017 citing concerns of his association with the channel's content, which consisted of public misconduct which would affect his career outlook, as well as the pursuit of educational studies as a plumber. He then returned in 2021 joining the rest of the team in Los Angeles. Pagaduan, who was known by his Instagram handle "905shooter" or simply "9-0," was withdrawn from the group in October 2019 for behavioral misconduct from sexual harassment allegations stemming from Pagaduan sending direct messages of a graphic and sexual nature to fans, as well as not meeting standards.


title: Nelk

text: In 2010, Forgeard created the YouTube channel, at the time called NelkFilmz, along with other founding members Niko and Marko Martinovic, and Lucas Gasparini. In 2014, Forgeard met Jesse Sebastiani at an MTV Canada conference, who would soon after become a prominent member of the group.


title: Nelk

text: In January 2015, Nelk posted a video titled "Coke Prank On Cops" in which they told police officers in Los Angeles that they had "coke" in the back of the car, leading the officers to think that they were referring to cocaine when in reality they were referring to Coca-Cola. In May 2016, the video became a subject of controversy. The group received a warning, and the Los Angeles Police Department released a statement informing the public that the prank was illegal and warning potential copycat pranksters against doing so. The video has received 49 million views and is currently their most viewed, having almost three times as many views as their second-most viewed video.


title: Nelk

text: In June 2017, it was announced that Gasparini had left because he no longer wanted to pursue Nelk as a full-time career. He re-joined later in 2021.


title: Nelk

text: In January 2019, Sebastiani was arrested during a prank in which he walked into a Barnes & Noble store with fake blood smeared on a white jumpsuit and asked workers for books on covering up a crime scene. He was charged by Columbus, Ohio police department, and found guilty of disorderly conduct in the Ohio Court of Common Pleas.


title: Nelk

text: In May 2019, Stephen Deleonardis joined Nelk after being discovered by Forgeard for his drinking and smoking challenge videos.


title: Nelk

text: In August 2019, Nelk participated in a "spin the globe challenge", and ended up in Europe. In Ireland, Nelk planned a meetup in a public park, but failed to notify the local police. The meetup got out of control, with large mobs of fans swarming the area in an unsafe manner, causing the meetup to be cut short. Afterward, Jason Pagaduan was removed from the group. In February 2020, Nelk moved into a residence in Los Angeles, California which they refer to as the "Full Send House". Salim Sirur and Cousin Jay also joined Nelk at this time.


title: Nelk

text: In May 2020, Forgeard, Deleonardis, Sirur, along with several other members were arrested for disturbing the peace while filming a prank at a Target store in Mississippi. They were later released on bond.


title: Nelk

text: In September 2020, the police department in Normal, Illinois announced an investigation into Nelk after they hosted a flash mob of about 200 people on-campus at Illinois State University in violation of COVID-19 regulations. Following this, YouTube announced a decision to totally demonitize the Nelk YouTube account in addition to most of their specific videos, so that no money could be earned from YouTube. They attributed the decision to the platform's Creator Responsibility Policy, which mandates that creators do not engage in “on- and/or off-platform behavior [that] harms our users, community, employees or ecosystem," claiming that Nelk had harmed YouTube users by hosting a group of people and thereby violating COVID-19 regulations. Chris Koos, the town's mayor, also stated that he intends to pursue legal action against Nelk. A week later, police in Seaside Heights, New Jersey broke up a gathering of about 1,500 people at a house being rented by Nelk, which violated New Jersey's COVID-19 restrictions. Nelk, despite no intentions to draw a crowd, was eventually kicked out of the house by the landlord and 8 fans were arrested. Governor Phil Murphy called the event "knucklehead behavior".


title: Nelk

text: In October 2020, Nelk members Forgeard, Deleonardis, and Sirur traveled overseas to Abu Dhabi. Later the same month, members met with President Donald Trump on Air Force One during one of his 2020 presidential election rallies. They were also seen to dance to the "Y.M.C.A." song with President Trump onstage following his rally. They met Trump again in July 2021 at UFC 264.


title: Nelk

text: On March 23, 2021, Nelk was unable to upload a video due to suggestions by their attorney in relation to an arrest warrant filed against Forgeard in Texas. That same month, CBS reported that Nelk was responsible for a series of physical assaults at a group meet in Fort Worth, Texas on March 15.


title: Nelk

text: On May 31, 2021, Nelk revealed their own brand of hard seltzer called Happy Dad. The beverage became available for purchase on June 14, 2021 in select US states, and is expanding to other locations over time. Happy Dad Seltzer is produced and packaged at Minhas Breweries & Distillery in Monroe, WI.


title: Nelk

text: On September 8, 2021, Nelk uploaded the first episode of their "Full Send Podcast", exclusive to YouTube and Apple Podcasts.


title: Nelk

text: In February 2022, Forgeard was officially added to the Forbes 30 under 30 list for social media influencers.


title: Nelk

text: On March 9, 2022, Nelk interviewed former President Trump on an episode of the Full Send Podcast. In less than 24 hours, the interview received 5 million views on YouTube, which was soon after removed by YouTube. Within a week, Full Send Podcast became the second most popular podcast in the US on Spotify.


title: Nelk

text: On August 5, 2022, Nelk released an interview with Elon Musk on the Full Send Podcast, which acquired over 2 million views in less than a day.


title: Nelk

text: The YouTube Streamy Awards, or commonly referred to as the Streamy's, are presented annually to recognize and honor excellence in online video, including directing, acting, producing, and writing.


title: Dixie

text: Dixie, also known as Dixieland or Dixie's Land, is a nickname for all or part of the Southern United States. While there is no official definition of this region (and the included areas shift over the years), or the extent of the area it covers, most definitions include the U.S. states below the Mason–Dixon line that seceded and comprised the Confederate States of America, almost always including the Deep South. The term became popularized throughout the United States by its usage in songs nostalgically referencing the American South during the 20th century.


title: Dixie

text: Geographically, "Dixie" usually means the eleven Southern states that seceded from the United States of America in late 1860 and early 1861 to form the Confederate States of America. They are listed below in order of secession:


title: Dixie

text: Although Maryland is rarely considered part of Dixie today, it is below the Mason–Dixon line. If the origin of the term "Dixie" is accepted as referring to the region south and west of that line, Maryland lies within Dixie. It can be argued that Maryland was part of Dixie before the Civil War, especially culturally. In this sense, it would remain so into the 1970s, until an influx of people from the Northeast made the state and its culture significantly less Southern (especially Baltimore and the suburbs of Washington, D.C.). However, the southern part of the state and Maryland's Eastern Shore still remain, culturally, Southern and continue to share many common traits associated with Dixie.


title: Dixie

text: As for the nation's capital itself: "Whether Washington should be defined as a Southern city has been a debate since the Civil War, when it was the seat of the Northern government but a hotbed of rebel sympathy," the "Washington Post" wrote in 2011. "The Washington area's 'Southernness' has fallen into steep decline, part of a trend away from strongly held regional identities. In the 150th anniversary year of the start of the Civil War, the region at the heart of the conflict has little left of its historic bond with Dixie."


title: Dixie

text: The Florida Big Bend includes a Dixie County. Certain parts of Oklahoma and Missouri that are considered more culturally Southern than the rest of these two states have been nicknamed Little Dixie (Oklahoma) and Little Dixie (Missouri), respectively.


title: Dixie

text: The location and boundaries of Dixie have, over time, become increasingly subjective and mercurial. Today, it is most often associated with parts of the Southern United States where traditions and legacies of the Confederate era and the Antebellum South live most strongly. The concept of Dixie as the location of a certain set of cultural assumptions, mindsets, and traditions was explored in the book "The Nine Nations of North America" (1981).


title: Dixie

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the origin of this nickname remains obscure. The most common theories, according to "A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles" (1951) by Mitford M. Mathews include the following:


title: Dixie

text: During the Jazz Age and the American folk music revival, "Dixie" was used widely in popular music such as "Swanee", "Are You From Dixie?", "Is It True What They Say About Dixie?" and, more contemporaneously, "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down" and "Dixieland Delight". The first popular song to contain "Dixie" in its name was "I Wish I Was In Dixie," composed in 1859 and incorporated as an unofficial anthem of the Confederate States of America.


title: Dixie

text: In terms of self-identification and appeal, the popularity of the word "Dixie" is declining. A 1976 study revealed that in an area of the South covering about 350,000 square miles (all of Mississippi and Alabama; almost all of Georgia, Tennessee, and South Carolina; and around half of Louisiana, Arkansas, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Florida) the term reached 25% of the popularity of the term "American" in names of commercial business entities. A 1999 analysis found that between 1976 and 1999, in 19% of U.S. cities sampled, there was an increase of relative use of "Dixie"; in 48% of cities sampled, there was a decline; and no change was recorded in 32% of cities. A 2010 study found that in the course of 40 years, the area in question shrank to just , to the area where Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida meet. In 1976, at about "Dixie" reached at least 6% of the popularity of "American"; in 2010, the corresponding area was a .


title: Dixie

text: Sociologists Christopher A. Cooper and H. Gibbs Knotts surveyed all 50 states and the District of Columbia for the use of the words "Dixie" and "Southern" in business names. Unlike the survey conducted by John Shelton Reed, who concentrated on cities, Cooper & Knotts surveyed entire states using modern technology rather than the physical search of telephone books that were available to Reed. They excluded the chain Winn-Dixie from the study. Their data, within these parameters, resulted in a 13-state region which they divided into three tiers, from high to low scores. In the first tier were Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. The second tier was Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The third tier was Florida, Oklahoma, Virginia, and West Virginia.


title: Dixie

text: In 1965, the Washington Redskins football team removed from the team song the word "Dixie" and a musical quotation from the song of the name after a Black fan wrote to the owner of the team, describing the racial unrest that "Dixie" caused and asking for it to be stopped.


title: Dixie

text: In the 21st century, several groups or organizations removed "Dixie" from their names so as not to glorify the Confederacy. They included Dolly Parton's Dixie Stampede, the music group Dixie Chicks, and the Dixie Classic Fair. The board of trustees at Dixie State University in Utah voted unanimously in December 2020 to change the name of the institution, with the Utah Legislature putting "Utah Tech University" into effect in 2022 to distance the university from the "Dixie" term.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Janice Doreen Dickinson (born February 16, 1955) is an American model, television personality, and businesswoman. Initially notable as a model, Dickinson has been disputably described by herself as the first supermodel. One of the most successful models of the 1970s and 1980s, she also served as a judge on four cycles of "America's Next Top Model" (2003–2006). Dickinson opened a modeling agency in 2005 which was documented on the reality series "The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency" (2006–2008).


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In 2007, Dickinson was a contestant on the seventh series of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" in which she finished as runner-up. In 2008, she starred on the reality series "Janice & Abbey", alongside British model Abbey Clancy. In 2010, Dickinson appeared on the fourth series of "Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew", and in 2015, she appeared on the sixteenth series of "Celebrity Big Brother".


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson has released three autobiographical books: "No Lifeguard on Duty" (2002), "Everything About Me Is Fake… And I'm Perfect" (2004), and "Check Please! Dating, Mating, and Extricating" (2006).


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson was born in Brooklyn, New York, the second daughter to Jennie Marie ("née" Pietrzykowski) and Ray Dickinson. Her mother was of Polish descent.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: She was raised in Hollywood, Florida with her elder sister, Alexis, who became a real estate agent, and her younger sister, Debbie, who also became a model.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson has been open about the emotional and physical abuse she suffered as a child and teenager, and how her father used to sexually abuse one of her sisters. Of her childhood with her "rageoholic pedophile" of a father, Dickinson stated, "Because I wouldn't give in and let him have sex with me, I was verbally and physically abused on a daily basis. I was told that I looked like a boy and wouldn't amount to anything."


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In the early 1970s, Dickinson moved to New York City to pursue work as a model after winning a national competition called "Miss High Fashion Model." At a time when blue-eyed blondes dominated the fashion scene, Dickinson was turned down several times by modeling agents, including Eileen Ford, who informed Dickinson she was "much too ethnic. You'll never work."


title: Janice Dickinson

text: She was discovered by the fashion photographer Jacques Silberstein when his girlfriend, actress Lorraine Bracco, mentioned she liked Dickinson's look. Wilhelmina Cooper became Dickinson's first agent. Her modeling pursuits led her to Paris, France, where her "exotic looks" secured her reputation within the European fashion industry.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: She returned to New York City in 1978, and spent the next several years working steadily, earning $2,000 per day, nearly four times the standard rate. Dickinson eventually signed with Ford Models to land a major ad campaign for a new JVC camera. Dickinson, who had not forgotten Ford's initial rejection, was intent on revenge. She soon became one of twenty Ford models to defect to John Casablancas's upstart Elite Model Management.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: By the 1980s, Dickinson was considered a supermodel, as she "possessed the kind of name and face recognition" that the majority of women in the modeling industry strive to achieve. She appeared within and on covers of magazines including "Harper's Bazaar", "Cosmopolitan", "Photo", "Vogue", "Marie Claire", and "Playboy", and worked with some of fashion's best-known names, including Bill Blass, Gianni Versace, Valentino Garavani, Azzedine Alaïa, Pino Lancetti, Halston, Oscar de la Renta and Calvin Klein. She has appeared on the cover of "Vogue" (International editions only) 37 times. She was seen on the cover of "Elle" seven times in a row and has been the face of ad campaigns for brands including Revlon, Alberto VO5, Balmain, Obao, Christian Dior, Clairol, Hush Puppies, Orbit gum, Max Factor, Virginia Slims, and Cutex.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson looked for ways to sustain her relevance within the fashion industry as she aged, becoming a fashion photographer. In 2008, she launched her own jewelry line on HSN.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: While Dickinson claims to have coined the term "supermodel" in 1979, and to be the first "supermodel", the word already was known in the 1940s. The writer Judith Cass used the term in 1942 in her "Chicago Tribune" article "Super Models are Signed for Fashion Show". In 1943, author Clyde Matthew Dessner used the term in his book "So You Want to Be a Model!"


title: Janice Dickinson

text: "The New York Times", on March 21, 1967, and "The Daily Times" of Salisbury, Maryland on May 19, 1967, both referred to Twiggy as a supermodel.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In 1968, an article in "Glamour" described Twiggy, Cheryl Tiegs, Wilhelmina, Veruschka, Jean Shrimpton, and 15 other models as "supermodels".


title: Janice Dickinson

text: The April 23, 1971, issue of "The Hour" headlined one of its articles "Supermodels Reveal Their Beauty Secrets", including an advertisement with the caption "Supermodel Cheryl Tiegs". The article also says, "The fashion/beauty world is dotted with Supermodels" and "Cybill Shepherd a Supermodel who may turn into a Superstar." Jean Shrimpton was described as a supermodel by "Time" in 1971, as were Margaux Hemingway by "Vogue" on September 1, 1975, Beverly Johnson by "Jet" in 1977, and Naomi Sims in the 1978 book "Total Beauty Catalog" by K.T. Maclay.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Lisa Fonssagrives and Dorian Leigh, whose careers began before Dickinson was born, have been retroactively recognized as the 20th century's first supermodels. Gia Carangi has been called the first supermodel as well as Jean Shrimpton.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Lauren Hutton has also been referred to as the first supermodel, due to the fact that she was the first model to get a cosmetics contract. (In 1974 with Revlon.)


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In 2003, Dickinson returned to media attention with her stint as a judge on the reality television series "America's Next Top Model". She was hired after producer Tyra Banks read "No Lifeguard On Duty" and realized that Dickinson could offer the contestants advice on the perils of the fashion industry. As a panelist, Dickinson became known for her wit and incisive, brutally honest critiques.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson frequently quarreled with her fellow judges, particularly Kimora Lee Simmons and Nolé Marin. A recurring source of tension between Dickinson and Banks was the former's dubiety concerning plus-size models.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: After four cycles, Banks fired Dickinson, replacing her with Twiggy. Dickinson was hurt by the decision. "I was just telling the truth and I was saving these girls from going out there and being told that they're too short, too fat, their skin's not good enough," she said. "I was to America's Next Top Model what Simon Cowell is to "American Idol"." Despite this, Dickinson made guest appearances on the following three cycles: As the photographer for a photo challenge in cycle 5, in a mentor role in cycle 6, and as the interviewee for an interview challenge in cycle 7. In 2005, Dickinson was a cast member on "The Surreal Life" during its fifth season. She was confronted by castmate Omarosa Manigault during a publicity photo shoot while Dickinson was posing with a prop knife. After being physically separated by Bronson Pinchot the two continued to feud throughout the series.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In 2006, Dickinson starred in her own reality show, "The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency", for the Oxygen cable-television channel. The program, which ran for four seasons, documented Dickinson launching a new career as a modeling agent. She appeared with British model Abigail Clancy in "Beauty & The Best", a reality series detailing Clancy's attempt to break into the American modeling market. The show debuted in the United Kingdom on Living on May 14, 2007, and premiered in the U.S on Oxygen on February 19, 2008.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In November 2007, Dickinson became one of the celebrities taking part in the British reality television show "I'm a Celebrity…Get Me out of Here!". She set the record for most Bushtucker trials, competing ten times in a row. In the finale of the series, it was announced that Dickinson had gained second place in the competition, with Christopher Biggins coming first.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson was also a contestant for season two of the American version of "I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!" which began airing in June 2009. She was eliminated from the show on June 18, 2009.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In 2009, Dickinson was a guest judge on the Finnish version of the "Top Model" franchise. She created controversy after the claimed effects of accidentally mixing a sleeping aid with champagne caused her to fall down a flight of stairs and burst out at the models. Dickinson was taken to a hospital where she was told she had no visible injuries. She later apologized to the models during the show's airing.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Other guest appearances include "Still Charmed and Kicking", an episode of "Charmed". Dickinson made a cameo appearance in Darren Hayes's music video "On the Verge of Something Wonderful". In 2010, Dickinson appeared on the celebrity edition of British dinner-party contest "Come Dine with Me", on which she frequently butted heads with former Page 3 Girl Samantha Fox over her glamour modeling career, and flirted with Calum Best.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson appeared in the fourth season of "Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew", which premiered in December 2010. In 2011, she guest-starred in an episode of "90210" (titled "Project Runway").


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In August 2015, Dickinson was a housemate on the sixteenth season of the British reality show, "Celebrity Big Brother". She became the seventh celebrity to be evicted from the house, just two days before the final.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson has been married four times. Her former husbands are Ron Levy, Simon Fields, and Alan B. Gersten, also known as Albert Gersten. She has a son, Nathan, and a daughter, Savannah. Dickinson was having an affair with Sylvester Stallone when Savannah was born in 1994, and it was reported that Stallone was the father. Their relationship ended when DNA tests proved he was not the father. In her books and in interviews, she has discussed her numerous sexual relationships with male and female celebrities. In 2012, she announced she was engaged to Dr. Robert Gerner ("Rocky"), a psychiatrist whom she married in December 2016.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: In November 2014, Dickinson joined a number of women accusing comedian Bill Cosby of rape, alleging that Cosby raped her in 1982. Dickinson said that she tried to write about this in her 2002 autobiography, but Cosby and his lawyers pressured her and her lawyers to remove the details.


title: Janice Dickinson

text: Dickinson released a memoir detailing her "wild days" as a supermodel. Titled "No Lifeguard on Duty: The Accidental Life of the World's First Supermodel" (2002), the book was effective in introducing her to a new generation. Her 2004 follow-up memoir was "Everything About Me Is Fake… And I'm Perfect", in which she describes her life in modeling; her experience with plastic surgery; and her battles with anorexia, bulimia, and alcoholism. Her next memoir, "Check Please! Dating, Mating, and Extricating" (2006), discusses the men in her life, and prescribes her rules for dating.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants, also known as the McDonald's coffee case and the hot coffee lawsuit, was a highly publicized 1994 product liability lawsuit in the United States against the McDonald's restaurant chain.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: The plaintiff, Stella Liebeck (1912–2004), a 79-year-old woman, suffered third-degree burns in her pelvic region when she accidentally spilled coffee in her lap after purchasing it from a McDonald's restaurant. She was hospitalized for eight days while undergoing skin grafting, followed by two years of medical treatment. Liebeck sought to settle with McDonald's for $20,000 to cover her medical expenses. When McDonald's refused, Liebeck's attorney filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico, accusing McDonald's of gross negligence.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Liebeck's attorneys argued that, at , McDonald's coffee was defective, and more likely to cause serious injury than coffee served at any other establishment. The jury found that McDonald's was 80 percent responsible for the incident. They awarded Liebeck a net $160,000 in compensatory damages to cover medical expenses, and $2.7 million () in punitive damages, the equivalent of two days of McDonald's coffee sales. The trial judge reduced the punitive damages to three times the amount of the compensatory damages, totalling $640,000. The parties settled for a confidential amount before an appeal was decided.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: The Liebeck case became a flashpoint in the debate in the United States over tort reform. It was cited by some as an example of frivolous litigation; ABC News called the case "the poster child of excessive lawsuits", while the legal scholar Jonathan Turley argued that the claim was "a meaningful and worthy lawsuit". Ex-attorney Susan Saladoff sees the portrayal in the media as purposeful misrepresentation due to political and corporate influence. In June 2011, HBO premiered "Hot Coffee", a documentary that discussed in depth how the "Liebeck" case has centered in debates on tort reform.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Stella May Liebeck was born in Norwich, England, on December 14, 1912; she was 79 at the time of the burn incident. On February 27, 1992, Liebeck ordered a 49-cent cup of coffee from the drive-through window of an Albuquerque McDonald's restaurant at 5001 Gibson Boulevard Southeast. Liebeck was in the passenger's seat of a 1989 Ford Probe, which did not have cup holders. Her grandson parked the car so that Liebeck could add cream and sugar to her coffee. Liebeck placed the coffee cup between her knees and pulled the far side of the lid toward her to remove it. In the process, she spilled the entire cup of coffee on her lap. Liebeck was wearing cotton sweatpants; they absorbed the coffee and held it against her skin, scalding her thighs, buttocks, and groin.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Liebeck was taken to a hospital, where it was determined that she had suffered third-degree burns on six percent of her skin and lesser burns over sixteen percent. She remained in the hospital for eight days while she underwent skin grafting. During this period, Liebeck lost (nearly 20 percent of her body weight), reducing her to . After the hospital stay, Liebeck needed care for three weeks, which was provided by her daughter. Liebeck suffered permanent disfigurement after the incident and was partially disabled for two years.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: Liebeck sought to settle with McDonald's for $20,000 to cover her actual and anticipated expenses. Her past medical expenses were $10,500; her anticipated future medical expenses were approximately $2,500; and her daughter's loss of income was approximately $5,000 for a total of approximately $18,000. Instead, the company offered only $800.


title: Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants

text: When McDonald's refused to raise its offer, Liebeck retained Texas attorney Reed Morgan. Morgan filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico, accusing McDonald's of gross negligence for selling coffee that was "unreasonably dangerous" and "defectively manufactured". McDonald's refused Morgan's offer to settle for $90,000. Morgan offered to settle for $300,000, and a mediator suggested $225,000 just before trial; McDonald's refused both.