title: Dehradun

text: George Harrison of the Beatles wrote a song called "Dehra Dun" during the group's stay in Rishikesh in early 1968. The song remained unreleased until its appearance on the super deluxe edition of Harrison's album "All Things Must Pass" in 2021.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium (or hydrogen-2, symbol or deuterium, also known as heavy hydrogen) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen (the other being protium, or hydrogen-1). The nucleus of a deuterium atom, called a deuteron, contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common protium has no neutrons in the nucleus. Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth's oceans of about one atom in of hydrogen (see heavy water). Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0.0156% (0.0312% by mass) of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans, while protium accounts for more than 99.98%. The abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another (see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water). Tritium is another hydrogen isotope.


title: Deuterium

text: The name "deuterium" is derived from the Greek , meaning "second", to denote the two particles composing the nucleus. Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey. When the neutron was discovered in 1932, this made the nuclear structure of deuterium obvious, and Urey won the Nobel Prize in 1934 "for his discovery of heavy hydrogen". Soon after deuterium's discovery, Urey and others produced samples of "heavy water" in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced. Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium. Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 to deuterium (about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms) has its origin from that time. This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets, such as Jupiter. The analysis of deuterium–protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth's oceans (156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms). This reinforces theories that much of Earth's ocean water is of cometary origin. The deuterium–protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, as measured by the "Rosetta" space probe, is about three times that of Earth water. This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium–protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium is frequently represented by the chemical symbol D. Since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by . IUPAC allows both D and , although is preferred. A distinct chemical symbol is used for convenience because of the isotope's common use in various scientific processes. Also, its large mass difference with protium (H) (deuterium has a mass of , compared to the mean hydrogen atomic weight of , and protium's mass of ) confers non-negligible chemical dissimilarities with protium-containing compounds, whereas the isotope weight ratios within other chemical elements are largely insignificant in this regard.


title: Deuterium

text: In quantum mechanics the energy levels of electrons in atoms depend on the reduced mass of the system of electron and nucleus. For the hydrogen atom, the role of reduced mass is most simply seen in the Bohr model of the atom, where the reduced mass appears in a simple calculation of the Rydberg constant and Rydberg equation, but the reduced mass also appears in the Schrödinger equation, and the Dirac equation for calculating atomic energy levels.


title: Deuterium

text: The reduced mass of the system in these equations is close to the mass of a single electron, but differs from it by a small amount about equal to the ratio of mass of the electron to the atomic nucleus. For hydrogen, this amount is about 1837/1836, or 1.000545, and for deuterium it is even smaller: 3671/3670, or 1.0002725. The energies of spectroscopic lines for deuterium and light hydrogen (hydrogen-1) therefore differ by the ratios of these two numbers, which is 1.000272. The wavelengths of all deuterium spectroscopic lines are shorter than the corresponding lines of light hydrogen, by a factor of 1.000272. In astronomical observation, this corresponds to a blue Doppler shift of 0.000272 times the speed of light, or 81.6 km/s.


title: Deuterium

text: The differences are much more pronounced in vibrational spectroscopy such as infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, and in rotational spectra such as microwave spectroscopy because the reduced mass of the deuterium is markedly higher than that of protium. In nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, deuterium has a very different NMR frequency (e.g. 61 MHz when protium is at 400 MHz) and is much less sensitive. Deuterated solvents are usually used in protium NMR to prevent the solvent from overlapping with the signal, although deuterium NMR on its own right is also possible.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium is thought to have played an important role in setting the number and ratios of the elements that were formed in the Big Bang. Combining thermodynamics and the changes brought about by cosmic expansion, one can calculate the fraction of protons and neutrons based on the temperature at the point that the universe cooled enough to allow formation of nuclei. This calculation indicates seven protons for every neutron at the beginning of nucleogenesis, a ratio that would remain stable even after nucleogenesis was over. This fraction was in favor of protons initially, primarily because the lower mass of the proton favored their production. As the Universe expanded, it cooled. Free neutrons and protons are less stable than helium nuclei, and the protons and neutrons had a strong energetic reason to form helium-4. However, forming helium-4 requires the intermediate step of forming deuterium.


title: Deuterium

text: Through much of the few minutes after the Big Bang during which nucleosynthesis could have occurred, the temperature was high enough that the mean energy per particle was greater than the binding energy of weakly bound deuterium; therefore any deuterium that was formed was immediately destroyed. This situation is known as the deuterium bottleneck. The bottleneck delayed formation of any helium-4 until the Universe became cool enough to form deuterium (at about a temperature equivalent to 100 keV). At this point, there was a sudden burst of element formation (first deuterium, which immediately fused to helium). However, very shortly thereafter, at twenty minutes after the Big Bang, the Universe became too cool for any further nuclear fusion and nucleosynthesis to occur. At this point, the elemental abundances were nearly fixed, with the only change as some of the radioactive products of Big Bang nucleosynthesis (such as tritium) decay. The deuterium bottleneck in the formation of helium, together with the lack of stable ways for helium to combine with hydrogen or with itself (there are no stable nuclei with mass numbers of five or eight) meant that an insignificant amount of carbon, or any elements heavier than carbon, formed in the Big Bang. These elements thus required formation in stars. At the same time, the failure of much nucleogenesis during the Big Bang ensured that there would be plenty of hydrogen in the later universe available to form long-lived stars, such as our Sun.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium occurs in trace amounts naturally as deuterium gas, written or D, but most of the naturally occurring atoms in the Universe are bonded with a typical atom, a gas called hydrogen deuteride (HD or ).


title: Deuterium

text: The existence of deuterium on Earth, elsewhere in the Solar System (as confirmed by planetary probes), and in the spectra of stars, is also an important datum in cosmology. Gamma radiation from ordinary nuclear fusion dissociates deuterium into protons and neutrons, and there are no known natural processes other than the Big Bang nucleosynthesis that might have produced deuterium at anything close to its observed natural abundance. Deuterium is produced by the rare cluster decay, and occasional absorption of naturally occurring neutrons by light hydrogen, but these are trivial sources. There is thought to be little deuterium in the interior of the Sun and other stars, as at these temperatures the nuclear fusion reactions that consume deuterium happen much faster than the proton-proton reaction that creates deuterium. However, deuterium persists in the outer solar atmosphere at roughly the same concentration as in Jupiter, and this has probably been unchanged since the origin of the Solar System. The natural abundance of deuterium seems to be a very similar fraction of hydrogen, wherever hydrogen is found, unless there are obvious processes at work that concentrate it.


title: Deuterium

text: The existence of deuterium at a low but constant primordial fraction in all hydrogen is another one of the arguments in favor of the Big Bang theory over the Steady State theory of the Universe. The observed ratios of hydrogen to helium to deuterium in the universe are difficult to explain except with a Big Bang model. It is estimated that the abundances of deuterium have not evolved significantly since their production about 13.8 billion years ago. Measurements of Milky Way galactic deuterium from ultraviolet spectral analysis show a ratio of as much as 23 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms in undisturbed gas clouds, which is only 15% below the WMAP estimated primordial ratio of about 27 atoms per million from the Big Bang. This has been interpreted to mean that less deuterium has been destroyed in star formation in our galaxy than expected, or perhaps deuterium has been replenished by a large in-fall of primordial hydrogen from outside the galaxy. In space a few hundred light years from the Sun, deuterium abundance is only 15 atoms per million, but this value is presumably influenced by differential adsorption of deuterium onto carbon dust grains in interstellar space.


title: Deuterium

text: The abundance of deuterium in the atmosphere of Jupiter has been directly measured by the Galileo space probe as 26 atoms per million hydrogen atoms. ISO-SWS observations find 22 atoms per million hydrogen atoms in Jupiter. and this abundance is thought to represent close to the primordial solar system ratio. This is about 17% of the terrestrial deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio of 156 deuterium atoms per million hydrogen atoms.


title: Deuterium

text: Cometary bodies such as Comet Hale-Bopp and Halley's Comet have been measured to contain relatively more deuterium (about 200 atoms D per million hydrogens), ratios which are enriched with respect to the presumed protosolar nebula ratio, probably due to heating, and which are similar to the ratios found in Earth seawater. The recent measurement of deuterium amounts of 161 atoms D per million hydrogen in Comet 103P/Hartley (a former Kuiper belt object), a ratio almost exactly that in Earth's oceans, emphasizes the theory that Earth's surface water may be largely comet-derived. Most recently the deuterium–protium (D–H) ratio of 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko as measured by "Rosetta" is about three times that of Earth water, a figure that is high. This has caused renewed interest in suggestions that Earth's water may be partly of asteroidal origin.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium has also been observed to be concentrated over the mean solar abundance in other terrestrial planets, in particular Mars and Venus.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium is produced for industrial, scientific and military purposes, by starting with ordinary water—a small fraction of which is naturally-occurring heavy water—and then separating out the heavy water by the Girdler sulfide process, distillation, or other methods.


title: Deuterium

text: In theory, deuterium for heavy water could be created in a nuclear reactor, but separation from ordinary water is the cheapest bulk production process.


title: Deuterium

text: The world's leading supplier of deuterium was Atomic Energy of Canada Limited until 1997, when the last heavy water plant was shut down. Canada uses heavy water as a neutron moderator for the operation of the CANDU reactor design.


title: Deuterium

text: Another major producer of heavy water is India. All but one of India's atomic energy plants are pressurised heavy water plants, which use natural (i.e., not enriched) uranium. India has eight heavy water plants, of which seven are in operation. Six plants, of which five are in operation, are based on D–H exchange in ammonia gas. The other two plants extract deuterium from natural water in a process that uses hydrogen sulphide gas at high pressure.


title: Deuterium

text: While India is self-sufficient in heavy water for its own use, India now also exports reactor-grade heavy water.


title: Deuterium

text: Compared to hydrogen in its natural composition on Earth, pure deuterium (D) has a higher melting point (18.72 K vs 13.99 K), a higher boiling point (23.64 K vs 20.27 K), a higher critical temperature (38.3 K vs 32.94 K) and a higher critical pressure (1.6496 MPa vs 1.2858 MPa).


title: Deuterium

text: The physical properties of deuterium compounds can exhibit significant kinetic isotope effects and other physical and chemical property differences from the protium analogs. DO, for example, is more viscous than HO. Chemically, there are differences in bond energy and length for compounds of heavy hydrogen isotopes compared to protium, which are larger than the isotopic differences in any other element. Bonds involving deuterium and tritium are somewhat stronger than the corresponding bonds in protium, and these differences are enough to cause significant changes in biological reactions. Pharmaceutical firms are interested in the fact that deuterium is harder to remove from carbon than protium.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium can replace protium in water molecules to form heavy water (DO), which is about 10.6% denser than normal water (so that ice made from it sinks in ordinary water). Heavy water is slightly toxic in eukaryotic animals, with 25% substitution of the body water causing cell division problems and sterility, and 50% substitution causing death by cytotoxic syndrome (bone marrow failure and gastrointestinal lining failure). Prokaryotic organisms, however, can survive and grow in pure heavy water, though they develop slowly. Despite this toxicity, consumption of heavy water under normal circumstances does not pose a health threat to humans. It is estimated that a person might drink of heavy water without serious consequences. Small doses of heavy water (a few grams in humans, containing an amount of deuterium comparable to that normally present in the body) are routinely used as harmless metabolic tracers in humans and animals.


title: Deuterium

text: The deuteron has spin +1 ("triplet state") and is thus a boson. The NMR frequency of deuterium is significantly different from common light hydrogen. Infrared spectroscopy also easily differentiates many deuterated compounds, due to the large difference in IR absorption frequency seen in the vibration of a chemical bond containing deuterium, versus light hydrogen. The two stable isotopes of hydrogen can also be distinguished by using mass spectrometry.


title: Deuterium

text: The triplet deuteron nucleon is barely bound at E = , and none of the higher energy states are bound. The singlet deuteron is a virtual state, with a negative binding energy of . There is no such stable particle, but this virtual particle transiently exists during neutron-proton inelastic scattering, accounting for the unusually large neutron scattering cross-section of the proton.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium is one of only five stable nuclides with an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. (, , , , ; also, the long-lived radioactive nuclides , , , occur naturally.) Most odd-odd nuclei are unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects. Deuterium, however, benefits from having its proton and neutron coupled to a spin-1 state, which gives a stronger nuclear attraction; the corresponding spin-1 state does not exist in the two-neutron or two-proton system, due to the Pauli exclusion principle which would require one or the other identical particle with the same spin to have some other different quantum number, such as orbital angular momentum. But orbital angular momentum of either particle gives a lower binding energy for the system, primarily due to increasing distance of the particles in the steep gradient of the nuclear force. In both cases, this causes the diproton and dineutron nucleus to be unstable.


title: Deuterium

text: The proton and neutron making up deuterium can be dissociated through neutral current interactions with neutrinos. The cross section for this interaction is comparatively large, and deuterium was successfully used as a neutrino target in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment.


title: Deuterium

text: Diatomic deuterium (D) has ortho and para nuclear spin isomers like diatomic hydrogen, but with differences in the number and population of spin states and rotational levels, which occur because the deuteron is a boson with nuclear spin equal to one.


title: Deuterium

text: Due to the similarity in mass and nuclear properties between the proton and neutron, they are sometimes considered as two symmetric types of the same object, a nucleon. While only the proton has an electric charge, this is often negligible due to the weakness of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong nuclear interaction. The symmetry relating the proton and neutron is known as isospin and denoted "I" (or sometimes "T").


title: Deuterium

text: Isospin is an SU(2) symmetry, like ordinary spin, so is completely analogous to it. The proton and neutron, each of which have isospin-, form an isospin doublet (analogous to a spin doublet), with a "down" state (↓) being a neutron and an "up" state (↑) being a proton. A pair of nucleons can either be in an antisymmetric state of isospin called singlet, or in a symmetric state called triplet. In terms of the "down" state and "up" state, the singlet is


title: Deuterium

text: and thus consists of three types of nuclei, which are supposed to be symmetric: a deuterium nucleus (actually a highly excited state of it), a nucleus with two protons, and a nucleus with two neutrons. These states are not stable.


title: Deuterium

text: The deuteron wavefunction must be antisymmetric if the isospin representation is used (since a proton and a neutron are not identical particles, the wavefunction


title: Deuterium

text: need not be antisymmetric in general). Apart from their isospin, the two nucleons also have spin and spatial distributions of their wavefunction. The latter is symmetric if the deuteron is symmetric under parity (i.e. have an "even" or "positive" parity), and antisymmetric if the deuteron is antisymmetric under parity (i.e. have an "odd" or "negative" parity). The parity is fully determined by the total orbital angular momentum of the two nucleons: if it is even then the parity is even (positive), and if it is odd then the parity is odd (negative).


title: Deuterium

text: The deuteron, being an isospin singlet, is antisymmetric under nucleons exchange due to isospin, and therefore must be symmetric under the double exchange of their spin and location. Therefore, it can be in either of the following two different states:


title: Deuterium

text: In the first case the deuteron is a spin triplet, so that its total spin "s" is 1. It also has an even parity and therefore even orbital angular momentum "l" ; The lower its orbital angular momentum, the lower its energy. Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has , .


title: Deuterium

text: In the second case the deuteron is a spin singlet, so that its total spin "s" is 0. It also has an odd parity and therefore odd orbital angular momentum "l". Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has , .


title: Deuterium

text: The same considerations lead to the possible states of an isospin triplet having , or , . Thus the state of lowest energy has , , higher than that of the isospin singlet.


title: Deuterium

text: The analysis just given is in fact only approximate, both because isospin is not an exact symmetry, and more importantly because the strong nuclear interaction between the two nucleons is related to angular momentum in spin–orbit interaction that mixes different "s" and "l" states. That is, "s" and "l" are not constant in time (they do not commute with the Hamiltonian), and over time a state such as , may become a state of , . Parity is still constant in time so these do not mix with odd "l" states (such as , ). Therefore, the quantum state of the deuterium is a superposition (a linear combination) of the , state and the , state, even though the first component is much bigger. Since the total angular momentum "j" is also a good quantum number (it is a constant in time), both components must have the same "j", and therefore . This is the total spin of the deuterium nucleus.


title: Deuterium

text: To summarize, the deuterium nucleus is antisymmetric in terms of isospin, and has spin 1 and even (+1) parity. The relative angular momentum of its nucleons "l" is not well defined, and the deuteron is a superposition of mostly with some .


title: Deuterium

text: In order to find theoretically the deuterium magnetic dipole moment "μ", one uses the formula for a nuclear magnetic moment


title: Deuterium

text: Since the proton and neutron have different values for "g" and "g", one must separate their contributions. Each gets half of the deuterium orbital angular momentum formula_6 and spin formula_7. One arrives at


title: Deuterium

text: By using the same identities as here and using the value , we arrive at the following result, in units of the nuclear magneton "μ"


title: Deuterium

text: The measured value of the deuterium magnetic dipole moment, is , which is 97.5% of the value obtained by simply adding moments of the proton and neutron. This suggests that the state of the deuterium is indeed to a good approximation , state, which occurs with both nucleons spinning in the same direction, but their magnetic moments subtracting because of the neutron's negative moment.


title: Deuterium

text: But the slightly lower experimental number than that which results from simple addition of proton and (negative) neutron moments shows that deuterium is actually a linear combination of mostly , state with a slight admixture of , state.


title: Deuterium

text: The measured electric quadrupole of the deuterium is . While the order of magnitude is reasonable, since the deuterium radius is of order of 1 femtometer (see below) and its electric charge is e, the above model does not suffice for its computation. More specifically, the electric quadrupole does not get a contribution from the "l" =0 state (which is the dominant one) and does get a contribution from a term mixing the "l" =0 and the "l" =2 states, because the electric quadrupole operator does not commute with angular momentum.


title: Deuterium

text: The latter contribution is dominant in the absence of a pure contribution, but cannot be calculated without knowing the exact spatial form of the nucleons wavefunction inside the deuterium.


title: Deuterium

text: Higher magnetic and electric multipole moments cannot be calculated by the above model, for similar reasons.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium is used in heavy water moderated fission reactors, usually as liquid DO, to slow neutrons without the high neutron absorption of ordinary hydrogen. This is a common commercial use for larger amounts of deuterium.


title: Deuterium

text: In research reactors, liquid D is used in cold sources to moderate neutrons to very low energies and wavelengths appropriate for scattering experiments.


title: Deuterium

text: Experimentally, deuterium is the most common nuclide used in nuclear fusion reactor designs, especially in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the D–T reaction. There is an even higher-yield D– fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of D– is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of , this makes it implausible as a practical power source until at least D–T and D–D fusion reactions have been performed on a commercial scale. Commercial nuclear fusion is not yet an accomplished technology.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium is most commonly used in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR) in the following way. NMR ordinarily requires compounds of interest to be analyzed as dissolved in solution. Because of deuterium's nuclear spin properties which differ from the light hydrogen usually present in organic molecules, NMR spectra of hydrogen/protium are highly differentiable from that of deuterium, and in practice deuterium is not "seen" by an NMR instrument tuned for light-hydrogen. Deuterated solvents (including heavy water, but also compounds like deuterated chloroform, CDCl) are therefore routinely used in NMR spectroscopy, in order to allow only the light-hydrogen spectra of the compound of interest to be measured, without solvent-signal interference.


title: Deuterium

text: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can also be used to obtain information about the deuteron's environment in isotopically labelled samples (Deuterium NMR). For example, the configuration of hydrocarbon chains in lipid bilayers can be quantified using solid state deuterium NMR with deuterium-labelled lipid molecules.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium NMR spectra are especially informative in the solid state because of its relatively small quadrupole moment in comparison with those of bigger quadrupolar nuclei such as chlorine-35, for example.


title: Deuterium

text: In chemistry, biochemistry and environmental sciences, deuterium is used as a non-radioactive, stable isotopic tracer, for example, in the doubly labeled water test. In chemical reactions and metabolic pathways, deuterium behaves somewhat similarly to ordinary hydrogen (with a few chemical differences, as noted). It can be distinguished from ordinary hydrogen most easily by its mass, using mass spectrometry or infrared spectrometry. Deuterium can be detected by femtosecond infrared spectroscopy, since the mass difference drastically affects the frequency of molecular vibrations; deuterium-carbon bond vibrations are found in spectral regions free of other signals.


title: Deuterium

text: Measurements of small variations in the natural abundances of deuterium, along with those of the stable heavy oxygen isotopes O and O, are of importance in hydrology, to trace the geographic origin of Earth's waters. The heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in rainwater (so-called meteoric water) are enriched as a function of the environmental temperature of the region in which the precipitation falls (and thus enrichment is related to mean latitude). The relative enrichment of the heavy isotopes in rainwater (as referenced to mean ocean water), when plotted against temperature falls predictably along a line called the global meteoric water line (GMWL). This plot allows samples of precipitation-originated water to be identified along with general information about the climate in which it originated. Evaporative and other processes in bodies of water, and also ground water processes, also differentially alter the ratios of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in fresh and salt waters, in characteristic and often regionally distinctive ways. The ratio of concentration of H to H is usually indicated with a delta as δH and the geographic patterns of these values are plotted in maps termed as isoscapes. Stable isotopes are incorporated into plants and animals and an analysis of the ratios in a migrant bird or insect can help suggest a rough guide to their origins.


title: Deuterium

text: Neutron scattering techniques particularly profit from availability of deuterated samples: The H and D cross sections are very distinct and different in sign, which allows contrast variation in such experiments. Further, a nuisance problem of ordinary hydrogen is its large incoherent neutron cross section, which is nil for D. The substitution of deuterium atoms for hydrogen atoms thus reduces scattering noise.


title: Deuterium

text: Hydrogen is an important and major component in all materials of organic chemistry and life science, but it barely interacts with X-rays. As hydrogen (and deuterium) interact strongly with neutrons, neutron scattering techniques, together with a modern deuteration facility, fills a niche in many studies of macromolecules in biology and many other areas.


title: Deuterium

text: This is discussed below. It is notable that although most stars, including the Sun, generate energy over most of their lives by fusing hydrogen into heavier elements, such fusion of light hydrogen (protium) has never been successful in the conditions attainable on Earth. Thus, all artificial fusion, including the hydrogen fusion that occurs in so-called hydrogen bombs, requires heavy hydrogen (either tritium or deuterium, or both) in order for the process to work.


title: Deuterium

text: A deuterated drug is a small molecule medicinal product in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms contained in the drug molecule have been replaced by deuterium. Because of the kinetic isotope effect, deuterium-containing drugs may have significantly lower rates of metabolism, and hence a longer half-life. In 2017, deutetrabenazine became the first deuterated drug to receive FDA approval.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium can be used to reinforce specific oxidation-vulnerable C-H bonds within essential or conditionally essential nutrients, such as certain amino acids, or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), making them more resistant to oxidative damage. Deuterated polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, slow down the chain reaction of lipid peroxidation that damage living cells. Deuterated ethyl ester of linoleic acid (RT001), developed by Retrotope, is in a compassionate use trial in infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy and has successfully completed a Phase I/II trial in Friedreich's ataxia.


title: Deuterium

text: Live vaccines, such as the oral poliovirus vaccine, can be stabilized by deuterium, either alone or in combination with other stabilizers such as MgCl.


title: Deuterium

text: Deuterium has been shown to lengthen the period of oscillation of the circadian clock when dosed in rats, hamsters, and Gonyaulax dinoflagellates. In rats, chronic intake of 25% DO disrupts circadian rhythmicity by lengthening the circadian period of suprachiasmatic nucleus-dependent rhythms in the brain's hypothalamus. Experiments in hamsters also support the theory that deuterium acts directly on the suprachiasmatic nucleus to lengthen the free-running circadian period.


title: Deuterium

text: The existence of nonradioactive isotopes of lighter elements had been suspected in studies of neon as early as 1913, and proven by mass spectrometry of light elements in 1920. At that time the neutron had not yet been discovered, and the prevailing theory was that isotopes of an element differ by the existence of additional "protons" in the nucleus accompanied by an equal number of "nuclear electrons". In this theory, the deuterium nucleus with mass two and charge one would contain two protons and one nuclear electron. However, it was expected that the element hydrogen with a measured average atomic mass very close to , the known mass of the proton, always has a nucleus composed of a single proton (a known particle), and could not contain a second proton. Thus, hydrogen was thought to have no heavy isotopes.


title: Deuterium

text: It was first detected spectroscopically in late 1931 by Harold Urey, a chemist at Columbia University. Urey's collaborator, Ferdinand Brickwedde, distilled five liters of cryogenically produced liquid hydrogen to of liquid, using the low-temperature physics laboratory that had recently been established at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology). The technique had previously been used to isolate heavy isotopes of neon. The cryogenic boiloff technique concentrated the fraction of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen to a degree that made its spectroscopic identification unambiguous.


title: Deuterium

text: Urey created the names "protium", "deuterium", and "tritium" in an article published in 1934. The name is based in part on advice from G. N. Lewis who had proposed the name "deutium". The name is derived from the Greek ('second'), and the nucleus to be called "deuteron" or "deuton". Isotopes and new elements were traditionally given the name that their discoverer decided. Some British scientists, such as Ernest Rutherford, wanted the isotope to be called "diplogen", from the Greek ('double'), and the nucleus to be called "diplon".


title: Deuterium

text: The amount inferred for normal abundance of this heavy isotope of hydrogen was so small (only about 1 atom in 6400 hydrogen atoms in ocean water (156 deuteriums per million hydrogens)) that it had not noticeably affected previous measurements of (average) hydrogen atomic mass. This explained why it hadn't been experimentally suspected before. Urey was able to concentrate water to show partial enrichment of deuterium. Lewis had prepared the first samples of pure heavy water in 1933. The discovery of deuterium, coming before the discovery of the neutron in 1932, was an experimental shock to theory, but when the neutron was reported, making deuterium's existence more explainable, deuterium won Urey the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934. Lewis was embittered by being passed over for this recognition given to his former student.


title: Deuterium

text: Shortly before the war, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski moved their research on neutron moderation from France to Britain, smuggling the entire global supply of heavy water (which had been made in Norway) across in twenty-six steel drums.


title: Deuterium

text: During World War II, Nazi Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a nuclear reactor design. Such experiments were a source of concern because they might allow them to produce plutonium for an atomic bomb. Ultimately it led to the Allied operation called the "Norwegian heavy water sabotage", the purpose of which was to destroy the Vemork deuterium production/enrichment facility in Norway. At the time this was considered important to the potential progress of the war.


title: Deuterium

text: After World War II ended, the Allies discovered that Germany was not putting as much serious effort into the program as had been previously thought. The Germans had completed only a small, partly built experimental reactor (which had been hidden away) and had been unable to sustain a chain reaction. By the end of the war, the Germans did not even have a fifth of the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the Norwegian heavy water sabotage operation. However, even if the Germans had succeeded in getting a reactor operational (as the U.S. did with Chicago Pile-1 in late 1942), they would still have been at least several years away from the development of an atomic bomb. The engineering process, even with maximal effort and funding, required about two and a half years (from first critical reactor to bomb) in both the U.S. and U.S.S.R., for example.


title: Deuterium

text: The 62-ton Ivy Mike device built by the United States and exploded on 1 November 1952, was the first fully successful "hydrogen bomb" (thermonuclear bomb). In this context, it was the first bomb in which most of the energy released came from nuclear reaction stages that followed the primary nuclear fission stage of the atomic bomb. The Ivy Mike bomb was a factory-like building, rather than a deliverable weapon. At its center, a very large cylindrical, insulated vacuum flask or cryostat, held cryogenic liquid deuterium in a volume of about 1000 liters (160 kilograms in mass, if this volume had been completely filled). Then, a conventional atomic bomb (the "primary") at one end of the bomb was used to create the conditions of extreme temperature and pressure that were needed to set off the thermonuclear reaction.


title: Deuterium

text: Within a few years, so-called "dry" hydrogen bombs were developed that did not need cryogenic hydrogen. Released information suggests that all thermonuclear weapons built since then contain chemical compounds of deuterium and lithium in their secondary stages. The material that contains the deuterium is mostly lithium deuteride, with the lithium consisting of the isotope lithium-6. When the lithium-6 is bombarded with fast neutrons from the atomic bomb, tritium (hydrogen-3) is produced, and then the deuterium and the tritium quickly engage in thermonuclear fusion, releasing abundant energy, helium-4, and even more free neutrons. "Pure" fusion weapons such as the Tsar Bomba are believed to be obsolete. In most modern ("boosted") thermonuclear weapons, fusion directly provides only a small fraction of the total energy. Fission of a natural uranium U-238 tamper by fast neutrons produced from D-T fusion accounts for a much larger (i.e. boosted) energy release than the fusion reaction itself.


title: Deuterium

text: In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic form. This may help researchers better understand giant gas planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and related exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a large quantity of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields.


title: Deuterium

text: An antideuteron is the antimatter counterpart of the nucleus of deuterium, consisting of an antiproton and an antineutron. The antideuteron was first produced in 1965 at the Proton Synchrotron at CERN and the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory. A complete atom, with a positron orbiting the nucleus, would be called "antideuterium", but antideuterium has not yet been created. The proposed symbol for antideuterium is , that is, D with an overbar.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The 2021 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2021 season. The 117th World Series was a best-of-seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Atlanta Braves and the American League (AL) champion Houston Astros. The series began on October 26 and concluded on November 2.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The Braves won the series four games to two. It was their fourth World Series title in franchise history, their first since 1995, and their second since the franchise's relocation to Atlanta in 1966.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The Braves advanced to the World Series after winning the NL East division title. Atlanta then defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in the NL Division Series and the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NL Championship Series. The Astros advanced to the World Series after winning the AL West. Houston then defeated the Chicago White Sox in the AL Division Series and the Boston Red Sox in the AL Championship Series.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The Astros had home-field advantage due to their superior regular-season record over that of the Braves. The series was played in a 2–3–2 format, with the Astros hosting Games 1, 2, and 6 (and 7 if it was necessary); and the Braves hosting Games 3, 4, and 5. The teams split the first two games, which were played at Minute Maid Park in Houston, and the Braves won Games 3 and 4 at Truist Park in Atlanta to take a 3-1 lead. The Astros won Game 5, returning the series to Houston. The Braves won Game 6 to win the World Series. Jorge Soler was awarded the World Series Most Valuable Player Award after batting .300 in the series with home runs in three of the Braves victories, each time giving them a lead they would never surrender.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The team with the better regular-season winning percentage, the Houston Astros, had home field advantage in the series, thus hosting Games 1, 2, and 6 (and would have hosted Game 7 if needed).


title: 2021 World Series

text: The Astros and Braves had previously met in the postseason five times, in the National League Division Series when the Astros competed in the National League. Of those five series, the Braves won three (1997, 1999, and 2001) while the Astros won two (2004 and 2005). The Astros and Braves played in the National League West from 1969-1993.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The teams' jerseys lacked a World Series patch for the first time since 1997, though a patch was on their caps.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The Atlanta Braves were managed by Brian Snitker, who joined the organization in 1977 and became their manager in 2016. The Braves qualified for the postseason after winning the National League East for the fourth straight season. They played four months with a winning percentage at .500 or below before finally surpassing .500 on August 6, the latest point in a season that an eventual league champion achieved a winning record. In the best-of-five National League Division Series, the third-seeded Braves defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in four games. In the best-of-seven National League Championship Series (NLCS), the Braves defeated the defending world champion Los Angeles Dodgers in six games. Left fielder Eddie Rosario was named NLCS MVP after hitting 14-for-25 (.560) with 3 home runs and 9 runs batted in in the series..


title: 2021 World Series

text: This was the Braves' first World Series appearance since 1999, tenth in franchise history, and sixth while in Atlanta. The Braves entered the series with three prior World Series titles, one as the Atlanta Braves in and one while based in each of their previous cities of Boston () and Milwaukee ().


title: 2021 World Series

text: Under second-year manager Dusty Baker, the Houston Astros qualified for the postseason as the American League West division winner, having finished atop the division for the fourth time in five seasons. In the best-of-five American League Division Series, the second-seeded Astros defeated the Chicago White Sox in four games. In the best-of-seven American League Championship Series (ALCS), the Astros defeated the Boston Red Sox in six games, with designated hitter Yordan Álvarez named ALCS MVP after batting 12-for-23 (.522) in the series. Starting pitcher Lance McCullers Jr., who missed the ALCS due to a forearm strain suffered during the ALDS, was omitted from Houston's World Series roster due to that injury.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Baker became the ninth manager to win both American and National League pennants (having won the latter with the San Francisco Giants in 2002). Baker's gap of 19 years between appearances in the World Series is surpassed only by Bucky Harris, who managed in the and editions. At 72 years and 4 months old, Baker became the second-oldest manager in World Series history, the oldest having been Jack McKeon of the Florida Marlins in , who was seven months older. Astros' hitting coach Troy Snitker is the son of Brian Snitker, the Braves manager. As a player, Baker was drafted by the Atlanta Braves in 1967 and spent seven seasons there.


title: 2021 World Series

text: This was the Astros' third World Series appearance in five years, having appeared in and , and fourth overall, having also appeared in when they represented the National League. Their only prior World Series title came in 2017.


title: 2021 World Series

text: In pregame ceremonies, the national anthem was performed by Keke Palmer, and the ceremonial first pitch was thrown out by former Astro and National Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Craig Biggio.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Framber Valdez started for Houston while former Astro Charlie Morton started for Atlanta. Jorge Soler led off the World Series with a home run to left field for a 1–0 Atlanta lead after the first three pitches; he became the first player ever to lead off a World Series with a home run. A one-out single by Ozzie Albies followed by a double from Austin Riley gave the Braves a 2–0 lead. In the bottom of the first, the Astros had the bases loaded with two outs following a single and two walks, but Morton got Kyle Tucker to ground out, ending the threat. Atlanta added a run in the top of the second on two singles, a fly out, and a fielder's choice, making it 3–0. Freddie Freeman then singled and Albies beat out an infield grounder, loading the bases with two outs, but Valdez struck out Riley to end the inning. In the top of the third, Eddie Rosario singled, followed by a two-run home run from Adam Duvall, making it 5–0 Braves and driving Valdez from the game after 52 pitches.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Morton left in the bottom of the third inning with an injury; X-rays later revealed a fibular fracture in his right leg, causing him to miss the remainder of the series. The injury stemmed from a comebacker off the bat of Yuli Gurriel in the bottom of the second. It was unclear when Morton's leg was fractured; Braves manager Brian Snitker told reporters that X-rays taken in between innings revealed nothing wrong with Morton, though he said Morton's leg was "stressed." Morton threw 16 pitches following the injury, retiring the next three batters he faced and striking out two.


title: 2021 World Series

text: A. J. Minter was brought into the game; Michael Brantley hit a one-out double to right, but Minter retired the next two batters to end the inning. In the bottom of the fourth inning, Tucker hit a one-out double, advanced to third when Gurriel singled with one out, and scored on a fielder's choice, making it 5–1. In the top of the eighth, after three scoreless innings, Dansby Swanson walked, advanced to third on a single by Soler, and scored on a sacrifice fly by Freeman, extending Atlanta's lead to 6–1. In the bottom of the inning, Yordan Álvarez hit a lead-off triple and then scored on a groundout by Carlos Correa, making the score 6–2. In the bottom of the ninth, Atlanta closer Will Smith allowed only one walk, to Aledmys Díaz, as the Braves took a 1–0 lead in the series, their first World Series win since Game 2 in 1996.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Before the game, Atlanta added Tucker Davidson to their roster in replacement of the injured Charlie Morton. Giavanni Walker, a petty officer first class in the United States Navy, sang the national anthem, and Hall of Famer Jeff Bagwell threw the ceremonial first pitch.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Max Fried started for Atlanta while José Urquidy started for Houston. In the bottom of the first inning, José Altuve doubled, advanced to third on a flyout by Michael Brantley, and scored on a sacrifice fly by Alex Bregman, giving Houston a 1–0 lead. In the top of the second, Atlanta tied the game, 1–1, via a solo home run to left field by Travis d'Arnaud, coming on a full count with two outs. In the bottom of the second, the Astros hit three consecutive one-out singles, retaking the lead, 2–1. With runners on first and second, Martín Maldonado delivered a base hit to the outfield, driving in another run. Braves left fielder Eddie Rosario tried to throw out José Siri advancing from first to third, but no Braves player was on the base resulting in an error and allowing Siri to score and making it 4–1. After Altuve lined out, Brantley singled to make it 5–1. In total, the Astros collected four runs on five singles, tying their club record for most hits in an inning in the World Series.


title: 2021 World Series

text: With two outs in the top of the fifth inning, Freddie Freeman delivered an RBI single to left, scoring d'Arnaud and cutting the Astros' lead to 5–2. Houston extended their lead to 6–2 in the sixth on a fielder's choice that scored Yordan Álvarez. The final run came in the bottom of the seventh inning, as Altuve homered on the first pitch by Drew Smyly, making it 7–2. It was the 22nd home run of Altuve's postseason career, tying him with Bernie Williams for the second-most all-time. This was the first victory by the home team in a World Series since 2018.


title: 2021 World Series

text: In pregame ceremonies, the ceremonial first pitch was thrown out by Hank Aaron Jr., as his father was honored before the game; the national anthem was performed by Zac Brown. This was the first World Series game ever played at Truist Park, and the first played in Atlanta since . Ian Anderson started for Atlanta while Luis García started for Houston, marking the first time two rookie pitchers started against each other in a World Series since Justin Verlander and Anthony Reyes opened Game 1 in .


title: 2021 World Series

text: After two and a half scoreless innings, the Braves scored on an RBI double by Austin Riley that drove in Eddie Rosario in the bottom of the third inning. García was relieved after innings, having allowed one run on three hits while striking out six batters. Anderson allowed no hits, three walks, and one hit batsman while striking out four in five innings. The Astros remained hitless through seven innings, as A. J. Minter and Luke Jackson did not allow a hit in the sixth or seventh, respectively. Tyler Matzek started the eighth for the Braves and allowed a bloop single to Aledmys Díaz, who was replaced by José Siri as a pinch-runner. With two outs, Siri stole second and advanced to third on a throwing error by Travis d'Arnaud, but was left on base as Michael Brantley popped out. In the bottom of the eighth, d'Arnaud hit a solo home run to extend Atlanta's lead to 2–0. That home run was the first time home runs were hit in back-to-back games by the same player since Ryan Klesko did so in the 1995 World Series. d'Arnaud became the first catcher to do this since Roy Campanella did so for the Dodgers in the 1955 World Series. Will Smith, Atlanta's closer, pitched in the top of the ninth inning. He allowed a leadoff single to Alex Bregman, then retired the next three batters, giving Atlanta a 2–1 lead in the series. The seven-inning no-hit bid by the Atlanta pitching staff was the longest in a World Series game since Jim Lonborg of the Boston Red Sox went innings before allowing a hit in Game 2 of the 1967 World Series. This was the first shutout in the World Series since Game 3 of the 2016 World Series.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Prior to the game, the Astros replaced backup catcher Jason Castro on their roster with Garrett Stubbs, due to COVID-19 protocols. The ceremonial first pitch was thrown out by cancer survivor Elizabeth O’Connor, and the national anthem was performed by Jordan Fisher. Former U.S. President Donald Trump and First Lady Melania Trump were in attendance. Zack Greinke started for Houston, while Dylan Lee acted as an opener for Atlanta in his first MLB start. Greinke was placed eighth in Houston's batting order, the first starting pitcher in a World Series game not to bat ninth since Babe Ruth in Game 4 of the 1918 World Series.


title: 2021 World Series

text: In the top of the first, Lee allowed a hit to José Altuve while issuing two walks and recording one strikeout, then was relieved by Kyle Wright. Altuve scored on a ground out by Carlos Correa to give the Astros an early 1–0 lead. Altuve hit a solo home run in the top of the fourth to extend Houston's lead to 2–0. Greinke exited after four innings, having allowed no runs on four hits while striking out three and walking none. In the bottom of the sixth, Atlanta had runners at first and second with one out, via a double and a walk. Houston reliever Phil Maton entered, struck out Ozzie Albies, and allowed a hit to Austin Riley that scored a run, cutting the lead to 2–1. After an intentional walk to Joc Pederson that loaded the bases with two outs, Maton struck out Travis d'Arnaud to end the rally. Back-to-back solo home runs by Dansby Swanson and Jorge Soler off of Cristian Javier with one out in the bottom of the seventh put Atlanta ahead, 3–2. After a scoreless eighth inning, Atlanta closer Will Smith entered to pitch the top of the ninth. He retired the side for his second save in two days, as Atlanta took a 3–1 lead in the series.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Hall of Fame inductee Greg Maddux threw out the ceremonial first pitch, and Lauren Alaina performed the national anthem. Framber Valdez started for Houston, while Tucker Davidson started for Atlanta; Davidson had not played in an MLB game since June 15, 2021.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Adam Duvall hit a grand slam for Atlanta with two outs in the bottom of the first inning, the first grand slam in the first inning of a World Series game since 1960. The Astros scored two runs in the second inning, with an RBI double by Alex Bregman and a sacrifice fly by Martín Maldonado. Houston scored twice more in the top of the third, coming on an error, walk, double, and ground out, to make it a 4–4 tie game. A solo home run by Freddie Freeman in the bottom of the inning put the Braves back ahead, 5–4. Both managers brought in relief pitchers during the third inning. The Astros tied the game at 5–5 in the fifth inning when Maldonado drew a walk with the bases loaded, and then scored two more runs on a single by Marwin González to take a 7–5 lead. The Astros added a run in the seventh on an RBI single by Maldonado, and a run in the eighth on an RBI single by Carlos Correa, making it 9–5. Kendall Graveman pitched the final two innings for Houston, holding the four-run lead as the Astros avoided elimination and sent the series back to Houston.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Zack Greinke singled for Houston in the fourth inning as a pinch hitter, becoming the first pitcher with a pinch hit in a World Series game since Jack Bentley of the New York Giants in .


title: 2021 World Series

text: Game 5 of the 2021 World Series marked the last game to date in which the designated hitter rule was not used. Starting in , the National League added the DH permanently.


title: 2021 World Series

text: A "Rally Nun" threw out the ceremonial first pitch, and country music artist Carly Pearce sang the national anthem. Before the game, Johan Camargo replaced Ehire Adrianza on the Braves' roster as Adrianza was placed on the paternity list. Luis García started for Houston and Max Fried started for Atlanta. The Braves took a 3–0 lead in the top of the third inning on a single and walk followed by a towering two-out home run by Jorge Soler that left Minute Maid Park over the raised train tracks in left field. Garcia exited after Soler's home run, having pitched innings while striking out three batters. In the top of the fifth, a two-run home run by Dansby Swanson followed by a walk then a two-out double by Freddie Freeman extended Atlanta's lead to 6–0. In the top of the seventh, Freeman hit a solo home run with two outs to make it 7–0. Tyler Matzek entered in relief in the bottom of the seventh; Fried allowed no runs on four hits while striking out six batters and walking none in six innings. Atlanta closer Will Smith was brought in to pitch the bottom of the ninth. He allowed a leadoff single to Michael Brantley and retired the next three batters, the last out being a Yuli Gurriel infield grounder fielded by Swanson, who threw to Freeman, giving the Braves the title. With this final inning, Will Smith finished off a postseason in which he closed 11 of 16 Braves games while allowing no runs. Jorge Soler won the World Series Most Valuable Player Award.


title: 2021 World Series

text: With the World Series victory, Joc Pederson became a back-to-back World Series winner on two different teams, joining names like Jack Morris, Ryan Theriot, Jake Peavy and Ben Zobrist who previously accomplished that feat. Pederson had become a fan-favorite throughout his three-month stay in Atlanta, particularly for his preference to wear pearls.


title: 2021 World Series

text: For the 22nd straight year, the World Series was televised in the United States by Fox. Joe Buck called the games as a play-by-play announcer, along with Hall of Famer and former Braves pitcher John Smoltz as color analyst and Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci as field reporters. Kevin Burkhardt hosted the pregame and postgame shows, joined by analysts Frank Thomas, Alex Rodriguez, David Ortiz, and Dontrelle Willis. Game 6 was the final Major League Baseball game that Buck called on Fox and one of the final major sporting events he called on the network (his final broadcast on Fox was the 2021 NFC Championship Game).


title: 2021 World Series

text: MLB International fed the series to broadcasters outside the United States, with Scott Braun providing play-by-play and Dan Plesac as color commentator. The MLB International feed was produced by MLB Network.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Television ratings for the 2021 World Series were 20% higher than the 2020 World Series in the shortened season. It also averaged a higher rating than the NBA Finals for the second straight year. However, ratings were still below the norm in 2021. Game 6 drew a 33.5 rating and 54% share in the Atlanta market, the highest since Game 4 of the 1999 World Series. It drew a 25.6 rating and a 47% share in the Houston market.


title: 2021 World Series

text: For the 24th consecutive year, ESPN Radio aired the series in the United States, led by Dan Shulman on play-by-play with Jessica Mendoza and Eduardo Pérez as color analysts; Kevin Winter hosted the pregame coverage with analyst Chris Singleton and reporters Buster Olney and Marly Rivera, while Olney provided in-game reports and conducted postgame interviews.


title: 2021 World Series

text: This was the first World Series to be broadcast on TUDN Radio, which had acquired national rights to Spanish-language MLB radio broadcasts in early October. TUDN Radio commentators included Jose Napoles, Jesus Acosta, Alberto Ferreiro, and Luis Quiñones.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The flagship radio stations for both teams also produced local broadcasts of each game. In Atlanta, WCNN and WAOS broadcast in English and Spanish respectively, KBME (in English) and KLAT (in Spanish) aired the games in the Houston market. Outside of those stations, MLB rules dictated that team-affiliated stations carry the ESPN Radio broadcasts of the games.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Following the conclusion of the season, the Astros lost six players to free agency: Carlos Correa to the Minnesota Twins, Zack Greinke to the Kansas City Royals, Marwin González to the New York Yankees, Kendall Graveman to the Chicago White Sox, and Brooks Raley to the Tampa Bay Rays. Justin Verlander was the lone free agent to re-sign with the Astros, returning on a two-year deal with a player option in the second year after missing all of the 2021 season.


title: 2021 World Series

text: On August 2, 2022, the Astros traded starter Jake Odorizzi for Braves reliever Will Smith. Smith was the pitcher who recorded the last out of the World Series, making him the first pitcher ever to be traded the following season to the opposing team that he recorded the last out against.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The Astros repeated as American League West champions in 2022, their sixth consecutive postseason appearance and fifth division title in six seasons. They swept the Seattle Mariners in the Division Series and the New York Yankees in the Championship Series to return to and win the World Series by beating the Phillies in six games.


title: 2021 World Series

text: The Braves celebrated their championship with a parade on November 5, with fitting nods to Henry "Hank" Aaron, the franchise legend who died in January at the age of 86. On their parade route, the Braves stopped by the landing spot of Aaron's 715th home run, or where Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium used to stand. Once the parade reached Truist Park, the crowd was addressed by Henry's widow Billye in a fitting tribute to the slugger. The Braves honored Hank Aaron during the 2021 season by including his jersey number 44 on the back of the team caps along with Phil Niekro's jersey number, 35 (who died one month earlier in December 2020). They also painted 44 in the midfield at Truist Park. Aaron was also honored in the design of the team's World Series championship ring, which includes 755 total diamonds to commemorate Aaron's career home runs, and 44 emerald-cut diamonds to represent Aaron's jersey number with the Braves.


title: 2021 World Series

text: Going into the offseason, the Braves were considered by the media to be favorites to re-sign star first baseman Freddie Freeman, a pending free agent. The Braves reportedly offered Freeman a five-year contract worth $135 million, while Freeman sought a six-year deal. The two parties failed to agree to a contract before the start of the 2021–22 Major League Baseball lockout on December 1, creating doubt that Freeman would remain in Atlanta. The Braves acquired Oakland Athletics first baseman Matt Olson in a trade on March 14, 2022, a move that signaled Atlanta was unlikely to re-sign Freeman. On March 18, Freeman signed a six-year, $162 million contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers, officially ending his 12-year stint with Atlanta.


title: 2021 World Series

text: In addition to Freeman's departure, Atlanta lost several other players in free agency: Jorge Soler to the Miami Marlins, Joc Pederson to the San Francisco Giants, Drew Smyly, Chris Martin, and Jesse Chavez to the Chicago Cubs, Ehire Adrianza to the Washington Nationals, and Stephen Vogt to the Oakland Athletics. Eddie Rosario returned to the Braves on a two-year, $18 million contract.


title: 2021 World Series

text: During the 2022 season, the Braves were games behind the New York Mets for the National League East lead entering June, but ultimately clinched another division title on October 4, the penultimate game of the regular season. It was the fifth straight division title and fifth straight postseason appearance for Atlanta. In the best-of-five Division Series, the Braves were eliminated by the Philadelphia Phillies in four games.


title: 2021 World Series

text: This was Joe Buck's last World Series, which ended a 23-year run (1996–2021), the longest run of any play-by-play announcer on network television calling the World Series. Buck and his NFL broadcast partner Troy Aikman signed a lucrative multi-year deal with ESPN, which saw them become the new lead broadcast team of Monday Night Football beginning in the 2022 NFL season. FOX would promote number two play-by-play baseball announcer Joe Davis to replace Buck's spot for the regular season, All-Star, and postseason games.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Magic, sometimes spelled magick, is an ancient praxis rooted in sacred rituals, spiritual divinations, and/or cultural lineage—with an intention to invoke, manipulate, or otherwise manifest supernatural forces, beings, or entities in the natural, incarnate world. It is a categorical yet often ambiguous term which has been used to refer to a wide variety of beliefs and practices, frequently considered separate from both religion and science.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Although connotations have varied from positive to negative at times throughout history, magic continues to have an important religious and medicinal role in many cultures today.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Within Western culture, magic has been linked to ideas of the Other, foreignness, and primitivism; indicating that it is "a powerful marker of cultural difference" and likewise, a non-modern phenomenon. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, Western intellectuals perceived the practice of magic to be a sign of a primitive mentality and also commonly attributed it to marginalised groups of people.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In modern occultism and neopagan religions, many self-described magicians and witches regularly practice ritual magic; defining magic as a technique for bringing about change in the physical world through the force of one's will. This definition was popularised by Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), an influential British occultist, and since that time other religions (e.g. Wicca and LaVeyan Satanism) and magical systems (e.g. chaos magick) have adopted it.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The English words "magic", "mage" and "magician" come from the Latin term "magus", through the Greek μάγος, which is from the Old Persian "maguš". (𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁|𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁, magician). The Old Persian "magu-" is derived from the Proto-Indo-European megʰ-"*magh" (be able). The Persian term may have led to the Old Sinitic "*Mag" (mage or shaman). The Old Persian form seems to have permeated ancient Semitic languages as the Talmudic Hebrew "magosh", the Aramaic "amgusha" (magician), and the Chaldean "maghdim" (wisdom and philosophy); from the first century BCE onwards, Syrian "magusai" gained notoriety as magicians and soothsayers.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: During the late-sixth and early-fifth centuries BCE, this term found its way into ancient Greek, where it was used with negative connotations to apply to rites that were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional, and dangerous. The Latin language adopted this meaning of the term in the first century BCE. Via Latin, the concept became incorporated into Christian theology during the first century CE. Early Christians associated magic with demons, and thus regarded it as against Christian religion. This concept remained pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, when Christian authors categorised a diverse range of practices—such as enchantment, witchcraft, incantations, divination, necromancy, and astrology—under the label "magic". In early modern Europe, Protestants often claimed that Roman Catholicism was magic rather than religion, and as Christian Europeans began colonizing other parts of the world in the sixteenth century, they labelled the non-Christian beliefs they encountered as magical. In that same period, Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to express the idea of natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term recurred in Western culture over the following centuries.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Since the nineteenth century, academics in various disciplines have employed the term magic but have defined it in different ways and used it in reference to different things. One approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor (1832–1917) and James G. Frazer (1854–1941), uses the term to describe beliefs in hidden sympathies between objects that allow one to influence the other. Defined in this way, magic is portrayed as the opposite to science. An alternative approach, associated with the sociologist Marcel Mauss (1872–1950) and his uncle Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), employs the term to describe private rites and ceremonies and contrasts it with religion, which it defines as a communal and organised activity. By the 1990s many scholars were rejecting the term's utility for scholarship. They argued that the label drew arbitrary lines between similar beliefs and practices that were alternatively considered religious, and that it constituted ethnocentric to apply the connotations of magic—rooted in Western and Christian history—to other cultures.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: White magic has traditionally been understood as the use of magic for selfless or helpful purposes, while black magic was used for selfish, harmful or evil purposes. With respect to the left-hand path and right-hand path dichotomy, black magic is the malicious, left hand counterpart of the benevolent white magic. There is no consensus as to what constitutes white, gray or black magic, as Phil Hine says, "like many other aspects of occultism, what is termed to be 'black magic' depends very much on who is doing the defining." Gray magic, also called "neutral magic", is magic that is not performed for specifically benevolent reasons, but is also not focused towards completely hostile practices.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Historians and anthropologists have distinguished between practitioners who engage in high magic, and those who engage in low magic. High magic, also known as ceremonial magic or ritual magic, is more complex, involving lengthy and detailed rituals as well as sophisticated, sometimes expensive, paraphernalia. Low magic, also called natural magic, is associated with peasants and folklore and with simpler rituals such as brief, spoken spells. Low magic is also closely associated with witchcraft. Anthropologist Susan Greenwood writes that "Since the Renaissance, high magic has been concerned with drawing down forces and energies from heaven" and achieving unity with divinity. High magic is usually performed indoors while witchcraft is often performed outdoors.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Magic was invoked in many kinds of rituals and medical formulae, and to counteract evil omens. Defensive or legitimate magic in Mesopotamia ("asiputu" or "masmassutu" in the Akkadian language) were incantations and ritual practices intended to alter specific realities. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that magic was the only viable defense against demons, ghosts, and evil sorcerers. To defend themselves against the spirits of those they had wronged, they would leave offerings known as "kispu" in the person's tomb in hope of appeasing them. If that failed, they also sometimes took a figurine of the deceased and buried it in the ground, demanding for the gods to eradicate the spirit, or force it to leave the person alone.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The ancient Mesopotamians also used magic intending to protect themselves from evil sorcerers who might place curses on them. Black magic as a category didn't exist in ancient Mesopotamia, and a person legitimately using magic to defend themselves against illegitimate magic would use exactly the same techniques. The only major difference was the fact that curses were enacted in secret; whereas a defense against sorcery was conducted in the open, in front of an audience if possible. One ritual to punish a sorcerer was known as Maqlû, or "The Burning". The person viewed as being afflicted by witchcraft would create an effigy of the sorcerer and put it on trial at night. Then, once the nature of the sorcerer's crimes had been determined, the person would burn the effigy and thereby break the sorcerer's power over them.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The ancient Mesopotamians also performed magical rituals to purify themselves of sins committed unknowingly. One such ritual was known as the Šurpu, or "Burning", in which the caster of the spell would transfer the guilt for all their misdeeds onto various objects such as a strip of dates, an onion, and a tuft of wool. The person would then burn the objects and thereby purify themself of all sins that they might have unknowingly committed. A whole genre of love spells existed. Such spells were believed to cause a person to fall in love with another person, restore love which had faded, or cause a male sexual partner to be able to sustain an erection when he had previously been unable. Other spells were used to reconcile a man with his patron deity or to reconcile a wife with a husband who had been neglecting her.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The ancient Mesopotamians made no distinction between rational science and magic. When a person became ill, doctors would prescribe both magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments. Most magical rituals were intended to be performed by an "āšipu", an expert in the magical arts. The profession was generally passed down from generation to generation and was held in extremely high regard and often served as advisors to kings and great leaders. An āšipu probably served not only as a magician, but also as a physician, a priest, a scribe, and a scholar.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The Sumerian god Enki, who was later syncretized with the East Semitic god Ea, was closely associated with magic and incantations; he was the patron god of the "bārȗ" and the "ašipū" and was widely regarded as the ultimate source of all arcane knowledge. The ancient Mesopotamians also believed in omens, which could come when solicited or unsolicited. Regardless of how they came, omens were always taken with the utmost seriousness.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: A common set of shared assumptions about the causes of evil and how to avert it are found in a form of early protective magic called incantation bowl or magic bowls. The bowls were produced in the Middle East, particularly in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria, what is now Iraq and Iran, and fairly popular during the sixth to eighth centuries. The bowls were buried face down and were meant to capture demons. They were commonly placed under the threshold, courtyards, in the corner of the homes of the recently deceased and in cemeteries. A subcategory of incantation bowls are those used in Jewish magical practice. Aramaic incantation bowls are an important source of knowledge about Jewish magical practices.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In ancient Egypt ("Kemet" in the Egyptian language), Magic (personified as the god "heka") was an integral part of religion and culture which is known to us through a substantial corpus of texts which are products of the Egyptian tradition.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: While the category magic has been contentious for modern Egyptology, there is clear support for its applicability from ancient terminology. The Coptic term "hik" is the descendant of the pharaonic term "heka", which, unlike its Coptic counterpart, had no connotation of impiety or illegality, and is attested from the Old Kingdom through to the Roman era. "heka" was considered morally neutral and was applied to the practices and beliefs of both foreigners and Egyptians alike. The Instructions for Merikare informs us that "heka" was a beneficence gifted by the creator to humanity "... in order to be weapons to ward off the blow of events".


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Magic was practiced by both the literate priestly hierarchy and by illiterate farmers and herdsmen, and the principle of "heka" underlay all ritual activity, both in the temples and in private settings.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The main principle of "heka" is centered on the power of words to bring things into being. Karenga explains the pivotal power of words and their vital ontological role as the primary tool used by the creator to bring the manifest world into being. Because humans were understood to share a divine nature with the gods, "snnw ntr" (images of the god), the same power to use words creatively that the gods have is shared by humans.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The interior walls of the pyramid of Unas, the final pharaoh of the Egyptian Fifth Dynasty, are covered in hundreds of magical spells and inscriptions, running from floor to ceiling in vertical columns. These inscriptions are known as the Pyramid Texts and they contain spells needed by the pharaoh in order to survive in the Afterlife. The Pyramid Texts were strictly for royalty only; the spells were kept secret from commoners and were written only inside royal tombs. During the chaos and unrest of the First Intermediate Period, however, tomb robbers broke into the pyramids and saw the magical inscriptions. Commoners began learning the spells and, by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, commoners began inscribing similar writings on the sides of their own coffins, hoping that doing so would ensure their own survival in the afterlife. These writings are known as the Coffin Texts.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: After a person died, his or her corpse would be mummified and wrapped in linen bandages to ensure that the deceased's body would survive for as long as possible because the Egyptians believed that a person's soul could only survive in the afterlife for as long as his or her physical body survived here on earth. The last ceremony before a person's body was sealed away inside the tomb was known as the Opening of the Mouth. In this ritual, the priests would touch various magical instruments to various parts of the deceased's body, thereby giving the deceased the ability to see, hear, taste, and smell in the afterlife.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The use of amulets, ("meket") was widespread among both living and dead ancient Egyptians. They were used for protection and as a means of "...reaffirming the fundamental fairness of the universe". The oldest amulets found are from the predynastic Badarian Period, and they persisted through to Roman times.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: "Halakha" (Jewish religious law) forbids divination and other forms of soothsaying, and the Talmud lists many persistent yet condemned divining practices. Practical Kabbalah in historical Judaism, is a branch of the Jewish mystical tradition that concerns the use of magic. It was considered permitted white magic by its practitioners, reserved for the elite, who could separate its spiritual source from Qliphoth realms of evil if performed under circumstances that were holy (Q-D-Š) and pure (טומאה וטהרה, "tvmh vthrh"). The concern of overstepping Judaism's strong prohibitions of impure magic ensured it remained a minor tradition in Jewish history. Its teachings include the use of Divine and angelic names for amulets and incantations. These magical practices of Judaic folk religion which became part of practical Kabbalah date from Talmudic times. The Talmud mentions the use of charms for healing, and a wide range of magical cures were sanctioned by rabbis. It was ruled that any practice actually producing a cure was not to be regarded superstitiously and there has been the widespread practice of medicinal amulets, and folk remedies "(segullot)" in Jewish societies across time and geography.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Although magic was forbidden by Levitical law in the Hebrew Bible, it was widely practised in the late Second Temple period, and particularly well documented in the period following the destruction of the temple into the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries CE.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, the Persian "maguš" was Graecicized and introduced into the ancient Greek language as "μάγος" and "μαγεία". In doing so it transformed meaning, gaining negative connotations, with the "magos" being regarded as a charlatan whose ritual practices were fraudulent, strange, unconventional, and dangerous. As noted by Davies, for the ancient Greeks—and subsequently for the ancient Romans—"magic was not distinct from religion but rather an unwelcome, improper expression of it—the religion of the other". The historian Richard Gordon suggested that for the ancient Greeks, being accused of practicing magic was "a form of insult".


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: This change in meaning was influenced by the military conflicts that the Greek city-states were then engaged in against the Persian Empire. In this context, the term makes appearances in such surviving text as Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex", Hippocrates' "De morbo sacro", and Gorgias' "Encomium of Helen". In Sophocles' play, for example, the character Oedipus derogatorily refers to the seer Tiresius as a "magos"—in this context meaning something akin to quack or charlatan—reflecting how this epithet was no longer reserved only for Persians.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In the first century BCE, the Greek concept of the "magos" was adopted into Latin and used by a number of ancient Roman writers as "magus" and "magia". The earliest known Latin use of the term was in Virgil's "Eclogue", written around 40 BCE, which makes reference to "magicis... sacris" (magic rites). The Romans already had other terms for the negative use of supernatural powers, such as "veneficus" and "saga". The Roman use of the term was similar to that of the Greeks, but placed greater emphasis on the judicial application of it. Within the Roman Empire, laws would be introduced criminalising things regarded as magic.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In ancient Roman society, magic was associated with societies to the east of the empire; the first century CE writer Pliny the Elder for instance claimed that magic had been created by the Iranian philosopher Zoroaster, and that it had then been brought west into Greece by the magician Osthanes, who accompanied the military campaigns of the Persian King Xerxes.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Ancient Greek scholarship of the 20th century, almost certainly influenced by Christianising preconceptions of the meanings of magic and religion, and the wish to establish Greek culture as the foundation of Western rationality, developed a theory of ancient Greek magic as primitive and insignificant, and thereby essentially separate from Homeric, communal ("polis") religion. Since the last decade of the century, however, recognising the ubiquity and respectability of acts such as "katadesmoi" (binding spells), described as magic by modern and ancient observers alike, scholars have been compelled to abandon this viewpoint. The Greek word "mageuo" (practice magic) itself derives from the word "Magos", originally simply the Greek name for a Persian tribe known for practicing religion. Non-civic mystery cults have been similarly re-evaluated:


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: " Katadesmoi" (Latin: " defixiones)", curses inscribed on wax or lead tablets and buried underground, were frequently executed by all strata of Greek society, sometimes to protect the entire "polis". Communal curses carried out in public declined after the Greek classical period, but private curses remained common throughout antiquity. They were distinguished as magical by their individualistic, instrumental and sinister qualities. These qualities, and their perceived deviation from inherently mutable cultural constructs of normality, most clearly delineate ancient magic from the religious rituals of which they form a part.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: A large number of magical papyri, in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered and translated. They contain early instances of:


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The practice of magic was banned in the late Roman world, and the "Codex Theodosianus" (438 AD) states: If any wizard therefore or person imbued with magical contamination who is called by custom of the people a magician...should be apprehended in my retinue, or in that of the Caesar, he shall not escape punishment and torture by the protection of his rank.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In the first century CE, early Christian authors absorbed the Greco-Roman concept of magic and incorporated it into their developing Christian theology. These Christians retained the already implied Greco-Roman negative stereotypes of the term and extented them by incorporating conceptual patterns borrowed from Jewish thought, in particular the opposition of magic and miracle. Some early Christian authors followed the Greek-Roman thinking by ascribing the origin of magic to the human realm, mainly to Zoroaster and Osthanes. The Christian view was that magic was a product of the Babylonians, Persians, or Egyptians. The Christians shared with earlier classical culture the idea that magic was something distinct from proper religion, although drew their distinction between the two in different ways.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: For early Christian writers like Augustine of Hippo, magic did not merely constitute fraudulent and unsanctioned ritual practices, but was the very opposite of religion because it relied upon cooperation from demons, the henchmen of Satan. In this, Christian ideas of magic were closely linked to the Christian category of paganism, and both magic and paganism were regarded as belonging under the broader category of "superstitio" (superstition), another term borrowed from pre-Christian Roman culture. This Christian emphasis on the inherent immorality and wrongness of magic as something conflicting with good religion was far starker than the approach in the other large monotheistic religions of the period, Judaism and Islam. For instance, while Christians regarded demons as inherently evil, the jinn—comparable entities in Islamic mythology—were perceived as more ambivalent figures by Muslims.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The model of the magician in Christian thought was provided by Simon Magus, (Simon the Magician), a figure who opposed Saint Peter in both the Acts of the Apostles and the apocryphal yet influential Acts of Peter. The historian Michael D. Bailey stated that in medieval Europe, magic was a "relatively broad and encompassing category". Christian theologians believed that there were multiple different forms of magic, the majority of which were types of divination, for instance, Isidore of Seville produced a catalogue of things he regarded as magic in which he listed divination by the four elements i.e. geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and pyromancy, as well as by observation of natural phenomena e.g. the flight of birds and astrology. He also mentioned enchantment and ligatures (the medical use of magical objects bound to the patient) as being magical. Medieval Europe also saw magic come to be associated with the Old Testament figure of Solomon; various grimoires, or books outlining magical practices, were written that claimed to have been written by Solomon, most notably the Key of Solomon.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In early medieval Europe, "magia" was a term of condemnation. In medieval Europe, Christians often suspected Muslims and Jews of engaging in magical practices; in certain cases, these perceived magical rites—including the alleged Jewish sacrifice of Christian children—resulted in Christians massacring these religious minorities. Christian groups often also accused other, rival Christian groups—which they regarded as heretical—of engaging in magical activities. Medieval Europe also saw the term "maleficium" applied to forms of magic that were conducted with the intention of causing harm. The later Middle Ages saw words for these practitioners of harmful magical acts appear in various European languages: "sorcière" in French, "Hexe" in German, "strega" in Italian, and "bruja" in Spanish. The English term for malevolent practitioners of magic, witch, derived from the earlier Old English term "wicce".


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Ars Magica or magic is a major component and supporting contribution to the belief and practice of spiritual, and in many cases, physical healing throughout the Middle Ages. Emanating from many modern interpretations lies a trail of misconceptions about magic, one of the largest revolving around wickedness or the existence of nefarious beings who practice it. These misinterpretations stem from numerous acts or rituals that have been performed throughout antiquity, and due to their exoticism from the commoner's perspective, the rituals invoked uneasiness and an even stronger sense of dismissal.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In the Medieval Jewish view, the separation of the mystical and magical elements of Kabbalah, dividing it into speculative theological Kabbalah ("Kabbalah Iyyunit") with its meditative traditions, and theurgic practical Kabbalah ("Kabbalah Ma'asit"), had occurred by the beginning of the 14th century.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: One societal force in the Middle Ages more powerful than the singular commoner, the Christian Church, rejected magic as a whole because it was viewed as a means of tampering with the natural world in a supernatural manner associated with the biblical verses of Deuteronomy 18:9–12. Despite the many negative connotations which surround the term magic, there exist many elements that are seen in a divine or holy light.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Diversified instruments or rituals used in medieval magic include, but are not limited to: various amulets, talismans, potions, as well as specific chants, dances, and prayers. Along with these rituals are the adversely imbued notions of demonic participation which influence of them. The idea that magic was devised, taught, and worked by demons would have seemed reasonable to anyone who read the Greek magical papyri or the Sefer-ha-Razim and found that healing magic appeared alongside rituals for killing people, gaining wealth, or personal advantage, and coercing women into sexual submission. Archaeology is contributing to a fuller understanding of ritual practices performed in the home, on the body and in monastic and church settings.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: The Islamic reaction towards magic did not condemn magic in general and distinguished between magic which can heal sickness and possession, and sorcery. The former is therefore a special gift from God, while the latter is achieved through help of Jinn and devils. Ibn al-Nadim held that exorcists gain their power by their obedience to God, while sorcerers please the devils by acts of disobedience and sacrifices and they in return do him a favor. According to Ibn Arabi, Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yusuf al-Shubarbuli was able to walk on water due to his piety. According to the Quran 2:102, magic was also taught to humans by devils and the fallen angels Harut and Marut.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: During the early modern period, the concept of magic underwent a more positive reassessment through the development of the concept of "magia naturalis" (natural magic). This was a term introduced and developed by two Italian humanists, Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. For them, "magia" was viewed as an elemental force pervading many natural processes, and thus was fundamentally distinct from the mainstream Christian idea of demonic magic. Their ideas influenced an array of later philosophers and writers, among them Paracelsus, Giordano Bruno, Johannes Reuchlin, and Johannes Trithemius. According to the historian Richard Kieckhefer, the concept of "magia naturalis" took "firm hold in European culture" during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, attracting the interest of natural philosophers of various theoretical orientations, including Aristotelians, Neoplatonists, and Hermeticists.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Adherents of this position argued that "magia" could appear in both good and bad forms; in 1625, the French librarian Gabriel Naudé wrote his "Apology for all the Wise Men Falsely Suspected of Magic", in which he distinguished "Mosoaicall Magick"—which he claimed came from God and included prophecies, miracles, and speaking in tongues—from "geotick" magic caused by demons. While the proponents of "magia naturalis" insisted that this did not rely on the actions of demons, critics disagreed, arguing that the demons had simply deceived these magicians. By the seventeenth century the concept of "magia naturalis" had moved in increasingly 'naturalistic' directions, with the distinctions between it and science becoming blurred. The validity of "magia naturalis" as a concept for understanding the universe then came under increasing criticism during the Age of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Despite the attempt to reclaim the term "magia" for use in a positive sense, it did not supplant traditional attitudes toward magic in the West, which remained largely negative. At the same time as "magia naturalis" was attracting interest and was largely tolerated, Europe saw an active persecution of accused witches believed to be guilty of "maleficia". Reflecting the term's continued negative associations, Protestants often sought to denigrate Roman Catholic sacramental and devotional practices as being magical rather than religious. Many Roman Catholics were concerned by this allegation and for several centuries various Roman Catholic writers devoted attention to arguing that their practices were religious rather than magical. At the same time, Protestants often used the accusation of magic against other Protestant groups which they were in contest with. In this way, the concept of magic was used to prescribe what was appropriate as religious belief and practice.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Similar claims were also being made in the Islamic world during this period. The Arabian cleric Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab—founder of Wahhabism—for instance condemned a range of customs and practices such as divination and the veneration of spirits as "sihr", which he in turn claimed was a form of "shirk", the sin of idolatry.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Renaissance humanism saw a resurgence in hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties of ceremonial magic. The Renaissance, on the other hand, saw the rise of science, in such forms as the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe, the distinction of astronomy from astrology, and of chemistry from alchemy.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: There was great uncertainty in distinguishing practices of superstition, occultism, and perfectly sound scholarly knowledge or pious ritual. The intellectual and spiritual tensions erupted in the Early Modern witch craze, further reinforced by the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In Hasidism, the displacement of practical Kabbalah using directly magical means, by conceptual and meditative trends gained much further emphasis, while simultaneously instituting meditative theurgy for material blessings at the heart of its social mysticism. Hasidism internalised Kabbalah through the psychology of deveikut (cleaving to God), and cleaving to the Tzadik (Hasidic Rebbe). In Hasidic doctrine, the tzaddik channels Divine spiritual and physical bounty to his followers by altering the Will of God (uncovering a deeper concealed Will) through his own deveikut and self-nullification. Dov Ber of Mezeritch is concerned to distinguish this theory of the Tzadik's will altering and deciding the Divine Will, from directly magical process.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In the sixteenth century, European societies began to conquer and colonise other continents around the world, and as they did so they applied European concepts of magic and witchcraft to practices found among the peoples whom they encountered. Usually, these European colonialists regarded the natives as primitives and savages whose belief systems were diabolical and needed to be eradicated and replaced by Christianity. Because Europeans typically viewed these non-European peoples as being morally and intellectually inferior to themselves, it was expected that such societies would be more prone to practicing magic. Women who practiced traditional rites were labelled as witches by the Europeans.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In various cases, these imported European concepts and terms underwent new transformations as they merged with indigenous concepts. In West Africa, for instance, Portuguese travellers introduced their term and concept of the "feitiçaria" (often translated as sorcery) and the "feitiço" (spell) to the native population, where it was transformed into the concept of the fetish. When later Europeans encountered these West African societies, they wrongly believed that the "fetiche" was an indigenous African term rather than the result of earlier inter-continental encounters. Sometimes, colonised populations themselves adopted these European concepts for their own purposes. In the early nineteenth century, the newly independent Haitian government of Jean-Jacques Dessalines began to suppress the practice of Vodou, and in 1835 Haitian law-codes categorised all Vodou practices as "sortilège" (sorcery/witchcraft), suggesting that it was all conducted with harmful intent, whereas among Vodou practitioners the performance of harmful rites was already given a separate and distinct category, known as "maji".


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Writers on occult or magical topics during this period include Michael Sendivogius (1566–1636), Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639), Jakob Böhme (1575–1624), Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577–1644), Franz Kessler (1580–1650), Adrian von Mynsicht (1603–1638), Sir Kenelm Digby (1603–1665), Johann Friedrich Schweitzer (1625–1709) and Isaac Newton (1642–1727), (see Isaac Newton's occult studies).


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: By the nineteenth century, European intellectuals no longer saw the practice of magic through the framework of sin and instead regarded magical practices and beliefs as "an aberrational mode of thought antithetical to the dominant cultural logic – a sign of psychological impairment and marker of racial or cultural inferiority".


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: As educated elites in Western societies increasingly rejected the efficacy of magical practices, legal systems ceased to threaten practitioners of magical activities with punishment for the crimes of diabolism and witchcraft, and instead threatened them with the accusation that they were defrauding people through promising to provide things which they could not.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: This spread of European colonial power across the world influenced how academics would come to frame the concept of magic.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: In the nineteenth century, several scholars adopted the traditional, negative concept of magic. That they chose to do so was not inevitable, for they could have followed the example adopted by prominent esotericists active at the time like Helena Blavatsky who had chosen to use the term and concept of magic in a positive sense.


title: Magic (supernatural)

text: Various writers also used the concept of magic to criticise religion by arguing that the latter still displayed many of the negative traits of the former. An example of this was the American journalist H. L. Mencken in his polemical 1930 work "Treatise on the Gods"; he sought to critique religion by comparing it to magic, arguing that the division between the two was misplaced. The concept of magic was also adopted by theorists in the new field of psychology, where it was often used synonymously with superstition, although the latter term proved more common in early psychological texts.