title: The Ranch

text: "The Ranch" was filmed on a sound stage in front of a live audience at Warner Brothers Studio stage 19 in Burbank, California. The opening sequence shows scenes from Norwood, and Ouray, Colorado, and the surrounding Ouray, and San Miguel Counties.


title: The Ranch

text: Exterior shots of Maggie's bar is the 141 Saloon (now a marijuana dispensary) located at 138 E. Main St. in Naturita, Colorado, a former uranium mining town.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: Cha Cha Real Smooth is a 2022 American comedy-drama film written, produced, and directed by Cooper Raiff. The plot centers on a 22-year-old college graduate (Raiff) who starts making money as a party starter while he also strikes up a relationship with a 32-year-old mother (played by Dakota Johnson, who also produced the film). The cast also includes Raúl Castillo, Odeya Rush, Evan Assante, Vanessa Burghardt, Brad Garrett, and Leslie Mann.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: It premiered at the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2022, and was released in limited theaters and streaming on Apple TV+ on June 17, 2022. The film received generally positive reviews from critics.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: Twelve-year-old New Jersey resident Andrew asks a party host out on a date; she rejects him due to their age difference. Ten years later, Andrew's girlfriend, Maya, moves to Barcelona to finish her Fulbright. Andrew is asked to take his twelve-year-old brother David to a bat mitzvah, where Andrew encourages the kids to dance. He meets Domino and her autistic daughter, Lola. Andrew's peers have been spreading rumors about Domino. Andrew introduces himself and manages to take Lola to the dance floor, surprising Domino. The mothers at the party take notice of his charisma and agree to hire Andrew as a party starter at upcoming bar and bat mitzvahs. He dubs himself the Jig Conductor and plans to use the money to reunite with Maya in Barcelona.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: Andrew is removed as DJ from his next party for confronting a child who bullied Lola. He finds Domino in the restroom, covered in blood. He and Lola find her a change of clothes; Andrew drives them home. Domino tells Andrew she has a fiancé, Joseph, working in Chicago. She reveals the blood was not from her period but caused by a recent miscarriage. Domino hires Andrew as Lola's sitter. They kiss. Andrew later has sex with his friend, Macy. Andrew spends the next day talking to David and interviewing for a job as an intern. Andrew meets Joseph at a party and later spends time with Domino and Lola. Andrew starts to think Maya is dating someone in Barcelona; his mother comforts him. Andrew helps Lola go to bed by scratching her back, an activity she had previously only allowed Domino to do. Andrew sees Domino and Joseph in a bad mood before he leaves.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: Andrew gets the intern job. He and Domino talk about her engagement with Joseph and they kiss. Back home, Andrew and David argue for a bit. Joseph fires Andrew from his job as Lola's sitter. David almost experiences his first kiss but leaves to stop some kids bullying Lola. A fight between Andrew's family and the other guests at the bar mitzvah ensues. Andrew tells Domino he loves her. She rejects his advances, telling him that she is in love with Joseph, even when it does not appear she is. Joseph thanks Andrew for taking care of his family. Andrew decides he does not want to go to Barcelona. Instead, he plans to move out. Andrew and Domino say goodbye. She encourages him to live his life to the fullest before making any commitments. David tells Andrew he had his first kiss at school. Six months later, Domino and Joseph are married, while Andrew has fun dancing at a bar with his friends.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: The film was announced in March 2021, with Dakota Johnson and Cooper Raiff set to star. In August, Leslie Mann, Brad Garrett, Raúl Castillo, Odeya Rush, Vanessa Burghardt, Evan Assante and Colton Osorio joined the cast. Principal photography began on August 12, 2021, with filming taking place in Pittsburgh.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: It premiered at the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2022. Afterwards, Apple TV+ acquired the film's distribution rights for $15 million. The film showed at SXSW on March 18, 2022. The film also screened at the Tribeca Film Festival in June 2022. It was released on June 17, 2022, simultaneously in limited theaters and on Apple TV+.


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: Christy Lemire of "Roger Ebert.com" gave the film a positive review writing, "Raiff's ambition to break free from sentimental formula and forge a path of his own is clear, making him an exciting young filmmaker to watch."


title: Cha Cha Real Smooth

text: Film critic Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" panned the film, writing, "It's derivative and unpersuasive, and as pandering as any big studio soft sell" adding about the film's central romance: "Their relationship never makes sense; but, then, neither does most of the movie."


title: Dominic Holland

text: Dominic Anthony Holland (born 6 May 1967) is an English comedian, author, actor and broadcaster. He won the 1993 Perrier Best Newcomer Award in Edinburgh. His BBC Radio 4 series, "The Small World of Dominic Holland" (a reference to his 5'6" height), won a Comic Heritage Award.


title: Dominic Holland

text: Holland was born in Brent, London, the son of Teresa (Quigley) and John Holland. His father was from the Isle of Man and his mother was Irish. Raised Catholic, he attended the Cardinal Vaughan Memorial School. He later studied textile management at Leeds University, where he met his future wife, photographer Nicola Frost. He has four sons, including actor Tom Holland.


title: Dominic Holland

text: Holland started performing stand-up comedy in 1991, making his debut at The Comedy Café, Rivington Street, London. In 1993, he was briefly managed by Eddie Izzard. In Holland's first year at the Edinburgh Fringe his one-man show won the Perrier Best Newcomer award and good notices. Later in the autumn of 1993, Holland supported Eddie Izzard on her national tour. In 1994, Holland returned to Edinburgh. In 1996, his show at the Edinburgh festival was nominated for the Perrier Award. Holland returned to the Edinburgh festival in 2006. In October 2012 Holland recorded his first stand up DVD at the Court Theatre in Tring.


title: Dominic Holland

text: "The Sunday Times" described Holland as "The UK's master of observational comedy" and "The Daily Telegraph" commented that "he is a top notch stand up who everyone should see". Bob Monkhouse called him "Britain's funniest not yet famous comedian".


title: Dominic Holland

text: Holland made his TV debut appearance in 1993 on Central Television's "Lafter Hours" with Harry Hill. He was a team captain for two series of "Bring Me the Head of Light Entertainment" for Channel Five – with Graham Norton hosting in 1998. In 1999 and 2000, Holland appeared twice as a guest on "Have I Got News for You", "They Think It's All Over", and in 2000 "The Royal Variety Performance". He has appeared on "Rob Brydon's Annually Retentive". He has been a regular panellist on the daytime debate show "The Wright Stuff".


title: Dominic Holland

text: Holland has made numerous guest appearances on numerous television shows, including "The Clive James Show", "The Brian Conley Show", "The Des O'Connor Show", and "Never Mind the Buzzcocks". He has participated in the "Richard and Judy Show" as well as "Boom Bang-a-Bang" and "the National Lottery Draw Show". He has written for the animated British sitcom, Warren United, originally titled "The Wild World of Warren", produced for ITV by Baby Cow Productions. Six episodes were made, two of which co-written by Holland.


title: Dominic Holland

text: Holland's first foray into radio was on hospital radio when he joined North Middlesex Hospital's radio station, Radio North Mid in 1990.


title: Dominic Holland

text: "The Small World of Dominic Holland" was a radio programme written and presented by Holland, featuring his stand-up work, but including sketches. One series of the show was commissioned in 2000. This was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 and won a Comic Heritage Award. It has been repeated on BBC 7.


title: Dominic Holland

text: His second radio series on Radio 4, "Holland's Shorts". was a series of comic monologues written and performed by Holland. In 2011 he appeared on Radio 4's "The News Quiz", hosted by Sandi Toksvig. Holland was co-writer of "Hal", a 2017 sitcom commissioned by BBC Radio 4, that starred Hal Cruttenden, in which Holland also appeared. He also made regular appearances in the early seasons of BBC Radio 5 Live's comedy sports panel show, "Fighting Talk".


title: Dominic Holland

text: Holland debuted in 1982 in a small role of 'schoolboy' in Channel 4 film "P'tang, Yang, Kipperbang". In 1998 he played "Bob" in "The Young Person's Guide to Becoming a Rock Star". In 1999 he appeared as "Cello Player" in "Tube Tales". Holland has written four screenplays, three of which have been sold to producers, but as yet, have not been made into films.


title: Dominic Holland

text: Holland has written material for Bob Monkhouse, Lenny Henry, Harry Enfield, Des O'Connor, Clive Anderson and many others. Holland has published two comic novels, "Only in America" and "The Ripple Effect". His third novel, "A Man's Life", was published in 2013. For two years Holland wrote the "Funny Money" column for "The Guardian". In January 2013 Holland published "How Tom Holland Eclipsed His Dad". He published 'The Fruit Bowl' on July 13, 2020. Published on November 22, 2020, "Takes on Life Vol. 1" contains thirty-one autobiographical essays or "Takes" on the life of Dominic Holland.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Hubie Halloween is a 2020 American mystery comedy film directed by Steven Brill, written by Adam Sandler and Tim Herlihy, and starring an ensemble cast consisting of Sandler in the title role, Kevin James, Julie Bowen, Ray Liotta, Rob Schneider, June Squibb, Kenan Thompson, Shaquille O'Neal, Steve Buscemi, and Maya Rudolph. The film follows a Halloween-loving delicatessen worker who must save the town of Salem, Massachusetts, from a kidnapper.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Released on October 7, 2020, by Netflix, the film received mixed reviews from critics, although some critics considered it better than Sandler's other recent comedies. The film pays tribute to actor Cameron Boyce, who was set to co-star but died in 2019.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Hubie Dubois is a dimwitted delicatessen employee in Salem, Massachusetts who is ridiculed by almost the entire city, and is the butt of many practical jokes while his antics have annoyed police sergeants Steve Downey and Blake and Father Dave, a priest. Hubie spends his time during Halloween monitoring the city as the official Halloween Helper.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: The day before Halloween, Hubie meets his strange new neighbor Walter Lambert, and news spreads around town about Richie Hartman, a convict and childhood friend of Hubie who has absconded from a local mental institution.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: The next day is Halloween; Hubie is working as Halloween Monitor and investigates Walter's home after reports of strange noises. Having reported this to the police, he is "recruited" by Downey as an "AUU" (auxiliary undercover unit). Hubie believes this assignment is genuine, but it is really just something Steve tells Hubie in hopes it will deter Hubie from bothering him.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Hubie goes to a local Halloween party to monitor the activities. However, it soon turns sour. Hubie is tricked into going into a corn maze following reports about a lost child. Hubie's young co-worker Mike follows hoping to scare Hubie. Hubie finds Mike and sees him getting pulled into the maze and then disappearing.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Hubie moves his attention to monitoring a drive-in cinema. Hubie's old classmates Lester and Mary Hennessey scare Hubie after false reports of suspicious activity in one of the cars at the drive-in (who turn out to be trick-or-treaters driven by Mr. Hennessey to throw eggs at Hubie). He flees into the woods and finds Walter. Walter thinks he is turning into a werewolf and chases Hubie to a haunted house in a fun fair that is overseen by Chantal Taylor.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Mr. and Mrs. Hennessey are kidnapped and Sgt. Downey is alerted. At the haunted house, Hubie sees a Siberian Husky, thinking it is Walter in his final form. The Husky then runs into the haunted house and Hubie chases it inside. It is eventually shown that the Husky is Miss Taylor's pet dog Buster. Pete Landolfa goes in to scare Hubie, but is kidnapped in front of him. Sgt. Downey arrives and suggests to Mayor Benson that they cancel Halloween. Hubie thinks it is Walter, but then Blake calls Downey stating that Walter is at the police station with Richie who had turned themselves in, who also reveals that Walter's real name is Nick Hudson. Richie had escaped, bringing Walter back to the mental institution which they refer to as the werewolf treatment center. Downey, Benson, and Dave agree that Hubie is the kidnapper, thinking he is getting revenge on his bullies. He runs away and goes to a radio station.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: DJ Aurora tells Hubie that someone calls a lot more than him always requesting a song for Hubie. They all think Sgt. Downey's ex-wife Violet Valentine is the caller. The burner phone that was planted when called is revealed to be in Hubie's house and he races there, hoping his mother is okay. It is revealed that Hubie's mother kidnapped Pete, Mike, and the Hennesseys as revenge for tormenting Hubie and plans to burn them alive. He rescues them just as the police, the news media, Nick, and Richie arrive, but they are still ungrateful. His mother then scolds Pete, Mike, and the Hennesseys for all the things they did to Hubie and they also admitted that they were jealous of him for various reasons. Hubie's mother suddenly disappears upon using the Frankenstein trick.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: One year later, Hubie is married to Violet, is the new Mayor of Salem, and his new foster kids are going trick or treating dressed like people he knows. Having earned respect from the locals, Hubie goes into town on his bicycle with Downey escorting him and prepares for the Halloween festivities.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Additionally, Peyton List appears as Peggy, a haunted house employee trying to raise money for her school. Ben Stiller reprises his role as Hal L., an orderly at Richie and Nick's asylum who previously appeared in "Happy Gilmore". Dan Patrick plays the principal of the local elementary school. Melissa Villaseñor plays Karen, a cat owner in Hubie's neighborhood. WHDH morning anchor Alaina Pinto plays Salem's resident news anchor. Betsy Sodaro plays Bunny, Aurora's wife with a masculine voice provided by an uncredited actor. Kelli Berglund, Kevin Quinn, Bradley Steven Perry, Lilimar, and Amber Frank play teenager characters the Billie Eilish Girl, Pennywise Guy, Cormac, Coco, and a Female Zombie Band Singer, respectively. Sandler's wife Jackie plays Tracy Phillips, a local news reporter, while their children Sadie and Sunny play Violet's foster daughters Danielle and Cooky. Sandler's nephew, Jared plays a Male Zombie Band Singer. Screenwriter Tim Herlihy plays a Wild Bear, while his son Martin plays a Teenage Zombie. Director Steven Brill's children Nathan and Ethan play two Food Fight Kids. Producer Allen Covert plays a Zombie Movie Dad while his kids Hannah, Abigail, Rebecca, and Hank play Danielle and Cooky's friends and two Food Fight Kids. Kevin James' children appear sporadically throughout the film: Kannon plays "Exorcist Costume Kid" while Sienna, Shea and Sistine play more of Danielle and Cooky's friends. Ben Stiller and Ray Liotta's daughters Ella Olivia and Karsen play teenagers Lexie and Barb, respectively.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: In July 2019, "Hubie Halloween" was announced as Adam Sandler's next film as part of his Netflix deal, with Happy Madison regulars Kevin James, Julie Bowen, Maya Rudolph, Steve Buscemi, Rob Schneider, Tim Meadows, Colin Quinn, Blake Clark and Shaquille O'Neal as part of the cast. Ray Liotta, Michael Chiklis, Kenan Thompson, Peyton List, China Anne McClain, Paris Berelc, June Squibb, Noah Schnapp, Mikey Day, Melissa Villaseñor, Kym Whitley, Lavell Crawford, Betsy Sodaro, and George Wallace were also attached, with Steven Brill directing from a screenplay by Sandler and Tim Herlihy. Cameron Boyce, who had starred alongside Sandler in the "Grown Ups" series, was set to feature in the film, but died in July 2019 from complications of epilepsy just days before shooting. Boyce's best friend and former "Jessie" co-star Karan Brar was then recast in his role. The film is dedicated in Boyce's memory.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: Principal photography began in July 2019 around Salem, Lynnfield, Hamilton, Marblehead, Danvers and other parts of Massachusetts, wrapping in early September.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: "Hubie Halloween" was digitally released by Netflix on October 7, 2020. It was the top-streamed title in its first two weeks of release. It finished third in its third weekend, then over Halloween weekend placed sixth.


title: Hubie Halloween

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 51% based on 81 reviews with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads "Viewers immune to its star's charms won't find it much of a treat, but "Hubie Halloween" is sweet enough to satisfy fans of Adam Sandler's antics." On Metacritic it has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on reviews from 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Hubie Halloween

text: David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "B–," praising the cameos and saying, "Are those details enough to make "Hubie Halloween" much better than all the other content Sandler has churned out for Netflix so far, or am I just drunk on the movie's pumpkin-spiced production design? It's hard to say, but this is the first time in a long time that it feels nice to watch the Sandman goof off with his friends for 90 minutes."


title: Hubie Halloween

text: For the 41st Golden Raspberry Awards, "Hubie Halloween" received three nominations for Worst Actor (for Sandler), Worst Screen Combo (for "Sandler and His Grating Simpleton Voice"), and Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel (for a "Remake/Rip-Off of "Ernest Scared Stupid"").


title: Venus de Milo

text: The Venus de Milo (; ) is an ancient Greek sculpture that was created during the Hellenistic period, sometime between 150 and 125 BC. It is one of the most famous works of ancient Greek sculpture, having been prominently displayed at the Louvre Museum since shortly after the statue was rediscovered on the island of Milos, Greece, in 1820.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The "Venus de Milo" is believed to depict Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, whose Roman counterpart was Venus. The sculpture is sometimes called the Aphrodite de Milos, due to the imprecision of naming the Greek sculpture after a Roman deity (Venus). Some scholars theorize that the statue actually represents the sea-goddess Amphitrite, who was venerated on the island in which the statue was found. The work was originally attributed to the 4th century Athenian sculptor Praxiteles, but, based upon an inscription on its plinth, it is now widely agreed that the statue was created later, and instead is the work of Alexandros of Antioch.


title: Venus de Milo

text: Made of Parian marble, the statue is larger than life size, standing high. The statue is missing both arms, with part of one arm, as well as the original plinth, being lost after the statue's rediscovery.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The "Venus de Milo" is a tall Parian marble statue of a Greek goddess, most likely Aphrodite, depicted half-clothed with a bare torso. The statue originally would have had two arms, two feet, both earlobes intact and a plinth. There is a filled hole below her right breast that originally contained a metal tenon that would have supported the separately carved right arm. Without arms, it is unclear what the statue originally looked like, but textile archeologist Elizabeth Wayland Barber notes that the posture of "Venus de Milo" suggests that she may have been hand spinning.


title: Venus de Milo

text: It is generally asserted that the "Venus de Milo" was discovered on 8 April 1820 by a Greek farmer named Yorgos Kentrotas, inside a buried niche within the ancient city ruins of Milos. This ancient city is the current village of Trypiti, on the island of Milos (also called Melos, or Milo) in the Aegean, which was then a part of the Ottoman Empire.


title: Venus de Milo

text: Elsewhere, the discoverers are identified as the Greeks Yorgos Bottonis and his son Antonio. Paul Carus gave the site of discovery as "the ruins of an ancient theater in the vicinity of Castro, the capital of the island", adding that Bottonis and his son "came accidentally across a small cave, carefully covered with a heavy slab and concealed, which contained a fine marble statue in two pieces, together with several other marble fragments. This happened in February, 1820". He apparently based these assertions on an article he had read in the "Century Magazine".


title: Venus de Milo

text: The Australian historian Edward Duyker, citing a letter written by Louis Brest who was the French consul in Milos in 1820, asserts the discoverer of the statue was Theodoros Kendrotas and that he has been confused with his younger son Georgios (Γεώργιος, transliterated into the Latin alphabet phonetically as Yorgos) who later claimed credit for the find. Duyker asserts that Kendrotas was taking stone from a ruined chapel on the edge of his property – terraced land that had once formed part of a Roman gymnasium – and that he discovered an oblong cavity some deep in the volcanic tuff. It was in this cavity, which had three wings, that Kendrotas first noticed the upper part of the statue.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The consensus is that the statue was found in two large pieces (the upper torso and the lower draped legs) along with several herms (pillars topped with heads), fragments of the upper left arm and left hand holding an apple, and an inscribed plinth.


title: Venus de Milo

text: Upon its discovery in 1820, the "Venus de Milo" was considered to be a significant artistic finding, but did not gain its status as an icon until later on. The exact circumstances in which she was discovered, however, are uncertain. The Louvre and in turn, French art as a whole, had suffered great losses when Napoleon Bonaparte's looted art collection was returned to their countries of origin. The museum lost some of its most iconic pieces, such as the Vatican Museums' "Laocoon and His Sons" and the Uffizi Gallery's "Venus de' Medici". The hole that the restitutions left in French culture allowed the perfect path for the "Venus de Milo" to become an international icon. Based on early drawings, the plinth that had been detached from the statue was known to have dates on it, which revealed that it was created after the Classical period, which was the most desirable artistic period. This caused the French to hide the plinth, in an effort to conceal this fact before the statue's introduction to the Louvre in 1821. The "Venus de Milo" held a prime spot in the gallery, and became iconic, mostly due to the Louvre's branding campaign and emphasis on the statue's importance in order to regain national pride.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The great fame of the "Venus de Milo" during the 19th century owed much to a major propaganda effort by the French authorities. In 1815, France had returned the "Venus de' Medici" (also known as the Medici Venus) to the Italians. The Medici Venus, regarded as one of the finest classical sculptures in existence, caused the French to promote the "Venus de Milo" as a greater treasure than that which they recently had lost. The statue was praised dutifully by many artists and critics as the epitome of graceful female beauty. However, Pierre-Auguste Renoir was among its detractors, calling it "as beautiful as a gendarme".


title: Venus de Milo

text: During the beginning of the German invasions during World War II, Jacques Jaujard, the director of the French Musées Nationaux, anticipating the fall of France, decided to organize the evacuation of the Louvre art collection to the provinces.


title: Venus de Milo

text: Venus de Milo along-with The Winged Victory of Samothrace were kept at Château de Valençay, which was spared the German occupation on a technicality.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The statue has greatly influenced masters of modern art; two prime examples are Salvador Dalí's 1936 painting "Venus de Milo with Drawers" and his "The Hallucinogenic Toreador" (1969–70) and its repeated images of the statue.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The statue was formerly part of the seal of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS), one of the oldest associations of plastic surgeons in the world.


title: Venus de Milo

text: In February 2010, the German magazine "Focus" featured a doctored image of this Venus giving Europe the middle finger, which resulted in a defamation lawsuit against the journalists and the publication. They were found not guilty by the Greek court.


title: Venus de Milo

text: Many modern artists have been inspired by the statue piece since it first arrived at the Louvre. One of the more notable pieces was created by French Post-Impressionist painter Paul Cézanne who drew a pencil study in 1881. Another inspired work was by René Magritte, who painted a reduced-scale version of plaster, with bright pink and dark blue, entitled or "The Copper Handcuffs" in 1931. Even more recently are the works of Neo-Dada Pop artist Jim Dine, who has often utilized the Venus de Milo in his sculptures and paintings since the 1970s. Possibly the most widely-known adaptation is that of Salvador Dalí, with his 1936 creation "(Venus of Milos with Drawers)". The Spanish Surrealist created a half-size plaster cast, painted it, and covered the slightly open drawers with metal knobs and fur pom-poms. This inspired recreation of the famous sculpture was meant to display the "goddess of love as a fetishistic anthropomorphic cabinet with secret drawers filled with a maelstrom of mysteries of sexual desires that only a modern psychoanalyst can interpret" (Oppen & Meijer, 2019).


title: Venus de Milo

text: The image of the "Venus de Milo" is often seen in modern culture, whether it be in magazines, advertisements, or home decor.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The "Venus de Milo", as one of the world's most recognized artworks, has been referenced countless times in popular culture.


title: Venus de Milo

text: A common comedic gag is depicting how the statue allegedly lost its arms. In 1960, Charlie Drake performed a comedy sketch which showed museum employees accidentally breaking off the arms while packing it. The 1964 film "Carry On Cleo" similarly featured a skit which purported to show how the statue lost its arms. In the 1997 Disney film "Hercules", the title character skips a stone and inadvertently breaks both arms off the statue.


title: Venus de Milo

text: A plot to steal the statue is at the center of the 1966 spoof spy film "The Last of the Secret Agents?", starring Marty Allen and Steve Rossi.


title: Venus de Milo

text: The "Venus de Milo" is often featured and parodied in television shows, such as "The Tick" episode "Armless but Not Harmless", in which villains "Venus and Milo" rob an art museum, and the BBC sitcom "Only Fools and Horses", where Del Boy shows Rodney a model of the statue claiming there are sick-minded people in the world who would make such a statue of a disabled person.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google Pixel is a brand of consumer electronic devices developed by Google that run either ChromeOS or the Android operating system. The Pixel brand was introduced in February 2013 with the first-generation Chromebook Pixel. The Pixel line includes laptops, tablets, and smartphones, as well as several accessories.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google announced the first generation Pixel smartphones, the Pixel and the Pixel XL, on October 4, 2016 during the #MadeByGoogle event. Google emphasized the camera on the two phones, which ranked as the best smartphone camera on DxOMarkMobile with 90 points until HTC released the U11, which also scored 90 points. This is largely due to software optimizations such as HDR+. The Pixel phones also include unlimited cloud storage for pictures on Google Photos and, for devices purchased directly from Google, an unlockable bootloader. In 2019, a class action lawsuit over faulty microphones in some devices enabled Pixel owners to claim up to $500 in compensation.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google announced the Pixel 3 and Pixel 3 XL at an event on October 9, 2018, alongside several other products.


title: Google Pixel

text: On May 7, at I/O 2019, Google announced the Pixel 3a and Pixel 3a XL, budget alternatives to the original two Pixel 3 devices.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google announced the Pixel 4 and Pixel 4 XL at an event on October 15, 2019, alongside several other products.


title: Google Pixel

text: In 2019, Google offered a bug bounty of up to $1.5 million for the Titan M security chip built into Pixel 3, Pixel 3a and Pixel 4.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google announced the Pixel 4a on August 3, 2020 and the Pixel 4a (5G) on September 30, 2020, as budget alternatives to the original two Pixel 4 devices.


title: Google Pixel

text: The Pixel C was announced by Google at an event on September 29, 2015, alongside the Nexus 5X and Nexus 6P phones (among other products). The Pixel C includes a USB-C port and a 3.5 mm headphone jack. The device shipped with Android 6.0.1 Marshmallow, and later received Android 7.x Nougat and Android 8.x Oreo. Google stopped selling the Pixel C in December 2017.


title: Google Pixel

text: The Pixel Slate, a 2-in-1 tablet and laptop, was announced by Google in New York City on October 9, 2018, alongside the Pixel 3 and 3 XL. The Pixel Slate includes two USB-C ports but omits the headphone jack. The device runs ChromeOS on Intel Kaby Lake processors, with options ranging from a Celeron on the low end to an i7 on the high end. In June 2019, Google announced it will not further develop the product line, and cancelled two models that were under development.


title: Google Pixel

text: The Pixel Tablet was announced by Google at I/O 2022. It will have come with stand similar to that of a Home Hub, however it will be detachable. It is planned for release in 2023.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google announced the first generation Chromebook Pixel in a blog post on February 21, 2013. The laptop includes an SD/multi-card reader, Mini DisplayPort, combination headphone/microphone jack, and two USB 2.0 ports. Some of the device's other features include a backlit keyboard, a "fully clickable etched glass touchpad," integrated stereo speakers, and two built-in microphones.


title: Google Pixel

text: On March 11, 2015, Google announced the second generation of the Chromebook Pixel in a blog post. The laptop includes two USB-C ports, two USB 3.0 ports, an SD card slot, and a combination headphone/microphone jack. The device also has a backlit keyboard, a "multi-touch, clickable glass touchpad," built-in stereo speakers, and two built-in microphones, among other features.


title: Google Pixel

text: On October 4, 2017, Google launched the first generation of the Pixelbook at its Made by Google 2017 event.


title: Google Pixel

text: On October 15, 2019, Google announced a mid-range version of the Pixelbook, named the Pixelbook Go, at its Made by Google 2019 event.


title: Google Pixel

text: The Google Pixel Watch is a first-generation wearable made by Google. It features a circular display. Multiple wristbands for the watch are available on the Google Store for purchase.


title: Google Pixel

text: At Google's October 2017 hardware event, a set of wireless earbuds were unveiled alongside the Pixel 2 smartphones. The earbuds are designed for phones running Android Marshmallow or higher, and work with Google Assistant. In addition to audio playback and answering calls, the earbuds support translation in 40 languages through Google Translate. The earbuds are able to auto pair with the Pixel 2 with the help of the Google Assistant and "Nearby". The Pixel Buds are available in the colors Just Black, Clearly White and Kinda Blue. The earbuds have a battery capacity of 120 mAh while the charging case that comes with the Pixel Buds have a battery capacity of 620 mAh. The earbuds are priced at $159.


title: Google Pixel

text: Alongside the launch of the Pixelbook in October 2017, Google announced the Pixelbook Pen, a stylus to be used with the Pixelbook. It has pressure sensitivity as well as support for Google Assistant. The Pen is powered by a replaceable AAAA battery and is priced at US$99.


title: Google Pixel

text: In October 2018, Google announced the Pixel Stand alongside the Pixel 3 smartphones. In addition to standard 5 watt Qi wireless charging, the Pixel Stand has wireless 10 watt charging using a proprietary technology from Google. It also enables a software mode on the Pixel 3 that allows it to act as a smart display similar to the Google Home Hub.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google Pixel UI is an Android skin used for the Google Pixel line of smartphone, and developed by Google. Starting from first generation of Google Pixel phones, Google had replaced the launcher for their smartphone with Pixel Launcher instead of Google Now Launcher which is the default launcher for Nexus series.


title: Google Pixel

text: Unlike the Nexus phones, which Google shipped with "stock" Android (AOSP), the Pixel UI that came with the first generation Pixel phones were slightly modified compared to "stock" Android. Currently, Pixel UI and its home launcher are available on Pixel family devices only. (However, third-party modifications allow non-Pixel smartphones to install the Pixel Launcher with Google Now feed integration).


title: Google Pixel

text: During the launch of Android 4.x "Ice Cream Sandwich", Google had started to replace some of the stock Android apps with Google apps, including the stock Android music apps with Google Play Music, and Android browser with Google Chrome. By the launch of Android 4.4.x "KitKat", most of the stock Android apps had been replaced with Google apps, such as the stock Android gallery being replaced with Google Photos and etc. This also includes the Android home launcher being replaced with the Google Now Launcher, allowing users to access to their Google Now feed more conveniently. However, the rest of the UI was still similar to stock Android, including the settings menu and toggles buttons colors.


title: Google Pixel

text: Google officially launched the Pixel Launcher and Pixel UI together the Pixel phones; unlike the Google Now Launcher which allowed non Nexus phones to install, the Pixel Launcher was only available on the Pixel phones. Most Android smartphones including Nexus phones are not compatible with the launcher. Some of the modifications Google had done to differentiate Pixel UI with stock Android included the setting toggle's buttons colors, and 24/7 online support which allowed the user to get direct support from Google's customer support.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: Barbara Ann Corcoran (born March 10, 1949) is an American businesswoman, investor, syndicated columnist, and television personality. She founded The Corcoran Group, a real estate brokerage in New York City, which she sold to NRT for $66 million in 2001 and shortly thereafter exited the company. One of the show's original "Shark" investors, Corcoran has appeared in all 13 seasons of ABC's "Shark Tank" to date. As of February 2020, she has made 53 deals on the show, the largest being a $350,000 investment for 40% of Coverplay.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: Corcoran is a columnist for "More", "The Daily Review", and "Redbook", writes a weekly column in the New York "Daily News", and has written several books. She has been featured on "Larry King Live" and NBC's "Today" show, and hosts "The Millionaire Broker with Barbara Corcoran" on CNBC.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: Corcoran was born in Edgewater, New Jersey, the second of 10 children in a working class Irish-Catholic family. Her mother, Florence, was a homemaker. Her father, Edwin W. Corcoran Jr., bounced from job to job throughout Corcoran's childhood. At times, her family relied on deliveries of free food from a friendly local grocer. Corcoran remembers her father as a man who occasionally drank too much and treated her mother with disrespect and condescension, particularly when he'd been drinking.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: Corcoran struggled throughout her schooling, later learning that she had dyslexia. She attended a local Catholic elementary school and started high school at St. Cecilia High School in Englewood. After flunking several courses during her freshman year, Corcoran transferred to Leonia High School, where she graduated as a D student.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: Corcoran graduated from St. Thomas Aquinas College with a degree in education in 1971, faring better than she had in her previous schooling.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: After graduating college, she taught school for a year but soon moved on. She had worked a total of 20 jobs by the time she was 23, including a side job renting apartments in New York City. While she was a waitress, her boyfriend convinced her to work for a real estate company. She wanted to be her own boss, and in 1973, while working as a receptionist for the Giffuni Brothers' real estate company in New York City, co-founded The Corcoran-Simonè with her boyfriend, who loaned $1,000. She split from her boyfriend seven years later after he told her he was going to marry her secretary and she then formed her own firm, The Corcoran Group.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: In the mid-1970s, she also began publishing "The Corcoran Report", a newsletter covering real estate data trends in New York City.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: In September 2017, Corcoran was announced as a contestant for season 25 of "Dancing with the Stars," where she was partnered with Keo Motsepe.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: Corcoran lives in Manhattan with her husband, Bill Higgins, a retired Navy captain and former FBI agent who participated in the Gulf War. The couple married in 1988. Corcoran gave birth to their son in 1994, via in vitro fertilization, with an egg donated by her sister Florence. The couple later adopted a daughter.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: In 2001, she purchased a 2,700-square-foot apartment in a co-op building on Park Avenue for $3.5 million.


title: Barbara Corcoran

text: Corcoran has dyslexia and was labeled the 'dumb kid' by her teachers and classmates. According to Corcoran, the bullying "drove her to work harder and learn the skills she needed to succeed".


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: Bob Hearts Abishola (stylized as BOB ❤ ABISHOLA) is an American sitcom television series created by Chuck Lorre, Eddie Gorodetsky, Al Higgins, and Gina Yashere that premiered on September 23, 2019, on CBS. It stars Billy Gardell and Folake Olowofoyeku as the respective title characters, with Christine Ebersole, Matt Jones, Maribeth Monroe, Shola Adewusi, Barry Shabaka Henley, Travis Wolfe Jr., Vernee Watson, Bayo Akinfemi, Anthony Okungbowa, and Yashere in supporting roles. In February 2021, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on September 20, 2021. In January 2022, the series was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on September 19, 2022.


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: Bob Wheeler runs his family's successful, highly-competitive sock company in Detroit with his mother Dottie and his younger twin siblings, Christina and Douglas. When the stress of the job lands Bob in Woodward Memorial Hospital, due to a mild heart attack, he is immediately drawn to Abishola Adebambo, his kind, hardworking nurse. Despite their differences, Bob falls in love with Abishola and sets his sights on getting her to give him a chance.


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: On October 5, 2018, it was announced that CBS had given the production an early pilot order. The pilot was written by Chuck Lorre, who executive produced along with Eddie Gorodetsky, Al Higgins and Gina Yashere. Production companies involved with the pilot included Chuck Lorre Productions and Warner Bros. Television. On May 6, 2019, it was announced that the production had been given a series order. A day after that, it was announced that the series would premiere in the fall of 2019 and air on Mondays at 8:30 p.m. The series debuted on September 23, 2019. On October 22, 2019, it was announced that CBS had ordered an additional nine episodes of the series. On March 13, 2020, Warner Bros. Television announced that production was suspended due to the television impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The shutdown left the last two intended episodes of the season unfilmed. On May 6, 2020, CBS renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on November 16, 2020. On February 17, 2021, CBS renewed the series for a third season which premiered on September 20, 2021. On January 24, 2022, CBS renewed the series for a fourth season which is premiered on September 19, 2022.


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: On December 17, 2018, it was announced that five co-leads, opposite Billy Gardell and Folake Olowofoyeku as the title characters, had been cast, including Christine Ebersole, Maribeth Monroe, Matt Jones, Shola Adewusi and Barry Shabaka Henley.


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: This is Gardell's second starring role in a CBS sitcom, after "Mike & Molly", which ran from 2010 to 2016 and was also executive produced by Lorre; in addition, Gardell has a recurring role on "Young Sheldon" as Herschel Sparks, a neighbor of the title character. Matt Jones is an alum of fellow Lorre/CBS series "Mom". On January 30, 2020, it was reported that Anthony Okungbowa and Bayo Akinfemi had been promoted to series regulars.On September 7, 2022, it was reported that Saidah Arrika Ekulona has been promoted to series regular in season 4


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: While taking place in Detroit, "Bob Hearts Abishola" is filmed at Warner Brothers Burbank Studios in Los Angeles. Several Detroit references are incorporated into the show's setting. For example, the fictional Woodward Memorial Hospital where Abishola works is a reference to Woodward Avenue, (Michigan Highway M-1), which is a main route running from Detroit to Pontiac and named for Augustus Woodward who planned and oversaw the redevelopment of the city of Detroit following a devastating fire in 1805. The Dele character attends Jamerson Middle School, a likely reference to the legendary Motown bass player James Jamerson. Also, the Abishola and Kemi characters ride to work on the 16 Dexter bus, which is a real bus line for the Detroit Department of Transportation (DDOT). Co-creator Lorre chose the location, in part, because of Detroit's rapidly growing immigrant population. While Detroit's U.S.-born inhabitants declined 5.3 percent between the 2010 census and 2014, the immigrant population rose by 12.7 percent. The cast and crew were originally going to do location filming in Lagos, Nigeria for some Season 3 episodes, but the COVID-19 pandemic made those plans untenable, so stories set in Lagos were filmed in southern California instead.


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: The show is filmed on a closed set without a studio audience due to COVID-19; a laugh track is added during post-production.


title: Bob Hearts Abishola

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 58% approval rating with an average rating of 6.75/10, based on 12 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Groundbreaking, but unfortunately grating, "Bob (Hearts) Abishola" undermines its own progressive premise with underwhelming humor that relies too heavily on outdated stereotypes." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 57 out of 100 based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Reason

text: Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reason is sometimes referred to as rationality.


title: Reason

text: Reasoning is associated with the acts of thinking and cognition, and involves the use of one's intellect. The field of logic studies the ways in which humans can use formal reasoning to produce logically valid arguments. Reasoning may be subdivided into forms of logical reasoning, such as: deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, and abductive reasoning. Aristotle drew a distinction between logical discursive reasoning (reason proper), and intuitive reasoning, in which the reasoning process through intuition—however valid—may tend toward the personal and the subjectively opaque. In some social and political settings logical and intuitive modes of reasoning may clash, while in other contexts intuition and formal reason are seen as complementary rather than adversarial. For example, in mathematics, intuition is often necessary for the creative processes involved with arriving at a formal proof, arguably the most difficult of formal reasoning tasks.


title: Reason

text: Reasoning, like habit or intuition, is one of the ways by which thinking moves from one idea to a related idea. For example, reasoning is the means by which rational individuals understand sensory information from their environments, or conceptualize abstract dichotomies such as cause and effect, truth and falsehood, or ideas regarding notions of good or evil. Reasoning, as a part of executive decision making, is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change, in terms of goals, beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and institutions, and therefore with the capacity for freedom and self-determination.


title: Reason

text: In contrast to the use of "reason" as an abstract noun, a reason is a consideration given which either explains or justifies events, phenomena, or behavior. Reasons justify decisions, reasons support explanations of natural phenomena; reasons can be given to explain the actions (conduct) of individuals.


title: Reason

text: Using reason, or reasoning, can also be described more plainly as providing good, or the best, reasons. For example, when evaluating a moral decision, "morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's conduct by "reason"—that is, doing what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal [and impartial] weight to the interests of all those affected by what one does."


title: Reason

text: Psychologists and cognitive scientists have attempted to study and explain how people reason, e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged, and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw. The field of automated reasoning studies how reasoning may or may not be modeled computationally. Animal psychology considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason.


title: Reason

text: In the English language and other modern European languages, "reason", and related words, represent words which have always been used to translate Latin and classical Greek terms in the sense of their philosophical usage.


title: Reason

text: The earliest major philosophers to publish in English, such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke also routinely wrote in Latin and French, and compared their terms to Greek, treating the words ""logos"", ""ratio"", ""raison"" and "reason" as interchangeable. The meaning of the word "reason" in senses such as "human reason" also overlaps to a large extent with "rationality" and the adjective of "reason" in philosophical contexts is normally "rational", rather than "reasoned" or "reasonable". Some philosophers, Thomas Hobbes for example, also used the word ratiocination as a synonym for "reasoning".


title: Reason

text: The proposal that reason gives humanity a special position in nature has been argued to be a defining characteristic of western philosophy and later western modern science, starting with classical Greece. Philosophy can be described as a way of life based upon reason, and in the other direction, reason has been one of the major subjects of philosophical discussion since ancient times. Reason is often said to be reflexive, or "self-correcting", and the critique of reason has been a persistent theme in philosophy. It has been defined in different ways, at different times, by different thinkers about human nature.


title: Reason

text: For many classical philosophers, nature was understood teleologically, meaning that every type of thing had a definitive purpose that fit within a natural order that was itself understood to have aims. Perhaps starting with Pythagoras or Heraclitus, the cosmos is even said to have reason. Reason, by this account, is not just one characteristic that humans happen to have, and that influences happiness amongst other characteristics. Reason was considered of higher stature than other characteristics of human nature, such as sociability, because it is something humans share with nature itself, linking an apparently immortal part of the human mind with the divine order of the cosmos itself. Within the human mind or soul ("psyche"), reason was described by Plato as being the natural monarch which should rule over the other parts, such as spiritedness ("thumos") and the passions. Aristotle, Plato's student, defined human beings as rational animals, emphasizing reason as a characteristic of human nature. He "defined" the highest human happiness or well being ("eudaimonia") as a life which is lived consistently, excellently, and completely in accordance with reason.


title: Reason

text: The conclusions to be drawn from the discussions of Aristotle and Plato on this matter are amongst the most debated in the history of philosophy. But teleological accounts such as Aristotle's were highly influential for those who attempt to explain reason in a way that is consistent with monotheism and the immortality and divinity of the human soul. For example, in the neoplatonist account of Plotinus, the cosmos has one soul, which is the seat of all reason, and the souls of all individual humans are part of this soul. Reason is for Plotinus both the provider of form to material things, and the light which brings individuals souls back into line with their source.


title: Reason

text: The classical view of reason, like many important Neoplatonic and Stoic ideas, was readily adopted by the early Church as the Church Fathers saw Greek Philosophy as an indispensable instrument given to mankind so that we may understand revelation. For example, the greatest among the early saint Church Fathers and Doctors of the Church such as Augustine of Hippo, Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa were as much Neoplatonic philosophers as they were Christian theologians and adopted the Neoplatonic view of human reason together with the associated implications for our relationship to creation, to ourselves and to God. Such Neoplatonist accounts of the rational part of the human soul were also standard amongst medieval Islamic philosophers and remain important in Iranian philosophy. As European intellectualism recovered from the post-Roman Dark Ages, the Christian Patristic heritage and the influence of the great Islamic scholars such as Averroes and Avicenna produced the Scholastic (see Scholasticism) view of reason from which our modern idea of this concept has developed. Among the Scholastics who relied on the classical concept of reason for the development of their doctrines, none were more influential than Saint Thomas Aquinas, who put this concept at the heart of his Natural Law. In this doctrine, Thomas concludes that because humans have reason and because reason is a spark of the divine, every single human life is invaluable, all humans are equal and every human is born with an intrinsic and permanent set of basic rights. On this foundation, the idea of human rights would later be constructed by Spanish theologians at the School of Salamanca. Other Scholastics, such as Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus, following the example of Islamic scholars such as Alhazen, emphasised reason an intrinsic human ability to decode the created order and the structures that underlie our experienced physical reality. This interpretation of reason was instrumental to the development of the scientific method in the early Universities of the high Middle Ages.


title: Reason

text: The early modern era was marked by a number of significant changes in the understanding of reason, starting in Europe. One of the most important of these changes involved a change in the metaphysical understanding of human beings. Scientists and philosophers began to question the teleological understanding of the world. Nature was no longer assumed to be human-like, with its own aims or reason, and human nature was no longer assumed to work according to anything other than the same "laws of nature" which affect inanimate things. This new understanding eventually displaced the previous world view that derived from a spiritual understanding of the universe.


title: Reason

text: Accordingly, in the 17th century, René Descartes explicitly rejected the traditional notion of humans as "rational animals", suggesting instead that they are nothing more than "thinking things" along the lines of other "things" in nature. Any grounds of knowledge outside that understanding was, therefore, subject to doubt.


title: Reason

text: In his search for a foundation of all possible knowledge, Descartes deliberately decided to throw into doubt "all" knowledge – "except" that of the mind itself in the process of thinking:


title: Reason

text: At this time I admit nothing that is not necessarily true. I am therefore precisely nothing but a thinking thing; that is a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason – words of whose meanings I was previously ignorant.


title: Reason

text: This eventually became known as epistemological or "subject-centred" reason, because it is based on the "knowing subject", who perceives the rest of the world and itself as a set of objects to be studied, and successfully mastered by applying the knowledge accumulated through such study. Breaking with tradition and many thinkers after him, Descartes explicitly did not divide the incorporeal soul into parts, such as reason and intellect, describing them as one indivisible incorporeal entity.


title: Reason

text: A contemporary of Descartes, Thomas Hobbes described reason as a broader version of "addition and subtraction" which is not limited to numbers. This understanding of reason is sometimes termed "calculative" reason. Similar to Descartes, Hobbes asserted that "No discourse whatsoever, can end in absolute knowledge of fact, past, or to come" but that "sense and memory" is absolute knowledge.


title: Reason

text: In the late 17th century, through the 18th century, John Locke and David Hume developed Descartes's line of thought still further. Hume took it in an especially skeptical direction, proposing that there could be no possibility of deducing relationships of cause and effect, and therefore no knowledge is based on reasoning alone, even if it seems otherwise.


title: Reason

text: Hume famously remarked that, "We speak not strictly and philosophically when we talk of the combat of passion and of reason. Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them." Hume also took his definition of reason to unorthodox extremes by arguing, unlike his predecessors, that human reason is not qualitatively different from either simply conceiving individual ideas, or from judgments associating two ideas, and that "reason is nothing but a wonderful and unintelligible instinct in our souls, which carries us along a certain train of ideas, and endows them with particular qualities, according to their particular situations and relations." It followed from this that animals have reason, only much less complex than human reason.


title: Reason

text: In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant attempted to show that Hume was wrong by demonstrating that a "transcendental" self, or "I", was a necessary condition of all experience. Therefore, suggested Kant, on the basis of such a self, it is in fact possible to reason both about the conditions and limits of human knowledge. And so long as these limits are respected, reason can be the vehicle of morality, justice, aesthetics, theories of knowledge (epistemology), and understanding.


title: Reason

text: In the formulation of Kant, who wrote some of the most influential modern treatises on the subject, the great achievement of reason () is that it is able to exercise a kind of universal law-making. Kant was able therefore to reformulate the basis of moral-practical, theoretical and aesthetic reasoning, on "universal" laws.


title: Reason

text: Here practical reasoning is the self-legislating or self-governing formulation of universal norms, and theoretical reasoning the way humans posit universal laws of nature.


title: Reason

text: Under practical reason, the moral autonomy or freedom of human beings depends on their ability to behave according to laws that are given to them by the proper exercise of that reason. This contrasted with earlier forms of morality, which depended on religious understanding and interpretation, or nature for their substance.


title: Reason

text: According to Kant, in a free society each individual must be able to pursue their goals however they see fit, so long as their actions conform to principles given by reason. He formulated such a principle, called the "categorical imperative", which would justify an action only if it could be universalized:


title: Reason

text: Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.


title: Reason

text: In contrast to Hume then, Kant insists that reason itself (German "Vernunft") has natural ends, the solution to the metaphysical problems, especially the discovery of the foundations of morality. Kant claimed that this problem could be solved with his "transcendental logic" which unlike normal logic is not just an instrument, which can be used indifferently, as it was for Aristotle, but a theoretical science in its own right and the basis of all the others.


title: Reason

text: According to Jürgen Habermas, the "substantive unity" of reason has dissolved in modern times, such that it can no longer answer the question "How should I live?" Instead, the unity of reason has to be strictly formal, or "procedural". He thus described reason as a group of three autonomous spheres (on the model of Kant's three critiques):


title: Reason

text: For Habermas, these three spheres are the domain of experts, and therefore need to be mediated with the "lifeworld" by philosophers. In drawing such a picture of reason, Habermas hoped to demonstrate that the substantive unity of reason, which in pre-modern societies had been able to answer questions about the good life, could be made up for by the unity of reason's formalizable procedures.


title: Reason

text: Hamann, Herder, Kant, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Foucault, Rorty, and many other philosophers have contributed to a debate about what reason means, or ought to mean. Some, like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Rorty, are skeptical about subject-centred, universal, or instrumental reason, and even skeptical toward reason as a whole. Others, including Hegel, believe that it has obscured the importance of intersubjectivity, or "spirit" in human life, and attempt to reconstruct a model of what reason should be.


title: Reason

text: Some thinkers, e.g. Foucault, believe there are other "forms" of reason, neglected but essential to modern life, and to our understanding of what it means to live a life according to reason.


title: Reason

text: In the last several decades, a number of proposals have been made to "re-orient" this critique of reason, or to recognize the "other voices" or "new departments" of reason:


title: Reason

text: For example, in opposition to subject-centred reason, Habermas has proposed a model of communicative reason that sees it as an essentially cooperative activity, based on the fact of linguistic intersubjectivity.


title: Reason

text: Nikolas Kompridis has proposed a widely encompassing view of reason as "that ensemble of practices that contributes to the opening and preserving of openness" in human affairs, and a focus on reason's possibilities for social change.


title: Reason

text: The philosopher Charles Taylor, influenced by the 20th century German philosopher Martin Heidegger, has proposed that reason ought to include the faculty of disclosure, which is tied to the way we make sense of things in everyday life, as a new "department" of reason.


title: Reason

text: In the essay "What is Enlightenment?", Michel Foucault proposed a concept of critique based on Kant's distinction between "private" and "public" uses of reason. This distinction, as suggested, has two dimensions:


title: Reason

text: The terms "logic" or "logical" are sometimes used as if they were identical with the term "reason" or with the concept of being "rational", or sometimes logic is seen as the most pure or the defining form of reason: "Logic is about reasoning—about going from premises to a conclusion. ... When you do logic, you try to clarify reasoning and separate good from bad reasoning." In modern economics, rational choice is assumed to equate to logically consistent choice.


title: Reason

text: Reason and logic can however be thought of as distinct, although logic is one important aspect of reason. Author Douglas Hofstadter, in "Gödel, Escher, Bach", characterizes the distinction in this way: Logic is done inside a system while reason is done outside the system by such methods as skipping steps, working backward, drawing diagrams, looking at examples, or seeing what happens if you change the rules of the system. Psychologists Mark H. Bickard and Robert L. Campbell argued that "rationality cannot be simply assimilated to logicality"; they noted that "human knowledge of logic and logical systems has developed" over time through reasoning, and logical systems "can't construct new logical systems more powerful than themselves", so reasoning and rationality must involve more than a system of logic. Psychologist David Moshman, citing Bickhard and Campbell, argued for a "metacognitive conception of rationality" in which a person's development of reason "involves increasing consciousness and control of logical and other inferences".


title: Reason

text: Reason is a type of thought, and logic involves the attempt to describe a system of formal rules or norms of appropriate reasoning. The oldest surviving writing to explicitly consider the rules by which reason operates are the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, especially "Prior Analysis" and "Posterior Analysis". Although the Ancient Greeks had no separate word for logic as distinct from language and reason, Aristotle's newly coined word "syllogism" ("syllogismos") identified logic clearly for the first time as a distinct field of study. When Aristotle referred to "the logical" ("hē logikē"), he was referring more broadly to rational thought.


title: Reason

text: As pointed out by philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke and Hume, some animals are also clearly capable of a type of "associative thinking", even to the extent of associating causes and effects. A dog once kicked, can learn how to recognize the warning signs and avoid being kicked in the future, but this does not mean the dog has reason in any strict sense of the word. It also does not mean that humans acting on the basis of experience or habit are using their reason.


title: Reason

text: Human reason requires more than being able to associate two ideas, even if those two ideas might be described by a reasoning human as a cause and an effect, perceptions of smoke, for example, and memories of fire. For reason to be involved, the association of smoke and the fire would have to be thought through in a way which can be explained, for example as cause and effect. In the explanation of Locke, for example, reason requires the mental use of a third idea in order to make this comparison by use of syllogism.


title: Reason

text: More generally, reason in the strict sense requires the ability to create and manipulate a system of symbols, as well as indices and icons, according to Charles Sanders Peirce, the symbols having only a nominal, though habitual, connection to either smoke or fire. One example of such a system of artificial symbols and signs is language.


title: Reason

text: The connection of reason to symbolic thinking has been expressed in different ways by philosophers. Thomas Hobbes described the creation of "Markes, or Notes of remembrance" ("Leviathan" Ch. 4) as "speech". He used the word "speech" as an English version of the Greek word "logos" so that speech did not need to be communicated. When communicated, such speech becomes language, and the marks or notes or remembrance are called "Signes" by Hobbes. Going further back, although Aristotle is a source of the idea that only humans have reason ("logos"), he does mention that animals with imagination, for whom sense perceptions can persist, come closest to having something like reasoning and "nous", and even uses the word "logos" in one place to describe the distinctions which animals can perceive in such cases.


title: Reason

text: Reason and imagination rely on similar mental processes. Imagination is not only found in humans. Aristotle, for example, stated that "phantasia" (imagination: that which can hold images or "phantasmata") and "phronein" (a type of thinking that can judge and understand in some sense) also exist in some animals. According to him, both are related to the primary perceptive ability of animals, which gathers the perceptions of different senses and defines the order of the things that are perceived without distinguishing universals, and without deliberation or "logos". But this is not yet reason, because human imagination is different.


title: Reason

text: The recent modern writings of Terrence Deacon and Merlin Donald, writing about the origin of language, also connect reason connected to not only language, but also mimesis. More specifically they describe the ability to create language as part of an internal modeling of reality specific to humankind. Other results are consciousness, and imagination or fantasy. In contrast, modern proponents of a genetic predisposition to language itself include Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker, to whom Donald and Deacon can be contrasted.


title: Reason

text: As reason is symbolic thinking, and peculiarly human, then this implies that humans have a special ability to maintain a clear consciousness of the distinctness of "icons" or images and the real things they represent. Starting with a modern author, Merlin Donald writes


title: Reason

text: A dog might perceive the "meaning" of a fight that was realistically play-acted by humans, but it could not reconstruct the message or distinguish the representation from its referent (a real fight). [...] Trained apes are able to make this distinction; young children make this distinction early – hence, their effortless distinction between play-acting an event and the event itself


title: Reason

text: In classical descriptions, an equivalent description of this mental faculty is "eikasia", in the philosophy of Plato. This is the ability to perceive whether a perception is an image of something else, related somehow but not the same, and therefore allows humans to perceive that a dream or memory or a reflection in a mirror is not reality as such. What Klein refers to as "dianoetic eikasia" is the "eikasia" concerned specifically with thinking and mental images, such as those mental symbols, icons, "signes", and marks discussed above as definitive of reason. Explaining reason from this direction: human thinking is special in the way that we often understand visible things as if they were themselves images of our intelligible "objects of thought" as "foundations" ("hypothēses" in Ancient Greek). This thinking ("dianoia") is "...an activity which consists in making the vast and diffuse jungle of the visible world depend on a plurality of more 'precise' "noēta"".


title: Reason

text: Both Merlin Donald and the Socratic authors such as Plato and Aristotle emphasize the importance of "mimesis", often translated as "imitation" or "representation". Donald writes


title: Reason

text: Imitation is found especially in monkeys and apes [... but ...] Mimesis is fundamentally different from imitation and mimicry in that it involves the invention of intentional representations. [...] Mimesis is not absolutely tied to external communication.


title: Reason

text: "Mimēsis" is a concept, now popular again in academic discussion, that was particularly prevalent in Plato's works, and within Aristotle, it is discussed mainly in the "Poetics". In Michael Davis's account of the theory of man in this work.


title: Reason

text: It is the distinctive feature of human action, that whenever we choose what we do, we imagine an action for ourselves as though we were inspecting it from the outside. Intentions are nothing more than imagined actions, internalizings of the external. All action is therefore imitation of action; it is poetic...


title: Reason

text: Donald like Plato (and Aristotle, especially in "On Memory and Recollection"), emphasizes the peculiarity in humans of voluntary initiation of a search through one's mental world. The ancient Greek "anamnēsis", normally translated as "recollection" was opposed to "mneme" or "memory". Memory, shared with some animals, requires a consciousness not only of what happened in the past, but also "that" something happened in the past, which is in other words a kind of "eikasia" "...but nothing except man is able to recollect." Recollection is a deliberate effort to search for and recapture something once known. Klein writes that, "To become aware of our having forgotten something means to begin recollecting." Donald calls the same thing "autocueing", which he explains as follows: "Mimetic acts are reproducible on the basis of internal, self-generated cues. This permits voluntary recall of mimetic representations, without the aid of external cues – probably the earliest form of representational "thinking"."


title: Reason

text: In a celebrated paper in modern times, the fantasy author and philologist J.R.R. Tolkien wrote in his essay "On Fairy Stories" that the terms "fantasy" and "enchantment" are connected to not only "...the satisfaction of certain primordial human desires..." but also "...the origin of language and of the mind".


title: Reason

text: A subdivision of philosophy is logic. Logic is the study of reasoning. Looking at logical categorizations of different types of reasoning, the traditional main division made in philosophy is between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Formal logic has been described as "the science of deduction". The study of inductive reasoning is generally carried out within the field known as informal logic or critical thinking.


title: Reason

text: Deduction is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises. A deduction is also the conclusion reached by a deductive reasoning process. One classic example of deductive reasoning is that found in syllogisms like the following:


title: Reason

text: The reasoning in this argument is deductively valid because there is no way in which the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3, be false.


title: Reason

text: Induction is a form of inference producing propositions about unobserved objects or types, either specifically or generally, based on previous observation. It is used to ascribe properties or relations to objects or types based on previous observations or experiences, or to formulate general statements or laws based on limited observations of recurring phenomenal patterns.


title: Reason

text: Inductive reasoning contrasts strongly with deductive reasoning in that, even in the best, or strongest, cases of inductive reasoning, the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Instead, the conclusion of an inductive argument follows with some degree of probability. Relatedly, the conclusion of an inductive argument contains more information than is already contained in the premises. Thus, this method of reasoning is ampliative.


title: Reason

text: Analogical reasoning is a form of inductive reasoning from a particular to a particular. It is often used in case-based reasoning, especially legal reasoning. An example follows:


title: Reason

text: Analogical reasoning is a weaker form of inductive reasoning from a single example, because inductive reasoning typically uses a large number of examples to reason from the particular to the general. Analogical reasoning often leads to wrong conclusions. For example:


title: Reason

text: Abductive reasoning, or argument to the best explanation, is a form of reasoning that doesn't fit in deductive or inductive, since it starts with incomplete set of observations and proceeds with likely possible explanations so the conclusion in an abductive argument does not follow with certainty from its premises and concerns something unobserved. What distinguishes abduction from the other forms of reasoning is an attempt to favour one conclusion above others, by subjective judgement or attempting to falsify alternative explanations or by demonstrating the likelihood of the favoured conclusion, given a set of more or less disputable assumptions. For example, when a patient displays certain symptoms, there might be various possible causes, but one of these is preferred above others as being more probable.


title: Reason

text: Flawed reasoning in arguments is known as fallacious reasoning. Bad reasoning within arguments can be because it commits either a formal fallacy or an informal fallacy.


title: Reason

text: Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the argument. The word "formal" refers to this link to the "form" of the argument. An argument that contains a formal fallacy will always be invalid.


title: Reason

text: An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the "content", rather than mere "structure", of the argument.


title: Reason

text: Philosophy is sometimes described as a life of reason, with normal human reason pursued in a more consistent and dedicated way than usual. Two categories of problem concerning reason have long been discussed by philosophers concerning reason, essentially being reasonings about reasoning itself as a human aim, or philosophizing about philosophizing. The first question is concerning whether we can be confident that reason can achieve knowledge of truth better than other ways of trying to achieve such knowledge. The other question is whether a life of reason, a life that aims to be guided by reason, can be expected to achieve a happy life more so than other ways of life (whether such a life of reason results in knowledge or not).


title: Reason

text: Since classical times a question has remained constant in philosophical debate (which is sometimes seen as a conflict between movements called Platonism and Aristotelianism) concerning the role of reason in confirming truth. People use logic, deduction, and induction, to reach conclusions they think are true. Conclusions reached in this way are considered, according to Aristotle, more certain than sense perceptions on their own. On the other hand, if such reasoned conclusions are only built originally upon a foundation of sense perceptions, then, our most logical conclusions can never be said to be certain because they are built upon the very same fallible perceptions they seek to better.


title: Reason

text: This leads to the question of what types of first principles, or starting points of reasoning, are available for someone seeking to come to true conclusions. In Greek, "first principles" are "archai", "starting points", and the faculty used to perceive them is sometimes referred to in Aristotle and Plato as "nous" which was close in meaning to "awareness" or "consciousness".


title: Reason

text: Empiricism (sometimes associated with Aristotle but more correctly associated with British philosophers such as John Locke and David Hume, as well as their ancient equivalents such as Democritus) asserts that sensory impressions are the only available starting points for reasoning and attempting to attain truth. This approach always leads to the controversial conclusion that absolute knowledge is not attainable. Idealism, (associated with Plato and his school), claims that there is a "higher" reality, from which certain people can directly arrive at truth without needing to rely only upon the senses, and that this higher reality is therefore the primary source of truth.


title: Reason

text: Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides, Aquinas and Hegel are sometimes said to have argued that reason must be fixed and discoverable—perhaps by dialectic, analysis, or study. In the vision of these thinkers, reason is divine or at least has divine attributes. Such an approach allowed religious philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Étienne Gilson to try to show that reason and revelation are compatible. According to Hegel, "...the only thought which Philosophy brings with it to the contemplation of History, is the simple conception of reason; that reason is the Sovereign of the World; that the history of the world, therefore, presents us with a rational process."


title: Reason

text: Since the 17th century rationalists, reason has often been taken to be a subjective faculty, or rather the unaided ability (pure reason) to form concepts. For Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz, this was associated with mathematics. Kant attempted to show that pure reason could form concepts (time and space) that are the conditions of experience. Kant made his argument in opposition to Hume, who denied that reason had any role to play in experience.


title: Reason

text: After Plato and Aristotle, western literature often treated reason as being the faculty that trained the passions and appetites. Stoic philosophy, by contrast, claimed most emotions were merely false judgements. According to the stoics the only good is virtue, and the only evil is vice, therefore emotions that judged things other than vice to be bad (such as fear or distress), or things other than virtue to be good (such as greed) were simply false judgements and should be discarded (though positive emotions based on true judgements, such as kindness, were acceptable). After the critiques of reason in the early Enlightenment the appetites were rarely discussed or conflated with the passions. Some Enlightenment camps took after the Stoics to say Reason should oppose Passion rather than order it, while others like the Romantics believed that Passion displaces Reason, as in the maxim "follow your heart".


title: Reason

text: Reason has been seen as cold, an "enemy of mystery and ambiguity", a slave, or judge, of the passions, notably in the work of David Hume, and more recently of Freud. Reasoning which claims that the object of a desire is demanded by logic alone is called "rationalization".


title: Reason

text: Rousseau first proposed, in his second "Discourse", that reason and political life is not natural and possibly harmful to mankind. He asked what really can be said about what is natural to mankind. What, other than reason and civil society, "best suits his constitution"? Rousseau saw "two principles prior to reason" in human nature. First we hold an intense interest in our own well-being. Secondly we object to the suffering or death of any sentient being, especially one like ourselves. These two passions lead us to desire more than we could achieve. We become dependent upon each other, and on relationships of authority and obedience. This effectively puts the human race into slavery. Rousseau says that he almost dares to assert that nature does not destine men to be healthy. According to Richard Velkley, "Rousseau outlines certain programs of rational self-correction, most notably the political legislation of the "Contrat Social" and the moral education in "". All the same, Rousseau understands such corrections to be only ameliorations of an essentially unsatisfactory condition, that of socially and intellectually corrupted humanity."


title: Reason

text: This quandary presented by Rousseau led to Kant's new way of justifying reason as freedom to create good and evil. These therefore are not to be blamed on nature or God. In various ways, German Idealism after Kant, and major later figures such Nietzsche, Bergson, Husserl, Scheler, and Heidegger, remain preoccupied with problems coming from the metaphysical demands or "urges" of "reason". The influence of Rousseau and these later writers is also large upon art and politics. Many writers (such as Nikos Kazantzakis) extol passion and disparage reason. In politics modern nationalism comes from Rousseau's argument that rationalist cosmopolitanism brings man ever further from his natural state.


title: Reason

text: Another view on reason and emotion was proposed in the 1994 book titled "Descartes' Error" by Antonio Damasio. In it, Damasio presents the "Somatic Marker Hypothesis" which states that emotions guide behavior and decision-making. Damasio argues that these somatic markers (known collectively as "gut feelings") are "intuitive signals" that direct our decision making processes in a certain way that cannot be solved with rationality alone. Damasio further argues that rationality requires emotional input in order to function.


title: Reason

text: There are many religious traditions, some of which are explicitly fideist and others of which claim varying degrees of rationalism. Secular critics sometimes accuse all religious adherents of irrationality, since they claim such adherents are guilty of ignoring, suppressing, or forbidding some kinds of reasoning concerning some subjects (such as religious dogmas, moral taboos, etc.). Though the theologies and religions such as classical monotheism typically do not admit to be irrational, there is often a perceived conflict or tension between faith and tradition on the one hand, and reason on the other, as potentially competing sources of wisdom, law and truth.


title: Reason

text: Religious adherents sometimes respond by arguing that faith and reason can be reconciled, or have different non-overlapping domains, or that critics engage in a similar kind of irrationalism:


title: Reason

text: Some commentators have claimed that Western civilization can be almost defined by its serious testing of the limits of tension between "unaided" reason and faith in "revealed" truths—figuratively summarized as Athens and Jerusalem, respectively. Leo Strauss spoke of a "Greater West" that included all areas under the influence of the tension between Greek rationalism and Abrahamic revelation, including the Muslim lands. He was particularly influenced by the great Muslim philosopher Al-Farabi. To consider to what extent Eastern philosophy might have partaken of these important tensions, Strauss thought it best to consider whether dharma or tao may be equivalent to Nature (by which we mean "physis" in Greek). According to Strauss the beginning of philosophy involved the "discovery or invention of nature" and the "pre-philosophical equivalent of nature" was supplied by "such notions as 'custom' or 'ways, which appear to be "really universal in all times and places". The philosophical concept of nature or natures as a way of understanding "archai" (first principles of knowledge) brought about a peculiar tension between reasoning on the one hand, and tradition or faith on the other.


title: Reason

text: Although there is this special history of debate concerning reason and faith in the Islamic, Christian and Jewish traditions, the pursuit of reason is sometimes argued to be compatible with the other practice of other religions of a different nature, such as Hinduism, because they do not define their tenets in such an absolute way.


title: Reason

text: Scientific research into reasoning is carried out within the fields of psychology and cognitive science. Psychologists attempt to determine whether or not people are capable of rational thought in a number of different circumstances.


title: Reason

text: Assessing how well someone engages in reasoning is the project of determining the extent to which the person is rational or acts rationally. It is a key research question in the psychology of reasoning and cognitive science of reasoning. Rationality is often divided into its respective theoretical and practical counterparts.


title: Reason

text: Experimental cognitive psychologists carry out research on reasoning behaviour. Such research may focus, for example, on how people perform on tests of reasoning such as intelligence or IQ tests, or on how well people's reasoning matches ideals set by logic (see, for example, the Wason test). Experiments examine how people make inferences from conditionals e.g., "If A then B" and how they make inferences about alternatives, e.g., "A or else B". They test whether people can make valid deductions about spatial and temporal relations, e.g., "A is to the left of B", or "A happens after B", and about quantified assertions, e.g., "All the A are B". Experiments investigate how people make inferences about factual situations, hypothetical possibilities, probabilities, and counterfactual situations.


title: Reason

text: Developmental psychologists investigate the development of reasoning from birth to adulthood. Piaget's theory of cognitive development was the first complete theory of reasoning development. Subsequently, several alternative theories were proposed, including the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development.


title: Reason

text: The biological functioning of the brain is studied by neurophysiologists, cognitive neuroscientists and neuropsychologists. Research in this area includes research into the structure and function of normally functioning brains, and of damaged or otherwise unusual brains. In addition to carrying out research into reasoning, some psychologists, for example, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists work to alter people's reasoning habits when they are unhelpful.


title: Reason

text: In artificial intelligence and computer science, scientists study and use automated reasoning for diverse applications including automated theorem proving the formal semantics of programming languages, and formal specification in software engineering.


title: Reason

text: Meta-reasoning is reasoning about reasoning. In computer science, a system performs meta-reasoning when it is reasoning about its own operation. This requires a programming language capable of reflection, the ability to observe and modify its own structure and behaviour.


title: Reason

text: A species could benefit greatly from better abilities to reason about, predict and understand the world. French social and cognitive scientists Dan Sperber and Hugo Mercier argue that there could have been other forces driving the evolution of reason. They point out that reasoning is very difficult for humans to do effectively, and that it is hard for individuals to doubt their own beliefs (confirmation bias). Reasoning is most effective when it is done as a collective – as demonstrated by the success of projects like science. They suggest that there are not just individual, but group selection pressures at play. Any group that managed to find ways of reasoning effectively would reap benefits for all its members, increasing their fitness. This could also help explain why humans, according to Sperber, are not optimized to reason effectively alone. Their argumentative theory of reasoning claims that reason may have more to do with winning arguments than with the search for the truth.


title: Reason

text: Aristotle famously described reason (with language) as a part of human nature, which means that it is best for humans to live "politically" meaning in communities of about the size and type of a small city state ("polis" in Greek). For example...


title: Reason

text: It is clear, then, that a human being is more of a political ["politikon" = of the "polis"] animal ["zōion"] than is any bee or than any of those animals that live in herds. For nature, as we say, makes nothing in vain, and humans are the only animals who possess reasoned speech ["logos"]. Voice, of course, serves to indicate what is painful and pleasant; that is why it is also found in other animals, because their nature has reached the point where they can perceive what is painful and pleasant and express these to each other. But speech ["logos"] serves to make plain what is advantageous and harmful and so also what is just and unjust. For it is a peculiarity of humans, in contrast to the other animals, to have perception of good and bad, just and unjust, and the like; and the community in these things makes a household or city ["polis"]. [...] By nature, then, the drive for such a community exists in everyone, but the first to set one up is responsible for things of very great goodness. For as humans are the best of all animals when perfected, so they are the worst when divorced from law and right. The reason is that injustice is most difficult to deal with when furnished with weapons, and the weapons a human being has are meant by nature to go along with prudence and virtue, but it is only too possible to turn them to contrary uses. Consequently, if a human being lacks virtue, he is the most unholy and savage thing, and when it comes to sex and food, the worst. But justice is something political [to do with the "polis"], for right is the arrangement of the political community, and right is discrimination of what is just. (Aristotle's Politics 1253a 1.2. Peter Simpson's translation, with Greek terms inserted in square brackets.)


title: Reason

text: The concept of human nature being fixed in this way, implied, in other words, that we can define what type of community is always best for people. This argument has remained a central argument in all political, ethical and moral thinking since then, and has become especially controversial since firstly Rousseau's Second Discourse, and secondly, the Theory of Evolution. Already in Aristotle there was an awareness that the "polis" had not always existed and had needed to be invented or developed by humans themselves. The household came first, and the first villages and cities were just extensions of that, with the first cities being run as if they were still families with Kings acting like fathers.


title: Reason

text: Friendship ["philia"] seems to prevail [in] man and woman according to nature ["kata phusin"]; for people are by nature ["tēi phusei"] pairing ["sunduastikon"] more than political ["politikon" = of the "polis"], in as much as the household ["oikos"] is prior ["proteron" = earlier] and more necessary than the "polis" and making children is more common ["koinoteron"] with the animals. In the other animals, community ["koinōnia"] goes no further than this, but people live together ["sumoikousin"] not only for the sake of making children, but also for the things for life; for from the start the functions ["erga"] are divided, and are different [for] man and woman. Thus they supply each other, putting their own into the common ["eis to koinon"]. It is for these [reasons] that both utility ["chrēsimon"] and pleasure ["hēdu"] seem to be found in this kind of friendship. (Nicomachean Ethics, VIII.12.1162a. Rough literal translation with Greek terms shown in square brackets.)


title: Reason

text: Rousseau in his Second Discourse finally took the shocking step of claiming that this traditional account has things in reverse: with reason, language and rationally organized communities all having developed over a long period of time merely as a result of the fact that some habits of cooperation were found to solve certain types of problems, and that once such cooperation became more important, it forced people to develop increasingly complex cooperation—often only to defend themselves from each other.


title: Reason

text: In other words, according to Rousseau, reason, language and rational community did not arise because of any conscious decision or plan by humans or gods, nor because of any pre-existing human nature. As a result, he claimed, living together in rationally organized communities like modern humans is a development with many negative aspects compared to the original state of man as an ape. If anything is specifically human in this theory, it is the flexibility and adaptability of humans. This view of the animal origins of distinctive human characteristics later received support from Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution.


title: Reason

text: The two competing theories concerning the origins of reason are relevant to political and ethical thought because, according to the Aristotelian theory, a best way of living together exists independently of historical circumstances. According to Rousseau, we should even doubt that reason, language and politics are a good thing, as opposed to being simply the best option given the particular course of events that lead to today. Rousseau's theory, that human nature is malleable rather than fixed, is often taken to imply, for example by Karl Marx, a wider range of possible ways of living together than traditionally known.


title: Reason

text: However, while Rousseau's initial impact encouraged bloody revolutions against traditional politics, including both the French Revolution and the Russian Revolution, his own conclusions about the best forms of community seem to have been remarkably classical, in favor of city-states such as Geneva, and rural living.


title: North American Man/Boy Love Association

text: The North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA) is a pedophilia and pederasty advocacy organization in the United States. It works to abolish age-of-consent laws criminalizing adult sexual involvement with minors and campaigns for the release of men who have been jailed for sexual contacts with minors that did not involve what it considers coercion.


title: North American Man/Boy Love Association

text: The group no longer holds regular national meetings, and as of the late 1990s—to avoid local police infiltration—the organization discouraged the formation of local chapters. Around 1995, an undercover detective discovered there were 1,100 people on the organization's rolls. NAMBLA was the largest group in International Pedophile and Child Emancipation (IPCE), an international pro-pedophile activist organization. Since then, the organization has dwindled to only a handful of people, with many members joining online pedophile networks, according to Xavier Von Erck, director of operations at the anti-pedophile organization Perverted-Justice. , a newspaper report stated that NAMBLA was based in New York and San Francisco.


title: North American Man/Boy Love Association

text: Events such as Anita Bryant's 1977 "Save Our Children" campaign and a police raid of a Toronto-area newspaper, "The Body Politic", for publishing "Men Loving Boys Loving Men" set the stage for the founding of NAMBLA.


title: North American Man/Boy Love Association

text: In December 1977, police raided a house in the Boston suburb Revere. Twenty-four men were arrested and indicted on over 100 felony counts of the statutory rape of boys aged eight to fifteen. Suffolk County district attorney Garrett H. Byrne found the men had used drugs and video games to lure the boys into a house, where they photographed them as they engaged in sexual activity. The men were members of a "sex ring"; Byrne said the arrest was "the tip of the iceberg". Commenting on this issue, "Boston" magazine described NAMBLA as "the most despised group of men in America", which was "founded mostly by eccentric, boy-loving leftists". The "Boston-Boise Committee", a gay rights organization, was formed in response to these events (which they termed the "Boston witch-hunt"), allegedly in order to promote solidarity amongst gay men, saying in an official leaflet that: "The closet is weak. There is strength in unity and openness." NAMBLA's founding was inspired by this organization. It was co-founded by historian David Thorstad.


title: North American Man/Boy Love Association

text: In 1982, a NAMBLA member was falsely linked to the disappearance of Etan Patz. Although the accusation was groundless, the negative publicity was disastrous to the organization. NAMBLA published a book "A Witchhunt Foiled: The FBI vs. NAMBLA", which documented these events. In testimony before the United States Senate, NAMBLA was exonerated from criminal activities; it said, "It is the pedophile with no organized affiliations who is the real threat to children".


title: North American Man/Boy Love Association

text: Mike Echols, the author of "I Know My First Name Is Steven", infiltrated NAMBLA and recorded his observations in his book, which was published in 1991. Echols published the names, addresses and telephone numbers of eighty suspected NAMBLA members on his website, which led to death threats being made to people who were not members of the organization.


title: North American Man/Boy Love Association

text: Onell R. Soto, a "San Diego Union-Tribune" writer, wrote in February 2005, "Law enforcement officials and mental health professionals say that while NAMBLA's membership numbers are small, the group has a dangerous ripple effect through the Internet by sanctioning the behavior of those who would abuse children".