title: Olmecs

text: The Long Count calendar required the use of zero as a place-holder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. A shell glyph – – was used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the second oldest of which, on Stela C at Tres Zapotes, has a date of 32 BCE. This is one of the earliest uses of the zero concept in history.


title: Olmecs

text: The Olmec are strong candidates for originating the Mesoamerican ballgame so prevalent among later cultures of the region and used for recreational and religious purposes. A dozen rubber balls dating to 1600 BCE or earlier have been found in El Manatí, a bog east of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. These balls predate the earliest ballcourt yet discovered at Paso de la Amada, c. 1400 BCE, although there is no certainty that they were used in the ballgame.


title: Olmecs

text: While the actual ethno-linguistic affiliation of the Olmec remains unknown, various hypotheses have been put forward. For example, in 1968 Michael D. Coe speculated that the Olmec were Maya predecessors.


title: Olmecs

text: In 1976, linguists Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman published a paper in which they argued a core number of loanwords had apparently spread from a Mixe–Zoquean language into many other Mesoamerican languages. Campbell and Kaufman proposed that the presence of these core loanwords indicated that the Olmec – generally regarded as the first "highly civilized" Mesoamerican society – spoke a language ancestral to Mixe–Zoquean. The spread of this vocabulary particular to their culture accompanied the diffusion of other Olmec cultural and artistic traits that appears in the archaeological record of other Mesoamerican societies.


title: Olmecs

text: Mixe–Zoque specialist Søren Wichmann first critiqued this theory on the basis that most of the Mixe–Zoquean loans seemed to originate only from the Zoquean branch of the family. This implied the loanword transmission occurred in the period "after" the two branches of the language family split, placing the time of the borrowings outside of the Olmec period. However, new evidence has pushed back the proposed date for the split of Mixean and Zoquean languages to a period within the Olmec era. Based on this dating, the architectural and archaeological patterns and the particulars of the vocabulary loaned to other Mesoamerican languages from Mixe–Zoquean, Wichmann now suggests that the Olmecs of San Lorenzo spoke proto-Mixe and the Olmecs of La Venta spoke proto-Zoque.


title: Olmecs

text: At least the fact that the Mixe–Zoquean languages are still spoken in an area corresponding roughly to the Olmec heartland, and are historically known to have been spoken there, leads most scholars to assume that the Olmec spoke one or more Mixe–Zoquean languages.


title: Olmecs

text: Olmec religious activities were performed by a combination of rulers, full-time priests, and shamans. The rulers seem to have been the most important religious figures, with their links to the Olmec deities or supernaturals providing legitimacy for their rule. There is also considerable evidence for shamans in the Olmec archaeological record, particularly in the so-called "transformation figures".


title: Olmecs

text: As Olmec mythology has left no documents comparable to the "Popol Vuh" from Maya mythology, any exposition of Olmec mythology must be based on interpretations of surviving monumental and portable art (such as the "Señor de Las Limas" statue at the Xalapa Museum), and comparisons with other Mesoamerican mythologies. Olmec art shows that such deities as Feathered Serpent and a rain supernatural were already in the Mesoamerican pantheon in Olmec times.


title: Olmecs

text: Little is directly known about the societal or political structure of Olmec society. Although it is assumed by most researchers that the colossal heads and several other sculptures represent rulers, nothing has been found like the Maya stelae which name specific rulers and provide the dates of their rule.


title: Olmecs

text: Instead, archaeologists relied on the data that they had, such as large- and small-scale site surveys. These provided evidence of considerable centralization within the Olmec region, first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta – no other Olmec sites come close to these in terms of area or in the quantity and quality of architecture and sculpture.


title: Olmecs

text: This evidence of geographic and demographic centralization leads archaeologists to propose that Olmec society itself was hierarchical, concentrated first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta, with an elite that was able to use their control over materials such as water and monumental stone to exert command and legitimize their regime.


title: Olmecs

text: Nonetheless, Olmec society is thought to lack many of the institutions of later civilizations, such as a standing army or priestly caste. And there is no evidence that San Lorenzo or La Venta controlled, even during their heyday, all of the Olmec heartland. There is some doubt, for example, that La Venta controlled even Arroyo Sonso, only some away. Studies of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas settlements, some away, indicate that this area was composed of more or less egalitarian communities outside the control of lowland centers.


title: Olmecs

text: The wide diffusion of Olmec artifacts and "Olmecoid" iconography throughout much of Mesoamerica indicates the existence of extensive long-distance trade networks. Exotic, prestigious and high-value materials such as greenstone and marine shell were moved in significant quantities across large distances. Some of the reasons for trade revolve around the lack of obsidian in the heartland. The Olmec used obsidian in many tools because worked edges were very sharp and durable. Most of the obsidian found has been traced back to Guatemala showing the extensive trade. While the Olmec were not the first in Mesoamerica to organize long-distance exchanges of goods, the Olmec period saw a significant expansion in interregional trade routes, more variety in material goods exchanged and a greater diversity in the sources from which the base materials were obtained.


title: Olmecs

text: Despite their size and deliberate urban design, which was copied by other centers, San Lorenzo and La Venta were largely ceremonial centers, and the majority of the Olmec lived in villages similar to present-day villages and hamlets in Tabasco and Veracruz.


title: Olmecs

text: These villages were located on higher ground and consisted of several scattered houses. A modest temple may have been associated with the larger villages. The individual dwellings would consist of a house, an associated lean-to, and one or more storage pits (similar in function to a root cellar). A nearby garden was used for medicinal and cooking herbs and for smaller crops, such as the domesticated sunflower. Fruit trees, such as avocado or cacao, were probably available nearby.


title: Olmecs

text: Although the river banks were used to plant crops between flooding periods, the Olmecs probably also practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the forests and shrubs, and to provide new fields once the old fields were exhausted. Fields were located outside the village, and were used for maize, beans, squash, cassava, and sweet potato. Based on archaeological studies of two villages in the Tuxtlas Mountains, it is known that maize cultivation became increasingly important to the Olmec over time, although the diet remained fairly diverse.


title: Olmecs

text: The fruits and vegetables were supplemented with fish, turtle, snake, and mollusks from the nearby rivers, and crabs and shellfish in the coastal areas. Birds were available as food sources, as were game including peccary, opossum, raccoon, rabbit, and in particular, deer. Despite the wide range of hunting and fishing available, midden surveys in San Lorenzo have found that the domesticated dog was the single most plentiful source of animal protein.


title: Olmecs

text: Olmec culture was unknown to historians until the mid-19th century. In 1869, the Mexican antiquarian traveller José Melgar y Serrano published a description of the first Olmec monument to have been found "in situ". This monument – the colossal head now labelled Tres Zapotes Monument A – had been discovered in the late 1850s by a farm worker clearing forested land on a "hacienda" in Veracruz. Hearing about the curious find while travelling through the region, Melgar y Serrano first visited the site in 1862 to see for himself and complete the partially exposed sculpture's excavation. His description of the object, published several years later after further visits to the site, represents the earliest documented report of an artifact of what is now known as the Olmec culture.


title: Olmecs

text: In the latter half of the 19th century, Olmec artifacts such as the Kunz Axe (right) came to light and were subsequently recognized as belonging to a unique artistic tradition.


title: Olmecs

text: Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge made the first detailed descriptions of La Venta and San Martin Pajapan Monument 1 during their 1925 expedition. However, at this time, most archaeologists assumed the Olmec were contemporaneous with the Maya – even Blom and La Farge were, in their own words, "inclined to ascribe them to the Maya culture".


title: Olmecs

text: Matthew Stirling of the Smithsonian Institution conducted the first detailed scientific excavations of Olmec sites in the 1930s and 1940s. Stirling, along with art historian Miguel Covarrubias, became convinced that the Olmec predated most other known Mesoamerican civilizations.


title: Olmecs

text: In counterpoint to Stirling, Covarrubias, and Alfonso Caso, however, Mayanists J. Eric Thompson and Sylvanus Morley argued for Classic-era dates for the Olmec artifacts. The question of Olmec chronology came to a head at a 1942 Tuxtla Gutierrez conference, where Alfonso Caso declared that the Olmecs were the "mother culture" (""cultura madre"") of Mesoamerica.


title: Olmecs

text: Shortly after the conference, radiocarbon dating proved the antiquity of the Olmec civilization, although the "mother culture" question generated considerable debate even 60 years later.


title: Olmecs

text: In the investigations of the San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán Archaeological Project at the sites of San Lorenzo and Loma del Zapote, several human burials from the Olmec period were found. The bone consistency in two of them allowed the study of their mitochondrial DNA to be carried out successfully, as part of an investigation that proposes the comparative analysis of the genetic information of the Olmecs with that obtained from subjects from other Mesoamerican societies under the advice of the specialists Dr. María de Lourdes Muñoz Moreno and Miguel Moreno Galeana, both at CINVESTAV in Mexico.


title: Olmecs

text: This pioneering study of mitochondrial DNA in 2018 was carried out on two Olmec individuals, one from San Lorenzo and the other from Loma del Zapote, resulted, in both cases, in the unequivocal presence of the distinctive mutations of the haplogroup A maternal lineage. They share the most abundant of the five mitochondrial haplogroups characteristic of the indigenous populations of the Americas: A, B, C, D and X.


title: Olmecs

text: The name "Olmec" means "rubber people" in Nahuatl, the language of the Nahuas, and was the Aztec Empire term for the people who lived in the Gulf Lowlands in the 15th and 16th centuries, some 2000 years after the Olmec culture died out. The term "Rubber People" refers to the ancient practice, spanning from ancient Olmecs to Aztecs, of extracting latex from "Castilla elastica", a rubber tree in the area. The juice of a local vine, "Ipomoea alba," was then mixed with this latex to create rubber as early as 1600 BCE.


title: Olmecs

text: Early modern explorers and archaeologists, however, mistakenly applied the name "Olmec" to the rediscovered ruins and artifacts in the heartland decades before it was understood that these were not created by the people the Aztecs knew as the "Olmec", but rather a culture that was 2000 years older. Despite the mistaken identity, the name has stuck.


title: Olmecs

text: It is not known what name the ancient Olmec used for themselves; some later Mesoamerican accounts seem to refer to the ancient Olmec as "Tamoanchan". A contemporary term sometimes used for the Olmec culture is "tenocelome", meaning "mouth of the jaguar".


title: Olmecs

text: Partly because the Olmecs developed the first Mesoamerican civilization, and partly because little is known of them compared to, for example, the Maya or Aztec, a number of Olmec alternative origin speculations have been put forth. Although several of these speculations, particularly the theory that the Olmecs were of African origin popularized by Ivan Van Sertima's book "They Came Before Columbus", have become well known within popular culture, they are not considered credible by the vast majority of Mesoamerican researchers and scientists, who discard them as pop-culture pseudo-science.


title: Olmecs

text: As of 2018, mitochondrial DNA study carried out on Olmec remains, one from San Lorenzo and the other from Loma del Zapote, resulted, in both cases, in the “unequivocal presence of the distinctive mutations of the “A” maternal lineage. That is, the origin of the Olmecs is not in Africa but in America, since they share the most abundant of the five mitochondrial haplogroups characteristic of the indigenous populations of our continent: A, B, C, D and X.”


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The Guru Granth Sahib (, ) is the central holy religious scripture of Sikhism, regarded by Sikhs as the final, sovereign and eternal Guru following the lineage of the ten human gurus of the religion. The Adi Granth (), its first rendition, was compiled by the fifth guru, Guru Arjan (1564–1606). Its compilation was completed on 29 August 1604 and first installed inside Golden Temple in Amritsar on 1 September 1604. Baba Buddha was appointed the first Granthi of the Golden Temple. Shortly afterwards Guru Hargobind added Ramkali Ki Vaar. Later, Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh guru, added hymns of Guru Tegh Bahadur to the Adi Granth and affirmed the text as his successor. This second rendition became known as the Guru Granth Sahib and is also sometimes referred to as the Adi Granth.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The text consists of 1,430 "angs" (pages) and 5,894 "shabads" (line compositions), which are poetically rendered and set to a rhythmic ancient north Indian classical form of music. The bulk of the scripture is divided into 31 main "rāgas", with each Granth rāga subdivided according to length and author. The hymns in the scripture are arranged primarily by the "rāgas" in which they are read. The Guru Granth Sahib is written in the Gurmukhi script in various languages including Punjabi, Lahnda, Prakrits, Apabhramsa, Sanskrit, Hindi languages (Braj Bhasha, Awadhi, Kauravi, Bhojpuri), Sindhi, and Persian. Copies in these languages often have the generic title of Sant Bhasha.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The Guru Granth Sahib was composed predominantly by six Sikh gurus: Guru Nanak, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur. It also contains the traditions and teachings of fourteen Hindu Bhakti movement "sants" (saints), such as Ramananda, Kabir and Namdev among others, and one Muslim Sufi saint: Sheikh Farid.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The vision in the Guru Granth Sahib is of a society based on divine freedom, mercy, love and justice without oppression of any kind. While the Granth acknowledges and respects the scriptures of Hinduism and Islam, it does not imply a moral reconciliation with either of these religions. It is installed in a Sikh "gurdwara" (temple). A Sikh typically prostrates before it on entering such a temple. The Granth is revered as eternal "gurbānī" and the spiritual authority in Sikhism.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Guru Nanak composed hymns, which were sung by his followers in "rāga" set to music. His successor, Guru Angad, opened centers and distributed these hymns. The community would sing the hymns and his agents collected donations. This tradition was continued by the third and fourth gurus as well. The fifth guru, Guru Arjan, discovered that Prithi Chand – his eldest brother and a competing claimant to the Sikh guruship – had a copy of an earlier "pothi" (palm-leaf manuscript) with hymns and was distributing hymns of the earlier gurus along with his own of hymns. Guru Arjan considered these as spurious and became concerned about establishing an authentic anthology of approved hymns.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Guru Arjan began compiling an officially approved version of the sacred scripture for the Sikh community. He sent his associates across the Indian subcontinent to collect the circulating hymns of Sikh gurus and convinced Mohan, the son of Guru Amar Das, to give him the collection of the religious writings of the first three gurus in a humble manner by singing the hymns registered in "Guru Granth Sahib", 248. As his associates returned with their collections, Guru Arjan selected and edited the hymns for inclusion in the Adi Granth with Bhai Gurdas as his scribe. This effort yielded several drafts and manuscripts, some of which have survived into the modern era.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The oldest surviving manuscript version of the Adi Granth is the Guru Nanak Dev University Manuscript 1245, which has been dated to . Other early editions of the Adi Granth with some variations include the Bahoval pothi (c. 1600), Vanjara pothi (c. 1601) and Bhai Rupa pothi (c. 1603).


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Another early variant manuscript is called the Guru Harsahai pothi, preserved by Sodhis and is believed to be the one that existed before Guru Arjan's compilation and one he gave to his eldest brother Prithi Chand. It was initially installed in Amritsar, then was moved in the 18th-century and preserved in Guru Harsahai (35 kilometers west of Faridkot, Punjab) till 1969, when the state government requested it be displayed for the 500 years celebrations. It was moved for the first time in over 200 years and briefly displayed in Patiala for the event. Thereafter, the Sodhis consented to transfers. In 1970, however, during another such transfer, this early version of the Adi Granth manuscript was stolen. However, photos of some pages have survived.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: This manuscript is claimed by the Sodhis to be the oldest and one written in part by Guru Nanak. However, this claim is first observed only much later, in texts attributed to the 17th-century Hariji, the grandson of Prithi Chand. Based on the evidence in the surviving photos, it is unlikely that Guru Nanak wrote or maintained a pothi. The features in its Gurmukhi script and the language suggest that the hymns are significantly older, and that the pre-canonical hymns were being written down in early Sikhism and preserved by the Sikh Gurus prior to the editing by Guru Arjan. The existence of Guru Harsahai manuscript attests to the early tradition of Sikh scripture, its existence in variant forms and a competition of ideas on its contents including the Mul Mantar.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Many minor variations, and three significant Adi Granth recensions, are known; these provide insights into how the Sikh scripture was compiled, edited and revised over time. There is a fourth significant version called the Lahori bir, but it primarily differs in how the hymns are arranged and the final pages of the Adi Granth.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: In 1604, the first edition of the Sikh scripture, Adi Granth, was complete and officially approved by Guru Arjan. It was installed at the Golden Temple, with Baba Buddha as the first "granthi" or reader. No hymns were added by Guru Hargobind, Guru Har Rai and Guru Har Krishan. In the Sikh tradition, Guru Hargobind is credited for adding the "rāga" tunes for nine out of 22 Vars. The hymns of IX Guru Tegh Bahadur, after his beheading in Delhi, were added to the scripture by his son and successor Guru Gobind Singh.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: In 1704 at Damdama Sahib, during a one-year respite from the heavy fighting with the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh and Bhai Mani Singh added the religious compositions of Guru Tegh Bahadur to the Adi Granth to create the final edition, called the Guru Granth Sahib. Prior to Guru Gobind Singh, three versions of the Adi Granth pothi with minor variations were in circulation at Sikh shrines across the Indian subcontinent. In addition, several unauthorized versions were in circulation, issued by sects founded by one of the sons or relatives of earlier Sikh Gurus such as Prithi Chand, Guru Arjan's elder brother. Guru Gobind Singh issued the definitive final edition that included the hymns of his father, and closed the canon. This manuscript is called the Damdama bir, and a 1707 rare copy of this manuscript is now preserved at the Toshakhana in Nanded, Maharashtra.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The compositions of Guru Gobind Singh were not included in the Guru Granth Sahib and set into the "Dasven Padsah ka Granth", which is more popularly known as the "Dasam Granth". The compilation and release of this definitive edition of the latter was completed by Bhai Mani Singh.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The Guru Granth Sahib contains predominantly hymns of the following Sikh Gurus: Guru Nanak, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan and Guru Teg Bahadur. It also contains hymns and verses of thirteen Hindu Bhakti movement "sant poets" (saints) and two Muslim saint poets. There are also idolatry verses for the Gurus such as Guru Nanak fused into some pages, those composed by bards (Bhatts). The hymns and verses are different lengths, some very long, others being just a few line verses. Twenty-two of the thirty-one ragas contain the contributions of "bhagats". The following is a list of contributors whose hymns are present in the Guru Granth Sahib as well as the number of hymns they contributed:


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: In the 19th and 20th-century, several manuscript versions of the Adi Granth and the Guru Granth Sahib hymns were discovered. This triggered contesting theories about authenticity and how the canonical text of Sikhism evolved over time. There are five views:


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The entire Guru Granth Sahib is written in the Gurmukhi script, which was standardized by Guru Angad in the 16th century. According to Sikh tradition and the "Mahman Prakash", an early Sikh manuscript, Guru Angad Dev had taught and spread Gurmukhi at the suggestion of Guru Nanak Dev who invented the Gurmukhi script. The word "Gurmukhī" translates to "from the mouth of the guru". It descended from the Laṇḍā scripts and was used from the outset for compiling Sikh scriptures. The Sikhs assign a high degree of sanctity to the Gurmukhī script. It is the official script for writing Punjabi in the Indian State of Punjab.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Gurus considered divine worship through "shabad kirtan" as the best means of attaining that state of bliss – "vismad" – which resulted in communion with God. The Guru Granth Sahib is divided by musical settings or rāgas into 1430 pages known as "ang"s "limbs" in Sikh tradition. It can be categorized into two sections:


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The word "raga" refers to the "color" and, more specifically, the emotion or mood produced by a combination or sequence of pitches. A rāga is composed of a series of melodic motifs, based upon a definite scale or mode of the seven svara psalmizations, that provide a basic structure around which the musician performs. Gurbani raags are not time dependent.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Following is the list of all sixty rāgas under which Gurbani is written, in order of appearance with page numbers:


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: In 1708, Guru Gobind Singh conferred the title of "Guru of the Sikhs" upon the Adi Granth. The event was recorded in a "Bhatt Vahi" (a bard's scroll) by an eyewitness, Narbud Singh, who was a bard at the Rajput rulers' court associated with gurus. Sikhs since then have accepted the Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred scripture, as their eternal-living guru, as the embodiment of the ten Sikh Gurus, the highest religious and spiritual guide for Sikhs. It plays a central role in guiding the Sikh's way of life.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: No one can change or alter any of the writings of the Sikh gurus written in the Guru Granth Sahib. This includes sentences, words, structure, grammar, and meanings. This tradition was set by Guru Har Rai. He sent his eldest son Ram Rai as an emissary to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi. Aurangzeb, a devout Muslim ruler, objected to a verse in the Sikh scripture ("Asa ki Var") that stated, "the clay from a Musalman's grave is kneaded into potter's lump", considering it an insult to Islam. Ram Rai tried to please the emperor by explaining that the text was miscopied and modified it, substituting "Musalman" with "Beiman" (faithless, evil) which Aurangzeb approved. The willingness to change a word led Guru Har Rai to bar his son from his presence, and name his younger son as his successor.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The Guru Granth Sahib is always the focal point in any gurdwara, seated on a raised platform known as a "Takht" (throne), while the congregation of devotees sits on the floor and prostrate before the guru as a sign of respect. The Guru Granth Sahib is given the greatest respect and honour. Sikhs cover their heads and remove their shoes while in the presence of this sacred scripture, their eternal living guru. The Guru Granth Sahib is normally carried on the head and as a sign of respect, never touched with unwashed hands or put on the floor. It is attended with all signs of royalty, with a canopy placed over it. A "chaur" (fan whisk) is waved above the Guru Granth Sahib.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The Guru Granth Sahib is taken care of by a Granthi, who is responsible for reciting from the sacred hymns and leading Sikh prayers. The Granthi also acts as caretaker for the Guru Granth Sahib, keeping the scripture covered in clean cloths, known as "rumala", to protect from heat and dust. The Guru Granth Sahib rests on a "manji sahib" under a "rumala" until brought out again.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Several rituals are performed every day in major Sikh gurdwaras (temples) such as the Golden Temple. These rituals treat the scripture as a living person, a guru, out of respect. The rituals include:


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Ernest Trumpp – a German philologist, published the first philological study and a major but incomplete translation of the Guru Granth Sahib in 1877, after an eight-year study of the text and field interviews with Sikh intelligentsia of his time. Trumpp included his criticism of the Sikh scripture in the preface and introductory sections, and stated "Sikhism is a waning religion, that will soon belong to history". Many in the Sikh community regarded these introductory remarks to his translation as extremely offensive. According to the Indologist Mark Juergensmeyer, setting aside Ernest Trumpp's nasty remarks, he was a German linguist and his years of scholarship, translations, as well as field notes and discussions with Sikhs at the Golden Temple remain valuable reference works for contemporary scholars. While Akshaya Kumar holds Trumpp's translation to be "literal and mechanical" emphasizing preciseness and fastidiously retaining the words as well as the syntax of the original verses, avoiding any creative and inventive restatement to empathize with a believer, Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair noted the clear influence from the Brahmanical leanings of his Nirmala collaborators, among the British-supported Sikh class which had been long enjoying British patronage as they helped to keep “hostile” elements under control, who for example induced Trumpp to omit the numeral “one” in the phrase Ik Oankar in his translation, in an attempt to bring the scripture closer to the Brahmanical-influenced interpretation of the sects that differed with the interpretation of the orthodox Khalsa. Trumpp's translation was seen to be a challenge to the administration's already-established view that the Sikhs were a distinct community, prompting the Khalsa to commission its own translation. Trumpp, as well as other translators, were commissioned by colonial administrators.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Max Arthur Macauliffe – a British civil servant, was next to publish a major but incomplete translation of the Guru Granth Sahib, covering the same ground as Trumpp but interspersed his translation between "Janamsakhis"-based mythical history of the Sikh Gurus. A major source of his historical information was "Suraj Prakash" of Santokh Singh, and his primary translation advisor was the prominent Khalsa Sikh scholar Kahn Singh Nabha – the author of "Gurmat Prabhakar" and "Hum Hindu Nahin". Macauliffe's translation appeared embedded in the six-volume "The Sikh Religion" and was published by Oxford University Press in 1909. Unlike Trumpp who had disregarded the sensibilities and empathy for the Sikhs, Macauliffe used his creative editorial abilities to incorporate these sensibilities. While Trumpp criticized Sikhism and the Guru Granth Sahib, Macauliffe criticized Hinduism and wrote an introduction that presented the hymns of Sikh Gurus as Christian-like with affinities to "Protestant virtues and ethics", presumably for a British audience, states Indologist Giorgio Shani. Macauliffe's translation was well received by the Sikh community and considered by them as closer to how they interpret their scripture. Post-colonial scholarship has questioned Macauliffe's accounting for and incorporation of Sikh traditions as "uncritical" and "dubious", though one that pleased the Sikh community. Macauliffe's version has been widely followed by later scholars and translators. According to Christopher Shackle – a scholar of Languages and Religion, Macauliffe's approach to translation was to work with Khalsa Sikh reformists of the 1890s (Singh Sabha) and exegetically present the scripture in a "progressive monotheism" fold that deserved the support of the British administration as a distinct tradition, and of the native Sikh clergy. He used considerable freedom in restating the archaic poetry into a "vaguely psalm-like translation".


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The first complete English translation of the Guru Granth Sahib, by Gopal Singh, was published in 1960. A revised version published in 1978 removed archaic English words such as "thee" and "thou". In 1962, an eight-volume translation into English and Punjabi by Manmohan Singh was published by the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. In the 2000s, a translation by Sant Singh Khalsa appeared on major Sikhism-related websites such as 3HO/Sikh Dharma Brotherhood's Sikhnet.com.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Official versions of the Guru Granth Sahib are produced in Amritsar by the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC). The SGPC printers are the only authorized worldwide publisher of the scripture, states the Sikh religious body Akal Takht. Prior to 2006, Jeewan Singh Chattar Singh & Sons used to print the official versions and were the oldest publisher in Amritsar. However, in 2006, the Akal Takht banned them from printing the Sikh scripture after a sting operation showed that they were printing and mishandling the scripture as well as selling an illegal copy of the Sikh scripture to a Muslim seer. A subsidiary of the SGPC, the Delhi Sikh Gurudwara Management Committee, is the authorized printer and supplier of the Guru Granth Sahib to Sikhs outside of India. These facilities are a part of the Gurudwara Rakabganj in New Delhi.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

text: The original Guru Granth Sahib is in the possession of the Sodhi family of Kartarpur village, and is placed at Gurdwara Thum Sahib. The Sodhis are descendants of Guru Arjan Dev and Kartarpur was founded by him in 1598. Since the early 20th century, it has been printed in a standard edition of 1430 Angs. Prior to the late nineteenth century, only handwritten copies were prepared. The first printed copy of the Guru Granth Sahib was made in 1864. Any copies of the Guru Granth Sahib deemed unfit to be read from are cremated, with a ceremony similar to that for cremating a deceased person. Such a cremation is called Agan Bheta. The Guru Granth Sahib is currently printed in an authorized printing press in the basement of the Gurudwara Ramsar in Amritsar; misprints and set-up sheets, and printer's waste with any of its sacred text on, are cremated at Goindval.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Robert David Keane (born 8 July 1980) is an Irish professional football coach and former player who played as a striker. Keane served as captain of the Republic of Ireland from March 2006 until his international retirement in August 2016. Keane is the most capped player and is the top goalscorer in the team's history. He was most recently the assistant manager of Middlesbrough.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane began his career at Wolverhampton Wanderers, scoring twice on his first-team debut aged 17. The following season, he was the club's leading goalscorer and scored his first international goal for Ireland. He changed club frequently between 1999 and 2002, breaking transfer fee records, but his brief spells at Inter Milan and Leeds United were unexceptional. He joined Tottenham Hotspur in 2002 and played there for seven and a half years over two spells, amassing 306 appearances and 122 goals across all competitions. The 2007–08 season was the most fruitful of his career as he set a career record of 23 goals in a season, including a landmark 100th competitive goal, and won his first senior honour (the League Cup).


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane moved to Liverpool in July 2008 but he spent only six months at the club before returning to Tottenham, where he was made first team captain. In January 2010, he moved on loan to Scottish Premier League side Celtic for the rest of the season, and spent the second half of the following season loaned to West Ham United. He left Tottenham for LA Galaxy in 2011, and in January 2012 went to Aston Villa on a two-month loan during the Major League Soccer (MLS) off-season. He departed LA Galaxy in 2016 having scored 104 goals across six seasons, before a short stint with Indian club ATK. Keane announced his retirement from professional football in November 2018. In total, he scored 126 Premier League goals for six different clubs, which ranks him as the 15th-most successful goalscorer in the history of the Premier League.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane scored 68 goals for the Republic of Ireland national team over an 18-year international career, making him the all-time record Irish scorer. His 146 caps is also an Irish record. Keane is the joint fifth-highest European international goalscorer of all time, and the only player in the history of world football to have scored at least one international goal in 19 consecutive years. Keane was the Republic of Ireland's top scorer at the 2002 FIFA World Cup with three goals as they reached the last 16, and also played at UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016. Throughout his club and international career he was known for his goal celebration where he performed a cartwheel followed by a forward roll.


title: Robbie Keane

text: After announcing his retirement from playing, Keane began his coaching career with the Ireland senior team as assistant manager under Mick McCarthy's management setup in November 2018. He also took on the role of assistant manager at Championship club Middlesbrough in 2019, with his former teammate Jonathan Woodgate as manager. Keane signed a 1-year contract with Middlesbrough, which came to an end during the COVID-19 pandemic and left the club on his own terms in June 2020. During both jobs Keane studied for his UEFA Pro Licence; he received the license in 2020.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Robert David Keane was born and raised in Tallaght, Dublin, the son of Anne and Robert Keane. He started his football career with local club Fettercairn before joining Dublin schoolboy team Crumlin United at the age of 10, where his talent was seen and recognised at an early age. He also played Gaelic football until he was 15, before giving it up to pursue a football career. Keane received offers from both Liverpool and Wolverhampton Wanderers, but decided to go to the First Division side, judging that it would be harder to break into the first team at Liverpool. He moved to Wolverhampton four days before his 16th birthday in July 1996, joining their youth team.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane progressed through Wolves' youth ranks and made his professional debut aged 17 on 9 August 1997, scoring twice against Norwich City. The following season he excelled at the club, earning praise from both the press and Wolves manager Colin Lee. He went on to be the club's leading scorer, with 16 goals in the 1998–99 season. Keane's performances and goalscoring record with both Wolves and his national team attracted much interest from larger clubs and a move for the young striker seemed imminent given Wolves' finances. However, with three years left on his contract, Wolves sought a high price for their Irish star and managing director John Richards stated his reluctance to sell Keane unless their asking price was met.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Just weeks into the 1999–2000 season, he was sold to Premier League club Coventry City for £6 million, then a British record for a teenager. Keane got off to a great start, scoring two goals on his debut against Derby County. During a successful season at Coventry, he played a major role in a stylish attacking side boasting the likes of Gary McAllister, Mustapha Hadji and Youssef Chippo and formed a productive strike partnership with Cédric Roussel. Keane played in a total of 34 games, scoring 12 goals, all of which came in the Premier League.


title: Robbie Keane

text: After an impressive first season in the Premier League, Keane was signed by Italian Serie A club Inter Milan for a fee of £13 million in July 2000, signing a five-year contract. However, Keane's dream move to Italy soon soured when manager Marcello Lippi was sacked. Lippi's successor, Marco Tardelli, deemed Keane to be surplus to requirements and in December 2000, he was loaned out to Leeds United. Keane made 14 appearances for Inter in all competitions scoring three goals, his most memorable coming two minutes into the Supercoppa Italiana match against Lazio. He also scored against Ruch Chorzów in the UEFA Cup and Lecce in the Coppa Italia.


title: Robbie Keane

text: His Leeds career got off to an impressive start, scoring nine goals in 14 starts for the club before the Leeds manager, David O'Leary, made his loan deal permanent in May 2001 at an original cost of £12 million. The following season was not so bright, and he found himself dropping down the pecking order. His form suffered and he only managed nine goals in 33 appearances, three of them being in a 6–0 League Cup win at Leicester City on 9 October 2001.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Meanwhile, Leeds sunk deeper into debt and were forced to sell many players and Keane joined the exodus when he was sold to Tottenham Hotspur just before the 2002–03 transfer deadline for a fee of £7 million.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On signing him for Tottenham, manager Glenn Hoddle said that Keane was ideally suited to Tottenham and could make White Hart Lane his "spiritual home" for years to come. Keane had an impressive debut at Spurs, winning a penalty during a 3–2 win over West Ham United. Keane's first goal for Tottenham came in a 2–1 win against Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park. Although Spurs finished in a disappointing tenth place, Keane was their success story of the season, finishing as Tottenham's top scorer with 13 goals, including a spectacular hat-trick in a win over Everton at White Hart Lane.


title: Robbie Keane

text: In the 2003–04 season, Spurs battled with relegation, but Keane's goals played a major part in helping secure Tottenham's Premier League status. A hat-trick against Wolves, and a last-minute penalty to equalise in the North London derby against Arsenal, despite Arsenal winning the Premier League at Tottenham, were highlights as Keane once again ended the season as Tottenham's top scorer with 16 goals, 14 in the league.


title: Robbie Keane

text: His third season, 2004–05, was more frustrating. Despite finishing with his highest return of goals in a season for Spurs, 17, he played second-fiddle to the likes of Jermain Defoe, Frédéric Kanouté and Mido for much of the season. The frustration culminated in Keane storming from the dugout towards the end of a game against Birmingham City in April 2005 after all the substitutes had been used, meaning he would not get a chance to appear. He was fined £10,000 and forced to train with the reserves after the outburst and his future at the club was thrown into doubt.


title: Robbie Keane

text: The 2005–06 season started as the previous one had ended, with Defoe being preferred to partner Mido in Tottenham's strikeforce. However, Defoe's strike-rate continued to disappoint and Keane's persistence paid off in November when manager Martin Jol eventually gave Keane a chance to replace Defoe and stake his claim. By March, he had overtaken Mido as the top goalscorer at the club. Keane went on to finish the season with 16 league goals — making him the Premier League's joint fourth-highest goalscorer that season. He had also been made the vice-captain, taking the captaincy on occasions when Ledley King was not available. Keane was involved in a training ground fight with teammate Edgar Davids in December 2005, but the pair subsequently made up publicly and were seen encouraging each other on the pitch.


title: Robbie Keane

text: In February 2006, Inter's owner and president, Massimo Moratti, admitted his regret at letting Keane go after being impressed by his performances at Tottenham. Keane extended his commitment to Tottenham, signing a new four-year contract in March 2006. Keane was named as one of ten Spurs squad members to be struck down by norovirus on 6 May 2006. However, he still managed to play in their final game of the season against West Ham United.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane had a slow start to the 2006–07 season which was further set back by a knee ligament injury that Keane suffered against Middlesbrough on 5 December 2006. His coming back from injury marked the beginning of a return to form and a dynamic partnership with Dimitar Berbatov. Keane and Berbatov were jointly awarded the Premier League's Player of the Month Award for April 2007. Keane finished the season with a total of 22 goals in all competitions — the highest-ever season tally of his career — scoring 15 goals in his last 15 appearances of the season.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane made his 200th appearance for Tottenham in the final game of the 2006–07 season against Manchester City scoring the first goal in a 2–1 victory that saw Tottenham secure fifth place in the league.


title: Robbie Keane

text: He signed a new five-year contract with Tottenham on 28 May 2007. On 26 December 2007, he became the thirteenth player in the history of the league to score 100 Premier League goals. 2007 proved to be a remarkable year for the striker with a total of 31 goals and 13 assists from just 40 starts. His tally of 19 league goals in the calendar year was the highest of any player in the Premier League throughout 2007.


title: Robbie Keane

text: He scored his 100th competitive goal for Tottenham in the 2–0 win against Sunderland on 19 January 2008, becoming the fifteenth Tottenham player to achieve this feat. On 24 February 2008, he won his first senior honour as a player as his Tottenham side won the first League Cup Final to be played at the new Wembley Stadium, beating Chelsea 2–1 after extra time. On 12 April 2008, Keane made his 250th appearance for Spurs in the 1–1 draw with Middlesbrough. Keane finished the 2007–08 season equal top scorer for Spurs with Berbatov, with 23 goals in all competitions. His 15 Premier League goals making him the first Spurs player to score double figures in the Premier League in 6 consecutive seasons. Keane won Player of the Year three times during his Tottenham career (2003, 2005–06 and 2007–08); the first player to do so.


title: Robbie Keane

text: His consistency and strike-rate attracted the attention of Premier League rivals Liverpool. Despite initial resistance to the sale and accusations of misconduct, Tottenham agreed to a £20.3 million deal for the player.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Amid accusations that Liverpool had unsettled the player, Tottenham Hotspur filed a complaint to the Premier League regarding the club's conduct.


title: Robbie Keane

text: However, on 28 July 2008, Tottenham confirmed the sale of Keane for £19 million (plus a potential £1.3 million in performance based compensation). Keane agreed terms with Liverpool shortly afterwards, signing a four-year contract with the Merseyside club. Upon his arrival to Liverpool, Keane said, "I've been a Liverpool fan all my life, going back to when I was a kid growing up in Dublin, and I always had a Liverpool shirt on my back. So, to be here now as a Liverpool player is incredible and I couldn't be happier." Following the transfer, Tottenham withdrew their official complaint against Liverpool after the club made a donation to the Tottenham Hotspur Foundation and apologised for their behaviour prior to the deal. Tottenham chairman Daniel Levy publicly stated his dissatisfaction, saying he had been forced into transferring the player due to Liverpool's interference.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane was given the squad number 7, and scored his first goal for Liverpool on 1 October 2008 in a Champions League win against PSV Eindhoven at Anfield. A second Champions League goal quickly followed with Keane scoring the opening goal in Liverpool's 1–1 draw with Atlético Madrid. Premier League goals were less forthcoming but he scored twice for Liverpool against West Bromwich Albion on 8 November.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Six weeks passed before Keane scored again but it was a crucial equaliser against Arsenal, giving Liverpool a 1–1 away draw against their league rivals. In the following Premier League match against Bolton, Keane scored two more league goals to seal a 3–0 win for Liverpool. During the January transfer window, Tottenham Hotspur made an approach for the striker and Liverpool accepted the offer, allowing the Irishman to return to his former club for a fee of £12 million, £7 million less than Liverpool had paid for him.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane rejoined Tottenham on 2 February 2009, signing for a basic fee of £12 million, potentially rising to £16 million with add-ons. The deal meant that the cumulative transfer fees paid for Keane over his career amounted to around £75 million.


title: Robbie Keane

text: He signed a four-year contract with the north London club. Keane was one of three players to make returns to Tottenham during the transfer window, along with Jermain Defoe and Pascal Chimbonda. He was also made Tottenham vice-captain a week later, after often deputising for Ledley King during his first spell there. He was cup-tied for Spurs' appearance in the 2009 Football League Cup Final. Keane scored his first goal since his return to the club on 4 March, opening the scoring in the crucial 4–0 home victory against Middlesbrough. He followed this up by scoring another vital goal, this time a last-minute equaliser, away to Sunderland in a 1–1 draw on 7 March.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Soon after Keane's return to White Hart Lane, railway service Virgin Trains ran an advertisement with the slogan "A Liverpool to London return faster than Robbie Keane." On his return to Liverpool on the final day of the season, he scored in a 3–1 defeat. He received a generally warm reception from the fans despite scoring against them.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 31 July 2009, Keane captained Tottenham to winning the Premier League Asia Trophy in a pre-season competition in China. He scored twice in the 3–0 win over Hull City inside Beijing Workers Stadium. On 26 September 2009, Keane scored four goals in a 5–0 win over Burnley. During Tottenham's League Cup Fourth Round match, Keane scored one of two goals against Everton on 27 October 2009 at White Hart Lane. He continued his scoring form with another against Sunderland in their 2–0 home win on 7 November 2009.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 1 February 2010, Keane signed for Celtic in a loan deal until the end of the 2009–10 season and was assigned the number 7 shirt, previously worn by Jimmy Johnstone and Henrik Larsson. After signing for Celtic, Keane said: "The club is massive. I am a Celtic fan and did not have to ask much about it. I always wanted to play for Celtic and it works for all parties."


title: Robbie Keane

text: He made his Celtic debut in a 1–0 defeat on 2 February at Rugby Park against Kilmarnock. He scored his first goal for Celtic in a 4–2 victory in the fifth round of the Scottish Cup against Dunfermline at East End Park. He scored his first goal in the SPL against Aberdeen in a 4–4 draw on 13 February. His first goal at Celtic Park proved to be the winner against Dundee United on 20 February. Keane's first Old Firm match against Rangers was on 28 February, with Celtic losing 1–0. On 13 March, Keane scored his first Celtic hat-trick in a 3–0 Scottish Cup win over Kilmarnock, and then scored two in a league clash against them two weeks later.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane's penultimate match was a 2–1 Old Firm win over Rangers on 4 May his last match for Celtic came against Hearts on 9 May, he scored the first goal in a 2–1 victory. He stated that he enjoyed his time at Celtic and that it had given him back his 'hunger for football'.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 12 April, Keane was announced as SPL Player of the Month for March 2010. On 19 April 2010, Keane was announced as Celtic's Fans' Player of the Year.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 30 January 2011, Keane joined West Ham United on loan for the remainder of the season. Keane made his debut for West Ham on 2 February in a 3–1 victory over Blackpool at Bloomfield Road, scoring his first goal in the process. West Ham had an option to extend the deal by two years if they avoided relegation from the Premier League. However, in May 2011 West Ham were relegated and Keane returned to Tottenham.


title: Robbie Keane

text: After playing for the newly reformed New York Cosmos in Paul Scholes's testimonial match, Keane joined LA Galaxy of MLS, becoming one of the club's three allowed designated players, alongside David Beckham and Landon Donovan. The Galaxy traded their previous third Designated Player, Juan Pablo Ángel, to city rivals Chivas USA to make room for Keane. He made his debut on 20 August 2011, in a California Clásico game against the San Jose Earthquakes, and scored his first goal for his new team in the 21st minute, in a 2–0 win at The Home Depot Center. On 13 September, he scored his first CONCACAF Champions League goal in a 2–1 group stage loss to Monarcas Morelia of Mexico.


title: Robbie Keane

text: The Galaxy finished the season as Western Conference champions, and won the Supporters' Shield. On 6 November, in his first full match, Keane scored in a 3–1 win over Real Salt Lake to book a place in the 2011 MLS Cup. Two weeks later, he assisted the winning goal for Donovan in the 72nd minute of the final as the Galaxy defeated Houston Dynamo 1–0 at their home stadium.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 8 January 2012, Keane agreed to move on loan to Aston Villa for two months, until the new MLS season began in March. He trained with the Villa squad on 9 and 10 January and completed the move on the 12th.


title: Robbie Keane

text: He made his debut at Villa Park in a 1–1 draw with Everton on 14 January, coming on as an 81st-minute substitute for Stephen Warnock. Keane then made his full debut in Villa's next match against Wolverhampton Wanderers, in which he scored his first two goals for the club including the winner in a 3–2 victory. On 5 February, he scored the equaliser against Newcastle United, in an eventual 2–1 loss, his third goal for Villa, in four league games.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 18 March 2012, Keane scored twice in a 3–1 home win over D.C. United for the Galaxy's first win of the season. In July, with five goals including consecutive braces, he was voted MLS Player of the Month. He finished with 16 regular season goals, fourth in the league's top scorers, and was one of three strikers named in the MLS Best XI, alongside Thierry Henry and Chris Wondolowski. His two goals in a 4–2 win over Toronto on 22 September sealed a place in the 2012 MLS Cup Playoffs.


title: Robbie Keane

text: In the Conference semi-finals, Keane scored twice in a 3–1 second leg win over San Jose, as the Galaxy recovered from a 1–0 home loss in the first match. Against Seattle Sounders in the Conference final, he scored another two goals in a 3–0 first leg win, and a late penalty in a 2–1 loss in the second leg at CenturyLink Field. Keane scored a last-minute penalty to complete a 3–1 win in the 2012 MLS Cup, once again against Houston Dynamo.


title: Robbie Keane

text: At the start of the 2013 season, in the absence of Donovan, Keane was promoted to captain by head coach Bruce Arena. On opening day, he had a part in each goal as Galaxy beat Chicago Fire 4–0 at home, assisting a hat-trick for Mike Magee before himself finding the net in added time. On 26 May, he scored his first MLS hat-trick in a 4–0 rout of Seattle, and he recorded another on 27 August in a 4–2 comeback win over Salt Lake, putting him on 10 goals for the season; he was the league's Player of the Month in August.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane scored twice in a 5–0 win over Chivas on 6 October, the first and last goals of the victory. For the second consecutive season, he made the MLS Best XI, as recognition for his 16 goals and 11 assists, statistics which put him fourth and third on the respective top scorer lists.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 6 March 2014, Keane signed a new multi-year contract extension with LA Galaxy. For the third season in a row he reached double figures in goals, scoring his tenth on 20 July in a 2–1 loss at Sporting KC. Keane scored his 50th MLS regular-season goal on 28 September, chipping New York Red Bulls goalkeeper Luis Robles to open a 4–0 victory.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 3 December 2014, Keane was awarded the MLS Most Valuable Player Award after a season in which he recorded a career high 19 goals and 14 assists in 29 appearances. Four days later, he scored the 111th-minute winner in the 2014 MLS Cup which the Galaxy won 2–1 against the New England Revolution for a record fifth title. Keane was given the MLS Cup MVP award, similar to the Man Of The Match award.


title: Robbie Keane

text: After the announcement that his former Liverpool teammate Steven Gerrard would join the Galaxy in July 2015, Keane confirmed that he would not hand over the captaincy. He scored the second goal of the 2–0 home win over Chicago in their first game of the season on 7 March. On 17 June, Keane scored a hat-trick in the fourth round of the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, as the Galaxy won 6–1 against fifth-tier amateurs PSA Elite.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 5 July, Keane scored a hat-trick in a 4–0 win over Toronto. Twelve days later, in Gerrard's first match, he scored three goals for the second consecutive game including two penalties with Gerrard also netting in a 5–2 win against San Jose.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 6 March 2016, Keane scored from the penalty spot in the opening 2016 league fixture; a 4–1 home win against D.C. United. He followed that up with another successful penalty on 19 March in the 3–1 home victory against San Jose. After missing five games with a knee injury, Keane returned on 8 May to face New England Revolution and scored twice in the 4–2 home win.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane scored his 80th MLS regular-season goal on 23 July in a 2–1 away win against Portland Timbers with a simple tap-in from close range.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 11 September, he scored Galaxy's fourth goal in their 4–2 home win over Orlando City. He scored twice in a 4–2 home defeat against Seattle Sounders on 25 September for his ninth and tenth goals of the season.


title: Robbie Keane

text: In November, Keane stated that he would be leaving LA Galaxy after his contract expired at the end of the season, but that he would not be retiring. In total, he scored 104 goals in 165 appearances during his six seasons with the club with his last game being the MLS Cup Playoff penalty-shootout defeat to Colorado Rapids on 6 November 2016.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 4 August 2017, Keane signed for Indian Super League team ATK joining former teammate Teddy Sheringham, the team's head coach. He said that the opportunity to play in a new league appealed to him. He was assigned the number 10 jersey and appointed as the club captain. However, he suffered an achilles injury during a pre-season training camp in Dubai and had to return home for treatment, ruling him out of action until December. Spanish defender Jordi was appointed as the captain in his absence. On 7 December, he made his first-team debut, coming on as a 61st-minute substitute in a 3–2 defeat against Chennaiyin. On 23 December, he scored his first goal in a 1–0 victory against Delhi Dynamos.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane was appointed player-manager of ATK in March 2018 after Sheringham and his replacement Ashley Westwood were sacked with ATK finishing outside the play-offs. He scored the only goal in a 1–0 win over NorthEast United on his managerial debut, enough to save them from last place. After contesting the final three matches as player-manager, Keane decided to leave the club at the end of the season and stated he would be taking time out to consider his options.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Under the guidance of Brian Kerr, the unfancied Republic of Ireland won the UEFA U16 and U18 European championships in 1998, and Keane was part of the victorious U18 side in Cyprus. In 1999, he played at the World Youth Cup in Nigeria, where the Republic of Ireland reached the last 16 before going out on penalties to the hosts. His first Republic of Ireland cap came against the Czech Republic in Olomouc in March 1998. He scored his first senior international goals against Malta in October that year.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane was selected by Mick McCarthy as part of the Republic of Ireland squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan, scoring three goals in the Republic of Ireland's four games. Keane scored an injury-time equaliser against Germany in the group stage match as the Irish surprised many by holding the former champions to a 1–1 draw. This was the first of only three goals which Germany conceded in the tournament (the other two were scored in the final by Brazil's Ronaldo). In the Round of 16 match against Spain, he scored a last-minute penalty to force the game into extra-time and a penalty shootout after the Irish had gone a goal down early in the first half, but eventually lost 3–2 on penalties.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane became the Republic of Ireland's leading goalscorer during a match against the Faroe Islands on 13 October 2004 when he scored his 22nd and 23rd goals. The first of these goals broke Niall Quinn's record of 21 goals.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Although the Republic of Ireland failed to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Keane scored four goals in the Republic of Ireland's eight qualifying matches. Following Steve Staunton's appointment as Republic of Ireland manager, Keane was appointed captain. In their first game under Staunton, Keane scored the second goal in the 3–0 victory against Sweden at Lansdowne Road, and celebrated the final match at the Lansdowne Road stadium with a hat-trick on his 70th senior international appearance in a 5–0 defeat of San Marino on 15 November 2006. Giovanni Trapattoni, who took over from Staunton, maintained Keane as team captain starting in his first game in charge against Serbia on 24 May 2008 which ended in a 1–1 draw.


title: Robbie Keane

text: As captain, Keane led the team to a second-place finish in the 2010 World Cup qualifying campaign. He scored his 40th international goal against Cyprus, a header in the 83rd minute, which secured a 2–1 win for the Republic of Ireland. Along with Dimitar Berbatov, he topped the scoring chart in the qualifying group with 5 goals in 10 games. His 41st international goal came in the controversial 2010 World Cup play-off with France on 18 November 2009. This was his 26th goal in competitive (non-friendly) internationals.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane won his 100th cap against Argentina in a 1–0 friendly defeat on 11 August 2010. This match was also the first international football match at the new Aviva Stadium. He scored his 45th international goal against Russia in October 2010. It was the first time the Republic of Ireland had lost a game in which Keane had scored. Previously, the Republic of Ireland had won 26 and drew 10 of the 36 games in which Keane had scored. He equalled Andy Townsend's record for most appearances as Republic of Ireland captain (40) on 26 March 2011 and also scored a goal in the process.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane took part in the inaugural Nations Cup for the Republic of Ireland, which took place in February and May 2011. He ended the tournament as top scorer, despite not having played in their first game against Wales. Keane scored three goals in total, two against Northern Ireland in a 5–0 victory, and what proved to be the tournament's winning goal in a 1–0 victory over Scotland. The Republic of Ireland emerged from the competition victorious, having won all three of their games without conceding a goal.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 4 June 2011, Keane scored twice in a 2–0 away win against Macedonia in qualification for UEFA Euro 2012 to become the first Irish or British player to score more than 50 international goals. Following the game with Macedonia his total stood at 51 goals. He added another two goals in the Republic of Ireland's 4–0 play-off hammering of Estonia in Tallinn which effectively secured qualification for Euro 2012 in Poland and Ukraine to bring his goal tally to 53.


title: Robbie Keane

text: After a disappointing tournament in Poland, Keane brought his international tally to 54, with an 89th-minute penalty against Kazakhstan in the Republic of Ireland's opening World Cup 2014 qualification match. This left the score at 1–1 before Kevin Doyle's goal a minute later secured a winning start to the campaign. On 2 June 2013, Keane scored the third and fourth goals of the game, his 55th and 56th goals for the Republic of Ireland, against Georgia in a 4–0 win.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 7 June 2013, Keane played his 126th game for the Republic of Ireland and became the new record appearance holder, breaking Shay Given's previous record of 125 appearances. He also scored his second hat-trick of his international career in the same game against the Faroe Islands scoring his 57th, 58th and 59th goals in a 3–0 win for the Republic of Ireland. Keane scored his 60th international goal against Sweden on 6 September 2013, in a 2–1 loss. He went on to score his 61st and 62nd goals for the Republic of Ireland against Kazakhstan on 15 October 2013 in a 3–1 win and against Latvia a month later in a 3–0 victory, both games being played in Dublin.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane missed his chance to score his 63rd goal against Costa Rica in Philadelphia on 6 June 2014 when he missed a penalty in a friendly game. He was the highest male international scorer among active players following Miroslav Klose's retirement in 2014. On 11 October 2014, he scored his third international hat-trick, his 63rd, 64th and 65th goals, in a 7–0 European qualifying win against Gibraltar at Aviva Stadium. The treble concluded with a penalty in the 18th minute. This took him to a record 21 goals in European Championship qualifiers, surpassing the 20 by Turkey's Hakan Şükür. He would later extend his tally to 23 goals, although the record was broken by Portugal's Cristiano Ronaldo on 10 September 2019.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane was selected in manager Martin O'Neill's 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016 in what would be his final major tournament appearance for the Republic of Ireland. However, he was restricted to a bench role and only played a total of 23 minutes against Sweden and Belgium respectively.


title: Robbie Keane

text: On 24 August 2016, Keane announced his retirement from international football. His last match for the Republic of Ireland was a friendly against Oman on 31 August 2016 at Aviva Stadium. The Republic of Ireland emerged victorious 4–0 and Keane signed off with a goal to take him level with German great Gerd Müller on 68 international goals. He received a rousing ovation from the assembled crowd when he was substituted in the 57th minute. Keane was also given a guard of honour from his Republic of Ireland teammates after the match had finished and he left the pitch with his two sons to rapturous applause from the home fans.


title: Robbie Keane

text: In March 2018, Keane was appointed player-manager of ATK after Sheringham and his replacement Ashley Westwood were sacked with ATK finishing outside the play-offs. He scored the only goal in a 1–0 win over NorthEast United on his managerial debut, enough to save them from last place. After contesting the final three matches as player-manager, Keane decided to leave the club at the end of the season.


title: Robbie Keane

text: In November 2018, Keane agreed to act as the assistant manager of the Republic of Ireland national team, under the management of newly-appointed Mick McCarthy.


title: Robbie Keane

text: In June 2019, he accepted the dual roles of assistant manager of Middlesbrough in the Championship and the Republic of Ireland national team. His former teammate Jonathan Woodgate, who had been appointed the manager of the Teesside-based club, offered him the role as part of a refurbished coaching team. On 23 June 2020, Keane left his role as assistant manager after his one-year contract came to an end during the COVID pandemic.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Following the appointment of Stephen Kenny as Republic of Ireland Manager in April 2020, and with two years left on his FAI contract, Keane was stood down as Republic of Ireland Assistant Manager as Kenny brought in his own team. Since Kenny's appointment Keane has remained on the FAI staff payroll, earning €250,000 per annum but without a role, while discussions over his future have continued.


title: Robbie Keane

text: A talented, quick, and agile player, Keane was a versatile forward, capable of playing anywhere along the front line, due to his ability to score and create goals. Throughout his career, he was often deployed in creative roles as a second striker, as a winger, or as an attacking midfielder behind the forwards, and as a main striker. A technically gifted, intelligent, and hard-working forward, Keane was also renowned for his pace, dribbling skills, and creativity, and also stood out for his leadership throughout his career.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Although he used many different goal celebrations throughout his career, Keane's signature goalscoring celebration involved him performing a cartwheel, followed by a forward roll, and subsequently standing up and mimicking gesture of firing pistols with his hands.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane married Xposé presenter and former Miss Ireland contestant Claudine Palmer in Ballybrack on 7 June 2008. They have two sons named Robert (born 10 May 2009) and Hudson (born 5 October 2015).


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane is a cousin of English singer Morrissey, and has himself been noted for his singing skills. His first cousin is Jason Byrne, the second-highest goalscorer in League of Ireland history. Keane holds a U.S. green card which qualifies him as a domestic player for MLS roster purposes. He achieved his UEFA "A" Licence in January 2016, via the Football Association of Ireland's Coach Education Programme.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane stated his support for the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Ireland ahead of the referendum in 2015.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane is an ambassador for the Children's Medical & Research Foundation in Crumlin, Dublin. Accompanied by his LA Galaxy teammates, Keane personally presented the hospital with a cheque for $50,000 from the LA Galaxy Foundation and Herbalife on 18 February 2015.


title: Robbie Keane

text: Keane and his wife Claudine supported the "Our Hospital Heroes" appeal by raising money for front line workers in hospitals across Ireland, by setting up a GoFundme page after a family member was diagnosed with COVID-19 and had to be admitted to hospital. The GoFundme page has raised over €81,000 as of July 2021.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Dame Daphne du Maurier, Lady Browning, (; 13 May 1907 – 19 April 1989) was an English novelist, biographer and playwright. Her parents were actor-manager Sir Gerald du Maurier and his wife, actress Muriel Beaumont. Her grandfather was George du Maurier, a writer and cartoonist.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Although du Maurier is classed as a romantic novelist, her stories have been described as "moody and resonant" with overtones of the paranormal. Her bestselling works were not at first taken seriously by critics, but they have since earned an enduring reputation for narrative craft. Many have been successfully adapted into films, including the novels "Rebecca", "Frenchman's Creek", "My Cousin Rachel" and "Jamaica Inn", and the short stories "The Birds" and "Don't Look Now". Du Maurier spent much of her life in Cornwall, where most of her works are set. As her fame increased, she became more reclusive.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Daphne du Maurier was born at 24 Cumberland Terrace, Regent's Park, London, the middle of three daughters of prominent actor-manager Sir Gerald du Maurier and actress Muriel Beaumont. Her paternal grandfather was author and "Punch" cartoonist George du Maurier, who created the character of Svengali in the 1894 novel "Trilby". Her paternal uncle Guy du Maurier was a playwright. Her mother was a paternal niece of journalist, author, and lecturer Comyns Beaumont. Her elder sister, Angela du Maurier, became an actress and later also a writer, and her younger sister Jeanne du Maurier was a painter. She was a cousin of the Llewelyn Davies boys, who were J. M. Barrie's inspiration for the characters in the play "Peter Pan; or, The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up".


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: As a young child, du Maurier met many prominent theatre actors, because of the celebrity of her father. On meeting Tallulah Bankhead, du Maurier was quoted as saying that Bankhead was the most beautiful creature she had ever seen.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier spent her childhood at Cannon Hall, Hampstead, the family's London residence, and summers at their home in Fowey, Cornwall, where they also lived during the war years.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier married Major (later Lieutenant-General) Frederick "Boy" Browning in 1932. They had three children:


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Biographers have noted that du Maurier's marriage was at times somewhat chilly and that she could be aloof and distant to her children, especially the girls, when immersed in her writing. Her husband died in 1965 and soon after Daphne moved to Kilmarth, near Par, Cornwall, which became the setting for "The House on the Strand".


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier has often been painted as a frostily private recluse who rarely mixed in society or gave interviews. An exception to this came after the release of the film "A Bridge Too Far", in which her late husband was portrayed in a less-than-flattering light. Incensed, she wrote to the national newspapers, decrying what she considered unforgivable treatment. Once out of the public spotlight, however, many remembered her as a warm and immensely funny person who was a welcoming hostess to guests at Menabilly, the house which she had leased for many years (from the Rashleigh family) in Cornwall.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: She appeared as a castaway in the BBC Radio programme "Desert Island Discs" broadcast on 3 September 1977. Her chosen book was "The Collected Works of Jane Austen", and her luxury was whiskey and ginger ale.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: She was known as Daphne du Maurier from 1907 to 1932, when she married Frederick Browning. Still writing as Daphne du Maurier during her marriage, she was also known as Lady Browning after her husband was knighted in 1946. When she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1969, she was titled Dame Daphne du Maurier, Lady Browning, DBE, but she never used the title.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: According to her biographer Margaret Forster, she told no one about the honour, so that even her children learned of it only from the newspapers. "She thought of pleading illness for the investiture, until her children insisted it would be a great day for the older grandchildren. So she went through with it, though she slipped out quietly afterwards to avoid the attention of the press."


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: After du Maurier's death in 1989, some writers speculated about her alleged relationships with a number of women, including the actress Gertrude Lawrence and Ellen Doubleday, the wife of her U.S. publisher Nelson Doubleday. Du Maurier stated in her memoirs that her father had wanted a son; being a tomboy, she wished to have been born a boy.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: "The Daphne du Maurier Companion", edited by Helen Taylor, includes Taylor's claims that du Maurier confessed to her in 1965 that she had had an incestuous relationship with her father and that he had been a violent alcoholic.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: In correspondence that her family released to biographer Margaret Forster, du Maurier explained to a trusted few people her own unique slant on her sexuality: her personality comprised two distinct people – the loving wife and mother (the side she showed to the world); and the lover (a "decidedly male energy") hidden from virtually everyone and the power behind her artistic creativity. According to Forster's biography, du Maurier believed the "male energy" propelled her writing. Forster wrote that du Maurier's denial of her bisexuality unveiled a "homophobic" fear of her true nature.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: The children of both du Maurier and Lawrence have objected strongly to the stories about their mothers' alleged intimate relationship. Two years after Lawrence died, a biography of her authored by her widower, Richard Aldrich, went into detail about a friendship between her and du Maurier that had begun in 1948 when Lawrence had accepted the lead role in du Maurier's new play "September Tide". Aldrich said that Lawrence had toured Britain in the play in 1948 and continued with it in London's West End theatre district through 1949, and that later du Maurier visited them at their home in the United States. Aldrich made no mention of a possible same-sex relationship.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier died from heart failure in her sleep on 19 April 1989, aged 81, at her home in Par, Cornwall, which had been the setting for many of her books. Her body was cremated in private and without a memorial service (at her request) and her ashes scattered off the cliffs around Kilmarth and Menabilly, Cornwall.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Her family connections helped her establish her literary career, and she published some of her early work in her great uncle Comyns Beaumont's "Bystander" magazine. Her first novel, "The Loving Spirit," was published in 1931.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: The novel "Rebecca" (1938) was one of du Maurier's most successful works. It was an immediate hit, selling nearly 3 million copies between 1938 and 1965. The novel has never gone out of print. In the United States, du Maurier won the National Book Award for favourite novel of 1938 for the book, voted by members of the American Booksellers Association. In the UK, it was listed at number 14 of the "nation's best-loved novel"s on the BBC's 2003 survey The Big Read.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Other significant works include "Jamaica Inn", "Frenchman's Creek", "Hungry Hill", "My Cousin Rachel", "The Scapegoat", "The House on the Strand", and "The King's General". The last is set in Cornwall during the English Civil War, and is written from the Royalist perspective.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier was often categorised as a "romantic novelist", a term that she deplored, given her novels rarely have a happy ending, and often have sinister overtones and shadows of the paranormal. In this light, she has more in common with the "sensation novels" of Wilkie Collins and others, which she admired. The critic Kate Kellaway wrote: "Du Maurier was mistress of calculated irresolution. She did not want to put her readers' minds at rest. She wanted her riddles to persist. She wanted the novels to continue to haunt us beyond their endings."


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier's novel "Mary Anne" (1954) is a fictionalised account of her great-great-grandmother, Mary Anne Clarke née Thompson (1776–1852), who, from 1803 to 1808, was mistress of Frederick Augustus, Duke of York and Albany (1763–1827). He was the "Grand Old Duke of York" of the nursery rhyme, a son of King George III, and brother of King George IV and King William IV. The central character of her last novel, "Rule Britannia", is an aging actress, thought to be based on Gladys Cooper (to whom it is dedicated).


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier's short stories are darker: "The Birds", "Don't Look Now", "The Apple Tree", and "The Blue Lenses" are finely crafted tales of terror that shocked and surprised her audience in equal measure. As her biographer Margaret Forster wrote, "She satisfied all the questionable criteria of popular fiction, and yet satisfied too the exacting requirements of 'real literature'."


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: The discovery, in 2011, of a collection of du Maurier's forgotten short stories, written when the author was 21, provides some insight into her mature style. One of them, "The Doll", concerns a young woman's obsession with a mechanical male sex doll; it has been deemed by du Maurier's son Kit Browning to be "quite ahead of its time".


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: In later life, she wrote non-fiction, including several biographies such as "Gerald", her father's biography. "The Glass-Blowers" traces her French Huguenot ancestry and vividly depicts the French Revolution. "The du Mauriers" traces the family's move from France to England in the 19th century.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: "The House on the Strand" (1969) combines elements of "mental time-travel", a tragic love affair in 14th-century Cornwall, and the dangers of using mind-altering drugs. Her final novel, "Rule Britannia" (1972), satirises resentment that British people, Cornish people in particular, felt at increasing American involvement in UK affairs.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: "Rebecca" has been adapted for both stage and screen several times, most notably by Alfred Hitchcock in his 1940 film "Rebecca". Several of du Maurier's other novels have also been adapted for the screen, including "Jamaica Inn", "Frenchman's Creek", "Hungry Hill", and "My Cousin Rachel" in both 1952 and 2017. The Hitchcock film "The Birds" (1963) is based on a treatment of the short story of that name, as is the film "Don't Look Now" (1973). Of the films, du Maurier often complained that the only ones she liked were Hitchcock's "Rebecca" and Nicolas Roeg's "Don't Look Now".


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Hitchcock's treatment of "Jamaica Inn" was disavowed by both director and author, due to a complete re-write of the ending to accommodate the ego of its star, Charles Laughton. Du Maurier also felt that Olivia de Havilland was wrongly cast as the anti-heroine of "My Cousin Rachel (1952)". "Frenchman's Creek" fared better in a lavish Technicolor version released in 1944. Du Maurier later regretted her choice of Alec Guinness as the lead in the film of "The Scapegoat", which she partly financed.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Du Maurier wrote three plays. Her first was an adaptation of her novel "Rebecca", which opened at the Queen's Theatre in London on 5 March 1940 in a production by George Devine, starring Celia Johnson and Owen Nares as the De Winters and Margaret Rutherford as Mrs. Danvers. After 181 performances, the production transferred to the Strand Theatre, with Jill Furse taking over as the second Mrs. De Winter and Mary Merrall as Mrs. Danvers, with a further run of 176 performances.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: In 1943 she wrote the autobiographically inspired drama "The Years Between" about the unexpected return of a senior officer, thought killed in action, who finds that his wife has taken his seat as Member of Parliament (MP) and has started a romantic relationship with a local farmer. It was first staged at the Manchester Opera House in 1944 and then transferred to London, opening at Wyndham's Theatre on 10 January 1945, starring Nora Swinburne and Clive Brook. The production, directed by Irene Hentschel, became a long-running hit, completing 617 performances. It was revived by Caroline Smith at the Orange Tree Theatre in Richmond upon Thames on 5 September 2007, starring Karen Ascoe and Mark Tandy.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Her third play, "September Tide", portrays a middle-aged woman whose bohemian artist son-in-law falls in love with her. Again directed by Irene Hentschel, it opened at the Aldwych Theatre on 15 December 1948 with Gertrude Lawrence as Stella. It closed in August 1949 after 267 performances.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Shortly after "Rebecca" was published in Brazil, critic Álvaro Lins and other readers pointed out many resemblances to the 1934 book, "A Sucessora" ("The Successor"), by Brazilian writer Carolina Nabuco. According to Nabuco and her editor, not only the main plot, but also situations and entire dialogues had been copied. Du Maurier denied having copied Nabuco's book, as did her publisher, pointing out that the plot elements used in "Rebecca" said to have been plagiarised were quite common.


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: The controversy was examined in a 2002 article by Larry Rohter in "The New York Times". According to Nabuco's memoirs, when the Hitchcock film "Rebecca" was first shown in Brazil, United Artists wanted Nabuco to sign a document stating that the similarities were merely a coincidence but she refused. Rohter quotes Nabuco's memoirs as saying, When the film version of 'Rebecca' came to Brazil, the producers' lawyer sought out my lawyer to ask him that I sign a document admitting the possibility of there having been a mere coincidence. I would be compensated with a quantity described as 'of considerable value.' I did not consent, naturally. Rohter remarked: "Nabuco had translated her novel into French and sent it to a publisher in Paris, who she learned was also Ms. du Maurier's [publisher] only after "Rebecca" became a worldwide success. The novels have identical plots and even some identical episodes."


title: Daphne du Maurier

text: Author Frank Baker believed that du Maurier had plagiarised his novel "The Birds" (1936) in her short story "The Birds" (1952). Du Maurier had been working as a reader for Baker's publisher Peter Llewelyn Davies at the time he submitted the book. When Hitchcock's "The Birds" was released in 1963, based on du Maurier's story, Baker considered, but was advised against, pursuing costly litigation against Universal Studios.


title: Culture Club

text: Culture Club are an English pop band formed in London in 1981. The band comprises Boy George (lead vocals), Roy Hay (guitar and keyboards), Mikey Craig (bass guitar) and formerly included Jon Moss (drums and percussion). Emerging in the New Romantic scene, they are considered one of the most representative and influential groups of the 1980s.


title: Culture Club

text: Led by singer and frontman Boy George, whose androgynous style of dressing caught the attention of the public and the media in the early 1980s, the band have sold more than 50 million records including over 6 million BPI certified records sold in the UK and over 7 million RIAA certified records sold in the US. Their hits include "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me", "Time (Clock of the Heart)", "I'll Tumble 4 Ya", "Church of the Poison Mind", "Karma Chameleon", "Victims", "Miss Me Blind", "It's a Miracle", "The War Song", "Move Away", and "I Just Wanna Be Loved". In the UK they amassed twelve Top 40 hit singles between 1982 and 1999, including the number ones "Do You Really Want To Hurt Me" and "Karma Chameleon", the latter being the biggest selling single of 1983 in the UK, and hit number one on the US Hot 100 in 1984. The song "Time (Clock of the Heart)" is included on the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's list of 500 songs that shaped rock and roll.


title: Culture Club

text: Their second album, "Colour by Numbers", sold more than 10 million copies worldwide. It appeared on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 100 Best Albums of the 1980s and is also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". Ten of their singles reached the US Top 40, where they are associated with the Second British Invasion of British new wave groups that became popular in the US due to the cable music channel MTV. Culture Club's music combines British new wave and American soul and pop. It also includes some elements of Jamaican reggae and also other styles such as calypso, salsa, and with "Karma Chameleon", elements of country music.


title: Culture Club

text: Culture Club have sold more than 50 million records worldwide, including 7 million records in the United States. In 1984, Culture Club won Brit Awards for Best British Group, Best British Single ("Karma Chameleon"), and the Grammy Award for Best New Artist. They were nominated the same year for the Grammy Award for Pop Vocal by Group or Duo. The band were also nominated for a Canadian Juno Award for International Album of the Year. In January 1985, Culture Club were nominated for an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Video Artist, and in September 1985, they were nominated for two MTV Video Music Awards for Best Special Effects and Best Art Direction for their video "It's a Miracle". In 1987, they received another nomination for an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Video Artist.


title: Culture Club

text: In 1981, Blitz Club regular Boy George occasionally sang with the group Bow Wow Wow, performing under the stage name Lieutenant Lush with the group. After his tenure with the group ended, George decided to start his own band and enlisted bassist Mikey Craig, drummer Jon Moss, and finally guitarist Roy Hay joined the group.


title: Culture Club

text: Realizing they had an Irish gay man as the lead singer, a black Briton on bass, a blond Englishman on guitar and keyboards, and a Jewish drummer, they eventually decided to name the group Culture Club. The group recorded demos, which were paid for by EMI Records, but the label was unimpressed and decided not to sign the group. Virgin Records heard the demos and signed the group in the UK, releasing their albums in Europe, while Epic Records released their albums in the United States and much of the rest of the world.


title: Culture Club

text: The band released two singles in May and June 1982, "White Boy" and "I'm Afraid of Me", though both failed to chart. In September of that year, the group released their third single, "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me", a reggae-influenced number, which became one of their biggest hits. The song went to No. 1 in the UK in late 1982 and became an international smash, topping the charts in twenty-three countries (No. 2 in the US), and the top ten in several more countries.


title: Culture Club

text: The band's 1982 debut on "Top of the Pops" created tabloid headlines, which focused on George's androgynous style of dress and sexual ambiguity. Magazines began to feature George prominently on their covers. Pete Burns, lead singer of the new wave band Dead or Alive, would later claim he was the first to wear braids, big hats, and colourful costumes, but George would cut back with a sharp-tongued remark, "It's not who did it first, it's who did it better."


title: Culture Club

text: The band's debut album, "Kissing to Be Clever" (UK No. 5, US No. 14) was released in October 1982, and the follow-up single, "Time (Clock of the Heart)", became another Top 10 hit in the US (Number 2) and UK (Number 3). "I'll Tumble 4 Ya" also became a Top Ten hit in the US (Number 9) and in Canada. This gave Culture Club the distinction of being the first group since The Beatles to have three Top Ten hits in America from a debut album. "Kissing to Be Clever" sold over 1.5 million copies in the US, being certified platinum.


title: Culture Club

text: The band's second album, "Colour by Numbers" (UK No. 1, US No. 2), was released in 1983. The first single, "Church of the Poison Mind", featuring backing vocalist Helen Terry, reached the UK and US Top 10. The second single, "Karma Chameleon", gave the band their biggest hit, peaking at No. 1 in the UK (the band's second chart-topper there), where it became the best-selling single of 1983 and has sold 1.5 million copies there to date. It also peaked at No. 1 in the US for three consecutive weeks, and would ultimately hit No. 1 in 30 countries, thus becoming one of the top twenty best-selling singles of the 1980s sold up seven million copies worldwide, with one of the most iconic images of Boy George on the cover shot by photographer David Levine.


title: Culture Club

text: The album "Colour by Numbers" would spawn more hits including "Miss Me Blind" (#5 US), "It's a Miracle" (#4 UK, No. 13 US), and "Victims" (#3 UK), and sold four million copies in the US and another five million worldwide at its time of release. The album gave Culture Club the distinction of being the first group in music history to have an album certified diamond in Canada (for sales of one million copies in that country). The band also won the 1984 Brit Award for Best Group and the Grammy Award for Best New Artist, where George gave a speech via satellite stating, "Thanks America, you've got style, you've got taste, and you know a good drag queen when you see one."


title: Culture Club

text: The group's back-up singer, Helen Terry, began work on her solo album, for which George and Hay wrote the song "Love Lies Lost". The pair also wrote "Passing Friend" for the Beach Boys' album. Culture Club wrote two songs for the soundtrack to the movie "Electric Dreams". George and Hay wrote "The Dream" and "Love Is Love", with the latter being released as a single in Canada, Japan and South America, the E.P "Love is Love" became a major hit in Brazil. George also collaborated on the song "Electric Dreams", sung by P. P. Arnold. The song was written with Phil Pickett (former member of the 1970s band Sailor) who had also co-written "Karma Chameleon" and frequently played keyboards for the group.


title: Culture Club

text: Despite Culture Club's commercial success, there were significant pressures within the band. George was using drugs with money from his new-found fame. George and Moss were also romantically involved with each other, which was unknown to the public and the media at the time. Their relationship lasted for over four years and was often turbulent, with alleged physical and verbal abuse from both sides. Their constant arguments and the pressure to hide the relationship from the public started to take its toll on the band.


title: Culture Club

text: In 1984, the group released their third album "Waking Up with the House on Fire" (UK No. 2, US No. 26) which sold 2.8 million copies worldwide. Although certified platinum in both the UK and the US, it was a commercial and critical disappointment compared to their first two albums. The album contained the hit single "The War Song", which reached No. 2 in the UK, and Top 20 in the US. Other singles like "Mistake No. 3" (US No. 33) and "The Medal Song" (UK No. 32) would become modest hits. George later stated he felt the album experienced a lukewarm reception because of half-hearted material he felt they released due to pressure from Virgin and Epic. According to him, the band had just come off an exhausting world tour in 1984.


title: Culture Club

text: At the end of 1984, Boy George was recruited by Bob Geldof to join the Band Aid recording, consisting of mostly internationally known UK and Irish recording stars. George was in New York City for an appearance on "Late Night with David Letterman" when Geldof called him, but managed to catch the final Concorde of the day to London and was the last singer to record a lead vocal track for the song "Do They Know It's Christmas?". The song would become the biggest selling single of all-time in the UK and a huge international hit, raising millions for famine victims in several African nations, particularly Ethiopia.


title: Culture Club

text: Due to all the heartache from the break-up of his relationship with Moss, and all the ensuing tension with rest of the band, George turned to relief in drugs. Consequently, he soon developed a self-destructive drug addiction, which in merely four months escalated from marijuana to heroin. By 1986, George had become seriously addicted. The recording of their fourth studio album, 1986's "From Luxury to Heartache" (UK No. 10, US No. 32) dragged on for so long that producer Arif Mardin had to abandon the sessions due to prior commitments and leave it to engineer Lew Hahn to finish the sessions. Nevertheless, the first single "Move Away" became a hit, peaking at UK No. 7 and US No. 12 and appeared the album would return the group back to its previous success. But by the time of the release of the second single "God Thank You Woman", news of George's drug addiction began to circulate in British and American tabloids, and the second single stalled on its way up the charts, failing to make a big impact.


title: Culture Club

text: George and Moss also no longer wanted to be around each other due to the constant relationship battles and with George's addiction. "From Luxury to Heartache" began to fade from the charts as well, and the album ultimately sold less than one million copies worldwide at the time of release. By the summer of 1986, George finally admitted that he was indeed addicted to drugs. In July of that year, he was arrested by the British police for possession of heroin. The band broke up and George pursued a solo career, having several European hits and a couple of US Top 40 hits.


title: Culture Club

text: The band first tried to reunite in 1989, after many requests from Tony Gordon, the group's former manager and George's manager at that time. George agreed to try some songs with the band again, resulting in recording sessions and producing more than a dozen songs that remain unreleased. George, however, was more excited about his future projects like his record label, More Protein, and his new acid house project Jesus Loves You. The proposed reunion ended up being cancelled.


title: Culture Club

text: In 1998, George and Moss put their differences aside and the band reunited to do a reunion tour, kicking off with a performance on "VH1 Storytellers". George said about the reunion, "Culture Club's reunion couldn't have come at a better time for rock", adding that, "It's a nostalgia trip, there's no way of avoiding that." The tour was a major success. "Greatest Moments", a compilation album based around the "Storytellers" performance, was released, and went platinum in UK. It included new songs such as "I Just Wanna Be Loved", which hit UK No. 4. However, their new-found success was short-lived and their fifth studio album, "Don't Mind If I Do", released in 1999, peaked at No. 64 in the UK. It included minor UK hits in "Your Kisses Are Charity" (UK No. 25) and "Cold Shoulder" (UK No. 43).


title: Culture Club

text: The band went on to tour, then reunited again for a 20th anniversary concert in 2002 at the Royal Albert Hall in London. This performance was released on DVD the following year. Culture Club then became inactive again, largely due to George's successful DJ career, as well as his semi-autobiographical musical "Taboo". It was a success in London, but was a flop on Broadway, only running for 100 performances, as well as losing $10 million for its producer, Rosie O'Donnell.


title: Culture Club

text: In 2006, original members Craig and Moss tried to launch a new tour with another lead singer, as George and Hay had declined to tour. Early that year, the band's record company placed an ad for a lead singer to "...take part in a 2007 World Tour and TV Series." The new singer, Sam Butcher was selected because of his own personality, "not a Boy George lookalike." After watching a video on MySpace, George described the singer who replaced him as "terrible" and "dreadful". George said: "I wanted to like it but I couldn't. They're my songs, they're my heart, they're my life." A proposed tour for December 2006 in the UK did not take place.


title: Culture Club

text: In late 2011, George was part of a three-man Culture Club band that performed two live concerts, in Dubai and Sydney, the latter being a New Year's Eve concert, although Moss did not appear due to a back injury.


title: Culture Club

text: In 2014, the band reformed and announced a tour and a new album. A new picture of the four members was also posted on the band's official website, along with the list of the 11 UK concert dates.


title: Culture Club

text: The band travelled to Spain for a two-week recording session. 18 new tracks were completed for a new album produced by Youth. The new album, entitled "Tribes", was scheduled for release in early 2015 on the band's own label Different Man Music (via Kobalt Label Services). At the end of that year the album had still not materialised.