title: Aga Khan

text: When Hasan Ali Shah, the first Aga Khan, came to Sindh (which is now in Pakistan) from Afghanistan, he and his army were welcomed by Mir Nasir Khan Noori of Baluchistan. In 1866, the Aga Khan won a court victory in the High Court of Bombay in what popularly became known as the Aga Khan Case, securing his recognition by the British government as the head of the Khoja community. The Aga Khan is also the Pir within the Nizari Ismaili community.


title: Aga Khan

text: In 1887, the Secretary of State for India, acting through the Viceroy of India, formally recognized the title "Aga Khan".


Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (; abbreviated most commonly MBBS), is the primary medical degree awarded by medical schools in countries that follow the tradition of the United Kingdom. The historical degree nomenclature states that they are two separate undergraduate degrees. In practice, however, they are usually combined as one and conferred together, and may also be awarded at graduate-level medical schools. It usually takes five to six years to complete this degree.


title: Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery

text: Bachelor of Medicine (MB, also BM, BMed) is the primary medical degree awarded by medical schools in China and some medical schools in Australia and UK. It usually takes five years to complete. These medical graduates with an MB degree can still practice surgery.


text: Both medical degrees are considered MD-equivalent in US universities and medical institutions. In North America, the equivalent medical degree is awarded as Doctor of Medicine (MD) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO)—the latter in the United States only, and is undertaken by graduates.


text: The degree is currently awarded in institutions in the UK and countries formerly part of the British Empire.


text: Historically, Bachelor of Medicine was also the primary medical degree conferred by institutions in the United States and Canada, such as the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, the University of Toronto, the University of Maryland, and Columbia. Several early North American medical schools were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had trained in England and Scotland. University medical education in England culminated with the Bachelor of Medicine qualification and in Scotland the Doctor of Medicine. In the mid-19th century, the public bodies that regulated medical practice required practitioners in Scotland and England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees. Throughout the 19th century, North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland and began conferring Doctor of Medicine rather than Bachelor of Medicine.


text: In the countries that award bachelor's degrees in medicine, however, Doctor of Medicine denotes a holder of a junior doctorate and is reserved for medical practitioners who undertake research and submit a thesis in the field of medicine. Nevertheless, those holding Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery are usually referred to by the courtesy title of "Doctor" and use the prefix "Dr.", whether or not they also hold a Ph.D. or DSc. In theory, the right to the use of the title "Doctor" is conferred on the medical graduate when he or she is registered as a medical practitioner by the relevant professional body, not by the possession of the MBBS degrees.


text: In many countries, the degrees are awarded after an undergraduate course lasting five or six years. For example, most Chinese universities offering medical degrees provide undergraduate courses lasting six years. In some cases, a graduate in another discipline may subsequently enter a special graduate-entry medical course, reduced in duration to account for relevant material covered or learning skills acquired during the first degree. In some cases the old first-year courses (for six-year degrees) in the basic sciences of physics, chemistry, and biology have been abolished: that standard has to be reached by school examinations before entry. However, in most countries, a newly graduated Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery must spend a specified period in internship before he or she can obtain full registration as a licensed medical practitioner.


text: The names and abbreviations given to these degrees depend on the institution, awarding body or country, and vary widely. This is mostly for reasons of tradition rather than to indicate any difference between the relative levels of the degrees. They are considered equivalent.


text: If the awarding body titles the degrees in Latin, the degrees are commonly named "Medicinae Baccalaureus, Chirurgiae Baccalaureus"; "Medicinae Baccalaureus et Chirurgiae Baccalaureus"; or "Baccalaureus in Medicina et in Chirurgia"; abbreviated as MB ChB, MB BCh or otherwise. If titled in English, they are named "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery"; "Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery"; or "Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery"; usually abbreviated as MB BS, and sometimes as BM BS, even though most MB BS-awarding institutions do not use Latin to name their degrees.


text: Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their honorary doctorates. Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorised as Level 7 Bachelor's degrees together with other undergraduate programs.


text: The latest version of the AQF includes the new category of Level 9 Master's (Extended) degrees which permits the use of the term 'Doctor' in the styling of the degree title of relevant professional programs. As a result, most Australian medical schools have replaced their MBBS degrees with the MD to resolve the previous anomalous nomenclature. With the introduction of the Master's level MD, universities have also renamed their previous medical research doctorates. The University of Melbourne was the first to introduce the MD in 2011 as a basic medical degree, and has renamed its research degree to Doctor of Medical Science (DMedSc).


text: The Medical University of Bahrain or RCSI-Bahrain is a constituent university of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) and awards its graduates the MB, BCh, BAO (Hons), the same degree awarded to graduates at RCSI.


text: The Bridgetown International University, Victoria University of Barbados, American University of Barbados School of Medicine, University of the West Indies Faculty of Medicine all award the MBBS


text: In China, medical undergraduates are awarded a Bachelor of Medicine (MB, also BMed and BM) for a course of study lasting five years for native Chinese students and six years for international/foreign students, including internship. International students may take the program in English or Chinese. Some medical schools also award MBBS degrees, but only for International students total, 247 Universities are authorized to award medical degrees.


text: In fact, in China, only English medium universities are legally allowed to teach foreign students in English by the Ministry of Education (MOE), and these universities are also called “MOE Listed Universities”, only these universities can offer programs for M.B.B.S degrees as well.


text: Around 180 Universities offer only Chinese medium MB courses and 67 offer both English medium MBBS and Chinese medium MB. All 247 Universities are recognized by most of the medical councils around the world and by ECFMG. Until August 2022, 136 Universities have passed the accreditation by Accreditation of Medical Education in of Ministry of Education of China.Directory of Accredited School in Clinical Medicine - 教育部临床医学专业认证工作委员会 The universities awarding MB and MBBS degrees are at List.


text: All Egyptian medical schools, public and private, award an "MB BCh" as the basic medical degree after completion of five academic years followed by two years of obligatory clinical rotations (the MB BCh is issued only after the completion of the two-year clinical rotations).


text: All Rwandan medical schools, public and private, award an MBBS as the basic medical degree after completion of five or six academic years.


text: French students get permitted access to medical studies when succeeding the competitive examination occurring at the end of their first year of studies. They spend their second and third year at their medical school where they learn physiology, semiology and the basics of medical examination. From their fourth year, they begin their rotations in teaching hospitals where they assist junior and senior physicians and learn their art. At the end of their sixth year, they undertake a competitive examination to match with their medical specialty and city of practice. Students are then full-time physicians practising under supervision and will be called "doctors" only when graduating at the end of their residency.


text: All Ghanaian medical schools award an MBChB as the basic medical degree after 6 academic years. These seven medical schools are Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Ghana, University for Development Studies, University of Cape Coast, University of Health and Allied Sciences and the private Accra College of Medicine, and Family Health Medical School, another private medical school.


text: The University of Guyana awards "MB BS". Other "offshore" United-States-linked schools in the country award the North American MD, such as Texila American University, Lincoln American University.


text: In India the full-form of MBBS is Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery. It is generally a 5.5 year course including one year compulsory internship, that can be completed from a college accredited by the National Medical Commission, to receive a degree titled "MBBS" (Medical colleges in India). Medical colleges may also teach Post Graduate as well as Paramedical courses. Admission to M.B.B.S programme in government colleges can be highly competitive because of subsidized education and extensive hands-on experience.


text: The MBBS course starts with the basic pre and para-clinical subjects such as biochemistry, physiology, anatomy, microbiology, pathology, forensic medicine including toxicology and pharmacology. The students simultaneously obtain hands-on training in the wards and out-patient departments, where they interact with real patients for five years. The curriculum aims to inculcate standard protocols of history taking, examination, differential diagnosis and complete patient Management. The student is taught to determine what investigations will be useful for a patient and what are the best treatment options. The curriculum also contains a thorough practical knowledge and practice of performing standard clinical procedures. The course also contains a 12-month-long internship, in which an intern is rotated across various specialties. Besides standard clinical care, one also gets a thorough experience of ward management, staff management, and thorough counselling skills.


text: The degree awarded is "Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery". The minimum requirements for the MBBS course are 50% marks in physics, chemistry, biology and English in a student's secondary school examinations – usually, under the Council for Indian School Certificate Examinations, the Central Board of Secondary Education or curricula established by the several states. For 'Reserved Category' students, the requirement is 40%. MBBS admissions for both public and private institutions are centralised under the National Medical Commission , whereby a student is eligible for admission to an institution based on their 'All India Rank' in the National Eligibility and Entrance Test conducted by the National Testing Agency. The All India Institute of Medical Sciences at New Delhi is widely regarded as India's most prestigious undergraduate medical college, with admissions being highly competitive. The Government of India has recently announced plans to establish new medical colleges in 58 districts, which will add 5,800 seats to the country's annual MBBS student intake.


text: In Indonesia, graduating students are awarded the academic degree of "Sarjana Kedokteran" / Bachelor of Medicine (written as suffix "S.Ked""") after completing their pre-clinical studies. At this point, the graduate is not yet a practising doctor, but may choose to work directly as a medical scientist or other non-clinician professions (usually health-related). However, most graduates will pursue the conventional path, which is to enroll in the clinical clerkship program ("Program Pendidikan Profesi Dokter") for another 1.5 to 2 years. During this program, students are required to rotate through different medical/surgical specialties in a teaching hospital, actively involved in diagnoses and treatment of patients under direct supervision of residents and consultants/attending physicians. After completing clinical clerkship, students take national medical licensing examination ("Ujian Kompetensi Mahasiswa Program Profesi Dokter/UKMPPD") and will be awarded with the title "Dokter" (written as prefix "dr.") as first professional title if they pass the examination.


text: All medical schools in Iraq award "MB ChB". With the exception of University of Kurdistan-Hewlêr, which awards the "MBBS" degree.


text: The medical schools in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland – Queen's University Belfast, the University of Dublin (Trinity College), some constituent institutions of the National University of Ireland (University College Dublin, University College Cork and NUI Galway), and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland— award the degrees of "MB BCh BAO". The letters "BAO" stand for "Baccalaureus in Arte Obstetricia" (Bachelor of Obstetrics), a degree unique to Ireland which the Irish universities added in the 19th century as the legislation at the time insisted on a final examination in obstetrics. This third degree is an anachronism which is not registerable with the Irish Medical Council nor the British General Medical Council (GMC). The only exception is the newly established University of Limerick graduate entry school of medicine which awards "BM BS" for Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery.


text: At the University of Dublin the preclinical course leads to an additional Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree (upgradable after three or four years to Master of Arts); as originally after this most students used to go elsewhere to complete clinical training.


text: "LRCPI LRCSI", or simply "LRCP&SI", denotes a holder of the historical non-university qualifying licentiates awarded jointly by the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland to students of the RCSI's medical school under the "Irish Conjoint Scheme". Unlike the corresponding licentiates awarded by the Royal Colleges in Scotland and England (which were external qualifications), these qualifications are still registerable with the Irish Medical Council, but not with the British GMC. Students at RCSI still receive these licences but now also receive the degrees "MB BCh BAO", due to RCSI's status as a recognised college of the National University of Ireland. The RCSI students received a Licence in Midwifery (LM) from each college, in the same way that the Irish universities granted BAO degrees, so their qualifications were sometimes expressed as "L & LM, RCPI, L & LM, RCSI" or more misleadingly as "LLM, "LRCPI LRCSI", or simply "LRCP&SI".


text: In Japan, medical undergraduates are awarded a Bachelor of Medicine, a course of study lasting six years.It is awarded by 42 national, 8 public and 31 private universities.


text: The national universities with medical faculties in Kenya, namely Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, University of Nairobi, Moi University, Kenyatta University, Egerton University, Maseno University and Kenya Methodist University award "MB ChB".


text: Mount Kenya University and Egerton University also award the four-year BSc. Clinical Medicine degree in addition to the six-year MBChB.


text: There are three major public medical universities in Libya, University of Tripoli (Tripoli), University of Benghazi (formerly Garyounis) (Benghazi), and University of Alzaweyah. The schools award the MBBCh.


text: The Libyan International Medical University is an accredited private medical university that awards an MBChB to its graduates.


text: In Mexico, the National Autonomous University of Mexico, the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, the National Polytechnic Institute, the Metropolitan Autonomous University, among others, grant the title of ""Médico cirujano"" (Physician-surgeon) after five or six years of post-high school education, plus one year of internship and one year of social service depending on each institution.


text: The University of Namibia UNAM School of Medicine, the only medical school in the country, awards the MBChB degree.


text: In the Netherlands, students follow a period of 6 academic years of which 2–4 years is internships. After 6 years, students obtain the titles MSc and Medical Doctor (MD).


text: The "MBBS/MB ChB" is awarded by many public and private universities in Nigeria, after a period of 6 academic years.


text: There are 18 medical schools in Nepal that award the MBBS degree. Nepal Medical Council (NMC) is the regulatory board that gives recognition to medical institutions for providing formal studies in medical science and training.


text: National Academy of Medical Sciences (NAMS), Kathmandu is an NMC-recognized medical college that has post-graduate residency (MD/MS) training programs but does not award MBBS degree.


text: The two New Zealand medical schools, Auckland and Otago, style their degrees as "MBChB" and "MB ChB" respectively.


text: In Pakistan, a medical school is more often referred to as a medical college. The full-form of MBBS is Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery. It is a 5-year course plus one-year internship in affiliated hospital that can be completed from a college recognized by the Pakistan Medical Commission, to receive a degree titled MBBS (Medical colleges in Pakistan). Medical colleges may also teach Post Graduate courses such as FCPS and diplomas. A medical college is affiliated with a university as a department which usually has a separate campus. Currently, there is a total of 114 medical colleges in Pakistan, 44 of which are public and 70 private. All but two colleges are listed in International Medical Education Directory.


text: All medical colleges and universities are regulated by the respective provincial department of health. They, however, have to be recognised after meeting criteria set by a central regulatory authority called Pakistan Medical Commission (PMC). Entrance into the medical colleges is based on merit under the guidelines of PMC. Both the academic performance at the HSSC (grades 11–12) and a centralized entrance test like NMDCAT, are taken into consideration for the eligibility to enter most of the medical colleges.


text: To get admission into any government medical college, the weightage is determined by the provincial or federal government. In order to get admission into any private medical college, the following weightage is used:


text: The Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at the National University of Singapore and the Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine at Nanyang Technological University confer "MB BS". The American Duke University has a medical programme based in Singapore (Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School), but it follows the North American model of styling its degree "Doctor of Medicine (MD)" at master's degree level.


text: Amoud University, Benadir University Salaam University and Hargeisa University award the MB ChB, East Africa University awards MMBS.


text: The University of Pretoria, University of Cape Town, University of the Free State, University of Stellenbosch, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Walter Sisulu University and MEDUNSA all award MBChB, whereas the University of the Witwatersrand styles its degree as MBBCh.


text: The University of Juba, University of Bahr El-Ghazal and Upper Nile University in South Sudan awards the MBBS degree after the successful completion of six academic years.


text: In 1942, the University of Ceylon was established through legislation and the MBBS degree was recognised for registration of doctors in place of the Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery (LMS).


text: The higher education in Syria provides training to a Diploma, Bachelor, Master, and Doctorate levels (see European Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency on Higher Education: Syria).


text: Medical education in Tunisia is solely administered by the government Ministry of Higher Education and Ministry of Public Health. Students get permitted access to medical studies when succeeding their national baccalauréat exam and obtaining a competitive score that allows them admission to medical schools (usually in the 95% percentile). The training takes a minimum of nine years after the baccalauréat and concludes with a thesis. Upon successful presentation of their thesis, the medical student is awarded a Diploma of Doctorate in Medecine (Diplôme de Doctorat en Médecine). Further certification is based on their specialty.


text: Students spend their first, second year at their medical school where they learn physiology, semiology and the basics of medical examination. From their fourth year, they begin their rotations in teaching hospitals where they assist junior and senior physicians and learn their art. At the end of their fifth year, they undertake a competitive examination to match with their medical specialty and city of practice. Students are then full-time physicians practising under supervision and will be called "doctors" only when graduating at the end of their residency.


text: In Ukraine, the full-form of MBBS is Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery. It is generally a 5.8 year course including one year compulsory internship, that can be completed from a college accredited by the National Medical Commission. At present, Ukraine is ranked at the fourth position in Europe for having the largest number of post graduates in fields of medicine. Ukraine has a number of Top Government Medical Universities offering MBBS, MD and other degrees in medicine to the local students as well as international students. Some of the Top Ukraine Universities for nationals and international students are:


text: The MBBS course starts with the basic pre and para-clinical subjects such as biochemistry, physiology, anatomy, microbiology, pathology, forensic medicine including toxicology and pharmacology. The students simultaneously obtain hands-on training in the wards and out-patient departments, where they interact with real patients for six years. The curriculum aims to inculcate standard protocols of history taking, examination, differential diagnosis and complete patient Management. The student is taught to determine what investigations will be useful for a patient and what are the best treatment options. The curriculum also contains a thorough practical knowledge and practice of performing standard clinical procedures. The course also contains a 12-month-long internship, in which an intern is rotated across various specialties. Besides standard clinical care, one also gets a thorough experience of ward management, staff management, and thorough counselling skills.


text: The degree awarded is "Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery". The minimum requirements for the MBBS course are 50% marks in physics, chemistry, biology and English in a student's secondary school examinations and student need to pass National Eligibility cum Entrance Test examination for the admission in Ukraine Universities.


text: The nine universities in Uganda that have medical schools that teach undergraduate courses, namely; Makerere University, Mbarara University, Gulu University, Kampala International University, Busitema University, Kabale University, Habib Medical School, St. Augustine International University, and Uganda Christian University all award the "MBChB" degree, after five years of study.


text: While first degrees in medicine meet the expectations of the descriptor for higher education qualification at "level 7 (the UK master's degree)", these degrees usually retain, for historical reasons, "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" and are abbreviated to MBChB or MBBS.


text: At the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the preclinical course leads to an additional Bachelor of Arts ("BA"), degree (upgradable after three or four years to Master of Arts), after which most students used to go elsewhere (but usually to one of the London teaching hospitals) to complete clinical training. They could then take the degrees of their new university: They used to have the options of returning to their old university to take the clinical examinations or taking one of the old non-university qualifying examinations. Most students at Oxford and Cambridge now remain in place to take their clinical training.


text: The University of St Andrews School of Medicine awarded "MB ChB" until the early 1970s, but since the incorporation of its clinical medical school into the University of Dundee, St Andrews now only awards a pre-clinical "BSc" or "BSc (Hons)", and students go to a Partner Medical School (Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, or Manchester), where they are awarded an "MB ChB" after a further three years' study. There is also a programe for Canadian Citizens and residents whereby they complete 3 years at St. Andrews, then 3 years at Edinburgh and are assisted with applying for residency back in Canada.


text: Since 2018, a joint initiative coordinated by both the Universities of St Andrews and Dundee, the Scottish Graduate Entry Medicine (ScotGEM) programme, has based its first and second year students at St Andrews, and its third and fourth year students at Dundee. This is Scotland's first graduate entry medical degree programme. The intention is that the students of the inaugural cohort, due to graduate in July 2022, will be conferred a joint "MB ChB" by both universities - the first to graduate with this professional degree directly from St Andrews in over fifty years


text: The Scottish Triple Qualification of "LRCPE, LRCSE, LRCPSG" (earlier LRCPE, LRCSE, LRFPSG) is an old non-university qualifying examination in medicine and surgery awarded jointly by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, previously through a Conjoint Board and from 1994 through the United Examining Board. The UEB was dissolved in 2007. These qualifications are still registrable with the GMC, but permission to award them was withdrawn by the Privy Council of the UK in 1999.


text: The Conjoint diplomas "LRCP MRCS LMSSA" were non-university qualifying examinations in medicine and surgery awarded jointly by the Royal College of Physicians of London, Royal College of Surgeons of England and Society of Apothecaries through the United Examining Board from 1994 until 1999, when the General Medical Council withdrew permission. Before 1994, the English Conjoint diploma of "LRCP, MRCS" was awarded for 110 years, and the "LMSSA" was a distinct and sometimes less-esteemed qualification. These diplomas slowly became less popular among British medical students, but as recently as 1938 only a half of them qualified with university degrees. The diplomas came to be taken mostly by those who had already qualified in medicine overseas or who failed their medical school finals.


text: International medical graduates with an MBBS from foreign countries are generally exempt from having to attend medical school in the United States, but must still undergo medical training and pass the USMLE. The MBBS is not offered at medical schools in the United States as the majority of medical school programs are graduate entry and by tradition offer the MD degree as a primary medical qualification.


text: There are a number of institutions in the United States that offer a combined BS-MD joint degree, notably Northeast Ohio Medical University whereby graduating high school seniors complete an accelerated bachelor's degree in two years followed by an MD at the traditional four year pace. Although the BS, MD pathway is a hybrid undergraduate/graduate program, the result is a primary medical qualification equivalent to an MBBS degree and graduates of these schools go on to enter their intern year at roughly the same age as their UK counterparts.


text: Traditionally US educated MDs and DOs go through four years of an undergraduate degree with a competitive GPA and then apply to a professional medical graduate school. They then study four more years of medical sciences while doing clinical rotations and going through three USMLE exams. Then if selected for a residency, they continue for a minimum of three to eight years in their specialty where they are officially licensed to practice after completion.


text: After completion of a four-year undergraduate degree and the MCAT, a candidate can apply to a graduate MSTP (Medical Science Training Program/ MD-PhD ) which is eight additional years of education and a minimum of three years of residency training.


text: Most MBBS physicians visiting or practicing in United States use the designation of MD for various personal and professional reasons, but laws may change to require full disclosure when presenting as a clinical practitioner for litigious reasons. The MD title is distinctly used in the US for physicians who earned their medical degree in the US who practice evidence based medicine. They separate themselves from DOs who go through a different type of education and training which focuses on the patient as a whole and an array of treatments inclusive of medicine and surgery as well.


text: There are many medical schools in Vietnam, such as Hanoi Medical University, Vietnam University of Traditional Medicine, and Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy. Most of them require six years to receive a Doctor of Medicine degree.


text: All constituent countries of the University of the West Indies (UWI) confer "MB BS", due to the historical affiliation of UWI to the University of London. The three physical campuses are Mona in Jamaica, Saint Augustine in Trinidad and Tobago, and Cave Hill in Barbados, with each campus having a Medical Faculty.


text: The University of Guyana (UG) also confers "MB BS" to their medical school graduates. There are other medical schools in the West Indies, but these follow the North-American system leading to "MD".


text: The University of Zimbabwe College of Health Sciences awards the MBChB degree. While the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) awards the MBBS.


text: Medical degrees differ from other undergraduate degrees in that they are professional qualifications that lead holders to enter a particular career upon receipt. This is not the case with most other undergraduate degrees, so whilst the Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery are undergraduate or graduate degrees (depending on the institution), they are perhaps more accurately conceptualised as a so-called first professional degree. Other professions whose qualifications follow a similar pattern include:


text: Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery are usually awarded as professional degrees, not as honours degrees, and as such the graduate is not classified as for honours degrees in other subjects. However, at many institutions (for example the University of Aberdeen, University of Birmingham, University of Sheffield, University of Liverpool, University of Leicester, Hull York Medical School, and University of Manchester in England, Queen's University Belfast in Northern Ireland, Cardiff University in Wales and the University of Dundee in Scotland), it is possible for the degrees to be awarded with Honours (i.e. MB ChB (Hons.)) or with Commendation, if the board of examiners recognises exceptional performance throughout the degree course. Very few of these are awarded.


text: More often, it is possible to study one subject for an extra year for an intercalated honours degree. This is usually a Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Medical Science (BMedSci), Bachelor of Medical Biology (BMedBiol) or similar: at Oxford and Cambridge in England and Dublin in Ireland Bachelor of Arts degrees are awarded. At a few universities most medical students obtain an ordinary degree in science as well: when the University of Edinburgh had a six-year course, the third year was followed by the award of an ordinary BSc(MedSci). In Australia, The University of Melbourne in Australia offers an Arts Degree (BA) to a medical student on the completion of two extra years of undergraduate study, and Monash University offers a law degree (LLB); if the optional law degree is undertaken, on completion of their degree the student may choose to do a one-year internship at a hospital and become a doctor, or spend one year doing articles to practise thereafter as a lawyer. At the University of Nottingham and the University of Southampton, both in England, all medical students on the five-year course obtain a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSci) degree without an extra intercalated year. At the University of Cambridge, Imperial College London and University College London, certain medical students are able to extend their intercalated year to an extra three years, thus temporarily exiting the MBBS course to complete a PhD. Upon completion of the PhD, the student is required to sit the remaining 2 years of the medicine course to receive his/her MBBS degree. The University of the West Indies, Mona in Kingston, Jamaica automatically awards a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSci) degree to all students who have successfully completed three years of their MBBS programme.


text: Medical school graduates are only entitled to use the courtesy title "Doctor" upon registration as a medical practitioner with the relevant regulatory body in their respective country. Medical graduates are eligible to sit postgraduate examinations, including examinations for membership and fellowship of professional institutions. Among the latter are the Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons, postgraduate master's degrees (such as a Master of Surgery or Master of Medicine), and a postgraduate doctorate in medicine (such as Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Science, if earned in Ireland, the UK or Commonwealth nations, and board certification examinations).


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality (also called Cauchy–Bunyakovsky–Schwarz inequality) is considered one of the most important and widely used inequalities in mathematics.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The inequality for sums was published by . The corresponding inequality for integrals was published by and . Schwarz gave the modern proof of the integral version.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality states that for all vectors formula_1 and formula_2 of an inner product space it is true that


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: where formula_3 is the inner product. Examples of inner products include the real and complex dot product; see the examples in inner product. Every inner product gives rise to a norm, called the or , where the norm of a vector formula_1 is denoted and defined by:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: so that this norm and the inner product are related by the defining condition formula_6 where formula_7 is always a non-negative real number (even if the inner product is complex-valued).


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: By taking the square root of both sides of the above inequality, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality can be written in its more familiar form:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Sedrakyan's inequality, also called Bergström's inequality, Engel's form, the T2 lemma, or Titu's lemma, states that for real numbers formula_10 and positive real numbers formula_11:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: It is a direct consequence of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, obtained by using the dot product on formula_13 upon substituting formula_14 and formula_15. This form is especially helpful when the inequality involves fractions where the numerator is a perfect square.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The real vector space formula_16 denotes the 2-dimensional plane. It is also the 2-dimensional Euclidean space where the inner product is the dot product.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The form above is perhaps the easiest in which to understand the inequality, since the square of the cosine can be at most 1, which occurs when the vectors are in the same or opposite directions. It can also be restated in terms of the vector coordinates formula_23, formula_24, formula_25, and formula_26 as


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: where equality holds if and only if the vector formula_28 is in the same or opposite direction as the vector formula_29, or if one of them is the zero vector.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: In Euclidean space formula_13 with the standard inner product, which is the dot product, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality becomes:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Since it is nonnegative, it has at most one real root for formula_34 hence its discriminant is less than or equal to zero. That is,


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: If formula_36 with formula_37 and formula_38 (where formula_39 and formula_40) and if the inner product on the vector space formula_41 is the canonical complex inner product (defined by formula_42 where the bar notation is used for complex conjugation), then the inequality may be restated more explicitly as follows:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: In any inner product space, the triangle inequality is a consequence of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, as is now shown:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality is used to prove that the inner product is a continuous function with respect to the topology induced by the inner product itself.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality allows one to extend the notion of "angle between two vectors" to any real inner-product space by defining:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality proves that this definition is sensible, by showing that the right-hand side lies in the interval and justifies the notion that (real) Hilbert spaces are simply generalizations of the Euclidean space. It can also be used to define an angle in complex inner-product spaces, by taking the absolute value or the real part of the right-hand side, as is done when extracting a metric from quantum fidelity.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: After defining an inner product on the set of random variables using the expectation of their product,


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: To prove the covariance inequality using the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, let formula_54 and formula_55 then


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: When consulting other sources, there are often two sources of confusion. First, some authors define to be linear in the second argument rather than the first.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: In all of the proofs given below, the proof in the trivial case where at least one of the vectors is zero (or equivalently, in the case where formula_61) is the same. It is presented immediately below only once to reduce repetition. It also includes the easy part of the proof the Equality Characterization given above; that is, it proves that if formula_1 and formula_2 are linearly dependent then formula_64


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: By definition, formula_1 and formula_2 are linearly dependent if and only if one is a scalar multiple of the other.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The case where formula_70 for some scalar formula_68 is very similar, with the main difference between the complex conjugation of formula_72


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: If at least one of formula_1 and formula_2 is the zero vector then formula_1 and formula_2 are necessarily linearly dependent (just scalar multiply the non-zero vector by the number formula_78 to get the zero vector; for example, if formula_79 then let formula_80 so that formula_67), which proves the converse of this characterization in this special case; that is, this shows that if at least one of formula_1 and formula_2 is formula_84 then the Equality Characterization holds.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: If formula_85 which happens if and only if formula_86 then formula_87 and formula_88 so that in particular, the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality holds because both sides of it are formula_89


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Consequently, the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality only needs to be proven only for non-zero vectors and also only the non-trivial direction of the Equality Characterization must be shown.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy–Schwarz equality (and the rest of the theorem) is an almost immediate corollary of the following :


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Equality is readily verified by elementarily expanding formula_93 (via the definition of the norm) and then simplifying:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: This expansion does not require formula_2 to be non-zero; however, formula_2 must be non-zero in order to divide both sides by formula_96 and to deduce the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality from it.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Therefore, formula_105 is a vector orthogonal to the vector formula_2 (Indeed, formula_105 is the projection of formula_1 onto the plane orthogonal to formula_109) We can thus apply the Pythagorean theorem to


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Moreover, if the relation formula_113 in the above expression is actually an equality, then formula_114 and hence formula_115 the definition of formula_105 then establishes a relation of linear dependence between formula_1 and formula_109 The converse was proved at the beginning of this section, so the proof is complete. formula_119


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Let formula_120 be a real inner product space. Consider an arbitrary pair formula_121 and the function formula_122 defined by formula_123


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Since the inner product is positive-definite, formula_124 only takes non-negative values. On the other hand, formula_124 can be expanded using the bilinearity of the inner product and using the fact that formula_126 for real inner products:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Thus, formula_128 is a polynomial of degree formula_129 (unless formula_130 which is a case that can be independently verified). Since the sign of formula_128 does not change, the discriminant of this polynomial must be non-positive:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: For the equality case, notice that formula_133 happens if and only if formula_134 If formula_135 then formula_136 and hence formula_137


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality in the case where the inner product is the dot product on formula_13 is now proven.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality may be rewritten as formula_139 or equivalently, formula_140 for formula_141 which expands to:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: so that the statement that remains to be to proven can be written as formula_144 which can be rearranged to formula_145 The discriminant of the quadratic equation formula_146 is formula_147


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Therefore, to complete the proof it is sufficient to prove that this quadratic either has no real roots or exactly one real root, because this will imply:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: which is a sum of terms that are each formula_152 by the trivial inequality: formula_153 for all formula_154


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: This proves the inequality and so to finish the proof, it remains to show that equality is achievable.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Various generalizations of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality exist. Hölder's inequality generalizes it to formula_158 norms. More generally, it can be interpreted as a special case of the definition of the norm of a linear operator on a Banach space (Namely, when the space is a Hilbert space). Further generalizations are in the context of operator theory, e.g. for operator-convex functions and operator algebras, where the domain and/or range are replaced by a C*-algebra or W*-algebra.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: An inner product can be used to define a positive linear functional. For example, given a Hilbert space formula_159 being a finite measure, the standard inner product gives rise to a positive functional formula_160 by formula_161 Conversely, every positive linear functional formula_160 on formula_163 can be used to define an inner product formula_164 where formula_165 is the pointwise complex conjugate of formula_166 In this language, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality becomes


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: This extends the fact formula_168 when formula_160 is a linear functional. The case when formula_170 is self-adjoint, that is, formula_171 is sometimes known as Kadison's inequality.


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: Another generalization is a refinement obtained by interpolating between both sides of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality:


title: Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

text: This theorem can be deduced from Hölder's inequality. There are also non commutative versions for operators and tensor products of matrices.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Aaron Lewis (born April 13, 1972) is an American musician who is best known as the lead vocalist, rhythm guitarist and founding member of the nu metal band Staind, with whom he released seven studio albums. Since 2010, he has pursued a solo career in country music with his debut EP "Town Line", which was released in 2011. Lewis' first full-length solo release, "The Road", was released by Blaster Records in 2012.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Lewis was born in Rutland, Vermont, to a Jewish mother and a Catholic father of Italian, English and Welsh descent. At the time of his birth, his parents were living in a log cabin. Lewis moved to New Hampshire when he was 8, and lived there until he was 12. When his parents split up, he moved with his father to Longmeadow, Massachusetts, where he attended Longmeadow High School.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: In July 2010, Lewis finished recording a country music EP entitled "Town Line" that was released on March 1, 2011, via Stroudavarious Records. It features seven tracks including three versions of the first single "Country Boy" featuring George Jones, Charlie Daniels, and Chris Young, as well as the songs "Massachusetts", "Vicious Circles", "The Story Never Ends", and a re-recording of "Tangled Up in You" originally from "The Illusion of Progress". Lewis said in a July 2011 interview that he was introduced to country music as a child by his grandfather, but his interest was recently rekindled when he toured with fellow rock turned occasional country singer Kid Rock.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Lewis released his first full solo album, "The Road", in November 2012. Its debut single, "Endless Summer", has also made the country charts. Lewis wrote every song on the ten track collection, except for "Granddaddy's Gun" which was penned by Dallas Davidson, Rhett Akins and Bobby Pinson, marking the first time Lewis has recorded outside material for an album. In an interview with Broadway's Electric Barnyard, Lewis said he recorded "Granddaddy's Gun" as both a compliment to a friend, and because he was pressed for time.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Lewis wrote songs for his second solo album whilst touring in support of "The Road", often performing with Katz Von Brunenburg in his live sets. The album, dubbed "Sinner", was mostly recorded in a single 18 hour session, with many tracks done in one take. Aaron's daughter Zoe also provides guest vocals on one song.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: On July 4, 2021, he released "Am I the Only One", a song protesting America's leadership and left-wing activists.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: On October 21, 2021, Lewis released "Goodbye Town" and also announced that he would release his fourth solo album "Frayed at Both Ends" on January 28, 2022.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Lewis was featured on the song "No Sex" by Limp Bizkit on their album "Significant Other". He was also featured on a remix of the song "Crawling" on Linkin Park's first remix album "Reanimation" (titled as "Krwlng" on the remix album). He contributed vocals to the song "Follow" by Sevendust from "Animosity", and to the songs "Bleed" and "Send in the Clowns" by the band Cold from "13 Ways to Bleed on Stage". He's also featured on Jimmie's Chicken Shack's song "Falling Out", the only single off their 2004 album "re.present". In December 2010, while promoting his "Town Line" album, Lewis collaborated with Corey Taylor for a one-night-only acoustic duet show covering songs such as Pearl Jam's "Black", Pink Floyd's "Comfortably Numb", and Alice in Chains' "Down in a Hole".


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Married to Vanessa Lewis, they have three daughters. Regarding the commercial success of Staind's albums in the early 2000s, Lewis reflected, "A lot of other people made a shit load of money but we're the same as any of you. I have to work to pay my bills."


title: Aaron Lewis

text: In a five-minute interview with "Outdoor Life" magazine, Lewis said that he has been hunting whitetail deer since he was old enough to keep up in the "good old woods", around age four or five. He prefers to hunt deer with a compound or recurve bow, and he occasionally utilizes a muzzleloader.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Lewis has been open about his struggles with substance abuse and mental health issues, writing about his problems in Staind songs and his country music.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: Lewis supported Donald Trump before the United States presidential election of 2016, although he said he was disappointed with his "bickering and name-calling". His last tours, from 2019 and 2020, featured him wearing a Make America Great Again cap.


title: Aaron Lewis

text: On November 4, 2006, Lewis performed at his old high school in Longmeadow, Massachusetts, and gave all the proceeds to the music department to fund the department's expenses to buy new equipment and supplies. Lewis's main focus, however, is the non-profit organization It Takes a Community, where he and his wife have started to reopen their daughters' elementary school in Worthington, Massachusetts.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: In computer networking, the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core communication protocols of the Internet protocol suite used to send messages (transported as datagrams in packets) to other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. Within an IP network, UDP does not require prior communication to set up communication channels or data paths.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: UDP uses a simple connectionless communication model with a minimum of protocol mechanisms. UDP provides checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for addressing different functions at the source and destination of the datagram. It has no handshaking dialogues, and thus exposes the user's program to any unreliability of the underlying network; there is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection. If error-correction facilities are needed at the network interface level, an application may instead use Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: UDP is suitable for purposes where error checking and correction are either not necessary or are performed in the application; UDP avoids the overhead of such processing in the protocol stack. Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because dropping packets is preferable to waiting for packets delayed due to retransmission, which may not be an option in a real-time system.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: UDP is a simple message-oriented transport layer protocol that is documented in . Although UDP provides integrity verification (via checksum) of the header and payload, it provides no guarantees to the upper layer protocol for message delivery and the UDP layer retains no state of UDP messages once sent. For this reason, UDP sometimes is referred to as "Unreliable Datagram Protocol". If transmission reliability is desired, it must be implemented in the user's application.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: Applications can use datagram sockets to establish host-to-host communications. An application binds a socket to its endpoint of data transmission, which is a combination of an IP address and a port. In this way, UDP provides application multiplexing. A port is a software structure that is identified by the port number, a 16-bit integer value, allowing for port numbers between 0 and 65535. Port 0 is reserved but is a permissible source port value if the sending process does not expect messages in response.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has divided port numbers into three ranges. Port numbers 0 through 1023 are used for common, well-known services. On Unix-like operating systems, using one of these ports requires superuser operating permission. Port numbers 1024 through 49151 are the registered ports used for IANA-registered services. Ports 49152 through 65535 are dynamic ports that are not officially designated for any specific service, and may be used for any purpose. These may also be used as ephemeral ports, which software running on the host may use to dynamically create communications endpoints as needed.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: A UDP datagram consists of a datagram "header" followed by a "data" section (the payload data for the application). The UDP datagram header consists of 4 fields, each of which is 2 bytes (16 bits):


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: The use of the "checksum" and "source port" fields is optional in IPv4 (pink background in table). In IPv6 only the "source port" field is optional.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: In other words, all 16-bit words are summed using one's complement arithmetic. Add the 16-bit values up. On each addition, if a carry-out (17th bit) is produced, swing that 17th carry bit around and add it to the least significant bit of the running total. Finally, the sum is then one's complemented to yield the value of the UDP checksum field.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: If the checksum calculation results in the value zero (all 16 bits 0) it should be sent as the one's complement (all 1s) as a zero-value checksum indicates no checksum has been calculated. In this case, any specific processing is not required at the receiver, because all 0s and all 1s are equal to zero in 1's complement arithmetic.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: The differences between IPv4 and IPv6 are in the pseudo header used to compute the checksum, and that the checksum is not optional in IPv6.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: When UDP runs over IPv4, the checksum is computed using a "pseudo header" that contains some of the same information from the real IPv4 header. The pseudo header is not the real IPv4 header used to send an IP packet, it is used only for the checksum calculation.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: The source and destination addresses are those in the IPv4 header. The protocol is that for UDP (see List of IP protocol numbers): 17 (0x11). The UDP length field is the length of the UDP header and data. The field data stands for the transmitted data.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: UDP checksum computation is optional for IPv4. If a checksum is not used it should be set to the value zero.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: When UDP runs over IPv6, the checksum is mandatory. As IPv6 has larger addresses and a different header lay-out, the method used to compute it is changed accordingly:


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: The source address is the one in the IPv6 header. The destination address is the final destination; if the IPv6 packet does not contain a Routing header, that will be the destination address in the IPv6 header; otherwise, at the originating node, it will be the address in the last element of the Routing header, and, at the receiving node, it will be the destination address in the IPv6 header. The value of the Next Header field is the protocol value for UDP: 17. The UDP length field is the length of the UDP header and data.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: Lacking reliability, UDP applications may encounter some packet loss, reordering, errors or duplication. If using UDP, the end-user applications must provide any necessary handshaking such as real-time confirmation that the message has been received. Applications, such as TFTP, may add rudimentary reliability mechanisms into the application layer as needed. If an application requires a high degree of reliability, a protocol such as the Transmission Control Protocol may be used instead.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: Most often, UDP applications do not employ reliability mechanisms and may even be hindered by them. Streaming media, real-time multiplayer games and voice over IP (VoIP) are examples of applications that often use UDP. In these particular applications, loss of packets is not usually a fatal problem. In VoIP, for example, latency and jitter are the primary concerns. The use of TCP would cause jitter if any packets were lost as TCP does not provide subsequent data to the application while it is requesting re-sending of the missing data.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: Numerous key Internet applications use UDP, including: the Domain Name System (DNS), the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: Voice and video traffic is generally transmitted using UDP. Real-time video and audio streaming protocols are designed to handle occasional lost packets, so only slight degradation in quality occurs, rather than large delays if lost packets were retransmitted. Because both TCP and UDP run over the same network, in the mid-2000s a few businesses found that an increase of UDP traffic from these real-time applications slightly hindered the performance of applications using TCP such as point of sale, accounting, and database systems (when TCP detects packet loss, it will throttle back its data rate usage).


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: Some VPN systems such as OpenVPN may use UDP and perform error checking at the application level while implementing reliable connections.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: QUIC is a transport protocol built on top of UDP. QUIC provides a reliable and secure connection. HTTP/3 uses QUIC as opposed to earlier versions of HTTPS which use a combination of TCP and TLS to ensure reliability and security respectively. This means that HTTP/3 uses a single handshake to set up a connection, rather than having two separate handshakes for TCP and TLS, meaning the overall time to establish a connection is reduced.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: Transmission Control Protocol is a connection-oriented protocol and requires handshaking to set up end-to-end communications. Once a connection is set up, user data may be sent bi-directionally over the connection.


title: User Datagram Protocol

text: User Datagram Protocol is a simpler message-based connectionless protocol. Connectionless protocols do not set up a dedicated end-to-end connection. Communication is achieved by transmitting information in one direction from source to destination without verifying the readiness or state of the receiver.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Rita Coolidge (born May 1, 1945) is an American recording artist. During the 1970s and 1980s, her songs were on "Billboard" magazine's pop, country, adult contemporary, and jazz charts, and she won two Grammy Awards with fellow musician and then-husband Kris Kristofferson. Her recordings include "(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher," "We're All Alone", "I'd Rather Leave While I'm in Love", and the theme song for the 1983 James Bond film "Octopussy": "All Time High".


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Coolidge was born in Lafayette, Tennessee. She is the daughter of Dick and Charlotte Coolidge, a minister and schoolteacher, with sisters Linda and Priscilla, and brother Raymond. She is of Cherokee and Scottish ancestry. She attended Nashville's Maplewood High School and graduated from Andrew Jackson Senior High School in Jacksonville, Florida. Coolidge is a graduate of Florida State University. She is a member of Alpha Gamma Delta sorority.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: After singing around Memphis (including a stint singing jingles), Coolidge was discovered by Delaney & Bonnie, who worked with her in Los Angeles. There, she became a backing singer for artists including Leon Russell, Joe Cocker, Harry Chapin, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, Dave Mason, Graham Nash, and Stephen Stills. She was featured in Joe Cocker's "Mad Dogs and Englishmen" tour and album, singing Russell's and Bonnie Bramlett's song "Superstar". Coolidge did not receive songwriting credits for "Superstar" which later became a hit for The Carpenters.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Coolidge didn't receive songwriting credits for the coda in the 1971 single "Layla" by Eric Clapton's band Derek and the Dominos. In 2016, Coolidge stated that she recorded a demo with her boyfriend, the band's drummer Jim Gordon, before they went to England to record with Clapton. Once they met with Clapton, Coolidge played the piece she composed for him and she gave him a cassette. Clapton, impressed by the piece, used it as part of the song in the coda section which she found out by hearing the song over the PA system a year later. She tried to contact Clapton, but was told by his manager Robert Stigwood, "What are you gonna do? You’re a girl. You don't have money to fight this." She hasn't heard from Clapton himself but believes he is aware of the situation.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Though only Gordon has been officially credited with this part, the band's keyboardist Bobby Whitlock claimed: Jim took that piano melody from his ex-girlfriend, Rita Coolidge. I know because in the Delaney & Bonnie days, I lived in John Garfield's old house in the Hollywood Hills and there was a guest house with an upright piano in it. Rita and Jim were up there in the guest house and invited me to join in on writing this song with them called "Time". Her sister Priscilla wound up recording it with her husband, Booker T. Jones (of Booker T. & the M.G.'s). Jim took the melody from Rita's song and didn't give her credit for writing it. Her boyfriend ripped her off. "Time" ended up on the 1973 album "Chronicles" by Booker T. and Priscilla.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: In November 1970, she met Kris Kristofferson at the Los Angeles airport when they were both catching the same flight to Tennessee. Instead of continuing to his intended destination in Nashville, he got off in Memphis with her. The two married in 1973, had a child in 1974, and recorded several duet albums, which sold well and earned the duo a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1974 for "From the Bottle to the Bottom", and in 1976 for "Lover Please".


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Coolidge's greatest success on the pop charts came during 1977–1978 with four consecutive top 25 hits, remakes of Jackie Wilson's "(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher", Boz Scaggs' "We're All Alone", the Temptations' "The Way You Do The Things You Do", and Marcia Hines' "You". Coolidge and Kristofferson divorced in June 1980.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: In 1992, Coolidge sang joint lead vocals with Roger Waters on the title track of his album "Amused to Death".


title: Rita Coolidge

text: She also was among the first hosts on VH1, a U.S. cable network. In 2006, she recorded a standards album, "And So Is Love".


title: Rita Coolidge

text: In 1997, Coolidge was one of the founding members of Walela, a Native American music trio, that also included her sister Priscilla and her daughter Laura Satterfield. The trio released studio albums in 1997 ("Walela") and 2000 ("Unbearable Love"), a live album and DVD ("Live in Concert") in 2004 and a compilation album ("The Best of Walela") in 2007.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Walela means hummingbird in Cherokee. Coolidge considered this group important, not only in honoring her Cherokee ancestors but also in bringing their culture to others. The trio performed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Coolidge had romantic liaisons with Stephen Stills and Graham Nash. Coolidge leaving Stills for Nash has been cited as a contributing factor behind the initial 1970 breakup of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. She was the "sweet little Indian girl" named "Raven" in the song "Cowboy Movie" on David Crosby's album "If I Could Only Remember My Name".


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Coolidge was also involved with Leon Russell and Joe Cocker. During the "Mad Dogs & Englishmen" tour, Coolidge's boyfriend at the time, Jim Gordon, assaulted her, resulting in a black eye for the rest of the tour. Coolidge ended the relationship and never spoke to him again. Gordon was later diagnosed with schizophrenia and convicted of murdering his mother.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Coolidge was married to Kris Kristofferson from 1973 to 1980. Their daughter and her only child, Casey Kristofferson (also a musician), was born in 1974. Their marriage deteriorated after she miscarried her second child in 1977. In her memoir, "Delta Lady", Coolidge described her marriage to Kristofferson as volatile due to his alcoholism and infidelity. She revealed he was also emotionally abusive and would belittle her talent. When they divorced she did not ask him for anything. However, in 2016 Coolidge told "People" that she and Kristofferson still shared a bond.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: Coolidge married Tatsuya Suda, a world leader in computer architecture research, on June 19, 2004, in the Cook Islands. Suda, a Japanese citizen, retired in 2010 after a long tenure as a professor at the Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences (UC Irvine), when allegations of professional misconduct against him surfaced. In 2014, he pleaded guilty to a felony charge of receiving illegal payments. She divorced Suda in 2012. Coolidge had lived in Fallbrook, California, where she painted and exhibited her work until 2017.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: In 2017 Coolidge rekindled a romantic relationship with Joe Hutto, a former college boyfriend. They married in 2018 and moved back to Tallahassee.


title: Rita Coolidge

text: In October, 2014, Coolidge's sister, Priscilla, was murdered by her husband, Michael Siebert, in a murder-suicide. The pain of that loss was exacerbated when Siebert's ashes were delivered to Rita's home and she had to dispose of them.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese (B&S): *"tiw") was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by the royal house, surnamed Ji, lasted initially from 1046 until 771 BC for a period known as the Western Zhou, and the political sphere of influence it created continued well into the Eastern Zhou period for another 500 years. The establishment date of 1046 BC is supported by the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project and David Pankenier, but David Nivison and Edward L. Shaughnessy date the establishment to 1045 BC.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: During the Zhou dynasty, centralized power decreased throughout the Spring and Autumn period until the Warring States period in the last two centuries of the dynasty. In the latter period, the Zhou court had little control over its constituent states that were at war with each other until the Qin state consolidated power and formed the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. The Zhou dynasty had formally collapsed only 35 years earlier, although the dynasty had only nominal power at that point.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: This period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronzeware making. The latter period of the Zhou dynasty is also famous for the beginnings of three major Chinese philosophies: Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. The Zhou dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved from the oracle script and bronze script into the seal script, and then finally into an almost-modern form with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: According to Chinese mythology, the Zhou lineage began when Jiang Yuan, a consort of the legendary Emperor Ku, miraculously conceived a child, Qi "the Abandoned One", after stepping into the divine footprint of Shangdi. Qi was a culture hero credited with surviving three abandonments by his mother and with greatly improving agriculture, to the point where he was granted lordship over Tai, the surname Ji, and the title Houji "Lord of Millet", by the Emperor Shun. He even received sacrifice as a harvest god. The term "Hòujì" was probably a hereditary title attached to a lineage.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Qi's son, or rather that of the "Hòujì", Buzhu is said to have abandoned his position as Agrarian Master () in old age and either he or his son Ju abandoned their tradition, living in the manner of the Xirong and Rongdi (see Hua–Yi distinction). Ju's son Liu, however, led his people to prosperity by restoring agriculture and settling them at a place called Bin, which his descendants ruled for generations. Tai later led the clan from Bin to Zhou, an area in the Wei River valley of modern-day Qishan County.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The duke passed over his two elder sons Taibo and Zhongyong to favor the younger Jili, a warrior in his own right. As a vassal of the Shang kings Wu Yi and Wen Ding, Jili went to conquer several Xirong tribes before being treacherously killed by Shang forces. Taibo and Zhongyong had supposedly already fled to the Yangtze delta, where they established the state of Wu among the tribes there. Jili's son Wen bribed his way out of imprisonment and moved the Zhou capital to Feng (within present-day Xi'an). Around 1046 BC, Wen's son Wu and his ally Jiang Ziya led an army of 45,000 men and 300 chariots across the Yellow River and defeated King Zhou of Shang at the Battle of Muye, marking the beginning of the Zhou dynasty. The Zhou enfeoffed a member of the defeated Shang royal family as the Duke of Song, which was held by descendants of the Shang royal family until its end. This practice was referred to as Two Kings, Three Reverences.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: According to Nicholas Bodman, the Zhou appear to have spoken a language not basically different in vocabulary and syntax from that of the Shang; a recent study by David McCraw, using lexical statistics, reached the same conclusion. The Zhou emulated extensively Shang cultural practices, perhaps to legitimize their own rule, and became the successors to Shang culture. At the same time, the Zhou may also have been connected to the Xirong, a broadly defined cultural group to the west of the Shang, which the Shang regarded as tributaries. For example, Chinese philosopher Mencius (372–289 BCE) acknowledged that King Wen of Zhou had ancestry from among the Xirong, as King Wen's descendants, the Zhou kings, claimed ancestry from the legendary cultural hero Hou Ji, who might be related to the Xirong through his mother Jiang Yuan; additionally, the historical narrative and commentary work Zuo Tradition (late 4th-century BCE) mentioned that the baron of Li Rong () (in today western China), after being defeated by Jin, married off his daughter Li Ji () to Duke Xian of Jin. According to the historian Li Feng, the term "Rong" during the Western Zhou period was likely used to designate political and military adversaries rather than cultural and ethnic "others". Cultural artifacts of the Western Rong coexisted with Western Zhou bronze artifacts, displaying influences between them.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: King Wu maintained the old capital for ceremonial purposes but constructed a new one for his palace and administration nearby at Hao. Although Wu's early death left a young and inexperienced heir, the Duke of Zhou assisted his nephew King Cheng in consolidating royal power. Wary of the Duke of Zhou's increasing power, the "Three Guards", Zhou princes stationed on the eastern plain, rose in rebellion against his regency. Even though they garnered the support of independent-minded nobles, Shang partisans, and several Dongyi tribes, the Duke of Zhou quelled the rebellion, and further expanded the Zhou Kingdom into the east. To maintain Zhou authority over its greatly expanded territory and prevent other revolts, he set up the "fengjian" system. Furthermore, he countered Zhou's crisis of legitimacy by expounding the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven while accommodating important Shang rituals at Wangcheng and Chengzhou.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Over time, this decentralized system became strained as the familial relationships between the Zhou kings and the regional dynasties thinned over the generations. Peripheral territories developed local power and prestige on par with that of the Zhou. When King You demoted and exiled his Jiang queen in favor of the beautiful commoner Bao Si, the disgraced queen's father the Marquis of Shen joined with Zeng and the Quanrong barbarians to sack Hao in 771 BC. With King You dead, a conclave of nobles met at Shen and declared the Marquis's grandson King Ping. The capital was moved eastward to Wangcheng, marking the end of the "Western Zhou" (,  "Xī Zhōu") and the beginning of the "Eastern Zhou" dynasty (,  "Dōng Zhōu").


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The Eastern Zhou was characterized by an accelerating collapse of royal authority, although the king's ritual importance allowed over five more centuries of rule. The Confucian chronicle of the early years of this process led to its title of the "Spring and Autumn" period. The partition of Jin in the mid-5th century BC initiated a second phase, the "Warring States". In 403 BC, the Zhou court recognized Han, Zhao, and Wei as fully independent states. Duke Hui of Wei, in 344 BC, was the first to claim the royal title of king (Chinese: 王) for himself. Others followed, marking a turning point, as rulers did not even entertain the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou court, instead proclaiming themselves fully independent kingdoms. A series of states rose to prominence before each falling in turn, and Zhou was a minor player in most of these conflicts.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The last Zhou king is traditionally taken to be Nan, who was killed when Qin captured the capital Wangcheng in 256 BC. A "King Hui" was declared, but his splinter state was fully removed by 249 BC. Qin's unification of China concluded in 221 BC with Qin Shihuang's annexation of Qi.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The Eastern Zhou, however, is also remembered as the golden age of Chinese philosophy: the Hundred Schools of Thought which flourished as rival lords patronized itinerant "shi" scholars is led by the example of Qi's Jixia Academy. The Nine Schools of Thought which came to dominate the others were Confucianism (as interpreted by Mencius and others), Legalism, Taoism, Mohism, the utopian communalist Agriculturalism, two strains of Diplomatists, the sophistic Logicians, Sun-tzu's Militarists, and the Naturalists. Although only the first three of these went on to receive imperial patronage in later dynasties, doctrines from each influenced the others and Chinese society in sometimes unusual ways. The Mohists, for instance, found little interest in their praise of meritocracy but much acceptance for their mastery of defensive siege warfare; much later, however, their arguments against nepotism were used in favor of establishing the imperial examination system.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The Zhou heartland was the Wei River valley; this remained their primary base of power after conquering the Shang.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Zhou rulers introduced what was to prove one of East Asia's most enduring political doctrines: the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven". They did this by asserting that their moral superiority justified taking over Shang wealth and territories, and that heaven had imposed a moral mandate on them to replace the Shang and return good governance to the people.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The Mandate of Heaven was presented as a religious compact between the Zhou people and their supreme god in heaven (literally the 'sky god'). The Zhou agreed that since worldly affairs were supposed to align with those of the heavens, the heavens conferred legitimate power on only one person, the Zhou ruler. In return, the ruler was duty-bound to uphold heaven's principles of harmony and honor. Any ruler who failed in this duty, who let instability creep into earthly affairs, or who let his people suffer, would lose the mandate. Under this system, it was the prerogative of spiritual authority to withdraw support from any wayward ruler and to find another, more worthy one. In this way, the Zhou sky god legitimized regime change.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: In using this creed, the Zhou rulers had to acknowledge that any group of rulers, even they themselves, could be ousted if they lost the mandate of heaven because of improper practices. The book of odes written during the Zhou period clearly intoned this caution.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The early Zhou kings contended that heaven favored their triumph because the last Shang kings had been evil men whose policies brought pain to the people through waste and corruption. After the Zhou came to power, the mandate became a political tool.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: One of the duties and privileges of the king was to create a royal calendar. This official document defined times for undertaking agricultural activities and celebrating rituals. But unexpected events such as solar eclipses or natural calamities threw the ruling house's mandate into question. Since rulers claimed that their authority came from heaven, the Zhou made great efforts to gain accurate knowledge of the stars and to perfect the astronomical system on which they based their calendar.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Zhou legitimacy also arose indirectly from Shang material culture through the use of bronze ritual vessels, statues, ornaments, and weapons. As the Zhou emulated the Shang's large scale production of ceremonial bronzes, they developed an extensive system of bronze metalworking that required a large force of tribute labor. Many of its members were Shang, who were sometimes forcibly transported to new Zhou to produce the bronze ritual objects which were then sold and distributed across the lands, symbolizing Zhou legitimacy.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Western writers often describe the Zhou period as "feudal" because the Zhou's "fēngjiàn" (封建) system invites comparison with medieval rule in Europe.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: There were many similarities between the decentralized systems. When the dynasty was established, the conquered land was divided into hereditary fiefs (, "zhūhóu") that eventually became powerful in their own right. In matters of inheritance, the Zhou dynasty recognized only patrilineal primogeniture as legal. According to Tao (1934: 17–31), "the Tsung-fa or descent line system has the following characteristics: patrilineal descent, patrilineal succession, patriarchate, sib-exogamy, and primogeniture"


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The system, also called "extensive stratified patrilineage", was defined by the anthropologist Kwang-chih Chang as "characterized by the fact that the eldest son of each generation formed the main of line descent and political authority, whereas the younger brothers were moved out to establish new lineages of lesser authority. The farther removed, the lesser the political authority". Ebrey defines the descent-line system as follows: "A great line (ta-tsung) is the line of eldest sons continuing indefinitely from a founding ancestor. A lesser line is the line of younger sons going back no more than five generations. Great lines and lesser lines continually spin off new lesser lines, founded by younger sons".


title: Zhou dynasty

text: K.E. Brashier writes in his book "Ancestral Memory in Early China" about the tsung-fa system of patrilineal primogeniture: "The greater lineage, if it has survived, is the direct succession from father to eldest son and is not defined via the collateral shifts of the lesser lineages. In discussions that demarcate between trunk and collateral lines, the former is called a zong and the latter a zu, whereas the whole lineage is dubbed the shi. [...] On one hand, every son who is not the eldest and hence not heir to the lineage territory has the potential of becoming a progenitor and fostering a new trunk lineage (Ideally he would strike out to cultivate new lineage territory). [...] According to the Zou commentary, the son of heaven divided land among his feudal lords, his feudal lords divided the land among their dependent families and so forth down the pecking order to the officers who had their dependent kin and the commoners who "each had his apportioned relations and all had their graded precedence""


title: Zhou dynasty

text: This type of unilineal descent-group later became the model of the Korean family through the influence of Neo-Confucianism, as Zhu Xi and others advocated its re-establishment in China.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: There were five peerage ranks below the royal ranks, in descending order with common English translations: "gōng" 公 "duke", "hóu" 侯 "marquis", "bó" 伯 "count", "zǐ" 子 "viscount", and "nán" 男 "baron". At times, a vigorous duke would take power from his nobles and centralize the state. Centralization became more necessary as the states began to war among themselves and decentralization encouraged more war. If a duke took power from his nobles, the state would have to be administered bureaucratically by appointed officials.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Despite these similarities, there are a number of important differences from medieval Europe. One obvious difference is that the Zhou ruled from walled cities rather than castles. Another was China's distinct class system, which lacked an organized clergy but saw Shang-descent yeomen become masters of ritual and ceremony, as well as astronomy, state affairs and ancient canons, known as "ru" (儒). When a dukedom was centralized, these people would find employment as government officials or officers. These hereditary classes were similar to Western knights in status and breeding, but unlike the European equivalent, they were expected to be something of a scholar instead of a warrior. Being appointed, they could move from one state to another. Some would travel from state to state peddling schemes of administrative or military reform. Those who could not find employment would often end up teaching young men who aspired to official status. The most famous of these was Confucius, who taught a system of mutual duty between superiors and inferiors. In contrast, the Legalists had no time for Confucian virtue and advocated a system of strict laws and harsh punishments. The wars of the Warring States were finally ended by the most legalist state of all, Qin. When the Qin dynasty fell and was replaced by the Han dynasty, many Chinese were relieved to return to the more humane virtues of Confucius.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Agriculture in the Zhou dynasty was very intensive and, in many cases, directed by the government. All farming lands were owned by nobles, who then gave their land to their serfs, a situation similar to European feudalism. For example, a piece of land was divided into nine squares in the well-field system, with the grain from the middle square taken by the government and that of surrounding squares kept by individual farmers. This way, the government was able to store surplus food and distribute it in times of famine or bad harvest. Some important manufacturing sectors during this period included bronze smelting, which was integral to making weapons and farming tools. Again, these industries were dominated by the nobility who directed the production of such materials.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: China's first projects of hydraulic engineering were initiated during the Zhou dynasty, ultimately as a means to aid agricultural irrigation. The chancellor of Wei, Sunshu Ao, who served King Zhuang of Chu, dammed a river to create an enormous irrigation reservoir in modern-day northern Anhui province. For this, Sunshu is credited as China's first hydraulic engineer. The later Wei statesman Ximen Bao, who served Marquis Wen of Wei (445–396 BC), was the first hydraulic engineer of China to have created a large irrigation canal system. As the main focus of his grandiose project, his canal work eventually diverted the waters of the entire Zhang River to a spot further up the Yellow River.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The early Western Zhou supported a strong army, split into two major units: "the Six Armies of the west" and "the Eight Armies of Chengzhou". The armies campaigned in the northern Loess Plateau, modern Ningxia and the Yellow River floodplain. The military prowess of Zhou peaked during the 19th year of King Zhao's reign, when the six armies were wiped out along with King Zhao on a campaign around the Han River. Early Zhou kings were true commanders-in-chief. They were in constant wars with barbarians on behalf of the fiefs called "guo", which at that time meant "statelet" or "principality".


title: Zhou dynasty

text: King Zhao was famous for repeated campaigns in the Yangtze areas and died in his last action. Later kings' campaigns were less effective. King Li led 14 armies against barbarians in the south, but failed to achieve any victory. King Xuan fought the Quanrong nomads in vain. King You was killed by the Quanrong when Haojing was sacked. Although chariots had been introduced to China during the Shang dynasty from Central Asia, the Zhou period saw the first major use of chariots in battle. Recent archaeological finds demonstrate similarities between horse burials of the Shang and Zhou dynasties and Indo-European peoples in the west. Other possible cultural influences resulting from Indo-European contact in this period may include fighting styles, head-and-hooves burials, art motifs and myths.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The Zhou army also included "Barbarian" troops such as the Di people. King Hui of Zhou married a princess of the Red Di as a sign of appreciation for the importance of the Di troops. King Xiang of Zhou also married a Di princess after receiving Di military support.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: During the Zhou dynasty, the origins of native Chinese philosophy developed, its initial stages of development beginning in the 6th century BC. The greatest Chinese philosophers, those who made the greatest impact on later generations of Chinese, were Confucius, founder of Confucianism, and Laozi, founder of Taoism. Other philosophers, theorists, and schools of thought in this era were Mozi, founder of Mohism; Mencius, a famous Confucian who expanded upon Confucius' legacy; Shang Yang and Han Fei, responsible for the development of ancient Chinese Legalism (the core philosophy of the Qin dynasty); and Xun Zi, who was arguably the center of ancient Chinese intellectual life during his time, even more so than iconic intellectual figures such as Mencius.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Established during the Western period, the "Li" () ritual system encoded an understanding of manners as an expression of the social hierarchy, ethics, and regulation concerning material life; the corresponding social practices became idealized within Confucian ideology.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The system was canonized in the "Book of Rites", "Zhouli", and "Yili" compendiums of the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), thus becoming the heart of the Chinese imperial ideology. While the system was initially a respected body of concrete regulations, the fragmentation of the Western Zhou period led the ritual to drift towards moralization and formalization in regard to:


title: Zhou dynasty

text: The rulers of the Zhou dynasty were titled "Wáng" (), which is normally translated into English as "king" and was also the Shang term for their rulers.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: In addition to these rulers, King Wu's immediate ancestors Danfu, Jili, and Wen are also referred to as "Kings of Zhou", despite having been nominal vassals of the Shang kings.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: NB: Dates in Chinese history before the first year of the Gonghe Regency in 841 BC are contentious and vary by source. Those below are those published by Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project and Edward L. Shaughnessy's "The Absolute Chronology of the Western Zhou Dynasty".


title: Zhou dynasty

text: Nobles of the Ji family proclaimed Duke Hui of Eastern Zhou as King Nan's successor after their capital, Chengzhou, fell to Qin forces in 256 BC. Ji Zhao, a son of King Nan, led a resistance against Qin for five years. The dukedom fell in 249 BC. The remaining Ji family ruled Yan and Wei until 209 BC.


title: Zhou dynasty

text: In traditional Chinese astrology, Zhou is represented by two stars, Eta Capricorni () and 21 Capricorni (), in "Twelve States" asterism. Zhou is also represented by the star Beta Serpentis in asterism "Right Wall", Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellations).


title: Powers Boothe

text: Powers Allen Boothe (June 1, 1948 – May 14, 2017) was an American actor. He won an Emmy in 1980 for his portrayal of Jim Jones in "". He also played saloon owner Cy Tolliver on "Deadwood", "Curly Bill" Brocius in "Tombstone", President Noah Daniels on "24", and Lamar Wyatt in "Nashville". He was also the voice of Gorilla Grodd in the DC Animated Universe shows "Justice League" and "Justice League Unlimited".


title: Powers Boothe

text: Boothe, the youngest of three boys, was born June 1, 1948, at home on a cotton farm in Snyder, Texas, to Merrill Vestal Boothe (1924–1985), a rancher, and his wife Emily (née Reeves) Boothe (1924–1999). His father named him after his best friend, who had been killed in the Second World War.


title: Powers Boothe

text: Boothe attended Snyder High School, where he played football and appeared in school plays. He was the first in his family to go beyond high school, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Southwest Texas State University in San Marcos, and earning a Master of Fine Arts degree in Drama from Southern Methodist University in University Park, Texas.


title: Powers Boothe

text: After graduating from Southwest Texas State University in San Marcos, Texas, Boothe joined the repertory company of the Oregon Shakespeare Festival, with roles in "Henry IV, Part 2" (portraying Henry IV of England), "Troilus and Cressida", and others. His New York stage debut was in the 1974 Lincoln Center production of "Richard III". Five years later, his Broadway theater debut came in a starring role in the one-act play "Lone Star", written by James McLure.


title: Powers Boothe

text: Boothe first came to national attention in 1980, playing Jim Jones in the CBS-TV movie "". Boothe's portrayal of the crazed cult leader received critical acclaim. In "Time" story on the production, Boothe was praised: "There is one extraordinary performance. A young actor named Powers Boothe captures all the charisma and evil of 'Dad', Jim Jones." Boothe won the Emmy Award for his role, beating out veterans Henry Fonda and Jason Robards. As the Screen Actors Guild were on strike in the fall of 1980, he was the only actor to cross picket lines to attend the ceremonies and accept his award, saying at the time, "This may be either the bravest moment of my career or the dumbest."


title: Powers Boothe

text: Boothe portrayed Philip Marlowe in a TV series based on Raymond Chandler's short stories for HBO in the 1980s. He appeared in such films as "Southern Comfort", "A Breed Apart", "Red Dawn", "The Emerald Forest", "Rapid Fire" and "Extreme Prejudice", as well as the HBO films "Into the Homeland" and "By Dawn's Early Light". Additionally, he appeared in the 1990 CBS-TV film "Family of Spies", in which he played traitor Navy Officer John Walker. Boothe portrayed Curly Bill Brocius in the hit 1993 Western "Tombstone", the disloyal senior Army officer in "Blue Sky" (opposite Jessica Lange's Oscar-winning performance), and the sinister lead terrorist in "Sudden Death". He was also part of the large ensemble casts for Oliver Stone's "Nixon" (as Chief of Staff Alexander Haig) and "U Turn" (as the town sheriff).


title: Powers Boothe

text: In 2001, he starred as Flavius Aëtius, the Roman general in charge of stopping the Hun invasion in the made-for-TV miniseries "Attila". Boothe played a featured role as brothel-owner Cy Tolliver on the HBO series "Deadwood", and the corrupt senator Ethan Roark in the motion picture "Sin City" (2005), as well as its sequel, "" (2014). He is the voice of one of the characters in the 2005 video game "Area 51" and of Gorilla Grodd, the hyper-intelligent telepathic supervillain in "Justice League" and "Justice League Unlimited". He voiced the villain, Kane, in the 2008 video game "Turok".


title: Powers Boothe

text: He was a special guest star on "24", where he played Vice President Noah Daniels. He returned in the prequel to the seventh season, "". Just after taking the role as acting President, Boothe is seen exiting Air Force Two with F-15s in the background. Boothe played a downed F-15 pilot in "Red Dawn". In March 2008, he narrated a television campaign ad for Senator John McCain's presidential campaign.


title: Powers Boothe

text: In 2012, Boothe appeared in Joss Whedon's "The Avengers" in a secretive role as a shadowy governmental superior to S.H.I.E.L.D. In 2015–16, he reprised the role, now named Gideon Malick, in ABC's "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D."


title: Powers Boothe

text: Boothe appeared in the 2012 miniseries "Hatfields & McCoys" as Judge Valentine "Wall" Hatfield. Boothe was also cast as Lamar Wyatt in the ABC musical drama series "Nashville". Boothe also lent his voice to "", a 2012 video game developed by IO Interactive, voicing the character of Benjamin Travis.


title: Powers Boothe

text: Boothe married his college sweetheart Pam Cole in 1969 and they remained married until his death. They had two children, Parisse and Preston.


title: Powers Boothe

text: Boothe died in Los Angeles, on the morning of May 14, 2017, 18 days short of his 69th birthday, from the effects of pancreatic cancer.


title: Powers Boothe

text: His body was buried in Deadwood Cemetery in rural Deadwood, located in Panola County east of Carthage in east Texas.


title: Toyota A engine

text: The Toyota A Series engines are a family of inline-four internal combustion engines with displacement from 1.3 L to 1.8 L produced by Toyota Motor Corporation. The series has cast iron engine blocks and aluminum cylinder heads. To make the engine as short as possible, the cylinders are siamesed.


title: Toyota A engine

text: The development of the series began in the late 1970s, when Toyota wanted to develop a completely new engine for the Toyota Tercel, the successor of Toyota's K engine. The goal was to achieve good fuel efficiency and performance as well as low emissions with a modern design. The A-series includes one of the first Japanese mass-production DOHC, four-valve-per-cylinder engines, the 4A-GE, and a later version of the same engine was one of the first production five-valve-per-cylinder engines.


title: Toyota A engine

text: Toyota joint venture partner Tianjin FAW Xiali produces the 1.3 L 8A and resumed production of the 5A in 2007.


title: Toyota A engine

text: The 1.5 L 1A was produced between 1978 and 1980. All variants were belt-driven 8-valve counter-flow SOHC engines with a single, twin-barrel downdraft carburetor. It used Toyota's Turbulence Generating Pot (TGP) lean combustion system to meet Japanese emissions standards at the time with only an oxidation (2-way) catalyst. The 1A engine was only long.


title: Toyota A engine

text: The 1.3 L 2A was produced from 1979 through 1989. 2A engines in 1982 onwards AL20 Tercels have a slightly different valve cover and timing belt cover than early AL11 Tercels, as well as an automatic choke, and automatically controlled hot air intake (HAI) system. It also has higher compression ratio, and reformulated combustion chambers to improve the fuel economy and emissions. All variants used belt-driven SOHC eight-valve counter-flow cylinder heads with a single downdraft carburetor.


title: Toyota A engine

text: The 1.5 L 3A was produced from 1979 through 1989. The 3A engine is the successor of Toyota's first A engine, the 1A. All variants were belt-driven eight-valve counter-flow SOHC engines but no longer used Toyota's "Turbulence Generating Pot" pre-combustion system from the 1A.


title: Toyota A engine

text: Twin carburetted swirl-intake version with Toyota TTC-C catalytic converter, introduced in August 1984 along with a facelift for the Tercel (and its sister variants) in Japan. Features two variable-venturi carburetors, which Toyota wanted to test in Japan before launching them in export along E series engine, albeit in single carburetted version. Because of the swirl-intake, the sealing surface between cylinder head and valve cover is different from other SOHC A-engines, featuring vertical curves on the manifold side of the head. Thus, those parts are not interchangeable between each other. The swirl was supposed to improve burning of the air-fuel mixture, thus enabling cleaner emissions, improving fuel economy, and increasing power.


title: Toyota A engine

text: The 4A was produced from 1980 through 2002. All 4A engines have a displacement of . The cylinder bore was enlarged from the previous 3A engines at , but the stroke remained the same as the 3A at , giving it an over-square bore/stroke ratio which favours high engine speeds.