title: Land Rover Defender

text: This engine finally allowed the Defender to cruise comfortably at high speeds, as well as tow heavy loads speedily on hills while still being economical. In theory it only replaced the older Diesel Turbo engine in the range, with the other four-cylinder engines (and the V8 petrol engine) still being available. However, the Tdi's combination of performance and economy meant that it took the vast majority of sales. Exceptions were the British Army and some commercial operators, who continued to buy vehicles with the 2.5-litre naturally aspirated diesel engine (in the army's case, this was because the Tdi was unable to be fitted with a 24 volt generator). Small numbers of V8-engined Defenders were sold to users in countries with low fuel costs or who required as much power as possible (such as in Defenders used as fire engines and ambulances).


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Along with the 200Tdi engine, the 127's name was changed to the "Land Rover Defender 130". The wheelbase remained the same; the new figure was simply a rounding up. More importantly, 130s were no longer built from "cut-and-shut" 110s, but had dedicated chassis built from scratch. The chassis retained the same basic structure as the 90 and 110 models, but with a longer wheelbase.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: 1994 saw another development of the Tdi engine, the 300Tdi. Although the 200Tdi had been a big step forward, it had been essentially a reworking of the old turbocharged diesel to accept a direct injection system. In contrast the 300Tdi was virtually new, despite the same capacity, and both the Defender and the Discovery had engines in the same state of tune, , .


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Throughout the 1990s the vehicle attempted to climb more and more upmarket, while remaining true to its working roots. This trend was epitomised by limited-edition vehicles, such as the SV90 in 1992 with roll-over protection cage, alloy wheels and metallic paint and the 50th anniversary 90 in 1998, equipped with automatic transmission, air conditioning and Range Rover 4.0-litre V8 engine.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: A new variant was the Defender 110 double cab, featuring a 4x4-style seating area, with an open pick up back. Although prototypes had been built in the Series days, it was not until the late 1990s that this vehicle finally reached production.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Land Rover South Africa offered a unique Defender during the period the group was owned by BMW. Between 1997 and 2001, the Defender 90 and 110 were offered with a BMW petrol engine alongside the normal Tdi engine. The engine was the BMW M52 2793 cc, straight-six, 24-valve engine as found in the BMW 328i, 528i, 728i, and the Z3. Power and torque output for this engine was at 5300 rpm and at 3950 rpm. This option was offered due to a demand for a petrol-driven alternative to the diesel engine after production of the V8 Defender had ended. The vehicles were built at Rosslyn outside Pretoria. Total production for the 2.8i was 1395, which included 656 Defender 90s and 739 Defender 110s. This is an estimate based on sales figures from the National Association of Automobile Manufacturers of South Africa (NAAMSA). Early models were not speed-restricted, but later models were limited to 160 km/h.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: According to Land Rover South Africa, "After the ground breaking amalgamation of the Rover Group with BMW internationally, the Defender 2.8i became the priority project of the two companies in February 1996 with the approval of both Land Rover UK and BMW AG. It is the first joint development since Land Rover South Africa was formed in January 1995." Some of BMW's top engineers including Frank Isenberg, head of BMW Driver Training and the F87 M2 project, were part of the development team. The project was initially top secret and in 2 to 3 weeks' time they had converted a Defender 110 that originally had a 3.5-litre V8 into the first 2.8i.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: To adapt the BMW M52 engine to the Defender chassis, the engineers were able to utilize some of the parts from the recently developed BMW M51 diesel-powered Range Rover 2.5 DSE. They used the clutch housing, clutch, flywheel, and slave cylinder from that vehicle to connect the engine to the R380 gearbox, but they had to produce a new clutch housing adaptor (bell housing) for the petrol M52 engine in the Defender. The unique clutch housing adaptor was necessary because the petrol M52 engine is tilted 10 degrees compared to the diesel M51 engine and it needed to be longer to match the input shaft of the R380 gearbox borrowed from the 300Tdi Defender. Due to the large diameter gearbox input shaft, the standard BMW pilot bearing could not be fitted, so a unique pilot bushing made of Oilite bronze was developed. It had an inside diameter of 7/8-inch with an outside diameter of 32 mm. A mixture of non-metric and metric specifications are common on Land Rovers. Other unique parts that were developed for the 2.8i were the air intake ducts both before and after the Donaldson FPG RadialSeal™ air cleaner, engine mounts, radiator cowl, cooling hoses, fuel lines, clutch lines, air conditioning system, engine wiring, tachometer gauge, exhaust system, and a specially tuned Siemens MS41.0 DME with a Lucas 10AS alarm in place of the Drive Away Protection system (EWS) used on BMWs.<ref name="LAND ROVER / MG ROVER Catalogue"></ref> Because the M52 generates the most power in the middle and upper ranges of its power band, engineers fitted the 2.8i with a 1.667:1 gear ratio LT230 transfer box. The readily available power made the vehicle particularly well suited for traversing a wide range of gruelling terrain such as sand dunes. The high gear ratio also helped the 2.8i sprint from 0–100 km/h in 9.3 seconds, making it the fastest production Defender ever made.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: To make the vehicle ready for production, prototypes were subjected to extensive testing. According to Land Rover South Africa, "The development of the Defender 2.8 i engine included high speed testing, off roading, wading, high impact durability, trailer towing, hot and cold climate testing, high altitude and sea level tests as well as intensive component testing, both in South Africa and in the United Kingdom. No less than six vehicles underwent more than 500 000 km [sic] of on and off road testing." The new BMW M52 Defender performed better than the V8 Defender it replaced in nearly every test.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: At least three of the original six 2.8i prototype vehicles were an NAS 1995 Defender 90 soft top that had been built right hand drive and received the BMW M52 engine in place of the 3.9-litre V8. One of those prototypes, the very first 90 2.8i which was painted Coniston Green and nicknamed "Green Mamba" by BMW engineers, was sold to a private individual in South Africa, while the other two were sent back to the UK for additional tests.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: There were some major changes made to the 2.8i for the 2000 model year. It received a variety of updates including new instrumentation with new gauges with improved illumination and switches, an updated chassis, and new electrical systems similar to the Td5. It also received an updated cooling system with an aluminium radiator to help solve overheating issues experienced with the older brass radiator, and an updated fuel system consisting of nylon fuel lines in favour of steel lines that have a tendency to rust, as well as a new fuel tank, pump, and filter with quick-connect fittings.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Land Rover South Africa also built 26 50th Anniversary edition 90s featuring the BMW M52 engine. The vehicles were painted Santorini Blue with special decal graphics on the sides. They also featured "colour-coded wheel arch mouldings, spot lamps, spare wheel carrier, free style alloy wheels, stainless steel A-frame Bullbar, two-tone solid paint, Willards welding and side runners" as well as "leather seats, radio and CD player, leather steering wheel and gear lever as well as a cooler box." Each was randomly numbered between 1 and 50, as 24 50th Anniversary edition 110s were also built, but with a diesel engine. The special 110 was called "Safari" and was painted in a limestone green colour. It featured everything included on the 50th Anniversary 90 with the addition of "a roof rack and step ladder, as well as a wrap-around Bullbar in place of the A-frame" and "special cloth seats are used in favour of the leather ones. It is also fitted with a GPS (Pathfinder system)."


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 1998, the Defender was fitted with an all-new 2.5-litre, five-cylinder in-line turbodiesel engine, badged the Td5. The Tdi could not meet upcoming Euro III emissions regulations so the Td5 replaced the Tdi as the only available power unit. The engine used electronic control systems and produced at 4850 rpm, more than the Tdi, with improved refinement. Traditionalists were critical of the electronic systems deployed throughout the vehicle, but concerns that these would fail when used in extreme conditions proved unfounded.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: For the 2002 model year, further refinements were made to the Td5 engine to help it achieve ever-more stringent emission regulations. The "XS" 4x4 was introduced in 2002 as a top-specification level and the "County" package could be applied to every model in the line-up. XS models come with many "luxury" features, such as heated windscreen, heated seats, air conditioning, ABS and traction control and part-leather seats. At the same time other detail improvements were made including a dash centre console, improved instrument illumination and the availability of front electric windows for the first time on a Defender. The design faults of the two-piece rear 4x4 door were finally eradicated with a one-piece door featuring a rubber weather sealing strip for the rear window.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: From Spring 2007 a series of changes were made to the Defender, most of which were implemented to meet emissions and safety legislation. The biggest change was to the drivetrain. The Td5 engine was replaced by an engine from Ford's DuraTorq line (AKA the Puma engine), built in their factory in Dagenham, making the Td5 the last Land Rover engine to be built in-house at Solihull. The engine chosen was from the ZSD family, being a version of the 2.4-litre four-cylinder unit also used in the highly successful Ford Transit. The engine's lubrication and sealing system was adapted for use in wet, dusty conditions and to maintain lubrication at extreme angles in off-road use. The power level remains the same at , but with a lower power peak speed for towing and better acceleration. Torque output rose from to due to the fitting of a variable-geometry turbocharger. This produces a wider spread of torque than the Td5, from 1500 rpm to 2000 rpm. The engine is mated to a new six-speed gearbox. First gear is lower than the previous gearbox for better low-speed control, whilst the higher sixth gear is intended to reduce noise and fuel consumption at high speeds.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The other major changes were to the interior. The dashboard layout of the original 110 from 1983 (which was in turn very similar to that used on the Series III from 1971) was replaced with a full-width fascia and different instrumentation. Instruments came from the Discovery 3, and some of the centre panels come from the Ford Transit. Whilst some interior fittings from the British Leyland parts bin – some of which dated back to the 1970s – were finally dropped, the steering column switchgear (sourced from the Mk.1 Austin Metro) and the ignition switch (from the Morris Marina) was carried over from the previous interior. A new heater and ventilation system improved de-misting and heater performance.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Other interior changes were to the seating layout. Legislation from the European Union outlaws the inward-facing seats used in the rear of previous Land Rover 4x4s. The 2007 Defender replaced the four inward-facing seats with two forward-facing seats. This made the Defender 90 4x4 a four-seater vehicle (reduced from six or seven), and the Defender 110 4x4 a seven-seater (reduced from nine). This brought the Defender in line with its competitors which have generally used this layout for many years. A new bodystyle was introduced on the 110 4x4 chassis- the "utility". This was a five-door 4x4 body but with the rearmost seats removed and the rear side panels left without windows, producing a five-seater vehicle with a secure, weatherproof load space.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The only external design alterations were minor detail changes. The bonnet was reshaped with a pressed bulge to allow the new, taller engine to fit in the engine bay whilst meeting pedestrian safety rules. This also avoided the need to re-design the engine sump to clear the axle. The new dashboard and ventilation system necessitated the removal of the distinctive air vent flaps underneath the windscreen which had been a feature of previous Land Rover utility models since the 1950s. While the flaps were deleted, the bulkhead pressing remained the same, so the outlines of where the flaps would be are still present. Passenger and Rear Loading doors were re-engineered to reduce corrosion and galvanic reaction. All other panels retained the same shape and styling that is viewed by enthusiasts as "iconic".


title: Land Rover Defender

text: At the other extreme, basic models are available for commercial users, such as emergency services. The models are sold in over 140 countries. A range of special conversions are available that include hydraulic platforms, fire engines, mobile workshops, ambulances, and breakdown recovery trucks. The 130 remains available with the five-seater HCPU bodystyle as standard.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In August 2011, Land Rover announced an update of the Defender for the 2012 model year. By this time, Land Rover publicly acknowledged that it was working on a project to produce an all-new replacement for the Defender. This would lead to the unveiling of the first DC100 concept vehicle in September that year. While emissions and safety regulations have threatened the Defender since the early 2000s, these had either been avoided or Land Rover had found ways to modify the vehicle to economically meet the new requirements. However, safety regulations due for introduction in 2015 requiring minimum pedestrian safety standards and the fitment of airbags to commercial vehicles cannot be met without a wholesale redesign of the Defender.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The main change for the 2012 models was the installation of a different engine from the Ford Duratorq engine range. Ford decided, due to cost reasons, not to modify the 2.4-litre engine introduced in 2007 to meet the upcoming Euro V emissions standards and so the engine was replaced with the ZSD-422 engine, essentially a 2.2-litre variant of the same engine. Although smaller than the existing unit the power and torque outputs remained unchanged and the same six-speed gearbox was used as well. The engine included a diesel particulate filter for the first time on a Defender. The only other change was the reintroduction of the soft top body style to the general market. This had been a popular option for the Land Rover Series but by the introduction of the Defender had been relegated to special order and military buyers only. Land Rover stated that the option was being brought back due to customer feedback.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The last Defender, a soft-top "90" rolled off the Solihull production line at 9:22 on Friday 29 January 2016. The BBC reports that the Defender's replacement is due to be launched in 2018/2019.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The need for total replacement of the Defender has been brought about by 2015's new European regulations regarding crash safety for pedestrians (Euro NCAP) that render the Defender's design obsolete The Defender also did not meet U.S. safety requirements after 1997 and since then Land Rover offered U.S. buyers the more luxurious LR2 (Freelander) and LR4 (Discovery) and Range Rover instead.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Land Rover unveiled the DC100 and its topless counterpart, the DC100 Sport, at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show. The designs of the concept vehicles received some criticism in the press. The DC100 (Defender Concept 100") is a conventional three-door off-roader with a 2.0-litre turbo-charged diesel engine and the DC100 Sport is a two-passenger pick-up with a 2.0-litre petrol engine. Unlike the current Defender with 93-inch, 110-inch and 130-inch wheelbases, the DC100 was presented in 100-inch wheelbase only.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The 2020 Defender was unveiled on 10 September 2019 at the 2019 Frankfurt Motor Show in Germany. This is the first all-new update for the Defender since 1983. The 2020 Defender has been engineered to comply with global car regulations and is expected to be sold in 128 territories, including the world's two largest car markets; China and the United States. As sales pick up for the Defender, the latest L663 generation was spotted running tests in Malaysia, signifying a local launch taking place soon. Fast forward to October 2021, the Malaysian-debut of the L663 Land Rover Defender has taken place.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The L663 Defender is available in either '90' three-door or '110' five-door guises, but the folks in Solihull wowed fans with the introduction of the Defender '130', an elongated five-door variant with seating for eight adults and more boot space.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 1993 Land Rover launched the Defender in the North American (i.e. the United States and Canada) market. Although the Range Rover had been sold there since 1987, this was the first time utility Land Rovers had been sold since 1974. To comply with the strict United States Department of Transportation regulations, ranging from crash safety to lighting, as well as the very different requirements of American buyers, the North American Specification (NAS) Defenders were extensively modified. The initial export batch was 525 Defender 110 County 4x4s: 500 to the United States and 25 to Canada. They were fitted with the 3.9-litre V8 petrol engine, LT-77 five-speed manual transmission and LT230 transfer case. All of the vehicles were "Alpine" white (except one specifically painted black for Ralph Lauren). They sported full external roll-cages and larger side-indicator and tail-lights. All were equipped with the factory-fitted air conditioning system.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: For the 1994 and 1995 model year Land Rover only offered the Defender 90, fitted with a 3.9-litre V8 engine and the R-380 manual transmission which was clearly intended as an upmarket alternative to the Jeep Wrangler. Initially, the Defender 90 was only available as a soft-top with a structural roll cage, but a later version was offered with a unique, removable, fibre-glass roof panel or a regular 4x4 hard-top designated as the estate model.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 1997, the final year of US Defender 90 production, the engine was improved, designated 4.0 and mated to a four-speed automatic transmission. In 1998, regulations changed to require the fitting of airbags for both front seat passengers in all vehicles, as well as side door impact requirements. The Defender could not be fitted with these without major modifications, which were not economically viable given the small numbers of NAS vehicles sold in relation to Land Rover's global sales. Land Rover retired its North American Specification utility vehicles at the end of 1997 to focus on its more profitable, popular and upmarket Discovery and Range Rover models, as well as the then newly launched Freelander.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 2020 Land Rover brought back the Land Rover Defender only as the 4 door model with 2.0 or 3.0 engine and standard hardtop and automatic transmission. It then brought back the 2-door Defender 90 model for the 2021 model year.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Continuing on from production of the Australian SIII Stage 1 Isuzu 4BD1 diesel variant, Jaguar Rover Australia (JRA) developed an Isuzu 4BD1 (See List of Isuzu engines) diesel powered 110 for sale as an Australia Only consumer product.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Between 1981 and 1990, the Isuzu 4BD1 engine was the only diesel option available for Land Rover in Australia. All 110 cab chassis Defenders sold in Australia during this time had a wheelbase of 120 inches in order to accommodate an 8 ft x 6 ft tray. A small number of 6x6 cab chassis Defenders were also made by JRA during this time. While the Land Rover has been in use in the Australian military from 1959, as a consumer product from the 1970s, it fell out of favour as a 4x4 work vehicle while offerings from Toyota and Nissan increased in popularity. Mid-2009, Land Rover expanded the model range to include 110 and 130 cab-chassis, panel van and HCPU versions, and late in the year announced the re-introduction of the 90 4x4 model for sale from early 2010.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Defenders, derivatives and clones have been built by a number of manufacturers including Santana Motors in Spain built under license from Land Rover (Land Rover [Knock-down kit] CKD kit, made from 1958 until the licence expired in 1983; Land Rover derivatives (Santana Series IV) were then developed from 1984–1994), Morattab in Iran (using parts and molds bought from Santana, Manufactures it as Pazhan using Mitsubishi/Hyundai V6 engine), Otokar in Turkey (beginning in 1987 and continued until the original production ended), and Karmann in Brazil (from 1999–2006, using Land Rover CKD kits).


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Fiat also marketed a modified version of the Santana product, as the Iveco Massif, between 2007 and 2011, manufactured for Fiat by the Santana factory.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 1992 the first special edition Land Rover Defender was produced. Called the 90SV (SV stands for "special vehicles", as all the vehicles were produced by Land Rover's Special Vehicle Operations department), they were painted turquoise and were fitted with a black canvas soft top with standard door tops. Alloy wheels were also fitted, together with rear disc brakes (a first for a Land Rover). Despite the vehicle's sporty looks, it used the standard 200Tdi turbodiesel engine. Only 90 were made for the UK market.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 1997, the last year that Defender 90’s were made available in the US, Land Rover created 300 Special Edition Station Wagons. Known as the Limited Edition (LE) these Land Rover Defender 90’s were painted with a unique one year colour known as Willow Green with a contrasting white accented roof; they were also fitted with body protection in the form of 5 large diamond plated sheets and an external safety cage with a full roof rack. The 1997 Land Rover Defender 90 LE also came with the following options as standard equipment: Air conditioning, rear ladder, rear step, twin tube running boards with diamond plate trim, front A bar and a limited edition placard which was affixed to the rear of the car that denoted its build number out of 300.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: For Land Rover's 50th anniversary in 1998 two special editions were built. The first was the Defender 50th which was essentially a NAS (North American spec) Defender 90. It was powered by a 4.0-litre V8 petrol engine and was the first Land Rover outside North America to be fitted with an automatic transmission. Air conditioning made them very comfortable vehicles. For the UK and Europe they were painted Atlantis blue, a dark green-blue flip-flop colour, and had a safety devices roll-over protection cage for the front seat occupants. In total 1071 50th anniversary Defenders were built; 385 for the UK home market, the rest for Japan, Europe and the Middle East.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The second 1998 special edition was the "Heritage", intended to hark back to the early days of Land Rover in the 1940s. Available in 90 or 110 variants, the Heritage was only available in the two original colours offered by the company: the dark bronze green and the light pastel Atlantic green. A metal mesh-effect front grille, body-coloured alloy wheels and wing mirrors and silver-painted door and windscreen hinges were all employed to make the Heritage look similar to the original Series I of 1948. Inside, special instruments were used, with black-on-beige displays. The powertrain was the standard Td5 diesel engine and 5 speed manual transmission.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Possibly the best known special edition was the "Tomb Raider" of 2000, built to commemorate Land Rover's role in the first film of that franchise. The Tomb Raider was designed to look like an off-road expedition vehicle. Painted dark metallic grey with special badging and details, the Tomb Raider came equipped with a roof rack and roof rack support system (looking similar to a roll-cage), additional spot lights, winch, bull-bar and raised air-intake. They were available either as a 90 or a 110 double cab, with standard Td5 engines. The actual Defender used in the film (now on display at the Motor Heritage Centre, Gaydon) was a highly modified 110 HCPU with a specially fitted and tuned V8 petrol engine and a non-standard interior.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Following the first Land Rover G4 Challenge in 2003, G4-Edition Defenders became available. As well as the distinctive Tangiers orange colour of the competition vehicles, yellow, silver and black versions were also produced. Defender 90 and 110 4x4 versions were available, with front A-bar, roll-cage, side-steps and front spotlights as standard, as well as G4 badging.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The 2002 Defender Black Limited Edition was produced in 2 variants based on the XS trim level: 90 Station Wagon or a 110 Double Cab Pickup with Java black micatallic paint, ABS & Electronic Traction Control, chequerplate wing top and sill protection, side protection rails (aka XS steps) front roll cage (aka screen protection bar), Boost alloy wheels, a "NAS" rear step / towbar and green tinted windows. The interior has black leather seats, chrome bezel instrument pack, black leather trimmed steering wheel, black carpet & trim, black leather-trimmed cubby box & lid, billet aluminium controls & gear knobs, air conditioning, electric front windows and remote central door locking. Both models used the Td5 engine.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The on-the-road UK prices were £24995 for either model. 92 examples of the 90 were made, and 144 the 110 DCPU. As of 2018, 76 and 103 respectively remained registered in the UK


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The Defender Silver was available in three distinct versions: TD5, 90 and 110 Station Wagon and 110 Double Cab Pickup. Every Defender Silver was fitted with an A-frame protection bar which offered additional protection to the front of the vehicle. Lamp guards were fitted front and rear, and a tow pack incorporating an electrics kit not only to power trailer lights, but also additional equipment. The underside was further shielded from harm by the sump guard and air-con and ABS/TC were available as options. The vehicles came of the production line and were then modified by SVO, Special Vehicle Operations. They are comparatively rare, especially the Double Cab Pick Up with the Fiberglass TruckMan Top.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The 1999 X-Tech was aimed at the commercial market, being a metallic silver 90 hard top fitted with County-style seats, alloy wheels and Alpine window lights. The second model year edition in 2003 was better equipped with wing protector plates and air conditioning.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: 2008 saw Land Rover's 60th anniversary, for which a new series of special edition Defenders were produced. Branded the "SVX", three models were built. All were painted black with "satin" effect body graphics on the vehicles' sides and bonnet carrying the "60th" logo used throughout 2008 at various special events and on anniversary merchandise. Bespoke five-spoke alloy wheels were used and a new silver-coloured front grille design was used. This also incorporated a new design of headlamp with the sidelight lamp being integral with the main headlamp unit, allowing the space previously used for the separate sidelight to be used to fit a pair of high-intensity driving lamps. Inside the SVX models gained Recaro bucket seats in the front row, alloy gearlever knobs and a Garmin GPS navigation system. The drivetrain was the standard 2.4-litre diesel and six-speed manual permanent four-wheel-drive transmission. The SVX edition was available as a 110 (only available outside the UK), a 90 and a brand-new design of 90 soft top- the first time a soft-top model had been available through showrooms in the UK since 1992. SVX soft tops had only the two front seats- the rear load bay being used to accommodate the spare wheel and a lockable storage box. A new design of hood was used, sloping down towards the rear over a jointed folding frame, unlike the standard square-framed hood used on other soft top Land Rovers.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: To mark the end of production, Land Rover asked British fashion designer Paul Smith to produce a one-off version of the Defender, which was launched in May 2015. The car's exterior featured 27 different colours on the exterior inspired by the Defender’s long life in service with the Army, Navy and Air Force as well as fire, coastguard and mountain rescue roles but also by the colours of the British countryside where Defenders have long since become part of the landscape.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In January 2018 Land Rover unveiled the Defender Works V8 as part of the Defender's 70th Anniversary. The 150 examples feature a naturally-aspirated 5.0-litre Jaguar AJ-V8 engine producing 405 hp (302 kW) and 515 Nm, mated to an 8-speed ZF 8HP automatic gearbox. Land Rover additionally fitted new springs, dampers and anti-roll bars and uprated brakes along with 18" alloy wheels and all-terrain tyres. The 70th Anniversary Defenders were "restomods" produced by Land Rover Classic division and not a new production model. They were late-model, pre-registered Defenders that were carefully selected based on age, mileage, and condition. They were built in both 90 and 110 wheelbases, with a starting price of £150,000.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: There have also been various special editions of the Defender created by the company's overseas operations for sale in their specific markets such as the "Sahara" edition and 55th anniversary Defender 90s sold in France; the former being a basic-spec model painted in a sand-like tan colour and supplied with special decals and the latter being a 4x4 fitted with numerous luxury options and special badges in the mould of the factory-built 50th editions. Sometimes individual Land Rover dealers have created limited editions of vehicles to suit their markets. A dealer in Scotland created the "Braemar" edition of 25 vehicles to appeal to local agricultural and forestry buyers, being a 90 hard top supplied ready fitted with a winch, off-road tyres, spotlamps and worklamps, underbody protection and chequer plate.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: A specially-commissioned custom-built modified Land Rover Defender TD 130, painted bronze-green, was used as a hearse for Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, designed by the Duke himself, at his funeral at Windsor Castle. The Defender Hearse had an open-topped rear to hold the coffin.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Land Rover Defender vehicles have been used by many of the world's military forces, including the US in some limited capacity, following experience with the vehicle during the first Gulf War, where US forces found the British Army's vehicles to be more capable and better suited to operation in urban areas and for air-lifting than the Humvee. ("See" U.S. Army Ranger Special Operations Vehicle.) The British Army has used Land Rovers since the 1950s, as have many countries in the Commonwealth of Nations. The British Army replaced its Series III fleet with One Tens in 1985, with a smaller fleet of Nineties following in 1986. Both used the 2.5-litre naturally aspirated diesel engine. These older vehicles are reaching the end of their service lives, with many being sold onto the civilian market from the late 1990s.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 1994 Land Rover created the Defender XD (XD= extra duty) to replace and complement these vehicles. Powered by 300Tdi engines, the XD has a much stronger chassis, with fibre webbing around the welded joints in the chassis and around stress points to massively increase load capacity. The XD was available both in Defender 90 and 110 forms and is known to the British Army as the Land Rover Wolf. Usually soft or hard tops, they are used for patrol, communications and supply duties. 90XDs are less common, but are generally ordered as soft top or hard top vehicles for light liaison and communications. Short-wheelbase vehicles lack the load capacity needed by modern armies, and the increased power of heavy-lift helicopters has made the larger 110s easily air-transportable- a historic advantage of the smaller, lighter 90.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Land Rover offered its "core" military Defenders with the 300Tdi engine rather than the more powerful but more complicated Td5 engine offered in civilian vehicles. The 300 Tdi Defender went into service in the "Green Fleet" from 1998. Before the 300Tdi engine was introduced, military Land Rovers were offered with 2.5-litre petrol and diesel engines, as well as the 3.5-litre V8 petrol. Trials with the Td5 engine proved it to be reliable in battlefield conditions. However, initially it was decided that servicing and repairing its electronic control systems should they fail was too complicated and reliant on having diagnostic computers available. Land Rover were also unable to guarantee they could make the Td5 resistant to the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) generated by a nuclear weapon.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: However, following successful trials by the Australian Defence Force of the TD5 Landrover, the British MOD purchased a small fleet of TD5 Landrover Defender 110s for its "Green Fleet" between 2000 and 2002. These were specially converted for the MOD by Landrover Specialist Vehicles. They were plated with UK military registration plates and painted IRR green. Most of these vehicles were deployed in the Falklands as troop carriers and communications vehicles for use by the Royal Marines and UK Special Forces. A small number of TD5 Defender 110s were also ordered for the Royal Navy. These were painted navy blue and deployed to the Falklands. Of these Royal Navy vehicles a few were later re-painted IRR green and reassigned to Royal Marines and SBS use. The more powerful TD5 engine, which was capable of being re-mapped up to around 200 Bhp was ideally suited to the rugged terrain of the Falklands and for towing trailers. The majority of these Falkland vehicles were sold off to Military Motors Ltd by the MOD in 2013. The troop carriers had eight passenger seats in the rear and two rear side windows each side for extra visibility. Visually, these UK military troop carrier TD5 Defenders looked similar to the ones used by the Australian Defence Force except that the UK ones were plain IRR green.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The Albanian Land Force also possesses a large fleet of Land Rover Defenders, a quantity of them were given by the Turkish and Italian armies and the rest of the fleet were bought.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The Italian Army adopted the Defender 90 in 1991 under the name of "AR 90" (AR standing for "Autovettura da Ricognizione", Reconnaissance Vehicle), soft top version, with 2.0 petrol engines MPI series, 2.5 diesel Td5 and 2.4 diesel Td4 engines. Another Land Force version is denominated "VAV" (standing vor "Veicolo d'Attacco Veloce", Fast Attack Vehicle), carrying a crew of three and armed with NATO 5.56 machine gun and 40mm grenade launcher. The Defender hard top version in Italy is also adopted by police forces Carabinieri (Defender 90), civil protection forces (Defender 90, 110 and 130), fire fighting squads (Defender 90, 110).


title: Land Rover Defender

text: With 300Tdi production stopping in 2006, Land Rover set up production of a military version of the four-cylinder Ford Duratorq engine that is also used as a replacement for the Td5 in civilian vehicles.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The British Army's Land Rovers have been the subject of criticism following recent operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The majority of British military Land Rovers carry no armour-plating and the composite-armoured Snatch Land Rover (originally designed to withstand small arms fire and hand-thrown projectiles as experienced in Northern Ireland) is vulnerable to roadside bomb and rocket attacks.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In the 1980s, using the Australia Only civilian 4BD1 powered 110 as a basis, Jaguar Rover Australia (JRA) developed a military version of the 4BD1 110 model for competitive trials against vehicles supplied by Chrysler JEEP, Mercedes and Toyota conducted by the Australian Army Testing Establishment. Land Rover was the successful candidate and the Australian Army ordered several thousand 110 Land Rovers in various configurations made to this specification, called the Land Rover Perentie, some of which were 6x6 drive. Six wheel drive Perenties were fitted with a turbocharged 3.9L Isuzu diesel engine (4BD1-T), while the 4x4 versions were powered by the naturally aspirated variant (4BD1). The Australian Army vehicles were assembled at the Jaguar Rover Australia (JRA) facility at Moorebank, NSW, from locally made components and other components from the UK and Japan.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: The British police have used Land Rovers (including the Defender) in their service for many years, they are supplied with the entire range from Land Rover itself. Due to the ongoing terrorist threat and proliferation of public order disturbances, the Police Service of Northern Ireland has employed armoured and hardened versions of the Land Rover Defender for over 40 years in various guises. The current PSNI armoured public order vehicle is based upon a heavy duty Defender 110 chassis which starts life as a chassis cab and which is then stripped of the original body and fitted with upgraded suspension, brakes, and drive train. The bonnet, wings and roof are produced from armoured composite materials whilst the body is manufactured from a range of armoured steel and composite materials and is known as the "Pangolin".


title: Land Rover Defender

text: In 2004 a fleet of 12 long wheelbase 110 Td5 Land Rovers were produced for the federal German government, varying between 110 vans, 110 HCPUs and 110 4x4s. The German government did not renew the supply contract after 2006, instead turning to Mercedes for their logistics fleet.


title: Land Rover Defender

text: Vehicles produced for the German government order were produced in metallic grey with white roofs. The electrical installation on these vehicles was a special order and kept "luxury" fittings and fixtures to a bare minimum. Four FFR equipped vehicles were produced to facilitate the VHF radios in service at that time with the German government and police authorities. Following the change-over to the Mercedes contract, the federal German government sold their Td5 fleet.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: American Airlines Flight 77 was a scheduled American Airlines domestic transcontinental passenger flight from Washington Dulles International Airport in Dulles, Virginia, to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles, California. The Boeing 757-223 aircraft serving the flight was hijacked by five al-Qaeda terrorists on the morning of September 11, 2001, as part of the September 11 attacks. The hijackers deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, near Washington, D.C., killing all 64 aboard and another 125 in the building.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: 31 minutes after takeoff, the hijackers stormed the cockpit and forced the passengers, crew, and pilots to the rear of the aircraft. Hani Hanjour, one of the hijackers who was trained as a pilot, assumed control of the flight. Unknown to the terrorists, two people aboard made phone calls to family members and relayed information on the hijacking.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Hanjour crashed the aircraft into the western side of the Pentagon at 09:37 AM ET. Many people witnessed the crash, and news sources began reporting on the incident within minutes, but no clear footage of the crash itself exists. The impact severely damaged an area of the Pentagon and caused a large fire that took several days to extinguish. The damage done to the Pentagon caused a portion of the building to collapse within about half-an-hour of the impact.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The damaged sections of the Pentagon were rebuilt in 2002, with occupants moving back into the completed areas that August. The 184 victims of the attack are memorialized in the Pentagon Memorial adjacent to the crash site. The park contains a bench for each of the victims, arranged according to their year of birth.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The hijackers on American Airlines Flight77 were five Saudi men between the ages of 20 and 29. They were led by Hani Hanjour, who piloted the aircraft into the Pentagon. Hanjour first arrived in the United States in 1990.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Hanjour trained at the CRM Airline Training Center in Scottsdale, Arizona, earning his FAA commercial pilot's certificate in April 1999. He had wanted to be a commercial pilot for Saudia but was rejected when he applied to the civil aviation school in Jeddah in 1999. Hanjour's brother later explained that, frustrated at not finding a job, Hanjour "increasingly turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers." Hanjour returned to Saudi Arabia after being certified as a pilot, but left again in late 1999, telling his family he was going to the United Arab Emirates to work for an airline. Hanjour likely went to Afghanistan, where Al-Qaeda recruits were screened for special skills they might have. Already having selected the Hamburg cell members, Al Qaeda leaders selected Hanjour to lead the fourth team of hijackers.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: In December 2000, Hanjour arrived in San Diego, joining "muscle" hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, who had been there since January of that year. Alec Station, the CIA's unit dedicated to tracking Osama bin Laden, had discovered that al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar had multiple-entry visas to the United States. An FBI agent inside the unit and his supervisor Mark Rossini (Former Federal Bureau of Investigation Supervisory Agent) sought to alert FBI headquarters, but the CIA officer supervising Rossini at Alec Station rebuffed him on the grounds that the FBI lacked jurisdiction.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Soon after arriving in San Diego, Hanjour and Hazmi left for Mesa, Arizona, where Hanjour began refresher training at Arizona Aviation. In April 2001, they relocated to Falls Church, Virginia, where they awaited the arrival of the remaining "muscle" hijackers. One of these men, Majed Moqed, arrived on May 2, 2001, with Flight175 hijacker Ahmed al-Ghamdi from Dubai at Dulles International Airport. They moved into an apartment with Hazmi and Hanjour.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: On May 21, 2001, Hanjour rented a room in Paterson, New Jersey, where he stayed with other hijackers through the end of August. The last Flight77 "muscle" hijacker, Salem al-Hazmi, arrived on June 29, 2001, with Abdulaziz al-Omari (a hijacker of Flight11) at John F. Kennedy International Airport from the United Arab Emirates. They stayed with Hanjour.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Hanjour received ground instruction and did practice flights at Air Fleet Training Systems in Teterboro, New Jersey, and at Caldwell Flight Academy in Fairfield, New Jersey. Hanjour moved out of the room in Paterson and arrived at the Valencia Motel in Laurel, Maryland, on September 2, 2001. While in Maryland, Hanjour and fellow hijackers trained at Gold's Gym in Greenbelt. On September 10, he completed a certification flight, using a terrain recognition system for navigation, at Congressional Air Charters in Gaithersburg, Maryland.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: On September 10 Nawaf al-Hazmi, accompanied by other hijackers, checked into the Marriott in Herndon, Virginia, near Dulles Airport.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: According to a U.S. State Department cable leaked in the WikiLeaks dump in February 2010, the FBI has investigated another suspect, Mohammed al-Mansoori. He had associated with three Qatari citizens who flew from Los Angeles to London (via Washington) and Qatar on the eve of the attacks, after allegedly surveying the World Trade Center and the White House. U.S. law enforcement officials said the data about the four men was "just one of many leads that were thoroughly investigated at the time and never led to terrorism charges." An official added that the three Qatari citizens had never been questioned by the FBI. Eleanor Hill, the former staff director for the congressional joint inquiry on the September 11 attacks, said the cable reinforces questions about the thoroughness of the FBI's investigation. She also said that the inquiry concluded the hijackers had a support network that helped them in different ways.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The three Qatari men were booked to fly from Los Angeles to Washington on September 10, 2001, on the same plane that was hijacked and piloted into the Pentagon on the following day. Instead, they flew from Los Angeles to Qatar, via Washington and London. While the cable said Mansoori was currently under investigation, U.S. law enforcement officials said there was no active investigation of him or of the Qatari citizens mentioned in the cable.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The aircraft involved in the hijacking was a Boeing 757-223 (registration The aircraft was built and had its first flight in 1991 and delivered to American Airlines in May 1991. The crew included Captain Charles Burlingame (51) (a Naval Academy graduate and former fighter pilot), First Officer David Charlebois (39), purser Renee May and flight attendants Michele Heidenberger, Jennifer Lewis and Kenneth Lewis. The capacity of the aircraft was 188 passengers, but with 58 passengers on September 11, the load factor was 33 percent. American Airlines said Tuesdays were the least-traveled day of the week, with the same load factor seen on Tuesdays in the previous three months for Flight77.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: On the morning of September 11, 2001, the five hijackers arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport. At 07:15 AM ET, Khalid al-Mihdhar and Majed Moqed checked in at the American Airlines ticket counter for Flight77, arriving at the passenger security checkpoint a few minutes later at 07:18. Both men set off the metal detector and were put through secondary screening. Moqed continued to set off the alarm, so he was searched with a hand wand. The Hazmi brothers checked in together at the ticket counter at 07:29. Hani Hanjour checked in separately and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 07:35. Hanjour was followed minutes later at the checkpoint by Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi, who also set off the metal detector's alarm. The screener at the checkpoint never resolved what set off the alarm. As seen in security footage later released, Nawaf al-Hazmi appeared to have an unidentified item in his back pocket. Utility knives up to four inches were permitted at the time by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as carry-on items. The passenger security checkpoint at Dulles International Airport was operated by Argenbright Security, under contract with United Airlines.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The hijackers were all selected for extra screening of their checked bags. Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and Moqed were chosen by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS) criteria, while the brothers Nawaf and Salem al-Hazmi were selected because they did not provide adequate identification and were deemed suspicious by the airline check-in agent. Hanjour, Mihdhar, and Nawaf al-Hazmi did not check any bags for the flight. Checked bags belonging to Moqed and Salem al-Hazmi were held until they boarded the aircraft.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Flight 77 was scheduled to depart for Los Angeles at 08:10; 58 passengers boarded through Gate D26, including the five hijackers. The 53 other passengers on board excluding the hijackers were 26 men, 22 women, and five children ranging in age from three to eleven. On the flight, Hani Hanjour was seated up front in 1B, while Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi were likewise seated in first class, in seats 5E and 5F. Majed Moqed and Khalid al-Mihdhar were seated further back in 12A and 12B, in economy class. Flight77 left the gate on time and took off from Runway 30 at Dulles at 08:20. Shortly after the flight took off, FAA flight controller, Danielle O'Brien, made a routine handoff of Flight 77 to a colleague at the FAA's Indianapolis Center. For reasons she couldn't explain and would never fully understand, O'Brien didn't use one of her normal sendoffs to the pilots: "Good day," or "Have a nice flight." Instead she told them, "Good luck."


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The 9/11 Commission estimated that the flight was hijacked between 08:51 and 08:54, shortly after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center and not too long after United Airlines Flight 175 had been hijacked. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51. Unlike the other three flights, there were no reports of anyone being stabbed or the use of mace and bomb threats, and the pilots were not immediately killed but instead herded to the back of the plane with the rest of the passengers. At 08:54, as the plane flew in the vicinity over Pike County, Ohio, it began to deviate from its normal assigned flight path and turned south. Two minutes later, at 08:56, the plane's transponder was switched off. The hijackers set the flight's autopilot on a course heading east towards Washington, D.C.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The FAA was aware at this point there was an emergency on board the airplane. After learning of a second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines, American Airlines' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline. The Indianapolis Air Route Traffic Control Center, as well as American Airlines dispatchers, made several failed attempts to contact the aircraft. At the time the airplane was hijacked, it was flying over an area of limited radar coverage. With air controllers unable to contact the flight by radio, an Indianapolis official declared that it had possibly crashed at 09:09.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Two people on board the aircraft made phone calls to contacts on the ground. At 09:12, flight attendant Renee May called her mother, Nancy May, in Las Vegas. During the call, which lasted nearly two minutes, May erroneously said her flight "was being hijacked by six persons", who had forced "us" to the rear of the airplane. She didn't explain whether the people crowded together were crew members, passengers, or both. May asked her mother to contact American Airlines, which she and her husband promptly did; however, American Airlines was already aware of the hijacking. Between 09:16 and 09:26, passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Theodore Olson, and reported that the airplane had been hijacked and the assailants had box cutters and knives. She reported that everyone, including the pilots, had been moved to the back of the cabin and that the hijackers were unaware of her call. A minute into the conversation, the call was cut off. Theodore Olson contacted the command center at the Department of Justice, and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft. About five minutes later, Barbara Olson called again, telling her husband that the "pilot" had announced the flight was hijacked. Who she was referring to when using the term “pilot” is unclear, but since the crew were spared by the hijackers it has been speculated that it could have either been one of the actual pilots or Hani Hanjour, who may have made announcements over the cabin’s PA system without making the mistake of broadcasting his messages to controllers on the ground by keying the wrong switch, an error made by Mohamed Atta and Ziad Jarrah on Flights 11 and 93 respectively. Olson then asked her husband, "What do I tell the pilot to do?" Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying low over a residential area. He told her of the attacks on the World Trade Center. Olson absorbed the news quietly, though Ted wondered if she'd been shocked into silence. After expressing their feelings and reassuring the other, the call cut off again.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The hijackers disengaged the autopilot and took manual control of the plane at 9:29. An airplane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington, turning and descending rapidly. Controllers initially thought this was a military fighter, due to its high speed and maneuvering.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: According to the 9/11 Commission Report, as Flight77 was west-southwest of the Pentagon, it made a 330-degree spiral turn clockwise. At the end of the turn, it was descending through , pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington. Hani Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dove toward the Pentagon. While level above the ground and seconds from impact, the wings clipped five street lampposts and the right wing struck a portable generator, creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Flight77, flying at over the Navy Annex Building adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery, impacted the western side of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, just south of Washington, D.C., at 09:37:46. The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level, and at the moment of impact, the airplane was rolled slightly to the left, with the right wing elevated. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections moved for another fraction of a second, with tail section debris penetrating furthest into the building. In all, the airplane took eight-tenths of a second to fully penetrate into the three outermost of the building's five rings and unleashed a fireball that rose above the building.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Shortly before the crash, Reagan Airport controllers had asked a passing Air National Guard Lockheed C-130 Hercules to identify and follow the aircraft. The pilot, Lieutenant Colonel Steven O'Brien, told them it was a Boeing757 or 767, and that its silver fuselage meant it was probably an American Airlines jet. He had difficulty picking out the airplane in the "East Coast haze", but then saw a "huge" fireball and assumed it had hit the ground. Approaching the Pentagon, he saw the impact site on the building's west side and reported to Reagan control, "Looks like that aircraft crashed into the Pentagon, sir."


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: At the time of the attacks, approximately eighteen thousand people worked in the Pentagon, four thousand fewer than before renovations began in 1998. The section of the Pentagon that was struck, which had recently been renovated at a cost of $250million, housed the Naval Command Center.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: In all, there were 189 deaths at the Pentagon site, including the 125 in the Pentagon building in addition to the 64 on board the aircraft. Passenger Barbara Olson was en route to a recording of the TV show "Politically Incorrect". A group of three 11-year-old children, their chaperones, and two National Geographic Society staff members were also on board, embarking on an educational trip west to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara, California.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The fatalities at the Pentagon included 55 military personnel and 70 civilians. Of those 125 killed, 92 were on the first floor, 31 were on the second floor, and two were on the third. Seven Defense Intelligence Agency civilian employees were killed while the Office of the Secretary of Defense lost one contractor. The U.S. Army suffered 75 fatalities53 civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldierswhile the U.S. Navy suffered 42 fatalitiesnine civilians (six employees and three contractors) and 33 sailors. Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army deputy chief of staff, was the highest-ranking military officer killed at the Pentagon; also killed was retired Rear Admiral Wilson Flagg, a passenger on the plane. LT Mari-Rae Sopper, JAGC, USNR, was also on board the flight, and was the first Navy Judge Advocate ever to be killed in action. Another 106 were injured on the ground and were treated at area hospitals.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: On the side where the plane hit, the Pentagon is bordered by Interstate 395 and Washington Boulevard. Motorist Mary Lyman, who was on I-395, saw the airplane pass over at a "steep angle toward the ground and going fast" and then saw the cloud of smoke from the Pentagon. Omar Campo, another witness, was on the other side of the road:


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Afework Hagos, a computer programmer, was on his way to work and stuck in a traffic jam near the Pentagon when the airplane flew over. "There was a huge screaming noise and I got out of the car as the plane came over. Everybody was running away in different directions. It was tilting its wings up and down like it was trying to balance. It hit some lampposts on the way in." Daryl Donley witnessed the crash and took some of the first photographs of the site.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Terrance Kean, who lived in a nearby apartment building, heard the noise of loud jet engines, glanced out his window, and saw a "very, very large passenger jet". He watched "it just plow right into the side of the Pentagon. The nose penetrated into the portico. And then it sort of disappeared, and there was fire and smoke everywhere." Tim Timmerman, who is a pilot himself, noticed American Airlines markings on the aircraft as he saw it hit the Pentagon. Other drivers on Washington Boulevard, Interstate 395, and Columbia Pike witnessed the crash, as did people in Pentagon City, Crystal City, and other nearby locations.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Former Georgetown University basketball coach John Thompson had originally booked a ticket on Flight77. As he would tell the story many times in the following years, including a September 12, 2011 interview on Jim Rome's radio show, he had been scheduled to appear on that show on September 12, 2001. Thompson was planning to be in Las Vegas for a friend's birthday on September 13, and initially insisted on traveling to Rome's Los Angeles studio on the 11th. However, this did not work for the show, which wanted him to travel on the day of the show. After a Rome staffer personally assured Thompson he would be able to travel from Los Angeles to Las Vegas immediately after the show, Thompson changed his travel plans. He felt the impact from the crash at his home near the Pentagon.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Rescue efforts began immediately after the crash. Almost all the successful rescues of survivors occurred within half an hour of the impact. Initially, rescue efforts were led by the military and civilian employees within the building. Within minutes, the first fire companies arrived and found these volunteers searching near the impact site. The firemen ordered them to leave as they were not properly equipped or trained to deal with the hazards.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The Arlington County Fire Department (ACFD) assumed command of the immediate rescue operation within ten minutes of the crash. ACFD Assistant Chief James Schwartz implemented an incident command system (ICS) to coordinate response efforts among multiple agencies. It took about an hour for the ICS structure to become fully operational. Firefighters from Fort Myer and Reagan National Airport arrived within minutes. Rescue and firefighting efforts were impeded by rumors of additional incoming planes. Chief Schwartz ordered two evacuations during the day in response to these rumors.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: As firefighters attempted to extinguish the fires, they watched the building in fear of a structural collapse. One firefighter remarked that they "pretty much knew the building was going to collapse because it started making weird sounds and creaking." Officials saw a cornice of the building move and ordered an evacuation. Minutes later, at 10:10, the upper floors of the damaged area of the Pentagon collapsed. The collapsed area was about at its widest point and at its deepest. The amount of time between impact and collapse allowed everyone on the fourth and fifth levels to evacuate safely before the structure collapsed. After 11:00, firefighters mounted a two-pronged attack against the fires. Officials estimated temperatures of up to . While progress was made against the interior fires by late afternoon, firefighters realized a flammable layer of wood under the Pentagon's slate roof had caught fire and begun to spread. Typical firefighting tactics were rendered useless by the reinforced structure as firefighters were unable to reach the fire to extinguish it. Firefighters instead made firebreaks in the roof on September 12 to prevent further spreading. At 18:00 on the 12th, Arlington County issued a press release stating the fire was "controlled" but not fully "extinguished". Firefighters continued to put out smaller fires that ignited in the succeeding days.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Various pieces of aircraft debris were found within the wreckage at the Pentagon. While on fire and escaping from the Navy Command Center, Lt. Kevin Shaeffer observed a chunk of the aircraft's nose cone and the nose landing gear in the service road between rings B and C. Early in the morning on Friday, September 14, Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue Team members Carlton Burkhammer and Brian Moravitz came across an "intact seat from the plane's cockpit", while paramedics and firefighters located the two black boxes near the punch out hole in the A–E drive, nearly into the building. The cockpit voice recorder was to retrieve any information, though the flight data recorder yielded useful information. Investigators also found a part of Nawaf al-Hazmi's driver's license in the North Parking Lot rubble pile. Personal effects belonging to victims were found and taken to Fort Myer.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Army engineers determined by 17:30 on the first day that no survivors remained in the damaged section of the building. In the days after the crash, news reports emerged that up to 800 people had died. Army soldiers from Fort Belvoir were the first teams to survey the interior of the crash site and noted the presence of human remains. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Urban Search and Rescue teams, including Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue assisted the search for remains, working through the National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS). Kevin Rimrodt, a Navy photographer surveying the Navy Command Center after the attacks, remarked that "there were so many bodies, I'd almost step on them. So I'd have to really take care to look backwards as I'm backing up in the dark, looking with a flashlight, making sure I'm not stepping on somebody." Debris from the Pentagon was taken to the Pentagon's north parking lot for more detailed search for remains and evidence.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Remains recovered from the Pentagon were photographed, and turned over to the Armed Forces Medical Examiner office, located at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware. The medical examiner's office was able to identify remains belonging to 179 of the victims. Investigators eventually identified 184 of the 189 people who died in the attack. The remains of the five hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, and were turned over as evidence to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). On September 21, the ACFD relinquished control of the crime scene to the FBI. The Washington Field Office, National Capital Response Squad (NCRS), and the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) led the crime scene investigation at the Pentagon.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: By October 2, 2001, the search for evidence and remains was complete and the site was turned over to Pentagon officials. In 2002, the remains of 25 victims were buried collectively at Arlington National Cemetery, with a five-sided granite marker inscribed with the names of all the victims in the Pentagon. The ceremony also honored the five victims whose remains were never found.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: About 03:40 on September 14, a paramedic and a firefighter who were searching through the debris of the impact site found two dark boxes, about by long. They called for an FBI agent, who in turn called for someone from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). The NTSB employee confirmed that these were the flight recorders ("black boxes") from American Airlines Flight77. Dick Bridges, deputy manager for Arlington County, Virginia, said the cockpit voice recorder was damaged on the outside and the flight data recorder was charred. Bridges said the recorders were found "right where the plane came into the building".


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The cockpit voice recorder was transported to the NTSB lab in Washington, D.C., to see what data was salvageable. In its report, the NTSB identified the unit as an L-3 Communications, Fairchild Aviation Recorders model A-100A cockpit voice recordera device which records on magnetic tape. No usable segments of tape were found inside the recorder; according to the NTSB's report, "[t]he majority of the recording tape was fused into a solid block of charred plastic". On the other hand, all the data from the flight data recorder, which used a solid-state drive, was recovered.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: At the moment of impact, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was in his office on the other side of the Pentagon, away from the crash site. He ran to the site and assisted the injured. Rumsfeld returned to his office, and went to a conference room in the Executive Support Center where he joined a secure videoteleconference with Vice President Dick Cheney and other officials. On the day of the attacks, DoD officials considered moving their command operations to Site R, a backup facility in Pennsylvania. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld insisted he remain at the Pentagon, and sent Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz to Site R. The National Military Command Center (NMCC) continued to operate at the Pentagon, even as smoke entered the facility. Engineers and building managers manipulated the ventilation and other building systems that still functioned to draw smoke out of the NMCC and bring in fresh air.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: During a press conference held inside the Pentagon at 18:42, Rumsfeld announced, "The Pentagon's functioning. It will be in business tomorrow." Pentagon employees returned the next day to offices in mostly unaffected areas of the building. By the end of September, more workers returned to the lightly damaged areas of the Pentagon.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: Early estimates on rebuilding the damaged section of the Pentagon were that it would take three years to complete. However, the project moved forward at an accelerated pace and was completed by the first anniversary of the attack. The rebuilt section of the Pentagon includes a small indoor memorial and chapel at the point of impact. An outdoor memorial, commissioned by the Pentagon and designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman, was completed on schedule for its dedication on September 11, 2008. Since September 11, American Airlines continued to fly from Dulles International Airport to Los Angeles International Airport until 2020, when flights were permanently suspended. As of 2022, American Airlines operates the flight from Washington to LAX from Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport as Flight 1275 departing at 08:55 using an Airbus A321neo.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The Department of Defense released filmed footage on May 16, 2006, that was recorded by a security camera of American Airlines Flight77 crashing into the Pentagon, with a plane visible in one frame, as a "thin white blur" and an explosion following. The images were made public in response to a December 2004 Freedom of Information Act request by Judicial Watch. Some still images from the video had previously been released and publicly circulated, but this was the first official release of the edited video of the crash.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: A nearby Citgo service station also had security cameras, but a video released on September 15, 2006, did not show the crash because the camera was pointed away from the crash site.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The Doubletree Hotel, located nearby in Crystal City, Virginia, also had a security camera video. The FBI released the video on December 4, 2006, in response to a FOIA lawsuit filed by Scott Bingham. The footage is "grainy and the focus is soft, but a rapidly growing tower of smoke is visible in the distance on the upper edge of the frame as the plane crashes into the building."


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: On September 12, 2002, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld and General Richard Myers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, dedicated the Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery. The memorial specifically honors the five individuals for whom no identifiable remains were found. This included Dana Falkenberg, age three, who was aboard American Airlines Flight77 with her parents and older sister. A portion of the remains of 25 other victims are also buried at the site. The memorial is a pentagonal granite marker high. On five sides of the memorial along the top are inscribed the words "Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon September 11, 2001". Aluminum plaques, painted black, are inscribed with the names of the 184 victims of the terrorist attack. The site is located in Section 64, on a slight rise, which gives it a view of the Pentagon.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: At the National September 11 Memorial, the names of the Pentagon victims are inscribed on six panels at the South Pool.


title: American Airlines Flight 77

text: The Pentagon Memorial, located just southwest of The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, is a permanent outdoor memorial to the 184 people who died as victims in the building and on American Airlines Flight77 during the September11 attacks. Designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman of the architectural firm of Kaseman Beckman Advanced Strategies with engineers Buro Happold, the memorial opened on September 11, 2008, seven years after the attack.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate or magnesium sulphate (in English-speaking countries other than the US) is a chemical compound, a salt with the formula , consisting of magnesium cations (20.19% by mass) and sulfate anions . It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water but not in ethanol.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate is usually encountered in the form of a hydrate , for various values of "n" between 1 and 11. The most common is the heptahydrate , known as Epsom salt, which is a household chemical with many traditional uses, including bath salts.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: The main use of magnesium sulfate is in agriculture, to correct soils deficient in magnesium (an essential plant nutrient because of the role of magnesium in chlorophyll and photosynthesis). The monohydrate is favored for this use; by the mid 1970s, its production was 2.3 million tons per year. The anhydrous form and several hydrates occur in nature as minerals, and the salt is a significant component of the water from some springs.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: All the hydrates lose water upon heating. Above 320 °C, only the anhydrous form is stable. It decomposes without melting at 1124 °C into magnesium oxide (MgO) and sulfur trioxide ().


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: The heptahydrate takes its common name "Epsom salt" from a bitter saline spring in Epsom in Surrey, England, where the salt was produced from the springs that arise where the porous chalk of the North Downs meets the impervious London clay.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: It is a natural source of both magnesium and sulphur. Epsom salts are commonly used in bath salts, exfoliants, muscle relaxers and pain relievers. However, these are different from Epsom salts that are used for gardening, as they contain aromas and perfumes not suitable for plants.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate monohydrate, or kieserite, can be prepared by heating the heptahydrate to 120 °C. Further heating to 250 °C gives anhydrous magnesium sulfate. Kieserite exhibits monoclinic symmetry at pressures lower than 2.7 GPa after which it transforms to phase of triclinic symmetry.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: The undecahydrate , meridianiite, is stable at atmospheric pressure only below 2 °C. Above that temperature, it liquefies into a mix of solid heptahydrate and a saturated solution. It has a eutectic point with water at −3.9 °C and 17.3% (mass) of . Large crystals can be obtained from solutions of the proper concentration kept at 0 °C for a few days.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: At pressures of about 0.9 GPa and at 240 K, meridianiite decomposes into a mixture of ice VI and the enneahydrate .


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: The enneahydrate was identified and characterized only recently, even though it seems easy to produce (by cooling a solution of and sodium sulfate in suitable proportions).


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: The structure is monoclinic, with unit-cell parameters at 250 K: "a" = 0.675 nm, "b" = 1.195 nm, "c" = 1.465 nm, β = 95.1°, "V" = 1.177 nm with "Z" = 4. The most probable space group is P21/c. Magnesium selenate also forms an enneahydrate , but with a different crystal structure.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: As and ions are respectively the second cation and the second anion present in seawater after and , magnesium sulfates are common minerals in geological environments. Their occurrence is mostly connected with supergene processes. Some of them are also important constituents of evaporitic potassium-magnesium (K-Mg) salts deposits.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Bright spots observed by the Dawn Spacecraft in Occator Crater on the dwarf planet Ceres are most consistent with reflected light from magnesium sulfate hexahydrate.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Almost all known mineralogical forms of are hydrates. Epsomite is the natural analogue of "Epsom salt". Meridianiite, , has been observed on the surface of frozen lakes and is thought to also occur on Mars. Hexahydrite is the next lower hydrate. Three next lower hydrates – pentahydrite, starkeyite, and especially sanderite – are rare. Kieserite is a monohydrate and is common among evaporitic deposits. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate was reported from some burning coal dumps.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate is usually obtained directly from dry lake beds and other natural sources. It can also be prepared by reacting magnesite (magnesium carbonate, ) or magnesia (oxide, MgO) with sulfuric acid ().


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Another possible method is to treat seawater or magnesium-containing industrial wastes so as to precipitate magnesium hydroxide and react the precipitate with sulfuric acid.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Also, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (epsomite, ) is manufactured by dissolution of magnesium sulfate monohydrate (kieserite, ) in water and subsequent crystallization of the heptahydrate.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate relaxation is the primary mechanism that causes the absorption of sound in seawater at frequencies above 10 kHz (acoustic energy is converted to thermal energy). Lower frequencies are less absorbed by the salt, so that low frequency sound travels farther in the ocean. Boric acid and magnesium carbonate also contribute to absorption.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: The main external use is the formulation as bath salts, especially for foot baths to soothe sore feet. Such baths have been claimed to also soothe and hasten recovery from muscle pain, soreness, or injury. Potential health effects of magnesium sulfate are reflected in medical studies on the impact of magnesium on resistant depression and as an analgesic for migraine and chronic pain. Magnesium sulfate has been studied in the treatment of asthma, preeclampsia and eclampsia.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate is the usual component of the concentrated salt solution used in isolation tanks to increase its specific gravity to approximately 1.25–1.26. This high density allows an individual to float effortlessly on the surface of water in the closed tank, eliminating as many of the external senses as possible.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: In the UK, a medication containing magnesium sulfate and phenol, called "drawing paste", is useful for small boils or localized infections and removing splinters.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Internally, magnesium sulfate may be administered by oral, respiratory, or intravenous routes. Internal uses include replacement therapy for magnesium deficiency, treatment of acute and severe arrhythmias, as a bronchodilator in the treatment of asthma, preventing eclampsia, a tocolytic agent, and as an anticonvulsant.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: In agriculture, magnesium sulfate is used to increase magnesium or sulfur content in soil. It is most commonly applied to potted plants, or to magnesium-hungry crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, peppers, lemons, and roses. The advantage of magnesium sulfate over other magnesium soil amendments (such as dolomitic lime) is its high solubility, which also allows the option of foliar feeding. Solutions of magnesium sulfate are also nearly pH neutral, compared with the slightly alkaline salts of magnesium as found in limestone; therefore, the use of magnesium sulfate as a magnesium source for soil does not significantly change the soil pH. Contrary to the popular belief that magnesium sulfate is able to control pests and slugs, helps seeds germination, produce more flowers, improve nutrient uptake, and is environmentally friendly, it does none of the purported claims except for correcting magnesium deficiency in soils. Magnesium sulfate can even pollute water if used in excessive amounts.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate was historically used as a treatment for lead poisoning prior to the development of chelation therapy, as it was hoped that any lead ingested would be precipitated out by the magnesium sulfate and subsequently purged from the digestive system. This application saw particularly widespread use among veterinarians during the early-to-mid 20th century; Epsom salt was already available on many farms for agricultural use, and it was often prescribed in the treatment of farm animals that inadvertently ingested lead.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is commonly used as a desiccant in organic synthesis owing to its affinity for water and compatibility with most organic compounds. During work-up, an organic phase is treated with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The hydrated solid is then removed by filtration, decantation, or by distillation (if the boiling point is low enough). Other inorganic sulfate salts such as sodium sulfate and calcium sulfate may be used in the same way.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate is used to prepare specific cements by the reaction between magnesium oxide and magnesium sulfate solution, which are of good binding ability and more resistance than Portland cement. This cement is mainly adopted in the production of lightweight insulation panels. Weakness in water resistance limits its usage.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium (or sodium) sulfate is also used for testing aggregates for soundness in accordance with ASTM C88 standard, when there are no service records of the material exposed to actual weathering conditions. The test is accomplished by repeated immersion in saturated solutions followed by oven drying to dehydrate the salt precipitated in permeable pore spaces. The internal expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion, simulates the expansion of water on freezing.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate is also used to maintain the magnesium concentration in marine aquaria which contain large amounts of stony corals, as it is slowly depleted in their calcification process. In a magnesium-deficient marine aquarium, calcium and alkalinity concentrations are very difficult to control because not enough magnesium is present to stabilize these ions in the saltwater and prevent their spontaneous precipitation into calcium carbonate.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Double salts containing magnesium sulfate exist. There are several known as sodium magnesium sulfates and potassium magnesium sulfates. A mixed copper-magnesium sulfate heptahydrate was recently found to occur in mine tailings and has been given the mineral name alpersite.


title: Magnesium sulfate

text: Research on topical magnesium (for example epsom salt baths) is very limited. The Epsom Salt Council recommends bathing 2 or 3 times/ week, using 500-600g Epsom salts each time.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: The Serpent is a British crime drama serial developed by Mammoth Screen and commissioned by the BBC. The eight-part limited series is a co-production between BBC One and Netflix. It is based on the crimes of serial killer Charles Sobhraj, who murdered young tourists from 1975 to 1976. The series stars Tahar Rahim in the lead role as Sobhraj.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: The series was shot on location in Thailand, until the COVID-19 pandemic which halted production for five months from March 2020. Filming was completed in Hertfordshire, England, during August 2020. It premiered on BBC One on New Year's Day in 2021 and all eight episodes were immediately made available on BBC iPlayer. The show began streaming on Netflix in April 2021.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: Set in the mid-1970s, the story follows Charles Sobhraj, a French serial killer of Indian and Vietnamese descent, as he drugs and robs travellers, particularly young backpackers, travelling through Bangkok, Thailand, along the overland. He steals his victims' passports and identities to travel the world and sells stolen gems with girlfriend Marie-Andrée Leclerc. Charles Sobhraj is at the height of his crimes when a Dutch diplomat, Herman Knippenberg, begins investigating the murders of Dutch tourists and uncovers clues leading to Sobhraj.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: In July 2019, the BBC announced that it had commissioned the eight-part drama from Mammoth Screen, Tom Shankland, and Richard Warlow. Tahar Rahim would star as Charles Sobhraj.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: Jenna Coleman, Billy Howle, and Ellie Bamber joined the main cast in September 2019. Warlow and Toby Finlay would write, Shankland and Hans Herbots would direct, and Warlow and Shankland would executive produce alongside Stephen Smallwood, Preethi Mavahalli, Damien Timmer, and Lucy Richer.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: "The Serpent" was filmed in Thailand across nine provinces, although principal photography took place in the capital Bangkok and in the resort town of Hua Hin in Thailand's Prachuap Khiri Khan province. Shooting lasted about 10 months, with the production team working with local production house Living Films. Filming stopped in late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but resumed in Hertfordshire, England in August 2020 after five-months. Scenes shot upon the resumption of filming were seamlessly blended among existing shots from Thailand, with just minor changes to the script required. According to Jenna Coleman, in multiple TV and radio interviews, scenes taking place in India and France (among other locations) were shot in England due to the production being prevented from filming on location. Later, the BBC Writers Room made the shooting scripts for the episodes available through its online script library; the scripts indicate which scenes needed to be shot in England.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: BBC One revealed first look stills of the series in January 2020. A trailer was then released on 17 December 2020. The drama debuted on BBC One on 1 January 2021, followed by Episode 2 a few days later, after which the series settled into a weekly broadcast on Sunday nights. The complete 8-episode series was also released on iPlayer also on 1 January. Both the BBC broadcast and streaming release were available to UK residents only. In early February, the UK version of Amazon began listing a DVD release of the series, available as of 22 February 2021.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 70% based on 33 critic reviews, with an average rating of 6.4/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Tahar Rahim's unnerving performance brings reptilian menace to "The Serpent", but this uneven slice of true crime is too byzantine in structure and too pat about its central villain's motivations to really get under the skin."


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: "The Serpent" received generally positive reviews in the UK. Rebecca Nicholson, writing in "The Guardian", gave the first episode 3/5 stars, finding the time-hopping plotting unnecessary and confusing, and wondering whether the programme had much to say, while admiring the atmosphere and the 'routinely outstanding cast'. For Euan Ferguson writing in "The Observer", who admired Rahim and Coleman's acting, "The Serpent" was a 'skilful retelling' of the Sobhraj story and one that both pays homage to his victims, while revealing the cultural shortcomings of the flower children. That Rahim underplays Sobhraj's charm was a good thing for Ferguson. However, Rahim's absence of charisma makes it hard to understand how Sobhraj gained a hold over people for Flora Carr writing in "The Radio Times", who gives the show 3/5 stars.


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: Giving the programme 3/5 stars, Ed Cumming in "The Independent" found the pace slow and Rahim's acting staying mostly on the right side of the fine line between inscrutable and dull. James Delingpole in "The Spectator" called it "the best BBC drama series in ages", admiring the period detail, superb casting and absence of "unnecessary politics" as well as noting that it might be especially painful for people who could have found themselves in similar scenarios to those that Charles Sobhraj exploited. By mid-point "The Serpent" gathers "considerable momentum" according to Trevor Johnson in "Sight and Sound" reviewing the first four episodes, who goes on to write that the series features an "alluring anti-hero" and excellent score, but is let down by the shallow characterisation of its Thai characters. Rahul Desai of "Film Companion" called "The Serpent" “a refreshing restoration of balance" adding that it "reduces Charles Sobhraj from an image to an individual, a portrait to a person – and most importantly, from a human to a reptile."


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: Angela Kane (formerly Knippenberg) has said that she was unhappy that "The Serpent" had downplayed her role in cracking the case. The journalist Andrew Anthony, who interviewed Sobhraj twice, said that while the series captured his "enigmatic detachment and quiet menace", it misses his more troubling qualities of wit, charm and "a kind of playful sense of self-mythologising".


title: The Serpent (TV series)

text: In the Netherlands, one publication noted the inability of Billy Howle, playing a Dutchman, to pronounce his Dutch lines accurately.


title: Karthik Subbaraj

text: Karthik did his schooling in SBOA Matriculation and Higher Secondary School, Madurai after which he went on to study Mechatronics at Thiagarajar College of Engineering. During his college days he performed stage shows and skits. His father, Gajaraj, is an actor who has acted in many supporting roles in films like "Mundasupatti" and "Kabali".


title: Karthik Subbaraj

text: Karthik had intended to direct "Jigarthanda" first but could not fund the project. He then came up with the story for the low-budget "Pizza" which introduced the 7.1 sound system. The film was a commercial success, remade in Hindi, Bengali and Kannada. This allowed him the opportunity to make "Jigarthanda", which received positive reviews and earned actor Bobby Simha a national award. Subbaraj was praised by industry stalwarts like director S. Shankar and Mani Ratnam. His third movie, "Iraivi" (2016), received positive reviews and Subbaraj was praised for the film's portrayal of society's treatment of women. The movie also observed the various ways men's attitudes and behaviors impact women throughout life. He also showcased the pain he gothrough from the producer of his second film, through the character of SJ Surya. He then went on and directed a silent thriller, "Mercury" (2018), starring Prabhu Deva in its lead, which was not a commercial success. He produced "Kallachirippu", a web series under his banner Stone bench.


title: Karthik Subbaraj

text: Subbaraj directed the action drama "Petta" (2019) with Rajinikanth's 166th film. Kalanithi Maran of Sun Pictures produced the film while Anirudh Ravichander composed the film's music, replacing Santhosh Narayanan who composed for the director's previous ventures. Nawazuddin Siddiqui made his Tamil film debut with this film. In the meanwhile, he produced the Amazon original movie "Penguin" starring Keerthy Suresh in the lead role. He produced the Hotstar Originals web series "Triples" starring Jai and Vani Bhojan. He also directed Vikram’s starrer "Mahaan" which was directly premiered on Amazon Prime Video.


title: The Best FIFA Men's Player

text: The Best FIFA Men's Player is an association football award presented annually by the sport's governing body, FIFA, since 2016, to honour the player deemed to have performed the best over the previous calendar year. The award was formerly known as the FIFA World Player of the Year, which was merged with "France Football"s Ballon d'Or in 2010 to become the FIFA Ballon d'Or in a six-year partnership.


title: The Best FIFA Men's Player

text: In 2010, the FIFA World Player of the Year award combined with the Ballon d'Or to create the FIFA Ballon d'Or in a six-year partnership. FIFA presided over the FIFA Ballon d'Or after agreeing to pay £13million for the merge of the two major player awards with "France Football". The six editions of the FIFA Ballon d'Or were dominated by Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo, as part of their ongoing rivalry. In 2016, the Ballon d’Or again lost its "FIFA" tag and would be voted for exclusively by journalists, while the FIFA World Player of the Year award – which ran from 1991 to 2009 – was resurrected, this time as The Best FIFA Men's Player.


title: The Best FIFA Men's Player

text: According to reports, FIFA's decision not to renew the deal was made in order to improve the organization's strained relationship with England's FA. This was based on the fact the annual ceremony was held in Zürich – and new FIFA president Gianni Infantino wanted to move the next one to London.


title: The Best FIFA Men's Player

text: The selection criteria for the players of the year are sporting performance, as well as general conduct on and off the pitch.


title: The Best FIFA Men's Player

text: The votes are decided by media representatives, national team coaches, and national team captains. In October 2016, it was announced that the general public would also be allowed to vote. Each group has 25% of the overall vote.


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food safety, tobacco products, caffeine products, dietary supplements, prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceutical drugs (medications), vaccines, biopharmaceuticals, blood transfusions, medical devices, electromagnetic radiation emitting devices (ERED), cosmetics, animal foods & feed and veterinary products.


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: The FDA's primary focus is enforcement of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C), but the agency also enforces other laws, notably Section 361 of the Public Health Service Act, as well as associated regulations. Much of this regulatory-enforcement work is not directly related to food or drugs, but involves such things as regulating lasers, cellular phones, and condoms, as well as control of disease in contexts varying from household pets to human sperm donated for use in assisted reproduction.


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Robert Califf is the current commissioner, .


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: The FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. In 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom.


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: FDA headquarters facilities are currently located in Montgomery County and Prince George's County, Maryland.


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: Since 1990, the FDA has had employees and facilities on of the White Oak Federal Research Center in the White Oak area of Silver Spring, Maryland. In 2001, the General Services Administration (GSA) began new construction on the campus to consolidate the FDA's 25 existing operations in the Washington metropolitan area, its headquarters in Rockville, and several fragmented office buildings. The first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees in December 2003. As of December 2018, the FDA campus has a population of 10,987 employees housed in approximately of space, divided into ten office and four laboratory buildings. The campus houses the Office of the Commissioner (OC), the Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA),  the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), the Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH), the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) and offices for the Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM).


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: With the passing of the FDA Reauthorization Act of 2017, the FDA is projecting a 64% increase in employees to 18,000 over the next 15 years, and would like to add approximately of office and special use space to their existing facilities. The National Capital Planning Commission approved a new master plan for this expansion in December 2018, and construction is expected to be completed by 2035, dependent on GSA appropriations.


title: Food and Drug Administration

text: The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the agency's "eyes and ears," conducting the vast majority of the FDA's work in the field. Its employees, known as Consumer Safety Officers, or more commonly known simply as investigators, inspect production and warehousing facilities, investigate complaints, illnesses, or outbreaks, and review documentation in the case of medical devices, drugs, biological products, and other items where it may be difficult to conduct a physical examination or take a physical sample of the product. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the geographic divisions of the Federal court system. Each district comprises a main district office and a number of Resident Posts, which are FDA remote offices that serve a particular geographic area. ORA also includes the Agency's network of regulatory laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, and radiation-emitting devices.