title: Reading F.C.

text: On 5 July 2016, at the end of Eamonn Dolan's funeral, Reading announced that the North Stand would be renamed the Eamonn Dolan Stand.


title: Reading F.C.

text: In 1930, the Reading Football Supporters’ Club (RFSC) was formed to represent the interests of supporters of the club and to assist in raising funds for the football club. On 18 March 2002, the Supporters' Trust at Reading become the official successor to the RFSC.


title: Reading F.C.

text: In 2001, Reading became the first football club to register their fans as an official member of their squad, giving the "player" registered with squad number 13 as 'Reading Fans'.


title: Reading F.C.

text: For the 2015–16 season, Reading had 12,983 season ticket holders – ranked 10th in the Championship and almost identical to former league champions Leeds United. The figure for that season was greater than the 12,552 recorded in the previous season, but down from the 2013–14 Championship peak of 14,547. The average attendance for the 2015–16 season was 17,570 – the 10th highest in the Championship.


title: Reading F.C.

text: Before going out of business in 1992, Aldershot were Reading's biggest rivals. Aldershot were, geographically, the closest Football League club to Reading. There was a strong rift between the two sets of fans, with fighting between fans occurring on several occasions. Strong feelings remain between fans of Reading and fans of Aldershot Town, the refounded club in Aldershot. Aldershot Town were promoted into the Football League in 2008, but the clubs haven't met in a competitive match since the demise of the original club. Aldershot were relegated out of the league in 2013, having entered administration, reducing the chances of a competitive meeting between the two sides in the near future.


title: Reading F.C.

text: Since Aldershot's exile, Reading's main local rivalries have been with Oxford United and Swindon Town. When the three teams had shared a division, their rivalry was referred to as the "Didcot Triangle". However, the rivalry between Oxford and Swindon is stronger than between either of the two and Reading, largely due to them both spending their recent history in lower divisions than Reading, and spending their previous history in higher divisions than Reading. In 2012, a small survey showed that Reading's main rivals were Aldershot Town, followed by Swindon Town and Oxford United.


title: Reading F.C.

text: During the 2013–14 season and 2014–15 season the Marussia F1 logo was on the back of the shirts as part of a sponsorship deal between former Russian owner Anton Zingarevich and Russian owned Marussia F1. This deal continued until the team entered administration in October 2014. The sponsorship deal ended despite the team surviving and racing in the 2015 Formula One season. During the 2015–16 season, Waitrose was on the back of the home shirt whilst Euro Cake was on the back of the away shirt, meanwhile Legend Alliance sponsored the shorts for the season. Waitrose and Euro Cake sponsored the home and away kits respectively again for the 2016–17 season. Cherwell Software took sponsorship of the back of the home shirt for the 2017–18 season while Euro Cake sponsored the back of the away shirt again for the third consecutive season. Reading confirmed Singaporean international financial technology firm and digital wallet specialist Rapidz as its ‘Back of Shirt’ sponsor for 2020–21.


title: Reading F.C.

text: In 1999, Reading commissioned a poll of the supporters' 'Player of the Millennium' to determine the club's best ever player.


title: Reading F.C.

text: Reading hold the record for the number of successive league wins at the start of a season, with a total of 13 wins at the start of the 1985–86 Third Division campaign and also the record for the number of points gained in a professional league season with 106 points in the 2005–06 Football League Championship campaign. Reading finished champions of their division on both of these occasions.


title: Reading F.C.

text: The club's largest win was a 10–2 victory over Crystal Palace on 4 September 1946 in the Football League Third Division South. Reading's heaviest loss was an 18–0 defeat against Preston North End in the FA Cup 1st round on 27 January 1894. Reading have lost the two highest-scoring matches in the history of the Premier League; Portsmouth 7–4 Reading on 29 September 2007, and Tottenham Hotspur 6–4 Reading on 29 December 2007, as well as losing the highest-scoring League Cup game, Reading 5–7 Arsenal on 30 October 2012.


title: Reading F.C.

text: The player with the most league appearances is Martin Hicks, with 500 from 1978 to 1991. The most capped player to play for Reading is Chris Gunter, who has currently won 62 caps for Wales since being a Reading player since July 2012. The most league goals in total and in a season are held by Ronnie Blackman with 158 from 1947 to 1954 and 39 in 1951–52 respectively. The player with the most league goals in a game is Arthur Bacon with six against Stoke City in 1930–31. The first Reading-based player to play in the FIFA World Cup was Bobby Convey in 2006 with the United States. The record time for a goalkeeper not conceding a goal is held by Steve Death at 1,103 minutes in 1978–79, which is a former English league record in itself.


title: Reading F.C.

text: Reading's highest attendance at Elm Park was in 1927, when 33,042 spectators watched Reading defeat Brentford 1–0. The highest attendance at the Madejski Stadium is 24,184 for the Premier League game with Everton on 17 November 2012.


title: Reading F.C.

text: The highest transfer fee received for a Reading player is the £6.6 million 1899 Hoffenheim paid for Gylfi Sigurðsson on 31 August 2010.


title: Reading F.C.

text: Gylfi Sigurðsson and Samúel Friðjónsson became the first players from the Reading academy to feature in a World Cup squad by being named by Iceland for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Gylfi Sigurðsson went on to become the first academy graduate to score at the World Cup in Iceland's 2–1 defeat to Croatia on 26 June 2018, after becoming the first academy graduate to play in the World Cup with his appearance against Argentina on 16 June 2018.


title: Reading F.C.

text: In May 2006, Reading launched the Reading FC Women's team. They used to play in the FA Premier League Southern Division. From 2014, Reading FC Women played in the FA Women's Super League 2 until they won promotion to the FA Women's Super League 1 in 2015 after winning the league. In the 2017–18 season, they finished fourth in the Women's Super League – their highest league position to date. The team currently plays at Adams Park, home of Wycombe Wanderers.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The Republic of Genoa ( ; ; ) was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the 11th century to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the Late Middle Ages, it was a major commercial power in both the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. Between the 16th and 17th centuries it was one of the major financial centers in Europe.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Throughout its history, the Genoese Republic established numerous colonies throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, including Corsica from 1347 to 1768, Monaco, Southern Crimea from 1266 to 1475 and the islands of Lesbos and Chios from the 14th century to 1462 and 1566 respectively. With the arrival of the early modern period, the Republic had lost many of its colonies, and had to shift its interests and focus on banking. This decision would prove successful for Genoa, which remained as one of the hubs of capitalism, with highly developed banks and trading companies.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoa was known as ""la Superba"" ("the Superb one"), ""la Dominante"" ("The Dominant one"), ""la Dominante dei mari"" ("the Dominant of the Seas"), and ""la Repubblica dei magnifici"" ("the Republic of the Magnificents"). From the 11th century to 1528 it was officially known as the ""Compagna Communis Ianuensis"" and from 1580 as the ""Serenìscima Repùbrica de Zêna"" (Most Serene Republic of Genoa).


title: Republic of Genoa

text: From 1339 until the state's extinction in 1797 the ruler of the republic was the Doge, originally elected for life, after 1528 was elected for terms of two years. However, in actuality, the Republic was an oligarchy ruled by a small group of merchant families, from whom the doges were selected.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The Genoese navy played a fundamental role in the wealth and power of the Republic over the centuries and its importance was recognized throughout Europe. To this day, its legacy, as a key factor in the triumph of the Genoese Republic, is still recognized and its coat of arms is depicted in the flag of the Italian Navy. In 1284, Genoa fought victoriously against the Republic of Pisa in the battle of Meloria for the dominance over the Tyrrhenian Sea, and it was an eternal rival of Venice for dominance in the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The republic began when Genoa became a self-governing commune in the 11th century and ended when it was conquered by the French First Republic under Napoleon and replaced with the Ligurian Republic. The Ligurian Republic was annexed by the First French Empire in 1805; its restoration was briefly proclaimed in 1814 following the defeat of Napoleon, but it was ultimately annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1815.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: It was officially known as Repubblica di Genova (Latin: "Res Publica Ianuensis", Ligurian: "Repúbrica de Zêna") and was nicknamed by Petrarch as "La Superba", in reference to its glory and impressive landmarks. For over eight centuries the republic was also known as "la Dominante" (English: The Dominant one), "la Dominante dei mari" (English: the Dominant of the Seas), and "la Repubblica dei magnifici" (English: the Republic of the Magnificents).


title: Republic of Genoa

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city of Genoa was invaded by Germanic tribes, and, in about 643, Genoa and other Ligurian cities were captured by the Lombard Kingdom under the King Rothari. In 773 the Kingdom was annexed by the Frankish Empire; the first Carolingian count of Genoa was Ademarus, who was given the title "praefectus civitatis Genuensis". During this time and in the following century Genoa was little more than a small centre, slowly building its merchant fleet, which was to become the leading commercial carrier of the Western Mediterranean. In 934–35 the town was thoroughly sacked and burned by a Fatimid fleet under Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi. This has led to discussion about whether early tenth-century Genoa was "hardly more than a fishing village" or a vibrant trading town worth attacking.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In the year 958, a diploma granted by Berengar II of Italy gave full legal freedom to the city of Genoa, guaranteeing the possession of its lands in the form of landed lordships. At the end of the 11th century the municipality adopted a constitution, at a meeting consisting of the city's trade associations ("compagnie") and of the lords of the surrounding valleys and coasts. The new city-state was termed a "Compagna Communis." The local organization remained politically and socially significant for centuries. As late as 1382, the members of the Grand Council were classified by both the companion to which they belonged as well as by their political faction ("noble" versus "popular").


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Before 1100, Genoa emerged as an independent city-state, one of a number of Italian city-states during this period. Nominally, the Holy Roman Emperor was overlord and the Bishop of Genoa was president of the city; however, actual power was wielded by a number of "consuls" annually elected by popular assembly. At that time Muslim raiders were attacking coastal cities on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Muslims raided Pisa in 1000, and in 1015 they escalated their attacks, raiding Luni. Mujahid al-Siqlabi, Emir of the Taifa of Denia attacked Sardinia with a fleet of 125 ships. In 1016, the allied troops of Genoa and Pisa defended Sardinia. In 1066, war erupted between Genoa and Pisa – possibly over control of Sardinia.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The republic was one of the so-called "Maritime Republics" ("Repubbliche Marinare"), along with Venice, Pisa, Amalfi, Gaeta, Ancona, and Ragusa.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In 1087, Genoese and Pisan fleets, led by Hugh of Pisa, and accompanied by troops from Pantaleone of Amalfi, Salerno, and Gaeta, attacked the North African city of Mahdia, the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate. The attack, supported by Pope Victor III, became known as the Mahdia campaign. The attackers captured the city, but could not hold it against Arab forces. After the burning of the Arab fleet in the city's harbor, the Genoese and Pisan troops retreated. The destruction of the Arab fleet gave control of the Western Mediterranean to Genoa, Venice, and Pisa. This enabled Western Europe to supply the troops of the First Crusade of 1096–1099 by sea.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In 1092, Genoa and Pisa, in collaboration with Alfonso VI of León and Castile attacked the Muslim Taifa of Valencia. They also unsuccessfully besieged Tortosa with support from troops of Sancho Ramírez, King of Aragon.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoa started expanding during the First Crusade. In 1097 Hugh of Châteauneuf, Bishop of Grenoble and William, Bishop of Orange, went to Genoa and preached in the church of San Siro in order to gather troops for the First Crusade. At the time the city had a population of about 10,000. Twelve galleys, one ship, and 1,200 soldiers from Genoa joined the crusade. The Genoese troops, led by noblemen de Insula and Avvocato, set sail in July 1097. The Genoese fleet transported and provided naval support to the crusaders, mainly during the siege of Antioch in 1098, when the Genoese fleet blockaded the city while the troops provided support during the siege. In the siege of Jerusalem in 1099, Genoese crossbowmen led by Guglielmo Embriaco acted as support units against the defenders of the city.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: After the capture of Antioch on May 3, 1098, Genoa forged an alliance with Bohemond of Taranto, who became the ruler of the Principality of Antioch. As a result, he granted them a headquarters, the church of San Giovanni, and 30 houses in Antioch. On May 6, 1098 a part of the Genoese army returned to Genoa with the relics of Saint John the Baptist, granted to the Republic of Genoa as part of their reward for providing military support to the First Crusade. Many settlements in the Middle East were given to Genoa as well as favorable commercial treaties.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoa later allied with King Baldwin I of Jerusalem (reigned 1100–1118). To secure the alliance, Baldwin gave Genoa one-third of the Lordship of Arsuf, one-third of Caesarea, and one-third of Acre and its port's income. Additionally the Republic of Genoa would receive 300 bezants every year, and one-third of Baldwin's conquest every time 50 or more Genoese soldiers joined his troops.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The Republic's role as a maritime power in the region secured many favorable commercial treaties for Genoese merchants. They came to control a large portion of the trade of the Byzantine Empire, Tripoli (Libya), the Principality of Antioch, Cilician Armenia, and Egypt. Although Genoa maintained free-trading rights in Egypt and Syria, it lost some of its territorial possessions after Saladin's campaigns in those areas in the late 12th century.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In 1147, Genoa took part in the Siege of Almería, helping Alfonso VII of León and Castile reconquer that city from the Muslims. After the conquest the republic leased out its third of the city to one of its own citizens, Otto de Bonvillano, who swore fealty to the republic and promised to guard the city with three hundred men at all times. This demonstrates how Genoa's early efforts at expanding her influence involved enfeoffing private citizens to the commune and controlling overseas territories indirectly, rather than through the republican administration. In 1148, it joined the Siege of Tortosa and helped Count Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona take that city, for which it also received a third.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Over the course of the 11th and particularly the 12th centuries, Genoa became the dominant naval force in the Western Mediterranean, as its erstwhile rivals Pisa and Amalfi declined in importance. Genoa (along with Venice) succeeded in gaining a central position in the Mediterranean slave trade at this time. This left the Republic with only one major rival in the Mediterranean: Venice.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoese Crusaders brought home a green glass goblet from the Levant, which Genoese long regarded as the Holy Grail. Not all of Genoa's merchandise was so innocuous, however, as medieval Genoa became a major player in the slave trade.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The commercial and cultural rivalry of Genoa and Venice was played out through the thirteenth century. The Republic of Venice played a significant role in the Fourth Crusade, diverting "Latin" energies to the ruin of its former patron and present trading rival, Constantinople. As a result, Venetian support of the newly established Latin Empire meant that Venetian trading rights were enforced, and Venice gained control of a large portion of the commerce of the eastern Mediterranean.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In order to regain control of the commerce, the Republic of Genoa allied with Michael VIII Palaiologos, emperor of Nicaea, who wanted to restore the Byzantine Empire by recapturing Constantinople. In March 1261 the treaty of the alliance was signed in Nymphaeum. On July 25, 1261, Nicaean troops under Alexios Strategopoulos recaptured Constantinople.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: As a result, the balance of favour tipped toward Genoa, which was granted free trade rights in the Nicene Empire. Besides the control of commerce in the hands of Genoese merchants, Genoa received ports and way stations in many islands and settlements in the Aegean Sea. The islands of Chios and Lesbos became commercial stations of Genoa as well as the city of Smyrna (Izmir).


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoa and Pisa became the only states with trading rights in the Black Sea. In the same century the Republic conquered many settlements in Crimea, where the Genoese colony of Caffa was established. The alliance with the restored Byzantine Empire increased the wealth and power of Genoa, and simultaneously decreased Venetian and Pisan commerce. The Byzantine Empire had granted the majority of free trading rights to Genoa. In 1282 Pisa tried to gain control of the commerce and administration of Corsica, after being called for support by the judge Sinucello who revolted against Genoa. In August 1282, part of the Genoese fleet blockaded Pisan commerce near the river Arno. During 1283 both Genoa and Pisa made war preparations. Genoa built 120 galleys, 60 of which belonged to the Republic, while the other 60 galleys were rented to individuals. More than 15,000 mercenaries were hired as rowmen and soldiers. The Pisan fleet avoided combat, and tried to wear out the Genoese fleet during 1283. On August 5, 1284, in the naval Battle of Meloria the Genoese fleet, consisting of 93 ships led by Oberto Doria and Benedetto I Zaccaria, defeated the Pisan fleet, which consisted of 72 ships and was led by Albertino Morosini and Ugolino della Gherardesca. Genoa captured 30 Pisan ships, and sank seven. About 8,000 Pisans were killed during the battle, more than half of the Pisan troops, which were about 14,000. The defeat of Pisa, which never fully recovered as a maritime competitor, resulted in gain of control of the commerce of Corsica by Genoa. The Sardinian town of Sassari, which was under Pisan control, became a commune or self-styled "free municipality" which was controlled by Genoa. Control of Sardinia, however, did not pass permanently to Genoa: the Aragonese kings of Naples disputed control and did not secure it until the fifteenth century.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoese merchants pressed south, to the island of Sicily, and into Muslim North Africas, where Genoese established trading posts, pursuing the gold that traveled up through the Sahara and establishing Atlantic depots as far afield as Salé and Safi. In 1283 the population of the Kingdom of Sicily revolted against the Angevin rule. The revolt became known as the Sicilian Vespers. As a result, the Aragonese rule was established on the Kingdom. Genoa, which had supported the Aragonese, was granted free trading and export rights in the Kingdom of Sicily. Genoese bankers also profited from loans to the new nobility of Sicily. Corsica was formally annexed in 1347.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoa was far more than a depot of drugs and spices from the East: an essential engine of its economy was the weaving of silk textiles, from imported thread, following the symmetrical styles of Byzantine and Sassanian silks.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: As a result of the economic retrenchment in Europe in the late fourteenth century, as well as its long war with Venice, which culminated in its defeat at Chioggia (1380), Genoa went into decline. This pivotal war with Venice has come to be called the War of Chioggia because of this decisive battle which resulted in the defeat of Genoa at the hands of Venice. Prior to the War of Chioggia, which lasted from 1379 until 1381, the Genoese had enjoyed a naval ascendency that was the source of their power and position within northern Italy. The Genoan defeat deprived Genoa of this naval supremacy, pushed it out of eastern Mediterranean markets and began the decline of the city-state. Rising Ottoman power also cut into the Genoese emporia in the Aegean, and the Black Sea trade was reduced.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In 1396, in order to protect the republic from internal unrest and the provocations of the Duke of Orléans and the former Duke of Milan, the Doge of Genoa Antoniotto Adorno made Charles VI of France the "difensor del comune" ("defender of the municipality") of Genoa. Though the republic had previously been under partial foreign control, this marked the first time Genoa was dominated by a foreign power.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Though not well-studied, Genoa in the 15th century seems to have been tumultuous. The city had a strong tradition of trading goods from the Levant and its financial expertise was recognised all over Europe. After a brief period of French domination from 1394 to 1409, Genoa came under the rule of the Visconti of Milan. Genoa lost Sardinia to Aragon, Corsica to internal revolt, and its colonies in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor to the Ottoman Empire.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In the 15th century, two of the earliest banks in the world were founded in Genoa: the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, which was the oldest state deposit bank in the world at its closure in 1805, and the Banca Carige, founded in 1483 as a mount of piety, which still exists.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa  1451, and donated one-tenth of his income from the discovery of the Americas for Spain to the Bank of Saint George for the relief of taxation on foods.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Threatened by Alfonso V of Aragon, the Doge of Genoa in 1458 handed the Republic over to the French, making it the Duchy of Genoa under the control of John of Anjou, a French royal governor. However, with support from Milan, Genoa revolted and the Republic was restored in 1461. The Milanese then changed sides, conquering Genoa in 1464 and holding it as a fief of the French crown. Between 1463–1478 and 1488–1499, Genoa was held by the Milanese House of Sforza. From 1499 to 1528, the Republic reached its nadir, being under nearly continual French occupation. The Spanish, with their intramural allies, the "old nobility" entrenched in the mountain fastnesses behind Genoa, captured the city on May 30, 1522, and subjected the city to a pillage. When the admiral Andrea Doria of the powerful Doria family allied with the Emperor Charles V to oust the French and restore Genoa's independence, a renewed prospect opened: 1528 marks the first loan from Genoese banks to Charles.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Under the ensuing economic recovery, many aristocratic Genoese families, such as the Balbi, Doria, Grimaldi, Pallavicini, and Serra, amassed tremendous fortunes. According to Felipe Fernandez-Armesto and others, the practices Genoa developed in the Mediterranean (such as chattel slavery) were crucial in the exploration and exploitation of the New World.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: At the time of Genoa's peak in the 16th century, the city attracted many artists, including Rubens, Caravaggio, and van Dyck. The architect Galeazzo Alessi (1512–1572) designed many of the city's splendid palazzi. In the next 50 years, other pallazi were designed by Bartolomeo Bianco (1590–1657), designer of centrepieces of the University of Genoa. A number of Genoese Baroque and Rococo artists settled elsewhere and a number of local artists became prominent.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Thereafter, Genoa underwent something of a revival as a junior associate of the Spanish Empire, with Genoese bankers, in particular, financing many of the Spanish crown's foreign endeavors from their counting houses in Seville. Fernand Braudel has even called the period 1557 to 1627 the "age of the Genoese", "of a rule that was so discreet and sophisticated that historians for a long time failed to notice it". However, the modern visitor passing brilliant Mannerist and Baroque palazzo facades along Genoa's "Strada Nova" (now Via Garibaldi) or "via Balbi" cannot fail to notice that there was conspicuous wealth, which in fact was not Genoese but concentrated in the hands of a tightly knit circle of banker-financiers, true "venture capitalists". Genoa's trade, however, remained closely dependent on control of Mediterranean sealanes, and the loss of Chios to the Ottoman Empire (1566), struck a severe blow.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The opening for the Genoese banking consortium was the state bankruptcy of Philip II in 1557, which threw the German banking houses into chaos and ended the reign of the Fuggers as Spanish financiers. The Genoese bankers provided the unwieldy Habsburg system with fluid credit and a dependably regular income. In return the less dependable shipments of American silver were rapidly transferred from Seville to Genoa, to provide capital for further ventures.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: From about 1520 the Genoese controlled the port of Panama, the first port on the Pacific, founded by the conquest of the Americas. The Genoese obtained a concession to exploit the port mainly for the slave trade of the new world on the Pacific, until the destruction of the primeval city in 1671.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The Genoese banker Ambrogio Spinola, Marquess of Los Balbases, for instance, raised and led an army that fought in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands in the early 17th century. The decline of Spain in the 17th century brought also the renewed decline of Genoa, and the Spanish crown's frequent bankruptcies, in particular, ruined many of Genoa's merchant houses. In 1684 the city was heavily bombarded by a French fleet as punishment for its alliance with Spain.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In May 1625 a French-Savoian army briefly laid siege to Genoa. Though it was eventually lifted with the aid of the Spanish, the French would later bombard the city in May 1684 for its support of Spain during the War of the Reunions. In-between, a plague killed as many as half of the inhabitants of Genoa in 1656–57. Genoa continued its slow decline well into the 18th century, losing its last Mediterranean colony, the island fortress of Tabarka, to the Bey of Tunis in 1742.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In a climate of constant economic and power decline, in 1729 the Republic had to face another revolt in Corsica. It is considered the first moment of real rupture between the island and the Genoese Republic: perhaps the most important, because the representatives of the Church in full harmony with the Roman Curia, “justified” the war. This time the Genoese government requested the help of Charles VI, who sent 10,000 German infantry of the Imperial Army, after the payment by Genoa of 60,000 florins and 100 scudos for each dead soldier, joining the Republic's soldiers commanded by Camillo Doria. Genoa managed to contain the rebellion, however this did not prove lasting. Another revolt broke out in 1733, causing the Genoese to again appeal to the Emperor, but the Imperial Army was tied up against the French in the ongoing War of the Polish Succession, and thus declined to intervene. Even before the rebellions, Genoa's control of the island had been loose; the Republic had effectively demilitarized itself, with only 2,000 soldiers (all spread throughout fortifications in Liguria) for a mainland population of about half a million, and law and order on Corsica were very weak, with nearly 900 homicides per 100,000 people there annually from 1701 to 1733. The Genoese government tried to ban private firearm ownership on Corsica without success. A guerilla war would continue on the island until it was sold to France in 1768.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The Convention of Turin of 1742, in which Austria allied with the Kingdom of Sardinia, caused some consternation in the Republic. However, when this provisional relationship was given a more durable and reliable character in the signing of the Treaty of Worms, in 1743, the fear of diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its neutrality and to ally with the House of Bourbon in the War of the Austrian Succession. Consequently, the Republic of Genoa signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies of Kingdom of France, Spanish Empire and Kingdom of Naples. On 26 June 1745, the Republic of Genoa declared war on the Kingdom of Sardinia. This decision would prove disastrous for Genoa, which later surrendered to the Austrians in September 1746 and was briefly occupied before a revolt liberated the city two months later. The Austrians returned in 1747 and, along with a contingent of Sardinian forces, laid siege to Genoa before being driven off by the approach of a Franco-Spanish army.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Though Genoa retained its lands in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, it was unable to keep its hold on Corsica in its weakened state. After driving out the Genoese, the Corsican Republic was declared in 1755. Eventually relying on French intervention to quash the rebellion, Genoa was forced to cede Corsica to the French in the 1768 Treaty of Versailles.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Already in 1794 and 1795 the revolutionary echoes from France reached Genoa, thanks to Genoese propagandists and refugees sheltered in the nearby state of the Alps, and in 1794 a conspiracy against the aristocratic and oligarchic ruling class that, in fact, was already waiting for it in the Genoese palaces of power. However, it was in May 1797 that the intent of the Genoese jacobins and French citizens to overthrow the government of the Doge Giacomo Maria Brignole took shape, giving rise to a fratricidal war in the streets between opponents and popular supporters of the current customs system.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The direct intervention of Napoleon (during the Campaigns of 1796) and his representatives in Genoa was the final act that led to the fall of the Republic in early June, who overthrew the old elites which had ruled the state for all of its history, giving birth to the Ligurian Republic on June 14, 1797, under the watchful care of Napoleonic France. After Bonaparte's seizure of power in France, a more conservative constitution was enacted, but the Ligurian Republic's life was short—in 1805 it was annexed by France, becoming the "départements" of Apennins, Gênes, and Montenotte.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: With the fall of Napoleon, and the subsequent Congress of Vienna, Genoa regained an ephemeral independence, with the name of the "Repubblica genovese", which lasted less than a year. However, the congress established the annexation of the territories, and therefore of the whole of Liguria with the Oltregiogo area and the island of Capraia to the Kingdom of Sardinia, governed by the House of Savoy, contravening the principle of restoring the legitimate governments and monarchies of the old Republic.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The history of Genoa, of the Genoese and of the republic that held its fate for a long time, but also of the governments that gradually took turns leading the city, to reach the time of the Doges, is traceable through the work of historians who have continued the storytelling work begun at the end of the 11th century by Caffaro Di Caschifellone (historian and himself municipal consul) with the "Annales ianuenses".


title: Republic of Genoa

text: The republic was substantially democratic in shape, while those of the Podestàs and the Captains of the people strongly restored the often conflicting relationship between the authority and the freedom. The perpetual doges, on the other hand, proclaimed themselves popular, even though sometimes crossing the oligarchy; finally the fifth republic was institutionally aristocratic. By custom, prelates in Genoa were unable to take on public office.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In the first two centuries from the institution of the Dogate for life in Genoa, it was above all the Adorno (seven doges elected) and Fregoso (ten doges elected) families who fought the position.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: After the reform of 1528, among the seventy-nine "biennial Doges" who came to power, many were elected from a small number of noble houses in the city organized into 28 "Alberghi", in particular:


title: Republic of Genoa

text: At the time of its founding in the early 11th century the Republic of Genoa consisted of the city of Genoa and the surrounding areas. As the commerce of the city increased, so did the territory of the Republic. By 1015 all of Liguria fell under the Republic of Genoa. After the First Crusade in 1098 Genoa gained settlements in Syria. (It lost the majority of them during the campaigns of Saladin in the 12th century.) In 1261 the city of Smyrna in Asia Minor became Genoese territory.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: In 1255 Genoa established the colony of Caffa in Crimea. In the following years the Genoese established further colonies in Crimea: Soldaia, Cherco and Cembalo. Genoa and its colonies fought against several Mongol states in the Genoese–Mongol Wars to control the Crimean peninsula. In 1275 the Byzantine Empire granted the islands of Chios and Samos to Genoa.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Between 1316 and 1332 Genoa established the Black Sea colonies of La Tana (present-day Azov) and Samsun in Anatolia. In 1355 the Byzantine Emperor John V Palaiologos granted Lesbos to a Genoese lord. At the end of the 14th century the colony of Samastri was established in the Black Sea and Cyprus was granted to the Republic. At that period the Republic of Genoa also controlled one quarter of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, and Trebizond, capital of the Empire of Trebizond. The Ottoman Empire conquered most of the Genoese overseas territories during the 15th century.


title: Republic of Genoa

text: Genoese traders bought salt - from Hyères near Toulon in French Provence, from Cagliari in Sardinia, Tortosa in Iberia, and from other areas in the Black Sea, North Africa, Cyprus, Crete, and Ibiza - and made salami. They then sold salami in southern Italy for raw silk, which was sold in Lucca for fabrics, which were then sold to Lyon. Mule caravans from Genoa carried salt directly to Piacenza, where it was transferred to river barges and transported down the Po to Parma, and other Po Valley cities such as Reggio and Bologna. Along these trade routes, Genoa competed with Venice for salt and for other cargoes, such as salami, prosciutto, cheese, textiles and spices.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Papaver somniferum, commonly known as the opium poppy or breadseed poppy, is a species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae. It is the species of plant from which both opium and poppy seeds are derived and is also a valuable ornamental plant, grown in gardens. Its native range is probably the eastern Mediterranean, but is now obscured by ancient introductions and cultivation, being naturalized across much of Europe and Asia.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: This poppy is grown as an agricultural crop on a large scale, for one of three primary purposes. The first is to produce seeds that are eaten by humans, commonly known as poppy seed. The second is to produce opium for use mainly by the pharmaceutical industry. The third is to produce other alkaloids, mainly thebaine and oripavine, that are processed by the pharmaceutical industry into drugs such as hydrocodone and oxycodone. Each of these goals has special breeds that are targeted at one of these businesses, and breeding efforts (including biotechnological ones) are continually underway. A comparatively small amount of "P. somniferum" is also produced commercially for ornamental purposes.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The common name "opium poppy" is increasingly a misnomer as many varieties have been bred that do not produce a significant quantity of opium. The cultivar 'Sujata' produces no latex at all. Breadseed poppy is more accurate as a common name today because all varieties of "P. somniferum" produce edible seeds. This differentiation has strong implications for legal policy surrounding the growing of this plant.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: "Papaver somniferum" is an annual herb growing to about tall. The plant is strongly glaucous, giving a greyish-green appearance, and the stem and leaves bear a sparse distribution of coarse hairs. The large leaves are lobed, the upper stem leaves clasping the stem, the lowest leaves with a short petiole. The flowers are up to diameter, normally with four white, mauve or red petals, sometimes with dark markings at the base. The fruit is a hairless, rounded capsule topped with 12–18 radiating stigmatic rays, or fluted cap. All parts of the plant exude white latex when wounded. In Australia, plant density for optimal cultivation is about 800,000 per hectare.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The alkaloids are organic nitrogenous compounds, derivatives of secondary metabolism, synthesized through the metabolic pathway of benzylisoquinoline. First, the amino acid phenylalanine, through the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, is transformed into tyrosine. Tyrosine can follow two different routes: by tyrosine hydroxylase it can form L-dopamine (L-DOPA), or it can be reduced to form 4-phenylhydroxyacetaldehyde (4-HPAA). Subsequently, L-DOPA reacts with 4-HPAA and, through a series of reactions, forms (S) -norcoclaurine, which carries the benzylisoquinoline skeleton that gives its name to this pathway. The conversion of (S) -norcoclaurin to (S) -reticulin is one of the key points, since from (S) -reticulin morphine can be formed through the morphinan route, noscapine through the path of the noscapina or berberina.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The poppy genome contains 51,213 genes encoding proteins distributed 81.6% in 11 individual chromosomes and 18.4% remaining in unplaced scaffolds. In addition, 70.9% of the genome is made up of repetitive elements, of which the most represented are the long terminal repeat retrotransposons. This enrichment of genes is related to the maintenance of homeostasis and a positive regulation of transcription.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The analysis of synergy of the opium poppy reveals traces of segmental duplications 110 million years ago (MYA), before the divergence between "Papaveraceae" and Ranunculaceae, and an event of duplication of the complete genome makes 7.8 MYA.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: "Papaver somniferum" was formally described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication "Species Plantarum" in 1753 on page 508.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: "P. somniferum" has had a very long tradition of use, starting in the Neolithic. This long period of time allowed the development of a broad range of different forms. In total there are 52 botanical varieties. Breeding of "P. somniferum" faces a challenge caused by the contradictory breeding goals for this species. On one hand a very high content of alkaloids is requested for medical uses. The global demand for the alkaloids and the pharmaceutical derivatives has increased in the past years. Therefore, there is a need for the development of varieties with a high opium yield. On the other hand, the food industry demands as low alkaloid contents as possible.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: There is one accepted subspecies, "P. somniferum" subsp. "setigerum" (DC.) Arcang. There are also many varieties and cultivars. Colors of the flowers vary widely, as do other physical characteristics, such as number and shape of petals , number of flowers and fruits, number of seeds, color of seeds, and production of opium. "Papaver somniferum" var. "paeoniflorum" is a variety with flowers that are highly double, and are grown in many colors. "P. somniferum" var. "laciniatum" is a variety with flowers that are highly double and deeply lobed. The variety "Sujata" produces no latex and no commercial utility for opioid production.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The native range of opium poppy is probably the Eastern Mediterranean, but extensive cultivation and introduction of the species throughout Europe since ancient times have obscured its origin. It has escaped from cultivation, or has been introduced and become naturalized extensively in all regions of the British Isles, particularly in the south and east and in almost all other countries of the world with suitable, temperate climates.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: "P. somniferum" is susceptible to several fungal, insect and virus infections including seed borne diseases such as downy mildew and root rot. The use of pesticides in combination to cultural methods have been considered as major control measures for various poppy diseases.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The fungal pathogen "Peronospora arborescens", the causal agent of downy mildew, occurs preferentially during wet and humid conditions. This oomycete penetrates the roots through oospores and infects the leaves as conidia in a secondary infection. The fungus causes hypertrophy and curvature of the stem and flower stalks. The symptoms are chlorosis and curling of the affected tissues with necrotic spots. The leaf under-surface is covered with a downy mildew coating containing conidiospores that spread the infection further leading to plant damage and death. Another downy mildew species, "Peronospora somniferi," produces systemic infections leading to stunting and deformation of poppy plants. Downy mildew can be controlled preventively at the initial stage of seed development through several fungicide applications.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Leaf blight caused by the fungus "Helminthosporium papaveris" is one of the most destructive poppy diseases worldwide. The seed-borne fungus causes root rot in young plants and stunted stems in plants at a higher development stage, where leaf spots appear on the leaves and is being transmitted to capsules and seeds. Early sowing of seeds and deep plowing of poppy residues can reduce fungal inoculum during the plant growing season in the following year on neighboring poppy stocks, respectively.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Mosaic diseases in "p. somniferum" are caused by rattle virus and the Carlavirus. In 2006, a novel virus tentatively called "opium poppy mosaic virus" (OPMV) from the genus "Umbravirus" was isolated from "p. somniferum" containing leaf mosaic and mottling symptoms, in New Zealand.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Flea beetles perforate the leaves of young plants and aphids suck on the sap of the flower buds. The poppy root weevil ("Stenocarus ruficornis") is another significant pest. The insect lives in the soil and migrates in spring to the poppy fields after crop emergence. Adults damage the leaves of small plants by eating them. Female lay their eggs into the tissue of lower leaves. Insect larvae hatch and burrow into the soil to complete their life cycle on the poppy roots as adults.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: In the growth development of "P. somniferum", six stages can be distinguished. The growth development starts with the growth of the seedlings. In a second step the rosette-type leaves and stalks are formed. After that budding (hook stage) takes place as a third step. The hook stage is followed by flowering. Subsequently, technical maturity is reached, which means that the plant is ready for cutting. The last step is biological maturity; dry seeds are ripened. The photoperiod seems to be the main determinant of flower development of "P. somniferum".


title: Papaver somniferum

text: "P. somniferum" shows a very slow development in the beginning of its vegetation period. Due to this fact the competition of weeds is very high in early stages. It is very important to control weeds effectively in the first 50 days after sowing. Additionally "Papaver somniferum" is rather susceptible to herbicides. The pre-emergence application of the herbicide chlortoluron has been shown to be effective in reducing weed levels. However, in the last decade the weed management of "Papaver somniferum" has shifted from pre-emergence treatments to post-emergence treatments. Especially the application of the two herbicides mesotrione and tembotrione has become very popular. The combined application of those two herbicides has been shown to be recommendable for effective weed management in "Papaver somniferum". Sowing time (autumn or spring), preceding crop and soil texture are important variables influencing the weed species composition. A highly abundant weed species in "Papaver somniferum" fields was shown to be "Papaver rhoeas". "Papaver somniferum" and "Papaver rhoeas" belong to the same plant family, which impedes the chemical control of this weed species. Therefore, weed management represents a big challenge and requires technological knowledge from the farmer. In order to increase the efficiency of weed control not only chemical weed control should be applied but also mechanical weed control.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Live plants and seeds of the opium poppy are widely sold by seed companies and nurseries in most of the western world, including the United States. Poppies are sought after by gardeners for the vivid coloration of the blooms, the hardiness and reliability of the poppy plants, the exotic chocolate-vegetal fragrance note of some cultivars, and the ease of growing the plants from purchased flats of seedlings or by direct sowing of the seed. Poppy seed pods are also sold for dried flower arrangements.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Though "opium poppy and poppy straw" are listed in Schedule II of the United States' Controlled Substances Act, "P. somniferum" can be grown legally in the United States as a seed crop or ornamental flower. During the summer, opium poppies can be seen flowering in gardens throughout North America and Europe, and displays are found in many private plantings, as well as in public botanical and museum gardens such as United States Botanical Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden, and North Carolina Botanical Garden.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Many countries grow the plants, and some rely heavily on the commercial production of the drug as a major source of income. As an additional source of profit, the seeds of the same plants are sold for use in foods, so the cultivation of the plant is a significant source of income. This international trade in seeds of "P. somniferum" was addressed by a UN resolution "to fight the international trade in illicit opium poppy seeds" on 28 July 1998.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: In 2018, world production of poppy seeds for consumption was 76,240 tonnes, led by Turkey with 35% of the world total (table). Poppy seed production and trade are susceptible to fluctuations mainly due to unstable yields. The performance of most genotypes of "Papaver somniferum" is very susceptible to environmental changes This behaviour led to a stagnation of the poppy seed market value between 2008–2009 as a consequence of high stock levels, bad weather and poor quality. The world leading importer of poppy seed is India (16 000 tonnes), followed by Russia, Poland and Germany.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Australia (Tasmania), Turkey and India are the major producers of poppy for medicinal purposes and poppy-based drugs, such as morphine or codeine. "The New York Times" reported, in 2014, that Tasmania was the largest producer of the poppy cultivars used for thebaine (85% of the world's supply) and oripavine (100% of the world's supply) production. Tasmania also had 25% of the world's opium and codeine production.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: In most of Central Europe, poppyseed is commonly used for traditional pastries and cakes, and it is legal to grow poppies throughout the region, although Germany requires a licence.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Since January 1999 in the Czech Republic, according to the "167/1998 Sb. Addictive Substances Act", poppies growing in fields larger than is obliged for reporting to the local Custom Office. Extraction of opium from the plants is prohibited by law (§ 15 letter d/ of the act). It is also prohibited to grow varieties with more than 0.8% of morphine in dry matter of their capsules, excluding research and experimental purposes (§24/1b/ of the act). The name "Czech blue poppy" refers to blue poppy seeds used for food.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The United Kingdom does not require a licence for opium poppy cultivation, but does for extracting opium for medicinal products.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: In the United States, opium poppies and poppy straw are prohibited. As the opium poppy is legal for culinary or esthetic reasons, poppies were once grown as a cash crop by farmers in California. The law of poppy cultivation in the United States is somewhat ambiguous. The reason for the ambiguity is that the Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 (now repealed) stated that any opium poppies should be declared illegal, even if the farmers were issued a state permit. § 3 of the Opium Poppy Control Act stated: It shall be unlawful for any person who is not the holder of a license authorizing him to produce the opium poppy, duly issued to him by the Secretary of the Treasury in accordance with the provisions of this Act, to produce the opium poppy, or to permit the production of the opium poppy in or upon any place owned, occupied, used, or controlled by him. This led to the Poppy Rebellion, and to the Narcotics Bureau arresting anyone planting opium poppies and forcing the destruction of poppy fields of anyone who defied the prohibition of poppy cultivation. Though the press of those days favored the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, the state of California supported the farmers who grew opium poppies for their seeds for uses in foods such as poppyseed muffins. Today, this area of law has remained vague and remains somewhat controversial in the United States. The Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 was repealed on 27 October 1970.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Canada forbids possessing, seeking or obtaining the opium poppy "(Papaver somniferum)", its preparations, derivatives, alkaloids and salts, although an exception is made for poppyseed.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: In some parts of Australia, "P. somniferum" is illegal to cultivate, but in Tasmania, some 50% of the world supply is cultivated. In New Zealand, it is legal to cultivate the opium poppy as long as it is not used to produce banned drugs.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: In United Arab Emirates the cultivation of the opium poppy is illegal, as is possession of poppyseed. At least one man has been imprisoned for possessing poppyseed obtained from a bread roll.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Burma bans cultivation in certain provinces. In northern Burma bans have ended a century-old tradition of growing the opium poppy. Between 20,000 and 30,000 former poppy farmers left the Kokang region as a result of the ban in 2002. People from the Wa region, where the ban was implemented in 2005, fled to areas where growing opium is still possible.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Use of the opium poppy predates written history. The making and use of opium was known to the ancient Minoans. Its sap was later named "opion" by the ancient Greeks. The English name is based on the Latin adaptation of the Greek form.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Evidence of the early domestication of opium poppy has been discovered through small botanical remains found in regions of the Mediterranean and west of the Rhine River, predating circa 5000 BC. These samples found in various Neolithic sites show the incredibly early cultivation and natural spread of the plant throughout western Europe.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Opium became a major colonial commodity, moving legally and illegally through trade networks on the Indian subcontinent, Colonial America, Qing China and others. Members of the East India Company saw the opium trade as an investment opportunity beginning in 1683. In 1773, the Governor of Bengal established a monopoly on the production of Bengal opium, on behalf of the East India Company administration. The cultivation and manufacture of Indian opium was further centralized and controlled through a series of acts issued between 1797 and 1949. East India Company merchants balanced an economic deficit from the importation of Chinese tea by selling Indian opium which was smuggled into China in defiance of Qing government bans. This trade led to the First and Second Opium Wars.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Many modern writers, particularly in the 19th century, have written on the opium poppy and its effects, notably Thomas de Quincey in "Confessions of an English Opium Eater".


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The French Romantic composer Hector Berlioz used opium for inspiration, subsequently producing his Symphonie Fantastique. In this work, a young artist overdoses on opium and experiences a series of visions of his unrequited love.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: In the US, the Drug Enforcement Administration raided Thomas Jefferson's Monticello estate in 1987. It removed the poppy plants that had been planted continually there since Jefferson was alive and using opium from them. Employees of the foundation also destroyed gift shop items like shirts depicting the poppy and packets of the heirloom seed.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Poppy seeds from "Papaver somniferum" are an important food item and the source of poppyseed oil, an edible oil that has many uses. The seeds contain very low levels of opiates and the oil extracted from them contains even less. Both the oil and the seed residue also have commercial uses.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The poppy press cake as a residue of the oil pressing can be used as fodder for different animals as e.g., poultry and fancy fowls. Especially in the time of the molt of the birds, the cake is nutritive and fits to their special needs. Next to the animal fodder, poppy offers other by-products. For example, the stem of the plant can be used for energy briquettes and pellets to heat.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Poppy seeds are used as a food in many cultures. They may be used whole by bakers to decorate their products or milled and mixed with sugar as a sweet filling. They have a creamy and nut-like flavor, and when used with ground coconut, the seeds provide a unique and flavour-rich curry base. They can be dry roasted and ground to be used in wet curry (curry paste) or dry curry.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: When the European Union attempted to ban the cultivation of "Papaver somniferum" by private individuals on a small scale (such as personal gardens), citizens in EU countries where poppy seed is eaten heavily, such as countries in the Central-Eastern region, strongly resisted the plan, causing the EU to change course. Singapore, UAE, and Saudi Arabia are among nations that ban even having poppy seeds, not just growing the plants for them. The UAE has a long prison sentence for anyone possessing poppy seeds.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The opium poppy, as its name indicates, is the principal source of opium, the dried latex produced by the seed pods. Opium contains a class of naturally occurring alkaloids known as opiates, that include morphine, codeine, thebaine, oripavine, papaverine and noscapine. The specific epithet "somniferum" means "sleep-bringing", referring to the sedative properties of some of these opiates.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: The opiate drugs are extracted from opium. The latex oozes from incisions made on the green seed pods and is collected once dry. Tincture of opium or laudanum, consisting of opium dissolved in alcohol or a mixture of alcohol and water, is one of many unapproved drugs regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Its marketing and distribution persists because its historical use preceded the Federal Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act of 1938. Tincture of opium B.P., containing 1% w/v of anhydrous morphine, also remains in the British Pharmacopoeia, listed as a Class A substance under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.


title: Papaver somniferum

text: Morphine is the predominant alkaloid found in the cultivated varieties of opium poppy that are used for opium production. Other varieties produce minimal opium or none at all, such as the latex-free Sujata type. Non-opium cultivars that are planted for drug production feature a high level of thebaine or oripavine. Those are refined into drugs like oxycodone. Raw opium contains about 8–14% morphine by dry weight, or more in high-yield cultivars. It may be used directly or chemically modified to produce synthetic opioids such as heroin.


title: You've Got Mail

text: You've Got Mail is a 1998 American romantic comedy film directed by Nora Ephron and starring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan. Inspired by the 1937 Hungarian play "Parfumerie" by Miklós László (which had earlier been adapted in 1940 as "The Shop Around the Corner" and in 1949 as "In the Good Old Summertime"), it was co-written by Nora and Delia Ephron. It tells the story of two people in an online romance who are unaware they are also business rivals. It marked the third pairing of Hanks and Ryan, who previously appeared together in "Joe Versus the Volcano" (1990) and "Sleepless in Seattle" (1993), the latter directed by Ephron. The film takes its name from the greeting AOL users receive when they get new e-mail.


title: You've Got Mail

text: Kathleen Kelly is in a relationship with Frank Navasky, a left-leaning newspaper writer for "The New York Observer" who is always in search of an opportunity to root for the underdog. While Frank is devoted to his typewriter, Kathleen prefers her laptop and logging into her AOL email account. Using the screen name "Shopgirl", she reads an email from "NY152", the screen name of Joe Fox, whom she first met in an "over-30s" chatroom. As her voice narrates her reading of the email, she reveals the boundaries of the online relationship: no specifics, including no names, career or class information, or family connections. She only knows he has a dog named Brinkley.


title: You've Got Mail

text: Joe belongs to the Fox family that runs Fox Books, a chain of mega bookstores. Kathleen runs the independent bookstore The Shop Around The Corner that she inherited from her mom. The two are shown passing each other on their respective ways to work, revealing that they frequent the same neighborhoods on the Upper West Side of Manhattan. Joe arrives at work, overseeing the opening of a new Fox Books in New York City with the help of his best friend, branch manager Kevin. Kathleen and her three store assistants, George, Aunt Birdie, and Christina, open up her small shop that morning.


title: You've Got Mail

text: Following a day with his 11-year-old aunt Annabel and 4-year-old half-brother Matthew, Joe enters Kathleen's store to let his younger relatives experience storytime. Joe and Kathleen have a pleasant conversation that reveals Kathleen's fears about the Fox Books store opening around the corner. He omits his last name and makes an abrupt exit with the children. At a publishing party for New York book business people later that week, Joe and Kathleen meet again where Kathleen discovers Joe's true identity in the Fox family. She accuses him of deception and spying, while he responds by belittling her store.


title: You've Got Mail

text: When "Shopgirl" and "NY152" finally decide to meet, Joe discovers with whom he has been corresponding. At the table, he joins her without revealing his online identity, leading them to clash once more. When Kathleen writes him asking him why he didn't appear, adding that she had a terrible encounter with an awful person, Joe apologizes eloquently for standing her up, and tells her that whatever she said to the awful person she met was probably deserved.


title: You've Got Mail

text: Despite protests against Fox Books and publicity in support of The Shop Around the Corner, sales continue to decline and Kathleen makes the heartbreaking decision to close her store. Her employees move on, including George, who gets a job in the children's department at Fox Books and ensures the staff are knowledgeable. Kathleen and Frank amicably end their relationship when they realize they don't love each other, despite being perfect for each other. Kathleen takes a break to figure out what she wants to do, and her conversations with NY152 inspire her to start writing children's books. After becoming stuck in an elevator with his acerbic girlfriend Patricia and his doorman, who resolves to propose to his girlfriend if they're rescued, Joe ends his relationship and decides to pursue Kathleen. He brings her flowers to apologize for her store closing, and they begin building a friendship, with Joe still keeping his online identity a secret. Kathleen confides in Joe about her online romance.


title: You've Got Mail

text: Eventually, NY152 arranges a meeting between his online persona and Shopgirl, but right before she is to meet her online friend, Joe reveals to Kathleen how he feels, hoping she would choose him over NY152 and forgive him despite their past animosity. Kathleen hints at feeling the same way but cannot bring herself to forego her feelings for NY152, not realizing they are the same man, and the two part. Upon arriving at the meeting place, she hears Joe calling Brinkley and sees that NY152 is, in fact, Joe Fox. Kathleen cries tears of joy and reveals that she hoped it would be him.


title: You've Got Mail

text: "You've Got Mail" is based on the 1937 Hungarian play "Parfumerie" by Miklós László and its adaptations. "Parfumerie" was later remade as "The Shop Around the Corner", a 1940 film by Ernst Lubitsch, which in 1949 was adapted as a movie musical, "In the Good Old Summertime" by Robert Z. Leonard starring Judy Garland and Van Johnson and, finally, in 1963 as a Broadway musical with "She Loves Me" by Jerry Bock and Sheldon Harnick (composer and lyricist, respectively, of "Fiddler on the Roof"). "You've Got Mail" updates that concept with the use of e-mail, and the lead character's workplace is named "The Shop Around the Corner" as a nod to the 1940 film. Influences from Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" can also be seen in the relationship between Joe Fox and Kathleen Kelly—a reference pointed out by these characters actually discussing Mr. Darcy and Elizabeth Bennet in the film. The joke when Tom Hanks explains that the little girl is really his aunt is taken from Israel Zangwill's story "A New Matrimonial Relation" in "The Bachelors' Club" (1891).


title: You've Got Mail

text: Delia Ephron, recalling the film's bookstore setting, said, "Once we decided that she would be an independent-bookstore owner, the reason we made it a children's bookstore is, I think, we always tried to make movies as personal as we could. To find the thing in it that was personal. And we grew up loving children's books more than anything." Nora Ephron similarly remarked in the film's audio commentary, "This was something that was very important to us—that there be first editions of old children's books. It's part of what make [sic] this a serious bookstore. We wanted to sell the idea that this was a place that really cared about the history of children's literature." Additionally, Ephron had Ryan and Burns rehearse and work in an actual bookstore for a week prior to filming in order to get them into character.


title: You've Got Mail

text: The film's original website remained live until at least May 10, 2018. The website has proven to be fodder for criticism of web design from the 1990s.


title: You've Got Mail

text: A soundtrack was released on December 1, 1998, and featured a mixture of classics from the 1950s and 1970s, particularly the work of Harry Nilsson, as well as new original recordings and covers. The score to the film was written by the English composer George Fenton.


title: You've Got Mail

text: "You've Got Mail" debuted No. 1 at the North American box office, earning $18.4 million over its opening weekend. It ultimately grossed $115,821,495 from the domestic market and $135,000,000 from other markets for a worldwide total of $250,821,495.


title: You've Got Mail

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 69% based on 88 reviews, with an average rating of 6.30/10. The critical consensus reads, "Great chemistry between the leads made this a warm and charming delight." Metacritic gives a weighted average score of 57 out of 100, based on reviews from 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of A− on a scale of A to F.


title: You've Got Mail

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three-out-of-four stars and lauded the "immensely lovable" main characters. Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" also praised the film, writing of the leads, "Ms. Ryan plays her role blithely and credibly this time, with an air of freshness, a minimum of cute fidgeting and a lot of fond chemistry with Mr. Hanks. And he continues to amaze. Once again, he fully inhabits a new role without any obvious actorly behavior, to the point where comparisons to James Stewart ... really cannot be avoided." Lael Loewenstein of "Variety" similarly called it a "winning romantic comedy" and praised the chemistry between Hanks and Ryan, writing, "they show why they are two of Hollywood's most bankable and, in many ways, most traditional stars."


title: You've Got Mail

text: Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club disliked the film, and wrote: "Takes almost two self-infatuated, smarmy, condescending, cringe-inducingly sentimental hours to reach its pre-ordained conclusion" and called the film "almost unwatchably saccharine, representing pretty much everything wrong with today's big-budget, high-concept Hollywood filmmaking." Michael O'Sullivan of "The Washington Post" criticized the film's use of product placement and its overly "adorable" characters, writing, "For some reason, this film made me feel like a Christmas goose being fattened for slaughter. Its force-fed diet of whimsy cloyed long before the eagerly anticipated romantic payoff arrived to put me out of my misery." Maitland McDonagh also criticized the incongruous product placement "In a film about the ruthless corporate destruction of small businesses, it's hard not to flinch at the prominent placement accorded IBM, Starbucks and AOL logos." "Rolling Stone" later included "You've Got Mail" in their list of "Most Egregious Product Placements in Movie & TV History" for the film's frequent use of AOL trademarks (AOL would later merge with film distributor Warner Bros' parent company Time Warner to form AOL Time Warner in 2000).


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Dominic Thiem (; born 3 September 1993) is an Austrian professional tennis player. He has been ranked as high as world No. 3 in singles by the Association of Tennis Professionals, which he first achieved in March 2020. He is the second-highest ranked Austrian player in history, behind former world No. 1 Thomas Muster. Thiem has won 17 ATP Tour singles titles, including a Grand Slam title at the 2020 US Open where he came back from two sets down to defeat Alexander Zverev in the final. With the win, Thiem became the first male player born in the 1990s to claim a major singles title, as well as the first Austrian to win the US Open singles title. He had previously reached three other major finals, finishing runner-up at the 2018 and 2019 French Opens to Rafael Nadal, and at the 2020 Australian Open to Novak Djokovic. Thiem was also runner-up at the 2019 and 2020 ATP Finals, where he lost to Stefanos Tsitsipas and Daniil Medvedev, respectively.As a junior, Thiem was ranked as high as world No. 2. He was runner-up at the 2011 French Open boys tournament, and won the 2011 Orange Bowl. As a professional, he broke into the top 100 for the first time in 2014. In 2015, he won his first ATP title at the 2015 Open de Nice Côte d'Azur in France. The next year he reached his first major semifinal at the 2016 French Open. In doing so, he first entered the top ten of the world rankings. He went on to reach his first Masters 1000 final in 2017 at the Madrid Open, before reaching his first major final the following year. Thiem won his maiden Masters 1000 title at the 2019 Indian Wells Masters, beating Roger Federer in the final.Thiem has some of the heaviest groundstrokes of the tour, consistently hitting big with both his forehand and single-handed backhand. Generally thought of as a baseliner, he has added more variety with the use of a sliced backhand and more netplay since adding coach Nicolás Massú to his team in March 2019. At , he possesses a serve reaching up to , which he often uses to set up effective one-two punches. Thiem won the 2020 Austrian Sportsman of the Year award, the fourth time a tennis player has won the award since its creation in 1949.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem was born in Wiener Neustadt, Austria on 3 September 1993 to Wolfgang and Karin Thiem, both of whom are tennis coaches. He has a younger brother, Moritz Thiem, who is also a professional tennis player. Thiem grew up in Lichtenwörth and began playing tennis when he was six years old.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem's father, Wolfgang, began working as a coach at Günter Bresnik's academy in Vienna in 1997, when Thiem was just three years old. Bresnik became Thiem's coach formally from age nine. It was Bresnik who advised the change of Thiem's two-handed backhand to a one-handed backhand when he was 12 years old. Bresnik has said that Thiem's junior results took a dip for about a year while the stroke developed. Thiem struggled with health issues when he was 17 years old, which he attributed to a large growth spurt of he had that year.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem entered his first event on the International Tennis Federation (ITF) junior circuit in early 2008 when he was 14. Thiem reached an ITF Junior Circuit ranking of world No. 2 (combined singles and doubles) on 3 January 2011. He did not play many events in 2008, returning with a fuller schedule in 2009. He won his first junior title at the Preveza Cup, a Grade 5 tournament held on hard court in Greece. Thiem followed this with another title in 2009 at the Grawe Junior Cup, a slightly higher level Grade 4 tournament, on clay in Croatia.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: In 2010 Thiem won his first Grade 1 tournament on clay at the Country Club Barranquilla Open, in Columbia, without dropping a set. He followed this with a title in Peru at the Grade 2 Inka Bowl and another Grade 1 title at the 32nd Torneo Internazionale "Citta' Di Santa Croce" Mauro Sabatini in Italy. He was seeded eighth at the 2010 French Open Junior Championships but lost in the first round to Ashley Hewitt. He also lost in the first round of the US Open Junior Championships before winning the XXIV Yucatan World Cup 2010 and the Eddie Herr International Junior Tennis Championships back to back.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem reached the second round at the Australian Open Junior Championships in early 2011. In May he reached the final of the 2011 French Open boys' event losing a close final to Bjorn Fratangelo, in three sets. He won the next tournament he played, the 12th Gerry Weber Junior Open, a Grade 2 tournament held on grass. He lost in the third round of the Junior Championships, Wimbledon, and in the first round at the 2011 US Open Junior Championships. Thiem completed his junior career by winning his last three singles tournaments, the XXV Yucatan Cup, the Eddie Herr International Junior Tennis Championships and culminating in taking the title at the Orange Bowl International Tennis Championship in Plantation, Florida, United States.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem finished his junior career with a 115–33 win–loss record in singles and 49–32 win–loss record in doubles. He recorded victories over many future stars such as Lucas Pouille and Kyle Edmund.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem turned pro in 2011, mainly competing in ITF Futures events and making his ATP main draw debut after he received wild cards to the main draw of Kitzbühel, Bangkok and Vienna. In Vienna, Thiem recorded his first ATP win over compatriot Thomas Muster, a former world No. 1 who had come back from retirement in 2010 after an 11 year break, before losing to Steve Darcis in the second round. In 2012, Thiem continued to compete mainly at Futures level, going 34–15 in matches with three titles. He received a wild card to Vienna for a second time, defeating Lukáš Lacko, before losing to Marinko Matosevic in the second round.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: In 2013 Thiem competed in Futures and ATP Challengers, while also receiving wild cards at ATP Tour level to his home events in Kitzbühel and Vienna. In Kitzbühel he made it through to the quarterfinals by defeating the fourth seed Jürgen Melzer in the second round. He lost in the quarterfinals to Albert Montañés in straight sets. At the Vienna Open, Thiem reached his second quarterfinal of the year losing to the top seed, Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, in a close three-set match.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem entered the top 100 for the first time in 2014, and was the youngest player to end the year in the top 50, ranked 39, having started the year ranked 137. He spent the first half of the year entering qualifying for ATP Tour events, and was successful seven out of eight times. Thiem began the year at the Qatar Open by qualifying for the main draw, but lost to Peter Gojowczyk in the first round. At the Australian Open, Thiem qualified for a place in the main draw. He defeated João Sousa in four sets for his first main-draw victory at a Grand Slam tournament. He then lost to 19th seed Kevin Anderson in the second round. In February Thiem qualified for the Rotterdam Open, and in the second round of the main draw, he pushed Andy Murray to three sets, losing out in the third. At Indian Wells Thiem qualified for the main draw and defeated American Daniel Kosakowski in the first round at his first Masters 1000. He recorded his highest ranked win to date in the second round against the 21st seed, Gilles Simon, in straight sets. He lost in the next round to Julien Benneteau. The next week he succeeded in qualifying for the main draw at the Miami Open but lost to Tommy Robredo in the second round in a tight two setter. Thiem received a wild card for the main draw of the Monte-Carlo Masters. But he was defeated in the first round by Nicolas Mahut in three sets. The next week he went through qualifying for the main draw at the Barcelona Open. He beat Radek Štěpánek and Marcel Granollers, before losing to Santiago Giraldo in the third round.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: At the Madrid Open, Thiem qualified for a main tour event for the seventh time in 2014. In the second round he had the biggest win of his career when he defeated the world No. 3, Stan Wawrinka, in three sets. Thiem started his campaign at the French Open by beating Frenchman Paul-Henri Mathieu in straight sets. In the second round he faced world No. 1 and the defending champion, Rafael Nadal, but was defeated in straight sets, only winning seven games in the process. Thiem suffered consecutive first-round losses on grass at the Queen's Club Championships in London, to David Goffin, and at the Wimbledon Championships to Australian qualifier Luke Saville.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: After Wimbledon, Thiem played at the International German Open where he reached the third round before being defeated by Leonardo Mayer. Thiem was seeded at an ATP tournament for the first time in his career at the Swiss Open Gstaad. Seeded eighth, he lost in the first round to wild card Viktor Troicki. At the Austrian Open Kitzbühel Thiem was seeded fifth. In the semifinal he beat Juan Mónaco to reach his first ATP Tour 250 final at the age of 20. In the final, he fell to David Goffin despite being a set up. Competing in his first ever US Open in 2014, Thiem reached the fourth round defeating 11th seed Ernests Gulbis, and 19th seed Feliciano López, before losing to sixth seed Tomáš Berdych. At the end of the 2014 season Thiem completed four weeks of mandatory national service with the Austrian military.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem had a slow start to the year, going 3–6 in matches before he reached his first Masters 1000 quarterfinals at the Miami Open. Thiem was defeated in the first round of the Australian Open to Roberto Bautista Agut. At Rotterdam he beat Ernests Gulbis but fell to Sergiy Stakhovsky in the second round. At the Open 13 in Marseille, he defeated João Sousa and David Goffin to reach the quarterfinals, where he was beaten by Bautista Agut. The Austrian reached the quarterfinals at the Miami Open losing to Andy Murray in three sets. At the Rome Masters he won over Gilles Simon to reach the third round, where he was defeated by Stan Wawrinka. Thiem won his first career ATP Tour title in Nice, France, defeating Nick Kyrgios, Ernests Gulbis and John Isner en route, winning a close three-setter against Argentina's Leonardo Mayer in the final. At the French Open, Thiem defeated Aljaž Bedene to progress to the second round, where he was defeated by 21st seed Pablo Cuevas in four close sets.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem entered the Nottingham Open as the seventh seed, he defeated Malek Jaziri to claim his first win on grass in 2015, but was knocked out in the third round by Alexandr Dolgopolov. Thiem competed at the third Grand Slam of the year, the Wimbledon Championships as the 32nd seed, marking the first time he had been seeded at a Grand Slam tournament. He defeated Israel's Dudi Sela in four sets, marking his first ever win at Wimbledon. In the second round, Thiem lost a close five-setter against Fernando Verdasco, despite being 2–1 up in sets. After Wimbledon, he participated at the Croatia Open Umag as the fourth seed, which gave him a bye into the second round. After wins over Dušan Lajović and compatriot Andreas Haider-Maurer (after both players retired), Thiem advanced to the semifinals, where he defeated Gaël Monfils and earned himself a place in his third career final. In the final, he defeated Portugal's João Sousa in straight sets to claim his second career ATP Tour title. A week later Thiem won his third title at the Swiss Open Gstaad, beating David Goffin in the final, winning back to back tournaments for the first time.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem next played at his home tournament, the Generali Open Kitzbühel, as the first seed which marked the first time he entered an ATP tournament as the top seeded player. After receiving a bye, he managed to avoid an early exit, as he gained a close three set win against Andreas Haider-Maurer. He defeated Albert Montañés in the quarterfinals, after Montañés retired five games into the second set. In the semifinals he was denied a place in his third consecutive final when he lost to German Philipp Kohlschreiber, which ended his winning streak of ten matches. After the tournament ended, Thiem entered the top 20 for the first time, reaching a new career high of world No. 18.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem won four titles in 2016, including a first at the ATP 500 level at Acapulco, and reached the French Open semifinals, the first time he had progressed past the fourth round at the Grand Slam level. Thiem started the year with a semifinal run in Brisbane on outdoor hard courts, beating world No. 13 Marin Čilić, but losing to Roger Federer in straight sets. Thiem reached the third round of the Australian Open, losing to world No. 16, David Goffin, in four sets. Thiem next competed at the Argentina Open, where he was seeded fifth. In the semifinals he upset world No. 5 and defending champion Rafael Nadal in three sets. Thiem went on to win his fourth ATP title by defeating Nicolás Almagro in three sets.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: His next tournament was the Rio Open. Thiem reached the quarterfinals where he defeated David Ferrer, his second top-ten win in two weeks. He was defeated by Guido Pella in the semifinals, displaying signs of fatigue during the match. In February, Thiem won the Mexican Open in Acapulco, his first hard court title. He defeated Bernard Tomic in the final. With this win, Thiem attained a career-high ranking of 14 on 29 February, also rising to No. 3 in the Race to London. In early March, Thiem participated in Austria's Davis Cup Group I first-round tie versus Portugal on indoor hard courts. In singles, he defeated Gastão Elias in a fifth set tiebreak. Partnering Alexander Peya, he also beat Elias and João Sousa in doubles. In reverse singles, Thiem defeated Sousa to give Austria a 3–1 lead, and the team went on to win the tie by 4 rubbers to 1.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem competed at Indian Wells where he reached the fourth round before falling to world No. 9, Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. In March, at the Miami Open he reached the fourth round succumbing to world No. 1 Novak Djokovic. Thiem then played at the Monte-Carlo Masters losing to Rafael Nadal in the third round. In late April, Thiem reached the ATP 250 final in Munich on outdoor clay, he played Philipp Kohlschreiber ultimately losing in three sets. Thiem lost in the first round of the Madrid Open before he competed in the Italian Open. He defeated Roger Federer, who was suffering from a back injury, in straight sets. In the quarterfinals, Thiem lost to sixth seed Kei Nishikori. In Nice, Thiem successfully defended his title, beating Alexander Zverev in the final. At the French Open, Thiem reached the semifinals of a major for the first time by defeating David Goffin in the quarterfinals. He lost to No. 1 and eventual champion Novak Djokovic in the semifinals. By reaching this semifinal he also made his debut inside the top ten of ATP rankings as world No. 7.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: In early June, Thiem competed at the Stuttgart Open as the third seed. He defeated first seed Roger Federer in the semifinal. In the final, he defeated Philipp Kohlschreiber over two days to win his first grass court tournament. With the win he became the 29th player in Open Era history (since May 1968) to win ATP titles on three different surfaces in the same year. Thiem next competed at the Halle Open where he lost to Florian Mayer in the semifinal. At Wimbledon, in the first round Thiem again encountered Florian Mayer, but this time he won. In the second round, Thiem was defeated by Jiří Veselý. At the US Open, Thiem beat Pablo Carreño Busta to reach the fourth round, where he retired against Juan Martín del Potro due to right knee injury. After the US Open, Thiem reached the final at the Moselle Open but lost to Lucas Pouille. Thiem qualified for the ATP Finals for the first time losing his opening match to Novak Djokovic before he scored a win against Gaël Monfils. He was eliminated in the round robin stage following a loss to Milos Raonic. He ended the year ranked No. 8, his first time finishing inside the top ten.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem improved his Grand Slam results in 2017, reaching the fourth round in all four, and a second consecutive semifinal at the French Open. Thiem began the year by playing at the Brisbane International, losing in the quarterfinals against eventual winner Grigor Dimitrov. Thiem then played at the Sydney International as the top seed. Thiem overcame Gastao Elias but lost in the quarterfinals to Dan Evans. At the Australian Open, Thiem advanced to the fourth round for the first time, but lost to Goffin for the second year in a row. Thiem went to the Rotterdam Open for the first ATP 500 event of the year. After defeating Alexander Zverev and Gilles Simon, Thiem lost in the quarterfinals to Pierre-Hugues Herbert. The following week, Thiem was again the second seed at an ATP 500 event, this time at the Rio Open. Thiem claimed his first title since June, defeating Pablo Carreño Busta in the final. This was Thiem's eighth ATP Tour title, his sixth on clay, and his second at the 500 level. Thiem played in his third consecutive ATP 500 event at the Mexican Open in Acapulco, where he was the defending champion. Seeded fourth, Thiem lost in the quarterfinals to Sam Querrey, who eventually won the tournament. At the quarterfinals of the Indian Wells Masters he met Stan Wawrinka, losing a final set tiebreak. After losing his opening round match in Miami to Borna Ćorić, and a second round exit in Monte Carlo to David Goffin, he made his 12th ATP Tour final in Barcelona losing to Rafael Nadal in two sets. En route he scored his first win over a current world No. 1, beating Andy Murray in the semifinals. At the Madrid Open, Thiem reached his first Masters 1000 final against Rafael Nadal. Thiem lost but showed an improvement over his Barcelona Open scores against Nadal. Thiem defeated Nadal in the quarterfinals of the Rome Masters 1000 tournament in two straight sets, before falling to Novak Djokovic in the semifinals. At the French Open, Thiem did not drop a set in his first five matches including defeating defending champion Novak Djokovic before losing in the semifinal to eventual champion Rafael Nadal in straight sets.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: At the beginning of the grass court season, Thiem reached the second round of the Halle Open, losing to Robin Haase. Then, in the second round of the Antalya Open, he was upset by qualifier Ramkumar Ramanathan, then ranked 222 in the world. At Wimbledon, he reached the fourth round for the first time in his career, losing out to eventual semifinalist Tomáš Berdych in five sets. Thiem then participated in the Washington Open, where he lost to Kevin Anderson in the third round. At the Canadian Open in Montreal, he received a bye into the second round, but lost to Diego Schwartzman. He then reached the quarterfinals of Cincinnati, where he lost to David Ferrer. At the US Open, Thiem made it to the fourth round against 2009 US Open champion Juan Martín del Potro, he eventually lost in five sets, after failing to capitalize on two match points in the fourth set. Thiem again struggled with form following the US Open, losing three straight matches in Chengdu, Tokyo and Shanghai. Nonetheless, he qualified for the ATP Finals for the second straight year. Thiem then lost his second match in both Vienna and Paris to Richard Gasquet and Fernando Verdasco successively. Thiem broke into the top five in the rankings for the first time in his career, rising to world No. 4. During the round robin stage of the ATP Finals, Thiem defeated Pablo Carreño Busta in three sets, but lost to David Goffin and Grigor Dimitrov. He did not advance to the semifinals.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem reached a first Grand Slam final at the French Open, and a first US Open quarterfinal in 2018, along with a second Masters 1000 final in Madrid. In late December 2017, coach Galo Blanco was added to Thiem's team and they worked together until the end of the tennis season. Thiem began his season at the Qatar Open as the top seed. He reached the semifinals where he withdrew from his match against Gaël Monfils due to illness. At the Australian Open, Thiem lost in the fourth round against Tennys Sandgren. This was equal to his result of the previous year at the Australian Open. Thiem's next tournament in mid-February saw him win his ninth ATP Tour title at the Argentina Open, his second in Buenos Aires. This was his first title in nearly a year. In Indian Wells, he won his second round match against Stefanos Tsitsipas. In his third-round match against Pablo Cuevas, he rolled his ankle in winning in the first set, later retiring from the match. He skipped Miami because of the hairline fracture ankle injury.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem next played in Monte Carlo, losing to Rafael Nadal in the quarterfinals. In Barcelona, he again advanced to the quarterfinals, before falling to Stefanos Tsitsipas. In Madrid, he faced Nadal in the quarterfinals. This time, he came through to win, ending Nadal's 21-match and record 50-set winning streak on clay. Thiem had been the last man to win against Nadal on clay the previous year in Rome. Thiem then defeated Kevin Anderson to reach the final where he lost to Alexander Zverev in straight sets. Thiem was the sixth seed at Rome, but lost his first match to Fabio Fognini in three sets. Thiem then played in Lyon, where he came back from a set and a break down against Gilles Simon to win his 10th ATP title. At the French Open, Thiem faced Alexander Zverev in the quarterfinals, defeating him in straight sets. In his third consecutive French Open semifinal, Thiem defeated unseeded Marco Cecchinato to advance to his first Grand Slam final. He then lost in straight sets in the final to Rafael Nadal.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem lost to Stefanos Tsitsipas in his first match at the Canadian Open, and was forced to withdraw from Cincinnati due to illness. At the US Open, he reached the fourth round for the third consecutive year. There, he faced 2017 finalist Kevin Anderson, defeating him in straight sets to reach his first Grand Slam quarterfinal on hard court, where he faced top seed Nadal. This was their first meeting on a surface other than clay. In a surprising one-sided start to the match, Thiem won the first set, yielding only seven points. Nadal took control and won the second and third sets. Thiem then won the fourth set in a tiebreak. Nadal won the fifth set tiebreak to bring the match to an end at 2:04 AM local time, after 4 hours and 49 minutes of play. Later that month, Thiem claimed a title at the St Petersburg Open. He defeated Martin Kližan to secure his ninth ATP 250 title. At the Shanghai Masters, Thiem was upset by unseeded Matthew Ebden in his first match. Thiem was the top seed at the Vienna Open, advancing to the quarterfinals where he lost to Kei Nishikori. Then at the Paris Masters, Thiem was seeded sixth, reaching the semifinals before losing to eventual champion Karen Khachanov. At the ATP Finals, Thiem was eliminated in the group stage after winning one match, against Kei Nishikori, and losing his two others, against Kevin Anderson and Roger Federer. He ended the 2018 season ranked world No. 8.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem won five titles in 2019, tying with Novak Djokovic for the Tour lead. Thiem started his season at the Qatar Open, but was upset in the first round by Pierre-Hugues Herbert. At the Australian Open, he defeated Benoît Paire in five sets before retiring to Alexei Popyrin in the second round. He failed to defend his title in Buenos Aires and was knocked out of the Rio Open by Laslo Đere. At the Indian Wells Masters, he defeated Ivo Karlovic, got a walkover through Gael Monfils, and beat Milos Raonic en route to the final, where he defeated Roger Federer in three sets to claim his first ATP Masters 1000 title. As a result, he returned to his career-best ranking of world No. 4. Nicolás Massú was a new addition to Thiem's coaching team a month before the Indian Wells tournament.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: At the Monte Carlo Masters he lost to eventual finalist Dušan Lajović in the third round. Thiem next went to Barcelona, where he captured his third career ATP 500 title. En route to the title, Thiem did not drop a set, including in his win over eleven-time champion Rafael Nadal in the semifinal, his fourth win on clay over the Spaniard. Thiem defeated Daniil Medvedev in straight sets in the final. Just prior to the French Open Thiem parted with long time coach and manager Günter Bresnik, who he had been working with for 15 years. Thiem was seeded fourth at the French Open and reached his fourth consecutive semifinal at the tournament where he faced world No. 1, Novak Djokovic. In a four-hour match stretching over two days, Thiem defeated Djokovic in five sets, advancing to his second major final. In the final, he again faced Rafael Nadal. After splitting the competitive first two sets, Nadal won the third and fourth sets to take the match.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: At Wimbledon, Thiem lost in the first round to Sam Querrey. Thiem played in Hamburg, losing in the quarterfinals to Andrey Rublev. The following week he won the 14th title of his career in Kitzbühel defeating Albert Ramos Viñolas in the final. At the US Open he lost to Thomas Fabbiano in the first round in four sets, his second first-round Grand Slam loss in a row. At the China Open, Thiem defeated Andy Murray in straight sets to progress to the semifinals, where he defeated Karen Khachanov after being down a set and a break and coming back to win in three sets. With this win he qualified for the ATP Finals. In the final Thiem defeated Stefanos Tsitsipas to win his first title in Asia, fourth title in 2019 and 15th career title. At the Shanghai Masters Thiem reached the quarterfinals before being bested by Matteo Berrettini. For the first time in ten attempts, Thiem made past the quarterfinal stage at his home tournament in Vienna. He reached the final where he triumphed over Diego Schwartzman to claim the Vienna Open trophy, for his 16th career title.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: At the ATP Finals, Thiem defeated Roger Federer and Novak Djokovic in consecutive matches, and became the first player to qualify for the semifinals. It was Thiem's first win over Djokovic on hard court. Thiem then defeated Alexander Zverev in straight sets to reach the final where he lost to Stefanos Tsitsipas in three sets.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: In a curtailed season due to the COVID-19 pandemic Thiem posted his best results at Grand Slam tournaments. He began his 2020 season at the inaugural ATP Cup, where Austria was defeated in the group stage. He played three matches, defeating Diego Schwartzman but losing to Borna Ćorić and Hubert Hurkacz. Seeded fifth at the Australian Open, Thiem reached his first quarterfinals there where he faced top seed and 2009 champion Rafael Nadal in just their second match on hard court. He defeated Nadal in four sets, winning three tiebreaks, proceeding to the semifinals. He then defeated seventh seed Alexander Zverev in four sets to make his first Grand Slam final on hard courts. In the final, Thiem lost to defending champion Novak Djokovic in five sets.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: On 2 March Thiem rose to a new career high ranking of world No. 3, passing Roger Federer in the ATP rankings. Thiem arrived early at Indian Wells to defend his 2019 title. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the 2020 Indian Wells Masters was postponed. Shortly afterward the ATP Tour was suspended until July. During the ATP Tour's suspension Thiem competed in several exhibition events. He won the first leg of the Adria Tour exhibition event in Belgrade, the Bett1 Aces event in Berlin, the Austrian Pro Series event and reached the final of his own exhibition event, Thiem's 7. On the tour's resumption in August, at the Cincinnati Masters in New York, Thiem lost his opening match to Filip Krajinović.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem was the second seed in the men's singles draw at the 2020 US Open. In the third round, he defeated 2014 champion Marin Čilić in four sets. He went on to beat Félix Auger-Aliassime in the round of 16 in straight sets. He beat Alex de Minaur in the quarterfinals in straight sets, following which he defeated third seed Daniil Medvedev in three sets in the semifinals to reach his first US Open final. He defeated Alexander Zverev in the final to win his first major title, the first time since the 2004 French Open that a player had come back from losing the first two sets in a Grand Slam final to win the title. This was the fifth time a player has come back from two sets down in the Open era. Thiem became the first male tennis player born in the 1990s to win a major title. Thiem additionally became the first new Grand Slam champion in the men's singles since Marin Čilić won the 2014 US Open.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: Thiem was seeded third at the French Open. He reached the quarterfinals where he was defeated by Diego Schwartzman in a five-set match which took five hours and eight minutes to complete. Thiem then played as the defending champion at the Vienna Open but lost in the quarterfinals to Andrey Rublev in straight sets.


title: Dominic Thiem

text: At the 2020 ATP Finals, Thiem was drawn with Stefanos Tsitsipas, Rafael Nadal, and Andrey Rublev. He beat Tsitsipas in a rematch of the previous year's final. He then defeated Nadal in two tiebreaks guaranteeing him passage to the semifinals. He beat Novak Djokovic in the semifinals, recording his 300th match win and his fifth against a World No. 1, but lost the finals to Daniil Medvedev in three sets. After a breakthrough year and winning his first Grand Slam, Thiem was awarded the Austrian Sportsman of the Year award which was presented at the Lottery Sports Aid Gala. Sports Illustrated (SI) declared Dominic Thiem as Winner of Tennis MVP award for the year 2020.