title: Easy Rider

text: Along with "Bonnie and Clyde" and "The Graduate", "Easy Rider" helped kick-start the New Hollywood era during the late 1960s and 1970s. The major studios realized that money could be made from low-budget films made by avant-garde directors. Heavily influenced by the French New Wave, the films of the so-called "post-classical Hollywood" came to represent a counterculture generation increasingly disillusioned with its government as well as the government's effects on the world at large and the establishment in general. Although Jack Nicholson appears only as a supporting actor and in the last half of the film, the standout performance signaled his arrival as a movie star, along with his subsequent film "Five Easy Pieces" in which he had the lead role. Vice President Spiro Agnew criticized "Easy Rider", along with the band Jefferson Airplane, as examples of the permissiveness of the 1960s counterculture.


title: Easy Rider

text: The film's success, and the new era of Hollywood that it helped usher in, gave Hopper the chance to direct again with complete artistic control. The result was 1971's "The Last Movie", which was a notable box office and critical failure, effectively ending Hopper's career as a director for well over a decade.


title: Easy Rider

text: The movie's "groundbreaking" soundtrack featured popular rock artists including The Band, The Byrds, The Jimi Hendrix Experience and Steppenwolf. Editor Donn Cambern used various music from his own record collection to make watching hours of bike footage more interesting during editing. Most of Cambern's music was used, with licensing costs of $1 million, triple the film's budget. The film's extensive use of pop and rock music for the soundtrack was similar to what had recently been used for 1967's "The Graduate".


title: Easy Rider

text: Bob Dylan was asked to contribute music, but was reluctant to use his own recording of "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)", so a version performed by Byrds frontman Roger McGuinn was used instead. Also, instead of writing an entirely new song for the film, Dylan simply wrote out the first verse of "Ballad of Easy Rider" and told the filmmakers, "Give this to McGuinn, he'll know what to do with it." McGuinn completed the song and performed it in the film.


title: Easy Rider

text: Originally, Peter Fonda had intended the band Crosby, Stills, Nash, & Young to write an entirely original soundtrack for the film, but this failed to materialize for two reasons. For one, cutter Donn Cambern edited the footage much more closely to what were only meant as temporary tracks than was customary at the time, which led to everyone involved finding them much more suited to the material than they had originally thought. Also, upon watching a screening of the film with Cambern's edits, the group felt they could not improve on the music that was used. On the other hand, Hopper increasingly got control over every aspect over the course of the project and decided to throw CSNY out behind Fonda's back, telling the band as an excuse, "Look, you guys are really good musicians, but honestly, anybody who rides in a limo can't comprehend my movie, so I'm gonna have to say no to this, and if you guys try to get in the studio again, I may have to cause you some bodily harm."


title: Easy Rider

text: Inspired by the movie, Hendrix later wrote a song "Ezy Ryder", with lyrics reflecting the film's themes.


title: Easy Rider

text: The film was released by The Criterion Collection in November 2010 as part of the box set "America Lost and Found: The BBS Story". It included two audio commentaries, one featuring actor-director-writer Dennis Hopper, the other with Hopper, actor-writer Peter Fonda, and production manager Paul Lewis; two documentaries about the making and history of the film, "Born to Be Wild" (1995) and "Easy Rider: Shaking the Cage" (1999); television excerpts showing Hopper and Fonda at the Cannes Film Festival; and a new video interview with BBS co-founder Stephen Blauner.


title: Easy Rider

text: In 2012, a sequel to the movie was released titled "", directed by Dustin Rikert. The film is about the family of Wyatt "Captain America" Williams from the 1940s to the present day. No members of the original cast or crew were involved with the film, which was produced and written by amateur filmmaker Phil Pitzer, who had purchased the sequel rights to "Easy Rider". Pitzer also pursued legal action against Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider in order to block them from reclaiming the rights to the film.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl (; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have smaller populations in the United States.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl has been spoken in central Mexico since at least the seventh century CE. It was the language of the Aztec/Mexica, who dominated what is now central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican history. During the centuries preceding the Spanish and Tlaxcalan conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Aztecs had expanded to incorporate a large part of central Mexico. Their influence caused the variety of Nahuatl spoken by the residents of Tenochtitlan to become a prestige language in Mesoamerica.


title: Nahuatl

text: After the conquest, when Spanish colonists and missionaries introduced the Latin alphabet, Nahuatl also became a literary language. Many chronicles, grammars, works of poetry, administrative documents and codices were written in it during the 16th and 17th centuries. This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan variety has been labeled Classical Nahuatl. It is among the most studied and best-documented languages of the Americas.


title: Nahuatl

text: Today, Nahuan languages are spoken in scattered communities, mostly in rural areas throughout central Mexico and along the coastline. There are considerable differences among varieties, and some are not mutually intelligible. Huasteca Nahuatl, with over one million speakers, is the most-spoken variety. All varieties have been subject to varying degrees of influence from Spanish. No modern Nahuan languages are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery. Under Mexico's "General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples", promulgated in 2003, Nahuatl and the other 63 indigenous languages of Mexico are recognized as ('national languages') in the regions where they are spoken. They are given the same status as Spanish within their respective regions.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuan languages exhibit a complex morphology, or system of word formation, characterized by polysynthesis and agglutination. This means that morphemes – words or fragments of words that each contain their own separate meaning – are often strung together to make longer complex words.


title: Nahuatl

text: Through a very long period of development alongside other indigenous Mesoamerican languages, they have absorbed many influences, coming to form part of the Mesoamerican language area. Many words from Nahuatl were absorbed into Spanish and, from there, were diffused into hundreds of other languages in the region. Most of these loanwords denote things indigenous to central Mexico, which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names. English has also absorbed words of Nahuatl origin, including "avocado", "chayote", "chili", "chipotle", "chocolate", "atlatl", "coyote", "peyote", "axolotl" and "tomato".


title: Nahuatl

text: As a language label, the term "Nahuatl" encompasses a group of closely related languages or divergent dialects within the Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. The Mexican Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (National Institute of Indigenous Languages) recognizes 30 individual varieties within the "language group" labeled Nahuatl. The Ethnologue recognizes 28 varieties with separate ISO codes. Sometimes Nahuatl is also applied to the Pipil language ("Nawat") of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Regardless of whether "Nahuatl" is considered to refer to a dialect continuum or a group of separate languages, the varieties form a single branch within the Uto-Aztecan family, descended from a single Proto-Nahuan language. Within Mexico, the question of whether to consider individual varieties to be languages or dialects of a single language is highly political.


title: Nahuatl

text: In the past, the branch of Uto-Aztecan to which Nahuatl belongs has been called "Aztecan". From the 1990s onward, the alternative designation "Nahuan" has been frequently used instead, especially in Spanish-language publications. The Nahuan (Aztecan) branch of Uto-Aztecan is widely accepted as having two divisions: General Aztec and Pochutec.


title: Nahuatl

text: General Aztec encompasses the Nahuatl and Pipil languages. Pochutec is a scantily attested language, which became extinct in the 20th century, and which Campbell and Langacker classify as being outside general Aztec. Other researchers have argued that Pochutec should be considered a divergent variant of the western periphery.


title: Nahuatl

text: "Nahuatl" denotes at least Classical Nahuatl, together with related modern languages spoken in Mexico. The inclusion of Pipil in this group is debated among linguists. Lyle classified Pipil as separate from the Nahuatl branch within general Aztecan, whereas dialectologists such as Una Canger, Karen Dakin, Yolanda Lastra, and Terrence Kaufman have preferred to include Pipil within the General Aztecan branch, citing close historical ties with the eastern peripheral dialects of General Aztec.


title: Nahuatl

text: Current subclassification of Nahuatl rests on research by , and . Canger introduced the scheme of a Central grouping and two Peripheral groups, and Lastra confirmed this notion, differing in some details. demonstrated a basic split between Eastern and Western branches of Nahuan, considered to reflect the oldest division of the proto-Nahuan speech community. Canger originally considered the central dialect area to be an innovative subarea within the Western branch, but in 2011, she suggested that it arose as an urban koiné language with features from both Western and Eastern dialect areas. tentatively included dialects of La Huasteca in the Central group, while places them in the Eastern Periphery, which was followed by .


title: Nahuatl

text: The terminology used to describe varieties of spoken Nahuatl is inconsistently applied. Many terms are used with multiple denotations, or a single dialect grouping goes under several names. Sometimes, older terms are substituted with newer ones or with the speakers' own name for their specific variety. The word "Nahuatl" is itself a Nahuatl word, probably derived from the word ('clear language'). The language was formerly called Aztec because it was spoken by the Central Mexican peoples known as Aztecs (). During the period of the Aztec empire centered in Mexico-Tenochtitlan the language came to be identified with the politically dominant ethnic group, and consequently the Nahuatl language was often described as (literally 'in the manner of Mexicas') or "mēxihcatlahtolli" 'Mexica language'. Now, the term "Aztec" is rarely used for modern Nahuan languages, but linguists' traditional name of "Aztecan" for the branch of Uto-Aztecan that comprises Nahuatl, Pipil, and Pochutec is still in use (although some linguists prefer "Nahuan"). Since 1978, the term "General Aztec" has been adopted by linguists to refer to the languages of the Aztecan branch excluding the Pochutec language.


title: Nahuatl

text: The speakers of Nahuatl themselves often refer to their language as either "Mexicano" or some word derived from "mācēhualli", the Nahuatl word for 'commoner'. One example of the latter is the Nahuatl spoken in Tetelcingo, Morelos, whose speakers call their language . The Pipil people of El Salvador do not call their own language Pipil, as most linguists do, but rather . The Nahuas of Durango call their language "Mexicanero". Speakers of Nahuatl of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec call their language ('the straight language'). Some speech communities use "Nahuatl" as the name for their language, although it seems to be a recent innovation. Linguists commonly identify localized dialects of Nahuatl by adding as a qualifier the name of the village or area where that variety is spoken.


title: Nahuatl

text: On the issue of geographic origin, the consensus of linguists during the 20th century was that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in the southwestern United States. Evidence from archaeology and ethnohistory supports the thesis of a southward diffusion across the North American continent, specifically that speakers of early Nahuan languages migrated from Aridoamerica into central Mexico in several waves. But recently, the traditional assessment has been challenged by Jane H. Hill, who proposes instead that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in central Mexico and spread northwards at a very early date. This hypothesis and the analyses of data that it rests upon have received serious criticism.


title: Nahuatl

text: The proposed migration of speakers of the Proto-Nahuan language into the Mesoamerican region has been placed at sometime around AD 500, towards the end of the Early Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology. Before reaching the Mexican Plateau, pre-Nahuan groups probably spent a period of time in contact with the Corachol languages Cora and Huichol of northwestern Mexico (which are also Uto-Aztecan).


title: Nahuatl

text: The major political and cultural center of Mesoamerica in the Early Classic period was Teotihuacan. The identity of the language(s) spoken by Teotihuacan's founders has long been debated, with the relationship of Nahuatl to Teotihuacan being prominent in that enquiry. While in the 19th and early 20th centuries it was presumed that Teotihuacan had been founded by speakers of Nahuatl, later linguistic and archaeological research tended to disconfirm this view. Instead, the timing of the Nahuatl influx was seen to coincide more closely with Teotihuacan's fall than its rise, and other candidates such as Totonacan identified as more likely. But recently, evidence from Mayan epigraphy of possible Nahuatl loanwords in Mayan languages has been interpreted as demonstrating that other Mesoamerican languages may have been borrowing words from Proto-Nahuan (or its early descendants) significantly earlier than previously thought, bolstering the possibility of a significant Nahuatl presence at Teotihuacan.


title: Nahuatl

text: In Mesoamerica the Mayan, Oto-Manguean and Mixe–Zoque languages had coexisted for millennia. This had given rise to the Mesoamerican language area ("language area" refers to a set of language traits have become common among the area's languages by diffusion and not by evolution within a set of languages belonging to a common genetic subgrouping). After the Nahuas migrated into the Mesoamerican cultural zone, their language too adopted some of the traits defining the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. Examples of such adopted traits are the use of relational nouns, the appearance of calques, or loan translations, and a form of possessive construction typical of Mesoamerican languages.


title: Nahuatl

text: A language which was the ancestor of Pochutec split from Proto-Nahuan (or Proto-Aztecan) possibly as early as AD 400, arriving in Mesoamerica a few centuries earlier than the bulk of speakers of Nahuan languages. Some Nahuan groups migrated south along the Central American isthmus, reaching as far as Nicaragua. The critically endangered Pipil language of El Salvador is the only living descendant of the variety of Nahuatl once spoken south of present-day Mexico.


title: Nahuatl

text: Beginning in the 7th century, Nahuan speakers rose to power in central Mexico. The people of the Toltec culture of Tula, which was active in central Mexico around the 10th century, are thought to have been Nahuatl speakers. By the 11th century, Nahuatl speakers were dominant in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, with settlements including Azcapotzalco, Colhuacan and Cholula rising to prominence. Nahua migrations into the region from the north continued into the Postclassic period. One of the last of these migrations to arrive in the Valley of Mexico settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group was the Mexica, who over the course of the next three centuries founded an empire named Tenochtitlan. Their political and linguistic influence came to extend into Central America and Nahuatl became a lingua franca among merchants and elites in Mesoamerica, e.g., among the Maya K'iche' people. As Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest urban center in Central America and one of the largest in the world at the time, it attracted speakers of Nahuatl from diverse areas giving birth to an urban form of Nahuatl with traits from many dialects. This urbanized variety of Tenochtitlan is what came to be known as Classical Nahuatl as documented in colonial times.


title: Nahuatl

text: With the arrival of the Spanish in 1519, Nahuatl was displaced as the dominant regional language, but remained important in Nahua communities under Spanish rule. There is extensive colonial-era documentation in Nahuatl for Tlaxcala, Cuernavaca, Culhuacan, Coyoacan, Toluca and other locations in the Valley of Mexico and beyond. Starting in the 1970s, scholars of Mesoamerican ethnohistory have analyzed local-level texts in Nahuatl and other indigenous languages to gain insight into cultural change in the colonial era via linguistic changes, known at present as the New Philology. A number of these texts have been translated and published in part or in their entirety. The types of documentation include censuses, especially a very early set from the Cuernavaca region, town council records from Tlaxcala, and testaments of individual Nahuas.


title: Nahuatl

text: Since the Spanish made alliances with first the Nahuatl speakers from Tlaxcala and later with the conquered Mexica of Tenochtitlan (Aztecs), the Nahuatl continued spreading throughout Mesoamerica in the decades after the conquest. Spanish expeditions with thousands of Nahua soldiers marched north and south to conquer new territories. Society of Jesus missions in northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States often included a "barrio" of Tlaxcaltec soldiers who remained to guard the mission. For example, some fourteen years after the northeastern city of Saltillo was founded in 1577, a Tlaxcaltec community was resettled in a separate nearby village, San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala, to cultivate the land and aid colonization efforts that had stalled in the face of local hostility to the Spanish settlement. As for the conquest of modern-day Central America, Pedro de Alvarado conquered Guatemala with the help of tens of thousands of Tlaxcaltec allies, who then settled outside of modern-day Antigua Guatemala.


title: Nahuatl

text: As a part of their missionary efforts, members of various religious orders (principally Franciscan and Dominican friars and Jesuits) introduced the Latin alphabet to the Nahuas. Within the first twenty years after the Spanish arrival, texts were being prepared in the Nahuatl language written in Latin characters. Simultaneously, schools were founded, such as the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1536, which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Native Americans and priests. Missionary grammarians undertook the writing of grammars, also called "artes", of indigenous languages for use by priests. The first Nahuatl grammar, written by Andrés de Olmos, was published in 1547 – three years before the first French grammar. By 1645, four more had been published, authored respectively by Alonso de Molina (1571), Antonio del Rincón (1595), Diego de Galdo Guzmán (1642), and Horacio Carochi (1645). Carochi's is today considered the most important of the colonial-era grammars of Nahuatl. Carochi has been particularly important for scholars working in the New Philology, such that there is a 2001 English translation of Carochi's 1645 grammar by James Lockhart. Through contact with Spanish the Nahuatl language adopted many loan words, and as bilingualism intensified, changes in the grammatical structure of Nahuatl followed.


title: Nahuatl

text: In 1570, King Philip II of Spain decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of New Spain in order to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies. This led to Spanish missionaries teaching Nahuatl to Amerindians living as far south as Honduras and El Salvador. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Classical Nahuatl was used as a literary language, and a large corpus of texts from that period exists today. They include histories, chronicles, poetry, theatrical works, Christian canonical works, ethnographic descriptions, and administrative documents. The Spanish permitted a great deal of autonomy in the local administration of indigenous towns during this period, and in many Nahuatl-speaking towns the language was the de facto administrative language both in writing and speech. A large body of Nahuatl literature was composed during this period, including the "Florentine Codex", a twelve-volume compendium of Aztec culture compiled by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún; "Crónica Mexicayotl", a chronicle of the royal lineage of Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc; "Cantares Mexicanos", a collection of songs in Nahuatl; a Nahuatl-Spanish/Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by Alonso de Molina; and the "Huei tlamahuiçoltica", a description in Nahuatl of the apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe.


title: Nahuatl

text: Grammars and dictionaries of indigenous languages were composed throughout the colonial period, but their quality was highest in the initial period. The friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible in practice, so they concentrated on Nahuatl. For a time, the linguistic situation in Mesoamerica remained relatively stable, but in 1696, Charles II of Spain issued a decree banning the use of any language other than Spanish throughout the Spanish Empire. In 1770, another decree, calling for the elimination of the indigenous languages, did away with Classical Nahuatl as a literary language. Until Mexican Independence in 1821, the Spanish courts admitted Nahuatl testimony and documentation as evidence in lawsuits, with court translators rendering it in Spanish.


title: Nahuatl

text: Throughout the modern period the situation of indigenous languages has grown increasingly precarious in Mexico, and the numbers of speakers of virtually all indigenous languages have dwindled. Although the absolute number of Nahuatl speakers has actually risen over the past century, indigenous populations have become increasingly marginalized in Mexican society. In 1895, Nahuatl was spoken by over 5% of the population. By 2000, this proportion had fallen to 1.49%. Given the process of marginalization combined with the trend of migration to urban areas and to the United States, some linguists are warning of impending language death. At present Nahuatl is mostly spoken in rural areas by an impoverished class of indigenous subsistence agriculturists. According to the Mexican national statistics institute, INEGI, 51% of Nahuatl speakers are involved in the farming sector and 6 in 10 receive no wages or less than the minimum wage.


title: Nahuatl

text: From the early 20th century to at least the mid-1980s, educational policies in Mexico focused on the Hispanicization () of indigenous communities, teaching only Spanish and discouraging the use of indigenous languages. As a result, today there is no group of Nahuatl speakers having attained general literacy in Nahuatl, while their literacy rate in Spanish also remains much lower than the national average. Even so, Nahuatl is still spoken by well over a million people, of whom around 10% are monolingual. The survival of Nahuatl as a whole is not imminently endangered, but the survival of certain dialects is, and some dialects have already become extinct within the last few decades of the 20th century.


title: Nahuatl

text: The 1990s saw the onset of a radical change in official Mexican government policies towards indigenous and linguistic rights. Developments of accords in the international rights arena combined with domestic pressures (such as social and political agitation by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and indigenous social movements) led to legislative reforms and the creation of decentralized government agencies like the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (CDI) and the Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI) with responsibilities for the promotion and protection of indigenous communities and languages.


title: Nahuatl

text: In particular, the federal "Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas" ['General Law on the Language Rights of the Indigenous Peoples', promulgated 13 March 2003] recognizes all the country's indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, as national languages and gives indigenous people the right to use them in all spheres of public and private life. In Article 11, it grants access to compulsory, bilingual and intercultural education. Nonetheless, progress towards institutionalizing Nahuatl and securing linguistic rights for its speakers has been slow.


title: Nahuatl

text: Today, a spectrum of Nahuan languages are spoken in scattered areas stretching from the northern state of Durango to Tabasco in the southeast. Pipil, the southernmost Nahuan language, is spoken in El Salvador by a small number of speakers. According to IRIN-International, the Nawat Language Recovery Initiative project, there are no reliable figures for the contemporary numbers of speakers of Pipil. Numbers may range anywhere from "perhaps a few hundred people, perhaps only a few dozen".


title: Nahuatl

text: According to the 2000 census by INEGI, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.45 million people, some 198,000 (14.9%) of whom are monolingual. There are many more female than male monolinguals, and women represent nearly two-thirds of the total number. The states of Guerrero and Hidalgo have the highest rates of monolingual Nahuatl speakers relative to the total Nahuatl speaking population, at 24.2% and 22.6%, respectively. For most other states the percentage of monolinguals among the speakers is less than 5%. This means that in most states more than 95% of the Nahuatl speaking population are bilingual in Spanish.


title: Nahuatl

text: The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, and Guerrero. Significant populations are also found in the State of Mexico, Morelos, and the Federal District, with smaller communities in Michoacán and Durango. Nahuatl became extinct in the states of Jalisco and Colima during the 20th century. As a result of internal migration within the country, Nahuatl speaking communities exist in all states in Mexico. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl speaking communities in the U.S., particularly in California, New York, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuan languages are defined as a subgroup of Uto-Aztecan by having undergone a number of shared changes from the Uto-Aztecan protolanguage (PUA). The table below shows the phonemic inventory of Classical Nahuatl as an example of a typical Nahuan language. In some dialects, the phoneme, which was common in Classical Nahuatl, has changed into either , as in Isthmus Nahuatl, Mexicanero and Pipil, or into , as in Nahuatl of Pómaro, Michoacán. Many dialects no longer distinguish between short and long vowels. Some have introduced completely new vowel qualities to compensate, as is the case for Tetelcingo Nahuatl. Others have developed a pitch accent, such as Nahuatl of Oapan, Guerrero. Many modern dialects have also borrowed phonemes from Spanish, such as .


title: Nahuatl

text: In many Nahuatl dialects vowel length contrast is vague, and in others it has become lost entirely. The dialect of Tetelcingo (nhg) developed the vowel length into a difference in quality:


title: Nahuatl

text: Most varieties have relatively simple patterns of sound alternation (allophony). In many dialects, the voiced consonants are devoiced in word-final position and in consonant clusters: devoices to a voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant , devoices to a voiceless glottal fricative or to a voiceless labialized velar approximant , and devoices to voiceless alveolar lateral fricative . In some dialects, the first consonant in almost any consonant cluster becomes . Some dialects have productive lenition of voiceless consonants into their voiced counterparts between vowels. The nasals are normally assimilated to the place of articulation of a following consonant. The voiceless alveolar lateral affricate is assimilated after and pronounced .


title: Nahuatl

text: Classical Nahuatl and most of the modern varieties have fairly simple phonological systems. They allow only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant.


title: Nahuatl

text: Consonant clusters occur only word-medially and over syllable boundaries. Some morphemes have two alternating forms: one with a vowel "i" to prevent consonant clusters and one without it. For example, the absolutive suffix has the variant forms "-tli" (used after consonants) and "-tl" (used after vowels). Some modern varieties, however, have formed complex clusters from vowel loss. Others have contracted syllable sequences, causing accents to shift or vowels to become long.


title: Nahuatl

text: Most Nahuatl dialects have stress on the penultimate syllable of a word. In Mexicanero from Durango, many unstressed syllables have disappeared from words, and the placement of syllable stress has become phonemic.


title: Nahuatl

text: The Nahuatl languages are agglutinative, polysynthetic languages that make extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, they can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed, and a single word can constitute an entire sentence.


title: Nahuatl

text: The Nahuatl noun has a relatively complex structure. The only obligatory inflections are for number (singular and plural) and possession (whether the noun is possessed, as is indicated by a prefix meaning 'my', 'your', etc.). Nahuatl has neither case nor gender, but Classical Nahuatl and some modern dialects distinguish between animate and inanimate nouns. In Classical Nahuatl the animacy distinction manifested with respect to pluralization, as only animate nouns could take a plural form, and all inanimate nouns were uncountable (as the words "bread" and "money" are uncountable in English). Now, many speakers do not maintain this distinction and all nouns may take the plural inflection. One dialect, that of the Eastern Huasteca, has a distinction between two different plural suffixes for animate and inanimate nouns.


title: Nahuatl

text: In most varieties of Nahuatl, nouns in the unpossessed singular form generally take an absolutive suffix. The most common forms of the absolutive are "-tl" after vowels, "-tli" after consonants other than "l", and "-li" after "l". Nouns that take the plural usually form the plural by adding one of the plural absolutive suffixes -"tin" or -"meh", but some plural forms are irregular or formed by reduplication. Some nouns have competing plural forms.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl distinguishes between possessed and unpossessed forms of nouns. The absolutive suffix is not used on possessed nouns. In all dialects, possessed nouns take a prefix agreeing with number and person of its possessor. Possessed plural nouns take the ending "-".


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl does not have grammatical case but uses what is sometimes called a relational noun to describe spatial (and other) relations. These morphemes cannot appear alone but must occur after a noun or a possessive prefix. They are also often called postpositions or locative suffixes. In some ways these locative constructions resemble and can be thought of as locative case constructions. Most modern dialects have incorporated prepositions from Spanish that are competing with or that have completely replaced relational nouns.


title: Nahuatl

text: Noun compounds are commonly formed by combining two or more nominal stems or combining a nominal stem with an adjectival or verbal stem.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl generally distinguishes three persons, both in the singular and plural numbers. In at least one modern dialect, the Isthmus-Mecayapan variety, there has come to be a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural:


title: Nahuatl

text: Much more common is an honorific/non-honorific distinction, usually applied to second and third persons but not first.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl has a vigesimal (base-20) numbering system. The base values are (1 × 20), (1 × 400), (1 × 8,000), (1 × 20 × 8,000 = 160,000), (1 × 400 × 8,000 = 3,200,000) and (1 × 20 × 400 × 8,000 = 64,000,000). Note that the prefix at the beginning means 'one' (as in 'one hundred' and 'one thousand') and is replaced with the corresponding number to get the names of other multiples of the power. For example, (2) × (20) = (40), (2) × (400) = (800). The in (and ) and the in are grammatical noun suffixes that are appended only at the end of the word; thus , and compound together as .


title: Nahuatl

text: The Nahuatl verb is quite complex and inflects for many grammatical categories. The verb is composed of a root, prefixes, and suffixes. The prefixes indicate the person of the subject, and person and number of the object and indirect object, whereas the suffixes indicate tense, aspect, mood and subject number.


title: Nahuatl

text: Most Nahuatl dialects distinguish three tenses: present, past, and future, and two aspects: perfective and imperfective. Some varieties add progressive or habitual aspects. Many dialects distinguish at least the indicative and imperative moods, and some also have optative and vetative/prohibitive moods.


title: Nahuatl

text: Most Nahuatl varieties have a number of ways to alter the valency of a verb. Classical Nahuatl had a passive voice (also sometimes defined as an impersonal voice), but this is not found in most modern varieties. However the applicative and causative voices are found in many modern dialects. Many Nahuatl varieties also allow forming verbal compounds with two or more verbal roots.


title: Nahuatl

text: The following verbal form has two verbal roots and is inflected for causative voice and both a direct and indirect object:


title: Nahuatl

text: Some Nahuatl varieties, notably Classical Nahuatl, can inflect the verb to show the direction of the verbal action going away from or towards the speaker. Some also have specific inflectional categories showing purpose and direction and such complex notions as "to go in order to" or "to come in order to", "go, do and return", "do while going", "do while coming", "do upon arrival", or "go around doing".


title: Nahuatl

text: Classical Nahuatl and many modern dialects have grammaticalised ways to express politeness towards addressees or even towards people or things that are being mentioned, by using special verb forms and special "honorific suffixes".


title: Nahuatl

text: Many varieties of Nahuatl have productive reduplication. By reduplicating the first syllable of a root a new word is formed. In nouns this is often used to form plurals, e.g. 'man' → 'men', but also in some varieties to form diminutives, honorifics, or for derivations. In verbs reduplication is often used to form a reiterative meaning (i.e. expressing repetition), for example in Nahuatl of Tezcoco:


title: Nahuatl

text: Some linguists have argued that Nahuatl displays the properties of a non-configurational language, meaning that word order in Nahuatl is basically free. Nahuatl allows all possible orderings of the three basic sentence constituents. It is prolifically a pro-drop language: it allows sentences with omission of all noun phrases or independent pronouns, not just of noun phrases or pronouns whose function is the sentence subject. In most varieties independent pronouns are used only for emphasis. It allows certain kinds of syntactically discontinuous expressions.


title: Nahuatl

text: Michel Launey argues that Classical Nahuatl had a verb-initial basic word order with extensive freedom for variation, which was then used to encode pragmatic functions such as focus and topicality. The same has been argued for some contemporary varieties.


title: Nahuatl

text: It has been argued, most prominently by the linguist Michel Launey, that Classical Nahuatl syntax is best characterised by "omnipredicativity", meaning that any noun or verb in the language is in fact a full predicative sentence. A radical interpretation of Nahuatl syntactic typology, this nonetheless seems to account for some of the language's peculiarities, for example, why nouns must also carry the same agreement prefixes as verbs, and why predicates do not require any noun phrases to function as their arguments. For example, the verbal form means 'he/she/it shouts', and with the second person prefix it means 'you shout'. Nouns are inflected in the same way: the noun means not just 'child', but also 'it is a child', and means 'you are a child'. This prompts the omnipredicative interpretation, which posits that all nouns are also predicates. According to this interpretation, a phrase such as should not be interpreted as meaning just 'the child screams' but, rather, 'it screams, (the one that) is a child'.


title: Nahuatl

text: Nearly 500 years of intense contact between speakers of Nahuatl and speakers of Spanish, combined with the minority status of Nahuatl and the higher prestige associated with Spanish has caused many changes in modern Nahuatl varieties, with large numbers of words borrowed from Spanish into Nahuatl, and the introduction of new syntactic constructions and grammatical categories.


title: Nahuatl

text: For example, a construction like the following, with several borrowed words and particles, is common in many modern varieties (Spanish loanwords in boldface):


title: Nahuatl

text: In some modern dialects basic word order has become a fixed subject–verb–object, probably under influence from Spanish. Other changes in the syntax of modern Nahuatl include the use of Spanish prepositions instead of native postpositions or relational nouns and the reinterpretation of original postpositions/relational nouns into prepositions. In the following example, from Michoacán Nahual, the postposition -"ka" meaning 'with' appears used as a preposition, with no preceding object:


title: Nahuatl

text: In this example from Mexicanero Nahuatl, of Durango, the original postposition/relational noun -"pin" 'in/on' is used as a preposition. Also, , a conjunction borrowed from Spanish, occurs in the sentence.


title: Nahuatl

text: Many dialects have also undergone a degree of simplification of their morphology that has caused some scholars to consider them to have ceased to be polysynthetic.


title: Nahuatl

text: Many Nahuatl words have been borrowed into the Spanish language, most of which are terms designating things indigenous to the Americas. Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American Spanish, but others have entered all the varieties of Spanish in the world. A number of them, such as "chocolate", "tomato" and "avocado" have made their way into many other languages via Spanish.


title: Nahuatl

text: For instance, in English, two of the most prominent are undoubtedly "chocolate" and "tomato" (from Nahuatl ). Other common words are "coyote" (from Nahuatl ), "avocado" (from Nahuatl ) and "chile" or "chili" (from Nahuatl ). The word "chicle" is also derived from Nahuatl 'sticky stuff, chicle'. Some other English words from Nahuatl are: "Aztec" (from ); "cacao" (from Nahuatl 'shell, rind'); "ocelot" (from ). In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl – so many in fact that entire dictionaries of (words particular to Mexican Spanish) have been published tracing Nahuatl etymologies, as well as Spanish words with origins in other indigenous languages. Many well known toponyms also come from Nahuatl, including "Mexico" (from the Nahuatl word for the Aztec capital ) and "Guatemala" (from the word ).


title: Nahuatl

text: Traditionally, Pre-Columbian Aztec writing has not been considered a true writing system, since it did not represent the full vocabulary of a spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the Old World or the Maya Script did. Therefore, generally Aztec writing was not meant to be read, but to be told. The elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for memorizing texts, which include genealogies, astronomical information, and tribute lists. Three kinds of signs were used in the system: pictures used as mnemonics (which do not represent particular words), logograms which represent whole words (instead of phonemes or syllables), and logograms used only for their sound values (i.e. used according to the rebus principle).


title: Nahuatl

text: However, epigrapher Alfonso Lacadena has argued that by the eve of the Spanish invasion, one school of Nahua scribes, those of Tetzcoco, had developed a fully syllabic script which could represent spoken language phonetically in the same way that the Maya script did. Some other epigraphers have questioned the claim, arguing that although the syllabicity was clearly extant in some early colonial manuscripts (hardly any pre-Columbian manuscripts have survived), this could be interpreted as a local innovation inspired by Spanish literacy rather than a continuation of a pre-Columbian practice.


title: Nahuatl

text: The Spanish introduced the Latin script, which was used to record a large body of Aztec prose, poetry and mundane documentation such as testaments, administrative documents, legal letters, etc. In a matter of decades pictorial writing was completely replaced with the Latin alphabet. No standardized Latin orthography has been developed for Nahuatl, and no general consensus has arisen for the representation of many sounds in Nahuatl that are lacking in Spanish, such as long vowels and the glottal stop. The orthography most accurately representing the phonemes of Nahuatl was developed in the 17th century by the Jesuit Horacio Carochi, building on the insights of another Jesuit, Antonio del Rincon. Carochi's orthography used two different diacritics: a macron to represent long vowels and a grave for the , and sometimes an acute accent for short vowels. This orthography did not achieve a wide following outside of the Jesuit community.


title: Nahuatl

text: When Nahuatl became the subject of focused linguistic studies in the 20th century, linguists acknowledged the need to represent all the phonemes of the language. Several practical orthographies were developed to transcribe the language, many using the Americanist transcription system. With the establishment of Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas in 2004, new attempts to create standardized orthographies for the different dialects were resumed; however to this day there is no single official orthography for Nahuatl. Apart from dialectal differences, major issues in transcribing Nahuatl include:


title: Nahuatl

text: In 2018, Nahua peoples from 16 states in the country began collaborating with INALI creating a new modern orthography called "Yankwiktlahkwilolli", designed to be the standardized orthography of Nahuatl in the coming years. The modern writing has much greater use in the modern variants than in the classic variant, since the texts, documents and literary works of the time usually use the Jesuit one.


title: Nahuatl

text: Among the indigenous languages of the Americas, the extensive corpus of surviving literature in Nahuatl dating as far back as the 16th century may be considered unique. Nahuatl literature encompasses a diverse array of genres and styles, the documents themselves composed under many different circumstances. Preconquest Nahua had a distinction between 'speech' and second 'song', akin to the distinction between "prose" and "poetry".


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl prose has been preserved in different forms. Annals and chronicles recount history, normally written from the perspective of a particular "altepetl" (locally based polity) and often combining mythical accounts with real events. Important works in this genre include those from Chalco written by Chimalpahin, from Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo, from Mexico-Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc and those of Texcoco by Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Many annals recount history year-by-year and are normally written by anonymous authors. These works are sometimes evidently based on pre-Columbian pictorial year counts that existed, such as the Cuauhtitlan annals and the Anales de Tlatelolco. Purely mythological narratives are also found, like the "Legend of the Five Suns", the Aztec creation myth recounted in Codex Chimalpopoca.


title: Nahuatl

text: One of the most important works of prose written in Nahuatl is the twelve-volume compilation generally known as the "Florentine Codex", authored in the mid-16th century by the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún and a number of Nahua speakers. With this work Sahagún bestowed an enormous ethnographic description of the Nahua, written in side-by-side translations of Nahuatl and Spanish and illustrated throughout by color plates drawn by indigenous painters. Its volumes cover a diverse range of topics: Aztec history, material culture, social organization, religious and ceremonial life, rhetorical style and metaphors. The twelfth volume provides an indigenous perspective on the conquest. Sahagún also made a point of trying to document the richness of the Nahuatl language, stating:


title: Nahuatl

text: Nahuatl poetry is principally preserved in two sources: the "Cantares Mexicanos" and the "Romances de los señores de Nueva España", both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre-conquest times until the time of their writing, for example the songs attributed to the poet-king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. identify more than four distinct styles of songs, e.g. the ('sad song'), the ('song of spring'), ('plain song') and ('song of war'), each with distinct stylistic traits. Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence, the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle, and the appreciation of the beauty of life.


title: Nahuatl

text: The Aztecs distinguished between at least two social registers of language: the language of commoners () and the language of the nobility (). The latter was marked by the use of a distinct rhetorical style. Since literacy was confined mainly to these higher social classes, most of the existing prose and poetical documents were written in this style. An important feature of this high rhetorical style of formal oratory was the use of parallelism, whereby the orator structured their speech in couplets consisting of two parallel phrases. For example:


title: Nahuatl

text: Another kind of parallelism used is referred to by modern linguists as "difrasismo", in which two phrases are symbolically combined to give a metaphorical reading. Classical Nahuatl was rich in such diphrasal metaphors, many of which are explicated by Sahagún in the Florentine Codex and by Andrés de Olmos in his "Arte". Such include:


title: Nahuatl

text: The sample text below is an excerpt from a statement issued in Nahuatl by Emiliano Zapata in 1918 in order to convince the Nahua towns in the area of Tlaxcala to join the Revolution against the regime of Venustiano Carranza. The orthography employed in the letter is improvised, and does not distinguish long vowels and only sporadically marks (with both and acute accent).


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypoglycemia, also called low blood sugar, is a fall in blood sugar to levels below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Whipple's triad is used to properly identify hypoglycemic episodes. It is defined as blood glucose below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), symptoms associated with hypoglycemia, and resolution of symptoms when blood sugar returns to normal. Hypoglycemia may result in headache, tiredness, clumsiness, trouble talking, confusion, fast heart rate, sweating, shakiness, nervousness, hunger, loss of consciousness, seizures, or death. Symptoms typically come on quickly.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The most common cause of hypoglycemia is medications used to treat diabetes such as insulin, sulfonylureas, and biguanides. Risk is greater in diabetics who have eaten less than usual, recently exercised, or consumed alcohol. Other causes of hypoglycemia include severe illness, sepsis, kidney failure, liver disease, hormone deficiency, tumors such as insulinomas or non-B cell tumors, inborn errors of metabolism, several medications, and alcohol. Low blood sugar may occur in otherwise healthy newborns who have not eaten for a few hours.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypoglycemia is treated by eating a sugary food or drink, for example glucose tablets or gel, apple juice, soda, or candy. The person must be conscious and able to swallow. The goal is to consume 10-20 grams of a carbohydrate to raise blood glucose levels to a minimum of 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). If a person is not able to take food by mouth, glucagon by injection or insufflation may help. The treatment of hypoglycemia unrelated to diabetes includes treating the underlying problem.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Among people with diabetes, prevention starts with learning the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia. Diabetes medications, like insulin, sulfonylureas, and biguanides can also be adjusted or stopped to prevent hypoglycemia. Frequent and routine blood glucose testing is recommended. Some may find continuous glucose monitors with insulin pumps to be helpful in the management of diabetes and prevention of hypoglycemia.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Blood sugar levels naturally fluctuate throughout the day, however hypoglycemia, also called "low blood sugar" or "low blood glucose," is when blood sugar levels drop below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L).


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Blood sugar levels are generally maintained between 70 and 110 mg/dL (3.9-6.1 mmol/L). Although 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L) is the lower limit of normal glucose, symptoms of hypoglycemia usually do not occur until 55 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L) or lower. The blood glucose level at which symptoms of hypoglycemia develop in someone with several prior episodes of hypoglycemia may be even lower.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The symptoms of low blood sugar alone are not specific enough to characterize a hypoglycemic episode. A single blood sugar reading below 70 mg/dL is also not specific enough characterize a hypoglycemic episode. "Whipple's triad" is a set of three conditions that need to be met in order to accurately characterize a hypoglycemic episode.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The biggest difference in blood glucose levels between the adult and pediatric population occurs in newborns during the first 48 hours of life. After the first 48 hours of life, the Pediatric Endocrine Society cites that there is little difference in blood glucose level and the use of glucose between adults and children. During the 48 hour neonatal period, the neonate adjusts glucagon and epinephrine levels following birth, which may cause temporary hypoglycemia. As a result, there has been difficulty in developing guidelines on interpretation and treatment of low blood glucose in neonates aged less than 48 hours. Following a data review, the Pediatric Endocrine Society concluded that neonates aged less than 48 hours begin to respond to hypoglycemia at serum glucose levels of 55–65 mg/dL (3.0-3.6 mmol/L). This is contrasted by the value in adults, children, and older infants, which is approximately 80–85 mg/dL (4.4-4.7 mmol/L).


title: Hypoglycemia

text: In children who are aged greater than 48 hours, serum glucose on average ranges from 70 to 100 mg/dL (3.9-5.5 mmol/L), similar to adults. Whipple's triad is used to identify hypoglycemia in children who can communicate their symptoms.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypoglycemic symptoms are divided into two main categories. The first category is symptoms caused by low glucose in the brain, called neuroglycopenic symptoms. The second category of symptoms is caused by the body's reaction to low glucose in the brain, called adrenergic symptoms.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Everyone experiences different symptoms of hypoglycemia, so someone with hypoglycemia may not have all of the symptoms listed above. Symptoms also tend to have quick onset. It is important to quickly obtain a blood glucose measurement in someone presenting with symptoms of hypoglycemia to properly identify the hypoglycemic episode.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Glucose is the main source of energy for the brain, and a number of mechanisms are in place to prevent hypoglycemia and protect energy supply to the brain. The body can adjust insulin production and release, adjust glucose production by the liver, and adjust glucose use by the body. The body naturally produces the hormone insulin, in an organ called the pancreas. Insulin helps to regulate the amount of glucose in the body, especially after meals. Glucagon is another hormone involved in regulating blood glucose levels, and can be thought of as the opposite of insulin. Glucagon helps to increase blood glucose levels, especially in states of hunger.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: When blood sugar levels fall to the low-normal range, the first line of defense against hypoglycemia is decreasing insulin release by the pancreas. This drop in insulin allows the liver to increase glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis is the process of glycogen breakdown that results in the production of glucose. Glycogen can be thought of as the inactive, storage form of glucose. Decreased insulin also allows for increased gluconeogenesis in the liver and kidneys. Gluconeogenesis is the process of glucose production from non-carbohydrate sources, supplied from muscles and fat.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Once blood glucose levels fall out of the normal range, additional protective mechanisms work to prevent hypoglycemia. The pancreas is signaled to release glucagon, a hormone that increases glucose production by the liver and kidneys, and increases muscle and fat breakdown to supply gluconeogenesis. If increased glucagon does not raise blood sugar levels to normal, the adrenal glands release epinephrine. Epinephrine works to also increase gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, while also decreasing the use of glucose by organs, protecting the brain's glucose supply.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: After hypoglycemia has been prolonged, cortisol and growth hormone are released to continue gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, while also preventing the use of glucose by other organs. The effects of cortisol and growth hormone are far less effective than epinephrine. In a state of hypoglycemia, the brain also signals a sense of hunger and drives the person to eat, in an attempt to increase glucose.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypoglycemia is most common in those with diabetes treated by insulin, glinides, and sulfonylureas. Hypoglycemia is rare in those without diabetes, because there are many regulatory mechanisms in place to appropriately balance glucose, insulin, and glucagon. Please refer to "Pathophysiology" section (above) for more information on glucose, insulin, and glucagon.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The most common cause of hypoglycemia in diabetics is medications used to treat diabetes such as insulin, sulfonylureas, and biguanides. This is often due to excessive doses or poorly timed doses. Sometimes diabetics may take insulin in anticipation of a meal or snack, and missing or forgetting that meal will lead to hypoglycemia. This is due to increased insulin without the presence of glucose from the planned meal.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Recurrent episodes of hypoglycemia can lead to "hypoglycemic unawareness", or the decreased ability to recognize hypoglycemia. As diabetics experience more episodes of hypoglycemia, the blood glucose level which triggers symptoms of hypoglycemia decreases. In other words, people "without" hypoglycemic unawareness experience symptoms of hypoglycemia at a blood glucose of about 55 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L). Those "with" hypoglycemic unawareness experience the symptoms of hypoglycemia at far lower levels of blood glucose. This is dangerous for a number of reasons. The hypoglycemic person not only gains awareness of hypoglycemia at very low blood glucose levels, but they also require high levels of carbohydrates or glucagon to recover their blood glucose to normal levels. These individuals are also at far greater risk of severe hypoglycemia.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: While the exact cause of hypoglycemic unawarenss is still under research, it is thought that these individuals progressively begin to develop fewer adrenergic-type symptoms, resulting in the loss of neuroglycopenic-type symptoms. "Neuroglycopenic symptoms" are caused by low glucose in the brain, and can result in tiredness, confusion, difficulty with speech, seizures, and loss of consciousness. "Adrenergic symptoms" are caused by the body's reaction to low glucose in the brain, and can result in fast heart rate, sweating, nervousness, and hunger. See section above on "Signs and Symptoms" for further explanation of neuroglycopenic symptoms and adrenergic symptoms.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Serious illness may result in low blood sugar. Severe disease of many organ systems can cause hypoglycemia as a secondary problem. Hypoglycemia is especially common in those in the intensive care unit or those in whom food and drink is withheld as a part of their treatment plan.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Sepsis, a common cause of hypoglycemia in serious illness, can lead to hypoglycemia through many ways. In a state of sepsis, the body uses large amounts of glucose for energy. Glucose use is further increased by cytokine production. Cytokines are a protein produced by the body in a state of stress, particularly when fighting an infection. Cytokines may inhibit glucose production, further decreasing the body's energy stores. Finally, the liver and kidneys are sites of glucose production, and in a state of sepsis those organs may not receive enough oxygen, leading to decreased glucose production due to organ damage.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Other causes of serious illness that may cause hypoglycemia include liver failure and kidney failure. The liver is the main site of glucose production in the body, and any liver failure or damage will lead to decreased glucose production. While the kidneys are also sites of glucose production, their failure of glucose production is not significant enough to cause hypoglycemia . Instead, the kidneys are responsible for removing insulin from the body, and when this function is impaired in kidney failure, the insulin stays in circulation longer, leading to hypoglycemia.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: A number of medications have been identified which may cause hypoglycemia, through a variety of ways. Moderate quality evidence implicates the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug indomethacin and the anti-malarial quinine. Low quality evidence implicates lithium, used for bipolar disorder. Finally, very low quality evidence implicates a number of hypertension medications including angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (also called ACE-inhibitors), angiotensin receptor blockers (also called ARBs), and β-adrenergic blockers (also called beta blockers). Other medications with very low quality evidence include the antibiotics levofloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, progesterone blocker mifepristone, anti-arrhythmic disopyramide, anti-coagulant heparin, and chemotherapeutic mercaptopurine.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: If a person without diabetes accidentally takes medications that are traditionally used to treat diabetes, this may also cause hypoglycemia. These medications include insulin, glinides, and sulfonylureas. This may occur through medical errors in a healthcare setting or through pharmacy errors, also called iatrogenic hypoglycemia.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: When individuals take insulin without needing it, to purposefully induce hypoglycemia, this is referred to as "surreptitious insulin use" or "factitious hypoglycemia". Some people may use insulin to induce weight loss, whereas for others this may be due to malingering or factitious disorder, which is a psychiatric disorder. Demographics affected by factitious hypoglycemia include women aged 30–40, particularly those with diabetes, relatives with diabetes, healthcare workers, or those with history of a psychiatric disorder. The classic way to identify surreptitious insulin use is through blood work revealing high insulin levels with low C-peptide and proinsulin.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The production of glucose is blocked by alcohol. In those who misuse alcohol, hypoglycemia may be brought on by a several-day alcohol binge associated with little to no food intake. The cause of hypoglycemia is multifactorial, where glycogen becomes depleted in a state of starvation. Glycogen stores are then unable to be repleted due to the lack of food intake, all compounded the inhibition of glucose production by alcohol.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Children with primary adrenal failure, also called Addison's disease, may experience hypoglycemia after long periods of fasting. Addison's disease is associated with chronically low levels of the stress hormone cortisol, which leads to decreased glucose production.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypopituitarism, leading to decreased growth hormone, is another cause of hypoglycemia in children, particularly with long periods of fasting or increased exercise.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Briefly, inborn errors of metabolism are a group rare of genetic disorders that are associated with the improper breakdown or storage of proteins, carbohydrates, or fatty acids. Inborn errors of metabolism may cause infant hypoglycemia, and much less commonly adult hypoglycemia. Disorders that are related to the breakdown of glycogen, called "glycogen storage diseases", may cause hypoglycemia. Normally, breakdown of glycogen leads to increased glucose levels, particularly in a fasting state. In glycogen storage diseases however, glycogen cannot be properly broken-down, leading to inappropriately decreased glucose levels in a fasting state, and thus hypoglycemia. The glycogen storage diseases associated with hypoglycemia include type 0, type I, type III, and type IV, as well as Fanconi syndrome.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: A primary B-cell tumor, such as an insulinoma, is associated with hypoglycemia. This is a tumor located in the pancreas. An insulinoma produces insulin, which in turn decreases glucose levels, causing hypoglycemia. Normal regulatory mechanisms are not in place, which prevent insulin levels from falling during states of low blood glucose. During an episode of hypoglycemia, plasma insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin will be inappropriately high.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypoglycemia may occur in people with non-B cell tumors such as hepatomas, adrenocorticoid carcinomas, and carcinoid tumors. These tumors lead to a state of increased insulin, specifically increased insulin-like growth factor II, which decreases glucose levels.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, is a weight-loss surgery performed on the stomach, and has been associated with hypoglycemia, called "post-gastric bypass postprandial hypoglycemia." Although the entire mechanism of hypoglycemia following this surgery is not fully understood, it is thought that meals cause very high levels of glucagon-like peptide-1 (also called GLP-1), a hormone that increases insulin, causing glucose levels to drop.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Antibodies can be formed against insulin, leading to autoimmune hypoglycemia. Antibodies are immune cells produced by the body, that normally attack bacteria and viruses, but sometimes can attack normal human cells, leading to an autoimmune disorder. In autoimmune hypoglycemia, there are two possible mechanisms. In one instance, antibodies bind to insulin following its release associated with a meal, resulting in insulin being non-functional. At a later time, the antibodies fall off insulin, causing insulin to be functional again leading late hypoglycemia after a meal, called "late postprandial hypoglycemia". Another mechanism causing hypoglycemia is due to antibodies formed against insulin receptors, called "insulin receptor antibodies". The antibodies attach to insulin receptors and prevent insulin breakdown, or degradation, leading to inappropriately high insulin levels and low glucose levels.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Low blood sugar may occur in healthy neonates aged less than 48 hours who have not eaten for a few hours. During the 48 hour neonatal period, the neonate adjusts glucagon and epinephrine levels following birth, which may trigger transient hypoglycemia. In children who are aged greater than 48 hours, serum glucose on average ranges from 70 to 100 mg/dL (3.9-5.5 mmol/L), similar to adults, with hypoglycemia being far less common.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The most reliable method of identifying hypoglycemia is through identifying Whipple's triad. The components of Whipple's triad are a blood sugar level below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), symptoms related to low blood sugar, and improvement of symptoms when blood sugar is restored to normal. Identifying Whipple's triad in a patient helps to avoid unnecessary diagnostic testing and decreases healthcare costs.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: In those with a history of diabetes treated with insulin, glinides, or sulfonylurea, who demonstrate Whipple's triad, it is reasonable to assume the cause of hypoglycemia is due to insulin, glinides, or sulfonylurea use. In those without a history of diabetes with hypoglycemia, further diagnostic testing is necessary to identify the cause. Testing, during an episode of hypoglycemia, should include the following:


title: Hypoglycemia

text: If necessary, a diagnostic hypoglycemic episode can be produced in an inpatient or outpatient setting. This is called a diagnostic fast, in which a patient undergoes an observed fast to cause a hypoglyemic episode, allowing for appropriate blood work to be drawn. In some, the hypoglycemic episode may be reproduced simply after a mixed meal, whereas in others a fast may last up to 72 hours.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: In those with a suspected insulinoma, imaging is the most reliable diagnostic technique, including ultrasound, computed tomography imaging (also called CT imaging), and magnetic resonsance imaging (also called MRI).


title: Hypoglycemia

text: After hypoglycemia in a person is identified, rapid treatment is necessary and can be life-saving. The main goal of treatment is to raise blood glucose back to normal levels, which is done through various ways of administering glucose, depending on the severity of the hypoglycemia, what is on-hand to treat, and who is administering the treatment. A general rule used by the American Diabetes Association is the "15-15 Rule," which suggests consuming or administering 15 grams of a carbohydrate, followed by a 15-minute wait and re-measurement of blood glucose level to assess if blood glucose has returned to normal levels.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: If an individual recognizes the symptoms of hypoglycemia coming on, blood sugar should promptly be measured, and a sugary food or drink should be consumed. The person must be conscious and able to swallow. The goal is to consume 10-20 grams of a carbohydrate to raise blood glucose levels to a minimum of 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L).


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Improvement in blood sugar levels and symptoms are expected to occur in 15–20 minutes, at which point blood sugar should be measured again. If the repeat blood sugar level is not above 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), consume another 10-20 grams of a carbohydrate and remeasure blood sugar levels after 15–20 minutes. Repeat until blood glucose levels have returned to normal levels. The greatest improvements in blood glucose will be seen if the carbohydrate chewed or drunk, and then swallowed. This results in the greatest "bioavaliablity" of glucose, meaning the greatest amount of glucose enters the body producing the best possible improvements in blood glucose levels. The second best way to consume a carbohydrate it to allow it to dissolve under the tongue, also referred to as "sublingual administration." For example, a hard candy can be dissolved under the tongue, however the best improvements in blood glucose will occur if the hard candy is chewed and crushed, then swallowed.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: After correcting blood glucose levels, people may consume a full meal within one hour in order to replenish glycogen stores.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Family, friends, and co-workers of a person with diabetes may provide life-saving treatment in the case of a hypoglycemic episode It is important for these people to receive training on how to recognize hypoglycemia, what foods to help the hypoglycemic eat, how to administer injectable or intra-nasal glucagon, and how use a glucose meter.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Family, friends, and co-workers of those with hypoglycemia are often first to identify hypoglycemic episodes, and may offer help. Upon recognizing the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia in a diabetic, a blood sugar level should first be measured using a glucose meter. If blood glucose is below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), treatment will depend on whether the person is conscious and can swallow safely. If the person is conscious and able to swallow, the family, friend, or co-worker can help the hypoglycemic consume 10-20 grams of a carbohydrate to raise blood glucose levels to a minimum of 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Improvement in blood sugar level and symptoms is expected to occur in 15–20 minutes, at which point blood sugar is measured again. If the repeat blood sugar level is not above 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), the hypoglycemic should consume another 10-20 grams of a carbohydrate and with remeasurement of blood sugar levels after 15–20 minutes. Repeat until blood glucose levels have returned to normal levels, or call emergency services for further assistance.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: If the person is unconscious, a glucagon kit may be used to treat severe hypoglycemia, which delivers glucagon either by injection into a muscle or through nasal inhalation. In the United States, glucacon kits are available by prescription for diabetic patients to carry in case of an episode of severe hypoglycemia. Emergency services should be called for further assistance.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: In a healthcare setting, treatment depends on the severity of symptoms and intravenous access. If a patient is conscious and able to swallow safely, food or drink may be administered, as well as glucose tabs or gel. In those with intravenous access, 25 grams of 50% dextrose is commonly administered. When there is no intravenous access, intramuscular or intra-nasal glucagon may be administered.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: While the treatment of hypoglycemia is typically managed with carbohydrate consumption, glucagon injection, or dextrose administration, there are some other treatments available. Medications like diazoxide and octreotide decrease insulin levels, increasing blood glucose levels. Dasiglucagon was approved for medical use in the United States in March 2021, to treat severe hypoglycemia. Dasiglucagon (brand name Zegalogue) is unique because it is glucagon in a prefilled syringe or auto-injector pen, as opposed to traditional glucagon kits that require mixing powdered glucagon with a liquid.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The soft drink Lucozade has been used for hypoglycemia in the United Kingdom, but it has recently replaced much of its glucose with artificial sweeteners, which do not treat hypoglycemia.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The prevention of hypoglycemia depends on the cause. In those with diabetes treated by insulin, glinides, or sulfonylurea, the prevention of hypoglycemia has a large focus on patient education and medication adjustments. The foundation of diabetes education is learning how to recognize the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia, as well as learning how to act quickly to prevent worsening of an episode. Another cornerstone of prevention is strong self-monitoring of blood glucose, with consistent and frequent measurements. Research has shown that patients with type 1 diabetes who use continuous glucose monitoring systems with insulin pumps significantly improve blood glucose control. Insulin pumps help to prevent high glucose spikes, and help prevent inappropriate insulin dosing. Continuous glucose monitors can sound alarms when blood glucose is too low or too high, especially helping those with nocturnal hypoglycemia or hypoglycemic unawareness. In terms of medication adjustments, medication doses and timing can be adjusted in order to prevent hypoglycemia, or a medication can be stopped altogether.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: In those with hypoglycemia who do not have diabetes, there are a number of preventative measures dependent on the cause. Hypoglycemia caused by hormonal dysfunction like lack of cortisol in Addison's disease or lack of growth hormone in hypopituitarism can be prevented with appropriate hormone replacement. The hypoglycemic episodes associated with non-B cell tumors can be decreased following surgical removal of the tumor, as well as following radiotherapy or chemotherapy to reduce the size of the tumor. In some cases, those with non-B cell tumors may have hormone therapy with growth hormone, glucocorticoid, or octreotide to also lessen hypoglycemic episodes. Post-gastric bypass hypoglycemia can be prevented by eating smaller, more frequent meals, avoiding sugar-filled foods, as well as medical treatment with an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, diazoxide, or octreotide.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Some causes of hypoglycemia require treatment of the underlying cause to best prevent hypoglycemia. This is the case for insulinomas which often require surgical removal of the tumor in order for hypoglycemia to remit. In patients who cannot undergo surgery for removal of the insulinoma, diazoxide or octreotide may be used.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypoglycemia is common in people with type 1 diabetes, and in people with type 2 diabetes taking insulin, glinides, or sulfonylurea. It is estimated that type 1 diabetics experience two mild, symptomatic episodes of hypoglycemia "per week." Additionally, people with type 1 diabetes have at least one severe hypoglyemic episode "per year", requiring treatment assistance. In terms of mortality, hypoglycemia causes death in 6-10% of type 1 diabetics.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: In those with type 2 diabetes, hypoglycemia is less common compared to type 1 diabetics, because medications that treat type 2 diabetes like metformin, glitazones, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide 1 agonists, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors, do not cause hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia is common in type 2 diabetics who take insulin, glinides, or sulfonylurea. Insulin use remains a key risk factor in developing hypoglycemia, regardless of diabetes type.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: Hypoglycemia was first discovered by James Collip when he was working with Frederick Banting on purifying insulin in 1922. Collip was asked to develop an assay to measure the activity of insulin. He first injected insulin into a rabbit, and then measured the reduction in blood-glucose levels. Measuring blood glucose was a time-consuming step. Collip observed that if he injected rabbits with a too large a dose of insulin, the rabbits began convulsing, went into a coma, and then died. This observation simplified his assay. He defined one unit of insulin as the amount necessary to induce this convulsing hypoglycemic reaction in a rabbit. Collip later found he could save money, and rabbits, by injecting them with glucose once they were convulsing.


title: Hypoglycemia

text: The word "hypoglycemia" is also spelled "hypoglycaemia" or "hypoglycæmia". The term means 'low blood sugar' from Greek ὑπογλυκαιμία, from ὑπο- "hypo-" 'under' + γλυκύς "glykys" 'sweet' + αἷμᾰ "haima" 'blood'.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: In probability theory, a log-normal (or lognormal) distribution is a continuous probability distribution of a random variable whose logarithm is normally distributed. Thus, if the random variable is log-normally distributed, then has a normal distribution. Equivalently, if has a normal distribution, then the exponential function of , , has a log-normal distribution. A random variable which is log-normally distributed takes only positive real values. It is a convenient and useful model for measurements in exact and engineering sciences, as well as medicine, economics and other topics (e.g., energies, concentrations, lengths, prices of financial instruments, and other metrics).


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The distribution is occasionally referred to as the Galton distribution or Galton's distribution, after Francis Galton. The log-normal distribution has also been associated with other names, such as McAlister, Gibrat and Cobb–Douglas.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: A log-normal process is the statistical realization of the multiplicative product of many independent random variables, each of which is positive. This is justified by considering the central limit theorem in the log domain (sometimes called Gibrat's law). The log-normal distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variate —for which the mean and variance of are specified.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Let formula_14 be a standard normal variable, and let formula_15 and formula_16 be two real numbers. Then, the distribution of the random variable


title: Log-normal distribution

text: is called the log-normal distribution with parameters formula_15 and formula_19. These are the expected value (or mean) and standard deviation of the variable's natural logarithm, not the expectation and standard deviation of formula_20 itself.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: This relationship is true regardless of the base of the logarithmic or exponential function: if formula_21 is normally distributed, then so is formula_22 for any two positive numbers formula_23. Likewise, if formula_24 is log-normally distributed, then so is formula_25, where formula_26.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Alternatively, the "multiplicative" or "geometric" parameters formula_31 and formula_32 can be used. They have a more direct interpretation: formula_33 is the median of the distribution, and formula_34 is useful for determining "scatter" intervals, see below.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: A positive random variable "X" is log-normally distributed (i.e., formula_35), if the natural logarithm of "X" is normally distributed with mean formula_36 and variance formula_37:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Let formula_39 and formula_40 be respectively the cumulative probability distribution function and the probability density function of the "N"(0,1) distribution, then we have that


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Since the multivariate log-normal distribution is not widely used, the rest of this entry only deals with the univariate distribution.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: This can be derived by letting formula_44 within the integral. However, the log-normal distribution is not determined by its moments. This implies that it cannot have a defined moment generating function in a neighborhood of zero. Indeed, the expected value formula_45 is not defined for any positive value of the argument formula_46, since the defining integral diverges.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The characteristic function formula_47 is defined for real values of , but is not defined for any complex value of that has a negative imaginary part, and hence the characteristic function is not analytic at the origin. Consequently, the characteristic function of the log-normal distribution cannot be represented as an infinite convergent series. In particular, its Taylor formal series diverges:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: A closed-form formula for the characteristic function formula_49 with formula_46 in the domain of convergence is not known. A relatively simple approximating formula is available in closed form, and is given by


title: Log-normal distribution

text: where formula_52 is the Lambert W function. This approximation is derived via an asymptotic method, but it stays sharp all over the domain of convergence of formula_40.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The probability content of a log-normal distribution in any arbitrary domain can be computed to desired precision by first transforming the variable to normal, then numerically integrating using the ray-trace method. (Matlab code)


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Since the probability of a log-normal can be computed in any domain, this means that the cdf (and consequently pdf and inverse cdf) of any function of a log-normal variable can also be computed. (Matlab code)


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The geometric or multiplicative mean of the log-normal distribution is formula_54. It equals the median. The geometric or multiplicative standard deviation is formula_55.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: By analogy with the arithmetic statistics, one can define a geometric variance, formula_56, and a geometric coefficient of variation, formula_57, has been proposed. This term was intended to be "analogous" to the coefficient of variation, for describing multiplicative variation in log-normal data, but this definition of GCV has no theoretical basis as an estimate of formula_58 itself (see also Coefficient of variation).


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Note that the geometric mean is smaller than the arithmetic mean. This is due to the AM–GM inequality and is a consequence of the logarithm being a concave function. In fact,


title: Log-normal distribution

text: In finance, the term formula_60 is sometimes interpreted as a convexity correction. From the point of view of stochastic calculus, this is the same correction term as in Itō's lemma for geometric Brownian motion.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Specifically, the arithmetic mean, expected square, arithmetic variance, and arithmetic standard deviation of a log-normally distributed variable are respectively given by:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The arithmetic coefficient of variation formula_63 is the ratio formula_64. For a log-normal distribution it is equal to


title: Log-normal distribution

text: This estimate is sometimes referred to as the "geometric CV" (GCV), due to its use of the geometric variance. Contrary to the arithmetic standard deviation, the arithmetic coefficient of variation is independent of the arithmetic mean.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: A probability distribution is not uniquely determined by the moments for . That is, there exist other distributions with the same set of moments. In fact, there is a whole family of distributions with the same moments as the log-normal distribution.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The mode is the point of global maximum of the probability density function. In particular, by solving the equation formula_67, we get that:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Since the log-transformed variable formula_69 has a normal distribution, and quantiles are preserved under monotonic transformations, the quantiles of formula_20 are


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The partial expectation of a random variable formula_20 with respect to a threshold formula_75 is defined as


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Alternatively, by using the definition of conditional expectation, it can be written as formula_77. For a log-normal random variable, the partial expectation is given by:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: where formula_39 is the normal cumulative distribution function. The derivation of the formula is provided in the . The partial expectation formula has applications in insurance and economics, it is used in solving the partial differential equation leading to the Black–Scholes formula.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The conditional expectation of a log-normal random variable formula_20—with respect to a threshold formula_75—is its partial expectation divided by the cumulative probability of being in that range:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: In addition to the characterization by formula_83 or formula_84, here are multiple ways how the log-normal distribution can be parameterized. ProbOnto, the knowledge base and ontology of probability distributions lists seven such forms:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Consider the situation when one would like to run a model using two different optimal design tools, for example PFIM and PopED. The former supports the LN2, the latter LN7 parameterization, respectively. Therefore, the re-parameterization is required, otherwise the two tools would produce different results.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: All remaining re-parameterisation formulas can be found in the specification document on the project website.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: If two independent, log-normal variables formula_106 and formula_107 are multiplied [divided], the product [ratio] is again log-normal, with parameters formula_108 [formula_109] and formula_19, where formula_111. This is easily generalized to the product of formula_112 such variables.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: More generally, if formula_113 are formula_112 independent, log-normally distributed variables, then formula_115


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The geometric or multiplicative mean of formula_112 independent, identically distributed, positive random variables formula_117 shows, for formula_118 approximately a log-normal distribution with parameters formula_119 and formula_120, assuming formula_121 is finite.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: In fact, the random variables do not have to be identically distributed. It is enough for the distributions of formula_122 to all have finite variance and satisfy the other conditions of any of the many variants of the central limit theorem.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: A set of data that arises from the log-normal distribution has a symmetric Lorenz curve (see also Lorenz asymmetry coefficient).


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The harmonic formula_123, geometric formula_124 and arithmetic formula_125 means of this distribution are related; such relation is given by


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Log-normal distributions are infinitely divisible, but they are not stable distributions, which can be easily drawn from.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: For a more accurate approximation, one can use the Monte Carlo method to estimate the cumulative distribution function, the pdf and the right tail.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: For determining the maximum likelihood estimators of the log-normal distribution parameters "μ" and "σ", we can use the same procedure as for the normal distribution. Note that


title: Log-normal distribution

text: where formula_40 is the density function of the normal distribution formula_153. Therefore, the log-likelihood function is


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Since the first term is constant with regard to "μ" and "σ", both logarithmic likelihood functions, formula_155 and formula_156, reach their maximum with the same formula_15 and formula_19. Hence, the maximum likelihood estimators are identical to those for a normal distribution for the observations formula_159,


title: Log-normal distribution

text: For finite "n", these estimators are biased. Whereas the bias for formula_161 is negligible, a less biased estimator for formula_19 is obtained as for the normal distribution by replacing the denominator "n" by "n"−1 in the equation for formula_163.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: When the individual values formula_164 are not available, but the sample's mean formula_165 and standard deviation "s" is, then the corresponding parameters are determined by the following formulas, obtained from solving the equations for the expectation formula_166 and variance formula_167 for formula_15 and formula_19:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The most efficient way to analyze log-normally distributed data consists of applying the well-known methods based on the normal distribution to logarithmically transformed data and then to back-transform results if appropriate.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: A basic example is given by scatter intervals: For the normal distribution, the interval formula_171 contains approximately two thirds (68%) of the probability (or of a large sample), and formula_172 contain 95%. Therefore, for a log-normal distribution,


title: Log-normal distribution

text: formula_174 contains 95% of the probability. Using estimated parameters, then approximately the same percentages of the data should be contained in these intervals.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Using the principle, note that a confidence interval for formula_15 is formula_176, where formula_177 is the standard error and "q" is the 97.5% quantile of a t distribution with "n-1" degrees of freedom. Back-transformation leads to a confidence interval for formula_33,


title: Log-normal distribution

text: In applications, formula_19 is a parameter to be determined. For growing processes balanced by production and dissipation, the use of an extremal principle of Shannon entropy shows that


title: Log-normal distribution

text: This value can then be used to give some scaling relation between the inflexion point and maximum point of the log-normal distribution. This relationship is determined by the base of natural logarithm, formula_183, and exhibits some geometrical similarity to the minimal surface energy principle.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: These scaling relations are useful for predicting a number of growth processes (epidemic spreading, droplet splashing, population growth, swirling rate of the bathtub vortex, distribution of language characters, velocity profile of turbulences, etc.).


title: Log-normal distribution

text: For example, the log-normal function with such formula_19 fits well with the size of secondarily produced droplets during droplet impact and the spreading of an epidemic disease.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: The log-normal distribution is important in the description of natural phenomena. Many natural growth processes are driven by the accumulation of many small percentage changes which become additive on a log scale. Under appropriate regularity conditions, the distribution of the resulting accumulated changes will be increasingly well approximated by a log-normal, as noted in the section above on "Multiplicative Central Limit Theorem". This is also known as Gibrat's law, after Robert Gibrat (1904–1980) who formulated it for companies. If the rate of accumulation of these small changes does not vary over time, growth becomes independent of size. Even if that's not true, the size distributions at any age of things that grow over time tends to be log-normal.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: A second justification is based on the observation that fundamental natural laws imply multiplications and divisions of positive variables. Examples are the simple gravitation law connecting masses and distance with the resulting force, or the formula for equilibrium concentrations of chemicals in a solution that connects concentrations of educts and products. Assuming log-normal distributions of the variables involved leads to consistent models in these cases.


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Even if none of these justifications apply, the log-normal distribution is often a plausible and empirically adequate model. Examples include the following:


title: Log-normal distribution

text: Consequently, reference ranges for measurements in healthy individuals are more accurately estimated by assuming a log-normal distribution than by assuming a symmetric distribution about the mean.


title: Sound of Metal

text: Sound of Metal is a 2019 American drama film directed and co-written by Darius Marder. It stars Riz Ahmed as a metal drummer who loses his hearing, and also features Olivia Cooke, Paul Raci, Lauren Ridloff, and Mathieu Amalric.


title: Sound of Metal

text: "Sound of Metal" had its world premiere in the Platform Prize program at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6, 2019. Amazon Studios released the film in theaters on November 20, 2020, and on Amazon Prime Video on December 4. The film was critically acclaimed, with particular praise for the performances of Ahmed and Raci, the sound design, the editing and Marder's direction and screenplay. It was listed on 52 film critics' top-ten lists for 2020. At the 93rd Academy Awards, it was nominated for Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay, Best Actor (Ahmed) and Best Supporting Actor (Raci), and won for Best Sound and Best Film Editing.


title: Sound of Metal

text: Drummer Ruben performs in the avant-garde metal duo Blackgammon with his singer girlfriend, Lou. They live in an RV and tour the United States performing gigs. When Ruben begins to lose his hearing, he goes to a pharmacy seeking a diagnosis. The pharmacist refers him to a doctor, who finds that Ruben has lost most of his hearing and that the rest will deteriorate rapidly. Although cochlear implants may benefit him, insurance does not cover their high cost. The doctor suggests that Ruben eliminate all exposure to loud noises and undergo further testing, but Ruben continues to perform.


title: Sound of Metal

text: Lou wants to stop performing for his safety, but Ruben wants to continue. She is also concerned about his sobriety, as he is a recovering drug addict. They call his sponsor, Hector, who finds a rural shelter for Deaf recovering addicts run by a man named Joe, a recovering alcoholic who lost his hearing in the Vietnam War. Ruben leaves with Lou because they will not let her live there with him, and he wants only the implants. Anxious for his well-being, Lou leaves and persuades Ruben to return to the shelter.


title: Sound of Metal

text: Ruben meets the other members of the shelter, attends meetings, and settles into his new life. He is introduced to schoolteacher Diane and the children in her class and learns American Sign Language. Joe tasks Ruben with writing and sitting peacefully in an effort to make him comfortable with the silence. Ruben joins Diane's class and connects with the children and the rest of the community. He gives the children and Diane drumming lessons.


title: Sound of Metal

text: Joe invites Ruben to stay as an employee of the community. Ruben illicitly uses Joe's office computer to follow Lou's activities and learns she is performing music in Paris. He has his friend Jenn sell his drums and other music equipment, then he sells his RV, using the money for cochlear implant surgery. Ruben asks Joe to loan him money to buy back his RV while he awaits the activation of the implants. Joe refuses, saying that Ruben is behaving like an addict. He asks Ruben to leave the community, as it is founded on the belief that Deafness is not a handicap.


title: Sound of Metal

text: Ruben has his implants activated but is disappointed by their distorted sound. He flies to Paris to meet Lou at the home of her wealthy father, Richard. Richard confides in Ruben that though he initially disliked him, he recognizes that Ruben made Lou happy. Lou has settled into her new lifestyle and has ceased self-harming. At a party, Lou and Richard perform a duet; Ruben's perception of the sound is distorted by the implants.


title: Sound of Metal

text: When Ruben tells Lou he wants to return to their music, she begins scratching her arms. Ruben tells her all is well and that she saved his life. She tells him that he saved hers too. The next morning, Ruben takes his things and leaves while Lou sleeps. In a park, the ringing of a church bell is distorted by his implants; Ruben removes his processors and sits in silence.


title: Sound of Metal

text: "Sound of Metal" is directed by Darius Marder, who wrote the story with Derek Cianfrance and who also wrote the screenplay with his brother Abraham Marder. The film originated as the unfinished Cianfrance project "Metalhead", which centers on a metal drummer whose eardrums are ruptured and he becomes deaf. The film featured the members of the band Jucifer portraying themselves. However, the project was later scrapped, until Cianfrance's friend Darius Marder took it up. In January 2016, Dakota Johnson and Matthias Schoenaerts joined the cast of the film, with Marder directing. In July 2018, Riz Ahmed and Olivia Cooke joined the cast of the film, replacing Johnson and Schoenaerts, alongside Mathieu Amalric. Before the casting, Marder had spent 13 years vetting actors who would match his commitment to the film.


title: Sound of Metal

text: A large number of the cast were hired from the deaf community. For eight months, Ahmed prepared for the film by spending two hours a day learning American Sign Language, two hours a day in drum lessons, two hours a day with a personal trainer and the remainder with his acting coach. Marder wanted Ahmed to "trust his instincts" and did not allow him to review dailies of his performance or script analysis.


title: Sound of Metal

text: "Sound of Metal" was shot in 24 non-consecutive days from early to late 2018. Marder operated on a limited budget, and shot only two takes per scene. The film was shot in the Greater Boston area, primarily in Ipswich, Massachusetts. However, other scenes were shot in Boston, Lynn, Cambridge, Danvers, Framingham, Lawrence, Malden, Rowley, and Topsfield. Filming also took place in Antwerp, Belgium.