title: Isma'ilism

text: The Natiq and the Wasi are in turn succeeded by a line of seven Imāms, who guard what they received. The seventh and last Imām in any period becomes the Natiq of the next period. The last Imām of the sixth period, however, would not bring about a new religion of law but rather supersede all previous religions, abrogate the law and introduce "din Adama al-awwal" ("the original religion of Adam") practised by Adam and the angels in paradise before the fall, which would be without ritual or law but consist merely in all creatures praising the creator and recognizing his unity. This final stage was called the Qiyamah.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Just as the Imām is seen by Ismailis as the manifestation of the first-created Light, during the period between the Imāmates of Muhammad ibn Ismail and al-Madhi Billah, the relationship between the teacher and the student became a sacred one, and Dai became a position much beyond a normal missionary. Dai passed on the sacred and hidden knowledge of the Imām to the student, who could then use that information to ascend to higher levels. First, the student loved Dai, and from the Dai, he learned to love the Imām, who was but an interceder on behalf of God. In Nizari Ismailism, the head Dai is called the Pir. The Imam is the Pir in Nizari Ismailism.


title: Isma'ilism

text: A fundamental aspect of Ismailism is the co-existence of the physical and the spiritual, the "zahir" (exoteric) form and the "batin" (esoteric) essence. The esoteric is the source of the exoteric, and the exoteric is the manifestation of the esoteric. This concept is highlighted in the "Epistle of the Right Path", a Persian-Ismaili prose text from the post-Mongol period of Ismaili history, by an anonymous author.


title: Isma'ilism

text: In Ismailism, things have an interior meaning that is reserved for a special few who are in tune with the Imām or are the Imām himself. This is called "bātin."


title: Isma'ilism

text: As with other Shia, Ismāʿīlīs believe that the understanding of God is derived from the first light in the universe, the light of 'Aql, which in Arabic roughly translates as 'Intellect' or to 'bind' (Latin: Intellectus). It is through this Universal Intellect ('aql al-kull) that all living and non-living entities know God, and all of humanity is dependent and united in this light. Contrastingly, in Twelver thought this includes the Prophets as well, especially Muhammad, who is the greatest of all the manifestations of 'Aql.


title: Isma'ilism

text: God, in Ismaʻili metaphysics, is seen as above and beyond all conceptions, names, and descriptions. He transcends all positive and negative qualities, and knowledge of God as such is above all human comprehension.


title: Isma'ilism

text: For the Shia, the Light ("nur") of the Imamate is the Universal Intellect, and consequently, the Imam on earth is the focus of manifestation ("mazhar") of the Intellect.


title: Isma'ilism

text: With respect to the traditional five pillars of Islam, Isma'ilism has some difference. The Nizari Ismaili Muslims are required to pray what is known as the "Du'a" (a specific Nizari Ismaili prayer) three times a day. "Salah" in other forms are not obligatory, but Ismailis can offer them as well.


title: Isma'ilism

text: "Zakat" or charity in Isma'ilism resembles the Zakat of other Muslims. Along with zakat, Isma'ilis pay a tithe, a percentage of their asset to the Ismaili Imamate for use in development projects in the eastern world, primarily to benefit Isma'ilis and, by extension, other communities living in that area. The zakat rates historically differed depending on the asset type: 2.5% of animals, 5% of minerals, and 10% of crops. Among Khoja Ismailis, the zakat is 12.5% of cash income and among other Ismailis of Iran, Syria, Central Asia, and China, the zakat is 10% of cash income and other %s of non-cash assets like crops and livestock.


title: Isma'ilism

text: In terms of fasting ("sawm") during Ramadan and at other times, the Nizari and Musta'ali sects believe in a metaphorical as well as a literal meaning of fasting. The literal meaning is that one must fast as an obligation, such as during Ramadan, and the metaphorical meaning is seeking to attain the Divine Truth and striving to avoid worldly activities which may detract from this goal. In particular, Isma'ilis believe that the esoteric meaning of fasting involves a "fasting of the soul", whereby they attempt to purify the soul simply by avoiding sinful acts and doing good deeds. Still, many Nizari Ismailis around the world fast during the month of Ramadan every year. In addition, the Nizari also fast on "Shukravari Beej" which falls on a Friday that coincides with the New Moon.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Many Ismaili sects do not ascribe to mainstream Islamic beliefs regarding the Hajj, considering it instead to metaphorically mean visiting the Imam himself, that being the greatest and most spiritual of all pilgrimages. Since the Druze do not follow shariah, they do not believe in a literal pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca as other Muslims do, while the Mustaali (Bohras) as well as the Nizaris still hold on to the literal meaning as well, performing hajj to the Ka'aba and also visiting the Imam (or in a secluded time, the Dai, who is the representative or vicegerent of the Imam) to be Hajj-e Haqiqi.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Beyond the traditional five pillars of worship in Islam, Isma'ilis observe an additional two pillars, the first being "taharah", which translates from Arabic as "purity." Similar to the more general concept of ritual purity in Islam, "taharah" denotes a pure soul and includes bodily purity and cleanliness; without "taharah" of the body, clothes, and "ma'salla", prayers are not believed to be accepted.


title: Isma'ilism

text: For the Isma'ilis, jihad is the last of the Seven Islamic Pillars, and for them it means a struggle against one's own soul; striving toward righteousness.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Another central act of worship for Ismailis is "walayah", which translates from Arabic as "guardianship" and denotes "Love and devotion for God, the Prophets, the Aimmat and Imām uz Zaman, and Dai." It also denotes "Ta'at" (following every order without protest, but with one's soul's happiness, knowing that nothing is more important than a command from God and that the command of His vicegerents is His Word). In Ismāʿīlī doctrine, God is the true desire of every soul, and he manifests himself in the forms of Prophets and Imāms; to be guided to his path, one requires a messenger or a guide: a Dai. For the true "mawali" of the Imam and Dai, heaven is made obligatory. And only with this crucial "walayat", they believe, will all the other pillars and acts ordained by Islam be judged or even looked at by God.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The largest part of the Ismāʿīlī community, the Qasim-Shahi Nizari Ismāʿīlīs, today accept Prince Karim Aga Khan IV as their 49th Imām, who they claim is descended from Muḥammad through his daughter Fāṭimah az-Zahra and 'Ali, Muḥammad's cousin and son-in-law. The 46th Ismāʿīlī Imām, Aga Hassan ʻAlī Shah, fled Iran in the 1840s after being blamed for a failed coup against the Shah of the Qajar dynasty. Aga Hassan ʻAlī Shah settled in Mumbai in 1848.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Nizari Ismaili Imams (known as the Aga Khans since the 18th century have used their power to institute reforms that affected personal lives of men and women in the community. Aga Khan III, the 48th Nizari Ismaili Imam, was passionate in this movement. He came into his role at an early age, due to his father's early death, so his mother, Lady Ali Shah, played an influential role during his early years. The influence of women during his rule continued in his later years with his wife Umm Habiba. Imam Aga Khan III ruled from 1885 to 1957 and the current 49th Imam, his grandson, Imam Aga Khan IV commenced his rule in 1957. A majority of Aga Khan III's efforts sought to reform Ismaili marriage contract laws which have significantly impacted women within the Nizari Ismaili community.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The focus of Imam Aga Khan III's message was to promote the idea that women were free and independent. In a message to his followers in 1926, he proclaimed that:


title: Isma'ilism

text: ""I do not want Ismaili women dependent on anyone—their parents, husbands, or anyone except God...I have no doubt that the whole spirit and teaching of my ancestor the Holy Prophet encouraged the evolution of all legitimate freedom and legitimate equality before men and women"."


title: Isma'ilism

text: He encouraged women to participate in social and political affairs and criticized veiling as well as gender segregation, including the acts of Pardah (masking of oneself from the public) and zenana (restraint on women from leaving the home).


title: Isma'ilism

text: Aga Khan III believed economic independence was key to achieving this equality and freedom. By becoming educated and earning their own livelihood, women would no longer be a burden on their parents or spouses. He proclaimed:


title: Isma'ilism

text: ""I am trying to guide our young women's lives into entirely new channels. I want to see them able to earn their livings in trades and professions, so that they are not economically dependent on marriage, nor a burden on their fathers and brother[s]"".


title: Isma'ilism

text: In effect, marriage would no longer be imposed on women due to economic necessity. The Aga Khan III realized that education was at the forefront of this reform and encouraged parents who only had enough money to send one child to school to send their daughters. And this advocacy for education was not limited to elementary literacy. To ensure girls had access to education, there was a minimum marriageable age instituted (for both boys and girls) and child marriage was banned. Moreover, marriage against the will of the bride was outlawed as brides were to sign their marriage contracts according to their choice. Other reforms in marriage laws included decisions on polygamy and divorce. In 1905, polygamy was permitted with the condition of the "maintenance of the first wife" and later that was changed to only be allowed for specific reasons. In 1962, polygamy was outlawed within the Nizari Ismaili community. Women were allowed to divorce their husbands and for a husband to divorce his wife, he was required to stand before a council which ultimately decided whether the divorce was granted or denied. Additionally, Aga Khan III took efforts to eliminate and mitigate the stigma around divorces and divorced women.


title: Isma'ilism

text: A discrepancy exists between the rights offered to women through these reforms and the actual realization of the practice of those rights. Cultural norms and views continue to guide many members of the community who criticize the reforms as being influenced from western values. The Aga Khan responded to this critique by claiming that:


title: Isma'ilism

text: ""While the words of the Koran remain the same, every generation, every century, every period must have a new and different interpretation of the past, otherwise Islam will die and will not survive the competition of some healthy less rigid competitors"."


title: Isma'ilism

text: Additional barriers to practice of reforms include the fact that the councils implementing the forms are often majority male who may still adhere to patriarchal norms. The laws of the countries in which Ismaili women reside also impact the implementation of reforms. Sharia law, common in most Sunni majority countries, is often in contrast to the Ismaili reforms and so residents of these countries must adhere to the country's rules and regulations. The situation of Ismaili women depends on factors including their government and its laws, economic ability, resource availability, and global conditions.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The offshoot of the Muhammad-Shahi or Mumini Nizari Ismailis who follow the elder son of Shams al-Din (Nizari) Muḥammad d. 1310, the 28th Qasim-Shahi Imam, named ʻAlāʼ ad-Dīn Mumin Shāh d. 1337 (26th Imam of the Muhammad-Shahi or Mumini Nizari Ismailis) and his son Muhammad Shah d 1404, the twenty-seventh Imam. They follow this line of Imams until the disappearance of the 40th Imam al-Amir Muhammad al-Baqir in 1796 when they lost contact with him while he resided in India. The bulk of this group joined the Qasim-Shahi Nizaris led by the Aga Khan in 1887. There are 15,000 followers of this line of Nizari Imams in Syria today, locally called the Jafariyah who follow the Shafi‘i Fiqh in the absence of their Imam.


title: Isma'ilism

text: There is also a historical dispute as to whether Imam Qasim Shah was a brother or a paternal uncle to ʻAlāʼ ad-Dīn Mumin Shāh. The most famous Imam of this line of Nizari Imams was Shah Tahir bin Radi al-Din II al-Husayni ad-Dakkani, the 31st Imam who died in 1549. He was famous for converting the sultan of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate Burhan Nizam Shah I to Shia Islam. His father the 30th Imam Radi al-Din II bin Tahir who died in 1509, came from Sistan to Badakshan and established his rule of the region. He was killed and a regional Timurid dynasty ruler Mirza Khan established his rule over the region.


title: Isma'ilism

text: In time, the seat for one chain of Dai was split between India and Yemen as the community split several times, each recognizing a different Dai. Today, the Dawoodi Bohras, which constitute the majority of the Mustaali Ismāʿīlī accept Mufaddal Saifuddin as the 53rd Dāʿī al-Muṭlaq. The Dawoodi Bohras are based in India, along with the Alavi Bohra. Minority groups of the Sulaymani, however, exist in Yemen and Saudi Arabia. In recent years, there has been a rapprochement between the Sulaymani, Dawoodi, and Alavi Mustaali sub-sects.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Mustaali sects are the most traditional of the three main groups of Ismāʿīlī, maintaining rituals such as prayer and fasting more consistently with the practices of other Shia sects. It is often said that they resemble Sunni Islam even more than Twelvers do, though this would hold true for matters of the exterior rituals ("zahir") only, with little bearing on doctrinal or theological differences.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Dawoodi Bohras are a very close-knit community who seeks advice from Dai on spiritual and temporal matters.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Dawoodi Bohras is headed by the Dāʻī al-Mutlaq, who is appointed by his predecessor in office. The Dāʻī al-Mutlaq appoints two others to the subsidiary ranks of māzūn (Arabic Maʾḏūn مأذون) "licentiate" and Mukāsir (). These positions are followed by the rank of ra'sul hudood, bhaisaheb, miya-saheb, shaikh-saheb, and mulla-saheb, which are held by several of Bohras. The 'Aamil or Saheb-e Raza who is granted the permission to perform the religious ceremonies of the believers by the Dāʻī al-Mutlaq and also leads the local congregation in religious, social, and community affairs, is sent to each town where a sizable population of believers exists. Such towns normally have a masjid (commonly known as a mosque) and an adjoining jamaa'at-khaana (assembly hall) where socio-religious functions are held. The local organizations which manage these properties and administer the social and religious activities of the local Bohras report directly to the central administration of the Dāʻī al-Mutlaq.


title: Isma'ilism

text: While the majority of Dawoodi Bohras have traditionally been traders, it is becoming increasingly common for them to become professionals. Some choose to become Doctors, consultants or analysts as well as a large contingent of medical professionals. Dawoodi Bohras are encouraged to educate themselves in both religious and secular knowledge, and as a result, the number of professionals in the community is rapidly increasing. Dawoodi Bohras believe that the education of women is equally important as that of men, and many Dawoodi Bohra women choose to enter the workforce. Al Jamea tus Saifiyah (The Arabic Academy) in Mumbai, Surat, Nairobi and Karachi is a sign to the educational importance in the Dawoodi community. The academy has an advanced curriculum that encompasses religious and secular education for both men and women.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Today there are approximately one million Dawoodi Bohra. The majority of these reside in India and Pakistan, but there is also a significant diaspora residing in the Middle East, East Africa, Europe, North America and the Far East.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The ordinary Bohra is highly conscious of his identity, and this is especially demonstrated at religious and traditional occasions by the appearance and attire of the participants. Dawoodi Bohra men wear a traditional white three-piece outfit, plus a white and gold cap (called a "topi"), and women wear the "rida", a distinctive form of the commonly known burqa which is distinguished from other forms of the veil due to it often being in color and decorated with patterns and lace. The rida's difference from the burqa, however, is significant beyond just the colour, pattern, and lace. The rida does not call for covering of women's faces like the traditional veil. It has a flap called the 'pardi' that usually hangs on the back like the hood of a jacket but it is not used to conceal the face. This is representative of the Dawoodi Bohra community's values of equality and justice for women, which they believe, is a tenet of the Fatimid Imamate's evolved understanding of Islam and the true meaning of women's chastity in Islam. The Dawoodi Bohra community also do not prevent their women from coming to mosques, attending religious gatherings or going to places of pilgrimage. It is often regarded as the most peaceful sect of Islam and an example of true Sufism; it has been critically acclaimed on several occasions even by Western governments such as those of the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, and particularly the United States for its progressive outlook towards gender roles, adoption of technology, promotion of literature, crafts, business and secular values. However, the Dawoodi Bohras are highly single-minded about inter-caste or inter-faith marriage. They do not oppose it but do not encourage it either. If a Dawoodi Bohra member does marry into another caste or religion, he or she is usually advised to ask his or her spouse to convert to Islam and, specifically, into the community.


title: Isma'ilism

text: They believe that straying away from the community implies straying away from Ma'ad – the ultimate objective of this life and the meaning of the teachings of Islam, which is to return to where all souls come from and re-unite with Allah. Besides, converting someone to Islam has high spiritual and religious significance as doctrines espouse that making someone a Muslim or Mu'min confers the Sawab (the reward of good deeds) equivalent to that of 40 Hajjs and 40 Umrahs (visiting Mecca and the Kaaba during days other than that of Hajj).


title: Isma'ilism

text: The position of Da'i al-Mutlaq is currently disputed after the demise of the 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohra community, Mohammed Burhanuddin. Two claimants emerged for the position of 53rd Da'i al-Mutlaq, Mufaddal Saifuddin and Khuzaima Qutbuddin, and a case is pending in the Bombay High Court to resolve the matter. Qutbuddin has since died and appointed his son Taher Fakhruddin as his successor.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Besides speaking the local languages, the Dawoodis have their own language called Lisānu l-Dāʻwat "Tongue of the Dāʻwat". This is written in the Persian alphabet but is derived from Urdu, Gujarati, and Arabic and Persian.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Founded in 1592, the Sulaymani are mostly concentrated in Yemen but are also found in Pakistan and India. The denomination is named after its 27th Daʻī, Sulayman bin Hassan. They are referred to and prefer to be referred to as Ahle-Haq Ismaʻilis and Sulaymanis and not with the Bohras suffix.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The total number of Sulaymanis currently are around 300,000, mainly living in the eastern district of Jabal Haraz in northwest Yemen and in Najran, Saudi Arabia. Beside the Banu Yam of Najran, the Sulaymanis are in Haraz, among the inhabitants of the Jabal Maghariba and in Hawzan, Lahab and Attara, as well as in the district of Hamadan and in the vicinity of Yarim.


title: Isma'ilism

text: In India there are between 3000 and 5000 Sulaymanis living mainly in Vadodara, Hyderabad, Mumbai and Surat. In Punjab, Pakistan, there is a well-established Sulaymani community in Sind. Some ten thousand Sulaymanis live in rural areas of Punjab known to the Sulaymani as "Jazeera-e Sind"; these Sulaymani communities have been in the Jazeera-e Sind from the time of Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah when he sent his Daʻīs to Jazeera-e Sind.


title: Isma'ilism

text: There are also some 900–1000 Sulaymanis mainly from South Asia scattered around the world, in the Persian Gulf States, United States, Canada, Thailand, Australia, Japan and the United Kingdom.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The ʻAlavi Bohras, popularly and incorrectly known as Alya Bohras, follow a different line of succession of Duʼaat ("missionaries") from the 29th daʼi onwards after the split from Daʼudi Bohras in Ahmedabad in 1621 CE. They believe the rightful daʼi was a grandson of the 28th daʼi named ʻAli Shams al-Din b. Ibrahim (d. 1046 AH/1637 CE). They are named after this ʻAli, calling themselves ʻAlavis, and their mission ad-Daʼwat ul-Haadiyat ul-ʻAlaviyah. Three daʼis later, in 1110 AH/1699 CE, the seat of the ʻAlavi Daʼwat was moved from Ahmedabad to Vadodara by 32nd daʼi, acting on the will of 31st daʼi (except for a brief interlude in Surat for 20 years 1158–1178 AH/1745-1764 CE). Since then Vadodara remains the headquarters of the ʻAlavis to this day. The ʻAlavi Bohras have a library of 450 Ismaʻili manuscripts, some up to 500 years old, at their centre in Vadodara.


title: Isma'ilism

text: Currently, ʻAlavi Bohras are a close-knit organized community numbering approximately 8000, with the majority of them settled in Vadodara, where they have their own locality. They have their own masjids and musafirkhanas in places like Mumbai, Surat, Ahmedabad, Nadiad in India. Some have migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, UAE and Europe. Like majority of Bohra communities, ʻAlavi Bohras are mostly traders and dominate the optical and furniture market in Vadodara. They are now increasingly venturing into professions such as law, medicine, engineering, business management, computer sciences. Beings Ismaʻili-Taiyebis they follow strictly Fatimid spiritual hierarchical set-up, law, dress code, customs, beliefs, eating habits, lifestyle, ethics and customary traditions, etc.


title: Isma'ilism

text: While lesser-known and smallest in number, Alavi Bohras have their spiritual and temporal head as the 45th dāʿī al-muṭlaq, Haatim Zakiyuddin. The doctrines of Alavi Bohras is centered on the recognition of the Imam. It continues to be the most important foundation among Bohras. In fact, "dai al-mutlaq" acts as a direct representative of the concealed Imam as he receives required guidance from him. During this time of the concealment of 21st Fatimid Imam at-Taiyeb and his progeny, the religious hierarchy of the Alavi Bohras is headed by the Dāʻī al-Mutlaq, who is appointed by his predecessor in office and similar as of Dawoodi Bohra.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Hebtiahs Bohra are a branch of Mustaali Ismaili Shia Islam that broke off from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 39th Da'i al-Mutlaq in 1754.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Atba-i Malak jamaat (community) are a branch of Mustaali Ismaili Shia Islam that broke off from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 46th Da'i al-Mutlaq, under the leadership of Abdul Hussain Jivaji. They have further split into two more branches, the Atba-i-Malak Badar and Atba-i-Malak Vakil.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Progressive Dawoodi Bohra is a reformist sect within Musta'li Ismai'li Shia Islam that broke off circa 1977. They disagree with mainstream Dawoodi Bohra, as led by the Da'i al-Mutlaq, on doctrinal, economic and social issues.


title: Isma'ilism

text: While on one view there is a historical nexus between the Druze and Ismāʿīlīs, any such links are purely historical and do not entail any modern similarities, given that one of the Druze's central tenets is trans-migration of the soul (reincarnation) as well as other contrasting beliefs with Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam. Druze is an offshoot of Ismailism. Many historical links do trace back to Syria and particularly Masyaf. The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ili; although according to various scholars Druze faith "diverge substantially from Islam, both Sunni and Shia".


title: Isma'ilism

text: Even though the faith originally developed out of Isma'ilism, most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslims, Druze also are not considered Muslims by those belonging to orthodox Islamic schools of thought (see Islam and Druze). Ibn Taymiyyah also pointed out that Druze were not Muslims, and neither 'Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) nor mushrikin, rather they were kuffār (Infidel).


title: Isma'ilism

text: Satpanth is a subgroup of Nizari Ismailism and Ismaili Sufism formed by conversions from Hinduism 700 years ago by Pir Sadardin (1290–1367) and 600 years ago in the 15th century by his grandson Pir Imam Shah (1430–1520), they differ slightly from the Nizari Khojas in that they reject the Aga Khan as their leader and are known more commonly as Imam-Shahi. There are villages in Gujarat which are totally 'Satpanthi' such as Pirana near Ahmedabad where Imam Shah is buried. It is also the older form of Nizari Ismaili practice originating from the Kutch community of Gujarat. Pir Sadardin gave the first converts to Ismailism the name 'Satpanth' because they were the followers of the 'True Path.' They were then given the title of Khoja to replace their title of Thakkar.


title: Isma'ilism

text: According to the historian Yaqut al-Hamawi, the Böszörmény ("Izmaelita" or "Ismaili"/"Nizari") denomination of the Muslims who lived in the Kingdom of Hungary in the 10–13th centuries, were employed as mercenaries by the kings of Hungary. However following the establishment of the Christian Kingdom of Hungary their community was either Christianized or became crypto-Muslims by the end of the 13th century and later assimilated into the Bektashi Order following the Ottoman conquest of Hungary.


title: Isma'ilism

text: This branch held that whoever the political ruler (caliph) of the Fatimid Caliphate was, was also the Imam of the Time, after the reign of Al-Amir, Al-Hafiz was recognized as the Imam of the Time as well as his descendants. The Hafizi Ismaili sect had 26 Imams. The Hafizi sect lived on into the 14th century AD with adherents in Northern Egypt and Syria but had died out by the 15th century AD.


title: Isma'ilism

text: A branch of the Ismāʿīlī known as the "Sab'īyah" "Seveners" hold that Ismāʿīl was the seventh and final Ismāʿīlī Imam, and that his son, Muhammad ibn Isma'il, would return from Occultation and bring about an age of justice as Mahdi. However, most scholars believe this group is either extremely small or non-existent today. The Qarmatians were the most active branch of the Seveners.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Amman Message, which was issued on 9 November 2004 (27th of Ramadan 1425 AH) by King Abdullah II bin Al-Hussein of Jordan, called for tolerance and unity in the Muslim world. Subsequently, the "Amman Message" Conference took place in Amman, Jordan on 4–6 July 2005, and a three-point declaration was issued by 200 Muslim academics from over 50 countries focusing on the three issues of:


title: Isma'ilism

text: The three-point declaration (later known as "The Three Points of the Amman Message") included both the Ja'fari and Zaydi Shia "madhāhib" (schools of jurisprudence) among the eight schools of jurisprudence that were listed as being in the Muslim fold and whose adherents were, therefore, to be considered as "Muslim by definition" and therefore cannot be excluded from the world community of Muslims.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of the Ismailis, was invited to issue a religious edict for and on behalf of the Ismailis, which he did by a letter explicitly stating that the Ismailis adhered to the Ja'fari school as well as other schools of close affinity including the Sufi principles concerned with a personal search for God.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The summarization by Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad explicitly delineates on page 11 the place of the Ismailis as being "within" the Ja'fari school as stated by the Aga Khan.


title: Isma'ilism

text: The Shia belief throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch is the Twelvers, followed by the Ismailis then the Zaidis and Kaysanite. All the groups follow a different line of Imamate linked together as shown in the chart below.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Russian oligarchs (Russian: олигархи, romanized: "oligarkhi") are business oligarchs of the former Soviet republics who rapidly accumulated wealth in the 1990s via the Russian privatisation that followed the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The failing Soviet state left the ownership of state assets contested, which allowed for informal deals with former USSR officials (mostly in Russia and Ukraine) as a means to acquire state property. Historian Edward L. Keenan has compared these oligarchs to the system of powerful boyars that emerged in late-medieval Muscovy.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: The first modern Russian oligarchs emerged as business-sector entrepreneurs under Mikhail Gorbachev (General Secretary 1985–1991) during his period of market liberalization. The term "oligarch" derives from the Ancient Greek "oligarkhia" meaning "the rule of the few".


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Since 2017, several Russian oligarchs and their companies have been hit by US sanctions under the table of Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA) for their support of "the Russian government's malign activity around the globe". In 2022, many Russian oligarchs were targeted and sanctioned by countries around the world as a rebuke of Russia's war against Ukraine.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: During Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika (-1991), many businessmen in Russia imported goods such as personal computers and jeans into the country and sold them for a hefty profit.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: During the 1990s, once Boris Yeltsin became President of Russia in July 1991, the oligarchs emerged as well-connected entrepreneurs who started from nearly nothing and became rich through participation in the market via connections to the corrupt, but elected, government of Russia during the state's transition to a market-based economy. The so-called voucher privatization program of 1992–1994 enabled a handful of young men to become billionaires, specifically by arbitraging the vast difference between old domestic prices for Russian commodities (such as natural gas and oil) and the prices prevailing on the world market. Because they stashed billions of dollars in private Swiss bank accounts rather than investing in the Russian economy, they were dubbed "kleptocrats". These oligarchs became extremely unpopular with the Russian public, and are commonly thought of as the cause of much of the turmoil that plagued the Russian Federation following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. "The Guardian" described the oligarchs as "about as popular with your average Russian as a man idly burning bundles of £50s outside an orphanage".


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Economists Sergei Guriev and Andrei Rachinsky contrast older oligarchs with nomenklatura ties and younger-generation entrepreneurs such as Kakha Bendukidze who built their wealth from scratch because Gorbachev's reforms affected a period "when co-existence of regulated and quasi-market prices created huge opportunities for arbitrage."


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Although the majority of oligarchs were not formally connected with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, there are allegations that they were promoted (at least initially) by the communist apparatchiks, with strong connections to Soviet power-structures and access to the funds of the Communist Party.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Mikhail Khodorkovsky started his business importing computers under auspices of the Komsomol-authorised Center for Scientific and Technical Creativity of the Youth in 1986, briefly serving as a deputy secretary of the Komsomol for a district in Moscow in 1987. His move into banking two years later was funded with support from Komsomol alumni working in Moscow city government. Later, he served in Russian government as an adviser to the prime minister and a deputy minister of fuel and power while still running his business.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Petr Aven worked alongside economist Yegor Gaidar in the (VNIISI), a Soviet Academy of Sciences think tank modelled after RAND. Gaidar later became the economics editor of the "Kommunist" journal, the official theoretical organ of the CC of the CPSU. He also held various positions up to the interim prime minister in the Russian government during 1991–1992.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: A friend and a business partner of Boris Berezovsky, was a researcher at VNIISI as well. Berezovsky himself was Head of the Department of System Design at the another Academy of Sciences research centre, . His enterprise was established by the Institute as a joint venture.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Vladimir Vinogradov was the chief economist of Promstroibank, one of the six banks existing in the Soviet Union, previously serving as the secretary of Atommash plant Komsomol organisation.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Official Russian media usually depicted oligarchs as the enemies of "communist forces", which were portrayed as a stereotype that describes political power that wants to restore Soviet-style communism in Russia.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Post-Soviet business oligarchs include relatives or close associates of government officials, even government officials themselves, as well as criminal bosses often connected to the Russian government. Some members of these groups achieved vast wealth by acquiring state assets very cheaply (or for free) during the privatization process controlled by the Yeltsin government of 1991–1999. Specific accusations of corruption are often leveled at Anatoly Chubais and Yegor Gaidar, two of the "Young Reformers" chiefly responsible for Russian privatization in the early 1990s. According to David Satter, author of "Darkness at Dawn", "what drove the process was not the determination to create a system based on universal values but rather the will to introduce a system of private ownership, which, in the absence of law, opened the way for the criminal pursuit of money and power".


title: Russian oligarchs

text: During Yeltsin's presidency (1991–1999) oligarchs became increasingly influential in Russian politics; they helped finance his re-election in 1996. Well-connected oligarchs like Abramovich, Khodorkovsky, Berezovsky and Potanin acquired key assets at a fraction of the value at the loans for shares scheme auctions conducted in the run-up to the election. Defenders of the out-of-favor oligarchs, often associated with Chubais's partythe Union of Right Forcesargue that the companies they acquired were not highly valued at the time because they still ran on Soviet principles, with non-existent stock control, huge payrolls, no financial reporting and scant regard for profit. They turned the businesses around and made them profitable for shareholders.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: The 1998 Russian financial crisis hit some of the oligarchs hard, however, and those whose holdings were still based mainly in banking lost much of their fortunes.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: They formed what became known as the (or "seven-banker outfit", ), a small group of businessmen with a great influence on Boris Yeltsin and his political environment. Together they controlled from 50% to 70% of all Russian finances between 1996 and 2000.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Fridman, Potanin, Aven and Malkin retained their wealth in the Putin era, which began in 1999. "The Guardian" reported in 2008 that oligarchs' from the era of former president Boris Yeltsin have been purged by the Kremlin".


title: Russian oligarchs

text: During Putin's first presidency term, a number of oligarchs came under fire for various illegal activities, particularly tax evasion in the businesses they acquired. However, it is widely speculated and believed that the charges were also politically motivated per these tycoons falling out of favor with the Kremlin. Vladimir Gusinsky of MediaMost and Boris Berezovsky both avoided legal proceedings by leaving Russia, and the most prominent, Mikhail Khodorkovsky of Yukos oil, was arrested in October 2003 and sentenced to 9 years. This was subsequently extended to 14 years, and after Putin pardoned him, he was released on 20 December 2013.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: An economic study distinguished 21 oligarchic groups as of 2003. Between 2000 and 2004, Putin apparently engaged in a power struggle with some oligarchs, reaching a "grand bargain" with them. This bargain allowed the oligarchs to maintain their powers, in exchange for their explicit support of – and alignment with – Putin's government. However, other analysts argue that the oligarchic structure has remained intact under Putin, with Putin devoting much of his time to mediating power-disputes between rival oligarchs. Some had been imprisoned, such as Mikhael Mirilashvili.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Many more have become oligarchs during Putin's time in power, and often due to personal relations with Putin, such as the director of the institute where Putin obtained a degree in 1996, Vladimir Litvinenko, and Putin's childhood friend and judo-teacher Arkady Rotenberg. Daniel Treisman proposed using a term "silovarch" (silovik and oligarch) for new Russian oligarchs with backgrounds in Russian military and intelligence.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Prominent oligarchs of the Putin era include Roman Abramovich, Alexander Abramov, Oleg Deripaska, Mikhail Prokhorov, Alisher Usmanov, German Khan, Viktor Vekselberg, Leonid Mikhelson, Vagit Alekperov, Mikhail Fridman, Dmitry Rybolovlev, Vladimir Potanin, Pyotr Aven, and Vitaly Malkin.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: In 2004, "Forbes" listed 36 billionaires of Russian citizenship, with a note: "this list includes businessmen of Russian citizenship who acquired the major share of their wealth privately, while not holding a governmental position". In 2005, the number of billionaires dropped to 30, mostly because of the Yukos case, with Khodorkovsky dropping from No. 1 (US$15.2 billion) to No. 21 (US$2.0 billion).


title: Russian oligarchs

text: A 2013 report by Credit Suisse found that 35% of the wealth of Russia was owned by the wealthiest 110 individuals.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Billionaire, philanthropist, art patron and former KGB agent Alexander Lebedev has criticized the oligarchs, saying "I think material wealth for them is a highly emotional and spiritual thing. They spend a lot of money on their own personal consumption." Lebedev has also described them as "a bunch of uncultured ignoramuses", saying "They don't read books. They don't have time. They don't go to [art] exhibitions. They think the only way to impress anyone is to buy a yacht." He also notes that the oligarchs have no interest in social injustice.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: A significant number of Russian oligarchs have bought homes in upmarket sections of London in the United Kingdom, which has been dubbed "Moscow on Thames" or "Londongrad". Some, such as Eugene Shvidler, Alexander Knaster, Konstantin Kagalovsky, David Wilkowske and Abram Reznikov, are expatriates, having taken permanent residency in London. Most own homes in both countries as well as property and have acquired controlling interests in major European companies. They commute on a regular basis between London and Russia; in many cases their families reside in London, with their children attending school there. In 2007 Abram Reznikov bought one of Spain's mega recycling companies, Alamak Espana Trade SL, while Roman Abramovich bought the English football club Chelsea F.C. in 2003, spending record amounts on players' salaries.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: The billionaire Moscow oligarch Mikhail Fridman, Russia's second richest man at a time, was restoring Athlone House in London as a primary residence in 2016, to be worth an estimated £130 million when restored.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: According to the financial news-agency Bloomberg L.P., Russia's wealthiest 25 individuals have collectively lost US$230 billion (£146 billion) since July 2008. The fall in the oligarchs' wealth relates closely to the meltdown in Russia's stock market, as by 2008 the RTS Index had lost 71% of its value due to the capital flight after the Russo-Georgian War of August 2008.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: Billionaires in Russia and Ukraine have been particularly hard-hit by lenders seeking repayment on balloon loans to shore up their own balance sheets. Many oligarchs took out generous loans from Russian banks, bought shares, and then took out more loans from western banks against the value of these shares. One of the first to get hit by the global downturn was Oleg Deripaska, Russia's richest man at the time, who had a net worth of US$28 billion in March 2008. As Deripaska borrowed money from western banks using shares in his companies as collateral, the collapse in share price forced him to sell holdings to satisfy the margin calls.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Canada, US, and European leaders with the addition of Japan, took unprecedented steps to sanction Putin and the oligarchs directly. In response to the sanctions, the targeted oligarchs started to hide wealth in an attempt to prevent the Western nations from freezing their assets. These sanctions intend to directly impact the Russian ruling class as a response for their perceived contribution and acquiescence to the war with Ukraine. Although the sanctions tend to miss the richest oligarchs, the impact on the war is unknown due to Putin's power over those that were sanctioned. Since the invasion began, nine of the Russian oligarchs' yachts have turned their navigation transponders off as they sail to ports where they are less likely to be searched and seized.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: In addition to freezing foreign holdings, restricting travel, and severing business ties, the sanctions aim to impact the personal lives of a number of oligarchs including;


title: Russian oligarchs

text: On March 2, 2022, the United States announced a special task force dubbed "Task Force KleptoCapture". This team was put together to specifically target oligarchs. It is made up of officials from the FBI, Marshals Service, IRS, Postal Inspection Service, Homeland Security Investigations and Secret Service. The main goal of the task force is to impose the sanctions set against these individuals to freeze and seize the assets that the US government claimed were proceeds of their illegal involvement with the Russian government and the invasion of Ukraine.


title: Russian oligarchs

text: On March 21, 2022, the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project launched Russian Asset Tracker to showcase the profiles and assets of several Russian oligarchs.


title: Charlie Tahan

text: Charles Tahan (born June 11, 1998) is an American actor. His notable roles include Wyatt Langmore in the Netflix original crime drama "Ozark" (2017–2022), the voice of Victor Frankenstein in the Disney 3D stop-motion-animated fantasy horror comedy "Frankenweenie" (2012), Ben Burke in the Fox dystopian mystery thriller series "Wayward Pines" (2015–16) and the young Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow in the Fox/DC Comics superhero drama "Gotham" (2014–17).


title: Charlie Tahan

text: Tahan was born and raised in Glen Rock, New Jersey, where he attended Glen Rock High School. He is the middle of three children. His younger sister is actress Daisy Tahan.


title: Charlie Tahan

text: Tahan played Ethan in the post-apocalyptic science fiction horror film "I Am Legend" (2007) and appeared in the horror film "Burning Bright" (2010), Tahan co-starred with Zac Efron in the drama "Charlie St. Cloud" (2010), based on Ben Sherwood's 2004 novel "The Death and Life of Charlie St. Cloud". He also voiced Victor Frankenstein in the Disney 3D stop-motion-animated fantasy horror comedy "Frankenweenie" (2012), directed by Tim Burton. In 2010, he had a recurring role as Calvin Arliss in the twelfth season of the NBC police procedural drama "".


title: Charlie Tahan

text: In 2009, Tahan co-starred as William Woolf in the drama "The Other Woman" with Scott Cohen and Natalie Portman.


title: Charlie Tahan

text: In 2015, Tahan had a recurring role in two episodes of the first season of the Fox superhero drama "Gotham". He played a young Dr. Jonathan Crane. In 2017, he returned to the show early in the fourth season until the role was recast to David W. Thompson. From 2015 to 2016, he starred as Ben Burke in the Fox dystopian mystery thriller series "Wayward Pines" created by M. Night Shyamalan.


title: Charlie Tahan

text: Starting in 2017, Tahan starred as Wyatt Langmore in the Netflix crime drama series Ozark, alongside Jason Bateman, Laura Linney, and Julia Garner. Ozark received positive reviews from critics throughout its run, with particular praise for its tone, directing, production values, and performances. The series has received a total of 45 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including three for Outstanding Drama Series.


title: Ado (singer)

text: Ado (born October 24, 2002) is a Japanese singer and YouTuber. In 2020, at the age of 17, she made her debut with the digital single titled "Usseewa", which peaked at number 1 on "Billboard Japan" Hot 100, Oricon Digital Singles Chart, and the Oricon Streaming Chart. The song reached 100 million plays on "Billboard Japan" after 17 weeks from charting-in, which was the sixth fastest in history and the youngest for a solo singer. In 2022, her song, "New Genesis", was used as the theme song for the anime film "", and topped Apple Music's Global Top 100 charts.


title: Ado (singer)

text: In 2014, Ado took an interest in music after the video-sharing website Niconico was released on Nintendo 3DS. She began watching videos on the small screen of Nintendo 3DS, and was impressed by the cover singers on Niconico who sang without showing their faces.


title: Ado (singer)

text: Years later in 2017, Ado began singing as an "utaite" (an internet cover singer) on Niconico, after uploading a video of herself singing a cover of "Kimi no taion" on January 10, 2017. On Nippon TV she said that during the time she was an "utaite" singer, she covered her closet in soundproofing material that she bought online and recorded in it.


title: Ado (singer)

text: In 2019, she featured in Kujira's digital single "Kinmokusei", which was released on December 23, 2019. A couple months later, she featured as a vocalist in a digital single "Shikabanēze" by jon-YAKITORY, which was released on March 29, 2020. In May 2020, she participated in Pony Canyon's compilation album PALETTE4. She released two songs, "Call boy" by syudou and "Taema naku ai-iro" by Shishi Shishi, as digital releases.


title: Ado (singer)

text: On October 15, 2020, Ado announced that she would make her debut with Universal Music Japan. On October 23, the day before her 18th birthday, she released the digital single "Usseewa" written by Vocaloid producer syudou. The music video, released on her own YouTube channel, reached 5 million views by November 14. On December 10, 2020, "Usseewa" ranked number 1 on Spotify Viral 50 Japan. On December 24, she released her second single "Readymade" written by Vocaloid producer Surii, as a digital release.


title: Ado (singer)

text: By January 23, 2021, "Usseewa" had reached 40 million views on YouTube, and on February 3, 2021, it ranked number 1 on both Oricon Digital Singles Chart and Oricon Streaming Chart. On February 14, she released her third single, "Gira Gira", written by Vocaloid producer teniwoha, as a digital release. Four days later on February 18, the number of subscribers on her YouTube channel exceeded 1 million.


title: Ado (singer)

text: On March 15, 2021, "Usseewa" reached number one on the Billboard Japan Hot 100, and on March 20, the music video on YouTube reached 100 million views, 148 days after its release. On March 29, "Usseewa" reached 100 million plays on the Billboard JAPAN chart "Streaming Songs" after 17 weeks from charting-in, which was the sixth fastest in history and the youngest for a solo singer.


title: Ado (singer)

text: On April 27, 2021, Ado released her fifth Single "Odo" which is used by NHK's Show about Vocaloid producers.


title: Ado (singer)

text: On June 11, 2021, she was chosen as the second Japanese female Artist for "YouTube's Artist on the Rise". And on June 14, 2021, she released her sixth Single "Yoru no Pierrot".


title: Ado (singer)

text: Ado provided the singing voice for the character Uta in the 2022 anime film ""; the album "Uta no Uta: One Piece Film Red", containing the vocal songs from the film was released on August 10, 2022. The film's theme song "New Genesis" topped Apple Music's Global Top 100 charts.


title: Ado (singer)

text: From December 2022 to January 2023, Ado's first nationwide live tour "Shinkiro" will be held for 10 performances in six different locations throughout Japan.


title: Ado (singer)

text: In October 2022, Ado signed with Geffen Records to release music in the United States alongside her current record deal with Virgin Music.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: Brooke Ellen Bollea (born May 5, 1988), better known by her stage name Brooke Hogan, is an American television personality, singer, and actress. The daughter of professional wrestler Hulk Hogan, she at one point served as an on-screen personality for Impact Wrestling.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: Brooke took an early interest in music, and began working on her first studio album in 2002. In an attempt to promote her music career, Hogan and her father appeared in a one-hour special on VH1. The special proved to be a ratings success, leading to Hogan and her family starring in the reality television series "Hogan Knows Best" (2005–07). The show saw a then teenage Brooke struggling with her overprotective father and recording her debut album. Her first studio album, "Undiscovered", was released in 2006. It was preceded by the single "About Us", which entered the top-forty of the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: While Hogan began working on her second album, personal struggles among her family led to the cancellation of "Hogan Knows Best". This led to Hogan starring in her own television series, "Brooke Knows Best" (2008–09). Though her parents and brother made numerous appearances throughout the series, it mainly focused on Brooke and the recording of her new music. Hogan's second studio album, "The Redemption" (2009), failed to match the success of its predecessor. The album spawned two singles, neither of which had much success. Following the conclusion of "Brooke Knows Best", Hogan pursued a career in acting, making numerous appearances in low budget films and television shows. In 2012, Hogan signed on to appear on Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), alongside her father. She was released from the series after a year on the program. Hogan starred in the satire film "L.A. Slasher" (2015), and worked on two extended plays consisting of country music in 2015 and 2018.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: Brooke Ellen Bollea was born May 5, 1988, in Tampa, Florida, the older child of Hulk Hogan (Terry Gene Bollea) and Linda Claridge. She has one younger brother, Nick Hogan (Nick Bollea).


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In high school, she took dance classes, voice lessons, piano lessons, and gymnastics. She joined the cheerleading squad of her Clearwater, Florida school, Clearwater Central Catholic High School, in her first year (though she only stayed at the school for the first half of first year). She also sang inhibitor chorus for CCCHS. Hogan graduated from high school at the age of sixteen.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: Hogan was signed to Trans Continental Records in 2002. Some music was produced with LFO member Rich Cronin's assistance. The album's lead single, "Everything to Me", was released in July 2004. The song appeared at number one on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart in the United States, and number 97 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. To promote the album, Hogan toured with Hilary Duff on her Most Wanted Tour throughout the US, as well as with the Backstreet Boys on their Up Close & Personal Tour, both of which took place from mid 2004 to early 2005. The album, "Brooke Hogan: This Voice", was slated for a September 21, 2004 release date, but the album was not released.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: Hogan and her father appeared in the hour-long profile "(Inside) Out: Hulk Hogan, Stage Dad". The television special chronicled Hogan working on her debut album, as well as showed her father's role in the album making process. Her father later stated that the show was mainly an attempt to help promote Brooke and her upcoming music career. The special was a major success for the network, and the success of the special led to VH1 turning it into an entire television series, titled "Hogan Knows Best". The series premiered in July 2005, and was the highest rated series in the network's history. The show chronicled the Hogan family's life together, although it mainly focused on Brooke and her father. "Hogan Knows Best" presented her father as strict with her dating. On the show, Hulk placed a GPS tracker on Brooke's vehicle that enabled him to track her whereabouts and shut down the engine of her car remotely. However, Brooke said in a later interview that her father loosened up after her eighteenth birthday.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In 2006, Hogan changed record labels and became the first artist signed to Scott Storch's label, initially called Storchaveli Records, but later named Storch Music Company. She also signed with "SoBe Entertainment". Storch also became the album's main producer. During an interview, Hogan stated that she was recording the album at The Hit Factory in Miami, Florida, where rapper Paul Wall heard a clip of the song "About Us" and asked to be on the song.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: The lead single from the album, "About Us", was premiered on the season two finale of "Hogan Knows Best". It quickly began receiving heavy radio rotation, and peaked at number 33 the "Billboard" Hot 100. "Undiscovered" was released on October 24, 2006 in the United States and Canada. The album debuted at number 28 on the "Billboard" 200, and number 1 on the Independent Albums charts in the US, selling an estimated 30,000 copies in its first week of release. The album has only sold an estimated 127,000 copies in the United States.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: To help promote the album, Hogan appeared in the November 2006 edition of "FHM", becoming the first "FHM" cover model under 21 years old. As a result, the November issue had no liquor advertising. Dana Leslie Fields, executive publisher and president of "FHM", said: "In the very rare instance that you might have a cover star under the age of 21, they don't want to be in the position of seeming to market to anyone under age."


title: Brooke Hogan

text: To further promote the album, Hogan announced its second single would be "Heaven Baby", which featured Beenie Man on guest vocals. The song was released to pop radio in January 2007. On March 6, "For A Moment" was released as a promotional single from the album, with a music video featuring clips of the third and fourth seasons of "Hogan Knows Best". Hogan's record label decided the album should be re-released later in the year; however, Hogan decided against it, opting to begin work on her second album. In August 2007, Hogan confirmed that she would be departing from one of her labels, "SMC", and soon confirmed that she had signed a dual contract with "SoBe Entertainment" and "Fontana Records" and was at work on her second album. Hogan appeared as a panel judge in "America's Prom Queen" in early 2008.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: While working on her second studio album, the series "Hogan Knows Best" was discontinued due to controversies involving Brooke's immediate family. As a result, Brooke was approached by VH1 awhile thereafter and signed on to do her own series, "Brooke Knows Best". The series premiered on July 13, 2008, and featured Hogan dealing with her family's problems, her music career, and her life while no longer living with her parents nor dependent on them. The show consisted of her friends, Glenn and Ashley – who are often encouraging Brooke to get out, have fun, and party. Brooke, Glenn, and Ashley live in a penthouse in South Beach, which is paid for by VH1. The show chronicled the problems Brooke faced while dealing with the divorce of her parents, as well as brother Nick Hogan's prior arrest related to a serious car accident in which he permanently injured his best friend. Hogan's father has appeared in numerous episodes of the series, while her mother and brother have made a few. The series ended in 2009 after two seasons.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In early 2009, Hogan announced the title of her second album to be "The Redemption". The album's lead single, "Falling", featured rapper Stacks, and was released on March 31, 2009. On June 30, Hogan released the album's second single, "Hey Yo!", which featured Colby O'Donis on guest vocals. On July 4, Hogan released a mixtape, titled "Judgement Day", to help promote the release of the album. The mixtape caused a buzz online after the song 'Ur Not That Hot' was seen as a diss toward "The Hills" star, and fellow pop singer, Heidi Montag. The song also includes a fake voicemail that Hogan implies was sent to her from Montag. "The Redemption" was released on July 21 in the US and Canada for digital download and as a physical copy. It debuted at number 144 on the "Billboard" 200, and 27 on the Independent Albums chart, selling 3,381 copies in its first week. She was released from her four-year contract with SoBe Entertainment a year early after the promotion for the album concluded. She is now only signed to Fontana Records. To date, she is the only artist signed to the label. Hogan completed a second season of "Brooke Knows Best" on August 9, 2009. The show would not return to the air after the second season. She also had a small part in the pilot episode of "The Jeff Dunham Show".


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In November 2009 Hogan was featured in Toni Braxton's music video for "Yesterday". In late 2009, Hogan made her first film appearance in the low budget live action film "Little Hercules in 3D", which was only released in certain territories outside of the US. It was released on October 8, 2009 in Kazakhstan and Russia, and in the Czech Republic on January 7, 2010. Hogan's mother, father, and brother also appear in various roles in the film.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: Hogan appeared as Kate in the Science fiction film "2 Headed Shark Attack", which was released on January 17, 2012 in the United States. She also appeared as Sandy Powers in the film "Sand Sharks", which was released on January 9 in the United Kingdom. She also guest starred in "The Dean's List", the March 4, 2012 episode of "China, IL".


title: Brooke Hogan

text: She confirmed on June 12, 2014 via her official Instagram account, that her new single would be called "Beautiful" and set a release date for fall of 2014. On July 13, 2015, Hogan released her first alternative country track titled "Girlfriend" on iTunes. In September 2015 Hogan released her first extended play ‘I Wanna Be Your Girlfriend’. In 2018 she released a follow up EP ‘So Many Summers’. On November 1, 2019, Hogan released her newest pop single titled "Touch My Body." An accompanying music video was released a week later on November 8, 2019.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: Brooke made her WWE debut on the July 15, 2006 episode of "Saturday Night's Main Event XXXIII", appearing with her father. Randy Orton came out and flirted with Brooke then challenged Hulk to a match at SummerSlam. Later in the parking lot after more flirting, Brooke got in their car and was unaware Orton would RKO Hulk. Orton would later appear on "WWE Raw" with a fake Hogan family and kissed the fake Brooke.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: On May 17, 2012, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), the wrestling promotion where her father worked, announced that Brooke had signed on to work in the promotion as an on-screen authority figure and a backstage consultant to the TNA Knockouts.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In July 2012, Brooke confirmed via her official Twitter account, that she has continued to write and develop her third studio album. Throughout the mid-2012, she has been appearing on Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), weekly on Thursday nights to help promote the female's wrestling division. On the June 7 episode of "Impact Wrestling", a week after Hogan's TNA debut, Hogan gave Mickie James, Tara, Velvet Sky and Miss Tessmacher (now changed back to Brooke Tessmacher) a chance in a four-way match to earn another shot at Gail Kim's TNA Women's Knockout Championship, which was won by Miss Tessmacher. In June 2012, Hogan gave Velvet Sky a part featured in Montgomery Gentry's music video for their song "So Called Life". On the June 21 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Hogan chose James over Sky as the next challenger for the Women's Knockout Championship, but failed to recapture the title from Miss Tessmacher.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In July, Hulk Hogan, alongside Sting, began feuding with a mysterious group of masked men, who had dubbed themselves the Aces & Eights. The group's attack on Hulk Hogan on the July 12 episode of "Impact Wrestling" was used to write Hulk Hogan off the show, as he was set to undergo another back surgery. On the August 16, 2012 episode of "Impact", Hogan hired Taryn Terrell, as the referee for the TNA Women's Knockout Championship match between Madison Rayne and Miss Tessmacher. In November, Hogan would move into a storyline with her father and Bully Ray after Austin Aries revealed a secret relationship between herself and Ray. After seeing them kissing in a parking garage on the December 20 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Hulk suspended Ray indefinitely on the January 3, 2013, episode. The following week, after Ray saved Hogan from a kidnapping by the Aces & Eights, Hogan accepted his marriage proposal much to her father's dismay. The ceremony took place the next week on "Impact Wrestling", where Ray's groomsman Tazz interrupted and revealed himself to be a member of Aces & Eights, leading to the group attacking Ray, Hulk Hogan, and the rest of the groomsmen. On the February 21 edition of Impact, after listening to Hogan plea, Hulk Hogan named Bully Ray the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship at Lockdown. At this event, Bully Ray would turn his back on Hogan and TNA by revealing himself as the President of the Aces & Eights. On the following episodes of "Impact", Bully Ray touted the fact that the public bought into his deceptive act the entire time to earn the trust of Sting, Hogan, and Hulk Hogan as a way to get a chance to capture the TNA World Title. Hogan continued to seek a divorce from her husband and got it ending the storyline. On August 16, 2013 it was reported that Hogan had been released from TNA.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In October 2016, TMZ reported that Hogan was forming a female wrestling league called the Daughters of Wrestling, along with the daughters of Roddy Piper, Diamond Dallas Page, and Kerry Von Erich.


title: Brooke Hogan

text: In 2015, an audio recording (and its transcripts) of her father Hulk Hogan allegedly making comments about her and her choice of companionship in 2006 became the center of controversy that resulted in his contract with the WWE ending. Hulk Hogan's comments described himself as her ideal husband and that he would bring 'Hulkamania' on anyone who married his daughter. In response, she wrote a poem defending him.


title: Hokusai

text: , known simply as Hokusai, was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist of the Edo period, active as a painter and printmaker. He is best known for the woodblock print series "Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji", which includes the iconic print "The Great Wave off Kanagawa". Hokusai was instrumental in developing "ukiyo-e" from a style of portraiture largely focused on courtesans and actors into a much broader style of art that focused on landscapes, plants, and animals.


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai created the monumental "Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji" as a response to a domestic travel boom in Japan and as part of a personal interest in Mount Fuji. It was this series, specifically, "The Great Wave off Kanagawa" and "Fine Wind, Clear Morning", that secured his fame both in Japan and overseas.


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai was best known for his woodblock ukiyo-e prints, but he worked in a variety of mediums including painting and book illustration. Starting as a young child, he continued working and improving his style until his death, aged 88. In a long and successful career, Hokusai produced over 30,000 paintings, sketches, woodblock prints, and images for picture books in total. Innovative in his compositions and exceptional in his drawing technique, Hokusai is considered one of the greatest masters in the history of art.


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai's date of birth is unclear, but is often stated as the 23rd day of the 9th month of the 10th year of the Hōreki era (in the old calendar, or 31 October 1760) to an artisan family, in the Katsushika district of Edo, the capital of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate. His childhood name was Tokitarō. It is believed his father was Nakajima Ise, a mirror-maker for the shōgun. His father never made Hokusai an heir, so it is possible that his mother was a concubine. Hokusai began painting around the age of six, perhaps learning from his father, whose work included the painting of designs around mirrors.


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai was known by at least thirty names during his lifetime. While the use of multiple names was a common practice of Japanese artists of the time, his number of pseudonyms exceeds that of any other major Japanese artist. His name changes are so frequent, and so often related to changes in his artistic production and style, that they are used for breaking his life up into periods.


title: Hokusai

text: At the age of 12, his father sent him to work in a bookshop and lending library, a popular institution in Japanese cities, where reading books made from woodcut blocks was a popular entertainment of the middle and upper classes. At 14, he worked as an apprentice to a woodcarver, until the age of 18, when he entered the studio of Katsukawa Shunshō. Shunshō was an artist of "ukiyo-e", a style of woodblock prints and paintings that Hokusai would master, and head of the so-called Katsukawa school. "Ukiyo-e", as practised by artists like Shunshō, focused on images of the courtesans ("bijin-ga") and kabuki actors ("yakusha-e") who were popular in Japan's cities at the time.


title: Hokusai

text: After a year, Hokusai's name changed for the first time, when he was dubbed Shunrō by his master. It was under this name that he published his first prints, a series of pictures of kabuki actors published in 1779. During the decade he worked in Shunshō's studio, Hokusai was married to his first wife, about whom very little is known except that she died in the early 1790s. He married again in 1797, although this second wife also died after a short time. He fathered two sons and three daughters with these two wives, and his youngest daughter Ei, also known as Ōi, eventually became an artist and his assistant. "Fireworks in the Cool of Evening at Ryogoku Bridge in Edo" () dates from this period of Hokusai's life.


title: Hokusai

text: Upon the death of Shunshō in 1793, Hokusai began exploring other styles of art, including European styles he was exposed to through French and Dutch copper engravings he was able to acquire. He was soon expelled from the Katsukawa school by Shunkō, the chief disciple of Shunshō, possibly due to his studies at the rival Kanō school. This event was, in his own words, inspirational: "What really motivated the development of my artistic style was the embarrassment I suffered at Shunkō's hands."


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai also changed the subjects of his works, moving away from the images of courtesans and actors that were the traditional subjects of ukiyo-e. Instead, his work became focused on landscapes and images of the daily life of Japanese people from a variety of social levels. This change of subject was a breakthrough in ukiyo-e and in Hokusai's career.


title: Hokusai

text: The next period saw Hokusai's association with the Tawaraya School and the adoption of the name "Tawaraya Sōri". He produced many privately commissioned prints for special occasions ("surimono"), and illustrations for books of humorous poems ("kyōka ehon") during this time. In 1798, Hokusai passed his name on to a pupil and set out as an independent artist, free from ties to a school for the first time, adopting the name Hokusai Tomisa.


title: Hokusai

text: By 1800, Hokusai was further developing his use of ukiyo-e for purposes other than portraiture. He had also adopted the name he would most widely be known by, Katsushika Hokusai, the former name referring to the part of Edo where he was born, the latter meaning 'north studio', in honour of the North Star, symbol of a deity important in his religion of Nichiren Buddhism. That year, he published two collections of landscapes, "Famous Sights of the Eastern Capital" and "Eight Views of Edo" (modern Tokyo). He also began to attract students of his own, eventually teaching 50 pupils over the course of his life.


title: Hokusai

text: He became increasingly famous over the next decade, both due to his artwork and his talent for self-promotion. During an Edo festival in 1804, he created an enormous portrait of the Buddhist prelate Daruma, said to be 200 square meters, using a broom and buckets full of ink. Another story places him in the court of the shōgun Tokugawa Ienari, invited there to compete with another artist who practised more traditional brushstroke painting. Hokusai painted a blue curve on paper, then chased a chicken whose feet had been dipped in red paint across the image. He described the painting to the shōgun as a landscape showing the Tatsuta River with red maple leaves floating in it, winning the competition.


title: Hokusai

text: Between 1804 and 1815 saw Hokusai collaborate with the popular novelist Takizawa Bakin on a series of illustrated books. Especially popular was the fantasy novel "Chinsetsu Yumiharizuki" ("Strange Tales of the Crescent Moon", 1807–1811) with Minamoto no Tametomo as the main character, and Hokusai gained fame with his creative and powerful illustrations, but the collaboration ended after


title: Hokusai

text: thirteen works. There are various theories as to why they dissolved their cooperation, such as discordant personalities and conflicting opinions on how to draw illustrations. Hokusai also created several albums of erotic art ("shunga"). His most famous image in this genre is "The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife", which depicts a young woman entwined sexually with a pair of octopuses, from "Kinoe no Komatsu", a three-volume book of shunga from 1814.


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai paid close attention to the production of his work. In letters during his involvement with "Toshisen Ehon", a Japanese edition of an anthology of Chinese poetry, Hokusai wrote to the publisher that the blockcutter Egawa Tomekichi, with whom Hokusai had previously worked and whom he respected, had strayed from Hokusai's style in the cutting of certain heads. He also wrote directly to another blockcutter involved in the project, Sugita Kinsuke, stating that he disliked the Utagawa school style in which Kinsuke had cut the figure's eyes and noses and that amendments were needed for the final prints to be true to his style. In his letter, Hokusai included examples of both his style of illustrating eyes and noses and the Utagawa school style.


title: Hokusai

text: In 1811, at the age of 51, Hokusai changed his name to "Taito" and entered the period in which he created the "Hokusai Manga" and various "etehon", or art manuals. These manuals beginning in 1812 with "Quick Lessons in Simplified Drawing", were intended as a convenient way to make money and attract more students. The first volume of "Manga" (meaning random drawings) was published in 1814 and was an immediate success. By 1820, he had produced twelve volumes (with three more published posthumously) which include thousands of drawings of objects, plants, animals, religious figures, and everyday people, often with humorous overtones.


title: Hokusai

text: On 5 October 1817, he painted the "Great Daruma" outside the Hongan-ji Nagoya Betsuin in Nagoya. This portrait in ink on paper measured 18 × 10.8 metres, and the event drew huge crowds. The feat was recounted in a popular song and he received the name ""Darusen" or "Daruma Master" Although the original was destroyed in 1945, Hokusai's promotional handbills from that time survived and are preserved at the Nagoya City Museum.


title: Hokusai

text: In 1820, Hokusai changed his name yet again, this time to "Iitsu," a change which marked the start of a period in which he secured fame as an artist throughout Japan. His most celebrated work, "Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji", including the famous "Great Wave off Kanagawa" and "Red Fuji" was produced in the early 1830s. The results of Hokusai's perspectival studies in "Manga" can be seen here in "The Great Wave" where he uses what would have been seen as a western perspective to represent depth and volume. It proved so popular that ten more prints were later added to the series. Among the other popular series of prints he made during this time are "A Tour of the Waterfalls of the Provinces", "Oceans of Wisdom" and "Unusual Views of Celebrated Bridges in the Provinces". He also began producing a number of detailed individual images of flowers and birds ("kachō-e"), including the extraordinarily detailed "Poppies" and "Flock of Chickens".


title: Hokusai

text: The next period, beginning in 1834, saw Hokusai working under the name "Gakyō Rōjin" (; "The Old Man Mad About Art"). It was at this time that he produced "One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji", another significant series, generally considered "the masterpiece among his landscape picture books".


title: Hokusai

text: In 1839, a fire destroyed Hokusai's studio and much of his work. By this time, his career was beginning to fade as younger artists such as Andō Hiroshige became increasingly popular. At the age of 83, Hokusai traveled to Obuse in Shinano Province (now Nagano Prefecture) at the invitation of a wealthy farmer, Takai Kozan where he stayed for several years. During his time in Obuse, he created several masterpieces, included the "Masculine Wave" and the "Feminine Wave". Between 1842 and 1843, in what he described as "daily exorcisms" ("nisshin joma"), Hokusai painted Chinese lions ("shishi") every morning in ink on paper as a talisman against misfortune.


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai continued working almost until the end, painting "The Dragon of Smoke Escaping from Mt Fuji" and "Tiger in the Snow" in early 1849.


title: Hokusai

text: Constantly seeking to produce better work, he apparently exclaimed on his deathbed, "If only Heaven will give me just another ten years ... Just another five more years, then I could become a real painter." He died on 10 May 1849 and was buried at the Seikyō-ji in Tokyo (Taito Ward). A haiku he composed shortly before his death reads: "Though as a ghost, I shall lightly tread, the summer fields."


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai had achievements in various fields as an artist. He made designs for book illustrations and woodblock prints, sketches, and painting for over 70 years. Hokusai was an early experimenter with western linear perspective among Japanese artists. Hokusai himself was influenced by Sesshū Tōyō and other styles of Chinese painting. His influences stretched across the globe to his western contemporaries in nineteenth-century Europe with Japonism, which started with a craze for collecting Japanese art, particularly ukiyo-e, of which some of the first samples were to be seen in Paris, when in about 1856, the French artist Félix Bracquemond first came across a copy of the sketchbook "Hokusai Manga" at the workshop of his printer.


title: Hokusai

text: He influenced the Impressionism movement, with themes echoing his work appearing in the work of Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, as well as Art Nouveau, or Jugendstil in Germany. His woodcuts were collected by many European artists, including Degas, Gauguin, Klimt, Franz Marc, August Macke, Manet, and van Gogh. Degas said of him, "Hokusai is not just one artist among others in the Floating World. He is an island, a continent, a whole world in himself." Hermann Obrist's whiplash motif, or "Peitschenhieb", which came to exemplify the new movement, is visibly influenced by Hokusai's work.


title: Hokusai

text: Even after his death, exhibitions of his artworks continue to grow. In 2005, Tokyo National Museum held a Hokusai exhibition which had the largest number of visitors of any exhibit there that year. Several paintings from the Tokyo exhibition were also exhibited in the United Kingdom. The British Museum held the first exhibition of Hokusai's later year artworks including "'The Great Wave"' in 2017.


title: Hokusai

text: Hokusai inspired the Hugo Award–winning short story by science fiction author Roger Zelazny, "24 Views of Mt. Fuji, by Hokusai", in which the protagonist tours the area surrounding Mount Fuji, stopping at locations painted by Hokusai. A 2011 book on mindfulness closes with the poem "Hokusai Says" by Roger Keyes, preceded with the explanation that "[s]ometimes poetry captures the soul of an idea better than anything else."


title: Hokusai

text: In the 1985 "Encyclopædia Britannica", Richard Lane characterizes Hokusai as "since the later 19th century [having] impressed Western artists, critics and art lovers alike, more, possibly, than any other single Asian artist".


title: Hokusai

text: "'Store Selling Picture Books and Ukiyo-e"' by Hokusai shows how ukiyo-e during the time was actually sold; it shows how these prints were sold at local shops, and ordinary people could buy ukiyo-e. Unusually in this image, Hokusai used a hand-colored approach instead of using several separated woodblocks.


title: Hokusai

text: A biographical film about the painter was released in Japan on May 28, 2021. It was premiered at the 33rd Tokyo International Film Festival.


title: Hokusai

text: For readers who want more information on specific works of art by Hokusai, these particular works are recommended.


title: Mongoloid

text: Mongoloid () is an obsolete racial grouping of various peoples indigenous to large parts of Asia, the Americas, and some regions in Europe and Oceania. The term is derived from a now-disproven theory of biological race. In the past, other terms such as "Mongolian race", "yellow", "Asiatic" and "Oriental" have been used as synonyms.


title: Mongoloid

text: The concept of dividing humankind into the Mongoloid, Caucasoid, and Negroid races was introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen School of History. It was further developed by Western scholars in the context of racist ideologies during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."


title: Mongoloid

text: The term "Mongoloid" has had a second usage referencing people with Down syndrome, now generally regarded as highly offensive. Those affected were often referred to as "Mongoloids" or in terms of "Mongolian idiocy" or "Mongolian imbecility".


title: Mongoloid

text: "Mongolian" as a term for race was first introduced in 1785 by Christoph Meiners, a scholar at the then modern Göttingen University. Meiners divided humanity into two races he labeled "Tartar-Caucasians" and "Mongolians", believing the former to be beautiful, the latter to be "weak in body and spirit, bad, and lacking in virtue".


title: Mongoloid

text: His more influential Göttingen colleague Johann Friedrich Blumenbach borrowed the term "Mongolian" for his division of mankind into five races in the revised 1795 edition of his "De generis humani varietate nativa" ("On the Natural Variety of Mankind"). Although Blumenbach's concept of five races later gave rise to scientific racism, his arguments were basically anti-racist, since he underlined that mankind as a whole forms one single "species", and points out that the transition from one race to another is so gradual that the distinctions between the races presented by him are "very arbitrary". In Blumenbach's concept, the "Mongolian race" comprises the peoples living in Asia east of the Ob River, the Caspian Sea and the Ganges River, with the exception of the Malays, who form a race of their own in his concept. Of peoples living outside Asia, he includes the "Eskimos" in northern America and the European Finns, among whom he includes the "Lapps".


title: Mongoloid

text: Discussions on race among Western scholars during the 19th century took place against the background of the debate between monogenists and polygenists, the former arguing for a single origin of all mankind, the latter holding that each human race had a specific origin. Monogenists based their arguments either on a literal interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eve or on secular research. Since polygenism stressed the perceived differences, it was popular among white supremacists, especially slaveholders in the US.


title: Mongoloid

text: British biologist Thomas Huxley, a strong advocate of Darwinism and a monogenist, presented the views of polygenists in 1865: "[S]ome imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the Orangs".


title: Mongoloid

text: During the 19th century, diverging opinions were pronounced whether Native Americans or Malays should be included in the grouping which was sometimes called "Mongolian" and sometimes "Mongoloid". For example, D. M. Warren in 1856 used a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malay" or the "American" races, while Huxley (1870) and Alexander Winchell (1881) included both Malays and indigenous Americans. In 1861, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire added the Australian as a secondary race (subrace) of the principal race of Mongolian.


title: Mongoloid

text: In his "Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines" ("Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races", published 1853–55), which would later influence Adolf Hitler, the French aristocrat Arthur de Gobineau defined three races which he called "white", "black", and "yellow". His "yellow race", corresponding to other writers' "Mongoloid race", consisted of "the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches". While he saw the "white race" as superior, he claimed that the "yellow race" was physically and intellectually mediocre but had an extremely strong materialism that allowed them to achieve certain results.


title: Mongoloid

text: According to the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–90), peoples included in the Mongoloid race are North Mongol, Chinese & Indochinese, Japanese & Korean, Tibetan & Burmese, Malay, Polynesian, Maori, Micronesian, Eskimo, and Native American.


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1909, a map published based on racial classifications in South Asia conceived by Herbert Hope Risley classified inhabitants of Bengal and parts of Odisha as "Mongolo-Dravidians", people of mixed Mongoloid and Dravidian origin. Similarly in 1904, Ponnambalam Arunachalam claimed the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka were a people of mixed "Mongolian" and "Malay" racial origins as well as "Indo-Aryan", "Dravidian" and Vedda origins. Howard S. Stoudt in "The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon" (1961) and Carleton S. Coon in "The Living Races of Man" (1966) classified the Sinhalese as partly Mongoloid.


title: Mongoloid

text: German physical anthropologist Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt, an influential proponent of "Rassenkunde" (racial studies) in Nazi Germany, classified people from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, East India, parts of Northeast India, western Myanmar and Sri Lanka as "East Brachid", referring to people of mixed "Indid" and "South Mongolid" origins. Eickstedt also classified the people of central Myanmar, Yunnan, southern Tibet, Thailand and parts of India as "Palaungid" deriving from the name of the Palaung people of Myanmar. He also classified the Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Shan, Sri Lankans, Tai, South Chinese, Munda and Juang, and others as having "mixed" with the "Palaungid" phenotype.


title: Mongoloid

text: Commenting on the situation of the United States in the early 20th century, Leonard Lieberman said that the notion of the whole world being composed of three distinct races, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, seemed credible because of the history of immigration to the United States with most immigrants coming from three areas, Southeast China, Northwest Europe, and West Africa. This made the point of view of three races appear to be "true, natural, and inescapable."


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1950, UNESCO published their statement "The Race Question". It condemned all forms of racism, naming "the doctrine of "inequality" of men and races" among the causes of World War II and proposing to replace the term "race" with "ethnic groups" because "serious errors ... are habitually committed when the term 'race' is used in popular parlance".


title: Mongoloid

text: Alfred L. Kroeber (1948), Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley, referring to the racial classification of mankind on the basis of physical features, said that there are basically "three grand divisions." Kroeber indicated that, within the three-part classification, the Mongoloid, the Negroid, and the Caucasian are the three "primary racial stocks of mankind." Kroeber said that the following are the divisions of the Mongoloid stock: the "Mongolian proper of East Asia," the "Malaysian of the East Indies," and the "American Indian." Kroeber alternatively referred to the divisions of the Mongoloid stock as the following: "Asiatic Mongoloids," "Oceanic Mongoloids," and "American Mongoloids." Kroeber said that the differences among the three divisions of the Mongoloid stock are not very large. Kroeber said that the Malaysian and the American Indian are generalized type peoples while the Mongolian proper is the most extreme or pronounced form. Kroeber said that the original Mongoloid stock must be regarded as being more like the current Malaysians, the current American Indians, or an intermediate type between these two. Kroeber said that it is from these generalized type peoples, who kept more nearly the ancient type, that peoples such as the Chinese gradually diverged, who added the oblique eye, and a "certain generic refinement of physique." Kroeber said that, according to most anthropometrists, the Eskimo is the most particularized sub-variety out of the American Mongoloids. Kroeber said that in the East Indies, and in particular the Philippines, there can at times be distinguished a less specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "Proto-Malaysian," and a more specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "Deutero-Malaysian." Kroeber said that Polynesians appear to have primary Mongoloid connections by way of the Malaysians. Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element of Polynesians is not a specialized Mongoloid. Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element in Polynesians appears to be larger than the definite Caucasian strain in Polynesians. Speaking of Polynesians, Kroeber said that there are locally possible minor Negroid absorptions, as the ancestral Polynesians had to pass by or through archipelagoes which are presently Papuo-Melanesian Negroid to get to the central Pacific.


title: Mongoloid

text: American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon published his much debated "Origin of Races" in 1962. Coon divided the species "Homo sapiens" into five groups: Besides the "Caucasoid", "Mongoloid", and "Australoid" races, he posited two races among the indigenous populations of sub-Saharan Africa: the "Capoid race" in the south and the "Congoid race".


title: Mongoloid

text: Coon's thesis was that "Homo erectus" had already been divided into five different races or subspecies. ""Homo Erectus" then evolved into "Homo Sapiens" not once but five times, as each subspecies, living in its own territory, passed a critical threshold from a more brutal to a more "sapient" state."


title: Mongoloid

text: Since Coon followed the traditional methods of physical anthropology, relying on morphological characteristics, and not on the emerging genetics to classify humans, the debate over "Origin of Races" has been "viewed as the last gasp of an outdated scientific methodology that was soon to be supplanted."


title: Mongoloid

text: The fact that there are no sharp distinctions between the supposed racial groups had been observed by Blumenbach and later by Charles Darwin.


title: Mongoloid

text: With the availability of new data due to the development of modern genetics, the concept of races in a biological sense has become untenable. Problems of the concept include: It "is not useful or necessary in research", scientists are not able to agree on the definition of a certain proposed race, and they do not even agree on the number of races, with some proponents of the concept suggesting 300 or even more "races". Also, data are not reconcilable with the concept of a treelike evolution nor with the concept of "biologically discrete, isolated, or static" populations.


title: Mongoloid

text: After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "[T]he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."


title: Mongoloid

text: The last edition of the German encyclopedia Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1971–79, 25 volumes) lists the following characteristics of the "Mongoloid" populations of Asia: "Flat face with a low nasal root, accentuated zygomatic arches, flat-lying eyelids (which are often slanting), thick, tight, dark hair, dark eyes, yellow-brownish skin, usually short, stocky build."


title: Mongoloid

text: In 2004, British anthropologist Caroline Wilkinson gave a description of "Mongoloid" skulls in her book on forensic facial reconstruction: "The Mongoloid skull shows a round head shape with a medium-width nasal aperture, rounded orbital margins, massive cheekbones, weak or absent canine fossae, moderate prognathism, absent brow ridges, simple cranial sutures, prominent zygomatic bones, broad, flat, tented nasal root, short nasal spine, shovel-shaped upper incisor teeth (scooped out behind), straight nasal profile, moderately wide palate shape, arched sagittal contour, wide facial breadth and a flatter face."


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1950, Carleton S. Coon, Stanley M. Garn, and Joseph B. Birdsell proposed that the relative flatness of "Mongoloid" faces was caused by adaption to the extreme cold of subarctic and arctic conditions. They supposed that "Mongoloid" eye sockets have been extended vertically to make room for adipose tissue around the eyeballs, and that the ""reduced"" brow ridges decrease the size of the air spaces inside of the brow ridges known as the frontal sinuses which are ""vulnerable"" to the cold. They also supposed that "Mongoloid" facial features reduce the surface area of the nose by having nasal bones that are flat against the face and having enlarged cheekbones that project forward which effectively reduce the external projection of the nose.


title: Mongoloid

text: Still, in 1965 a study by A. T. Steegmann showed that the so-called cold-adapted Mongoloid face provided no greater protection against frostbite than the facial structure of Europeans.


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1858, the California State Legislature enacted the first bill of several that prohibited the attendance of "Negroes, Mongolians and Indians" from public schools.


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1885, the California State Legislature amended its code to make separate schools for "children of Mongoloid or Chinese descent."


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1911, the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization was using the term "Mongolic grand division," not only to include Mongols, but "in the widest sense of all," to include Malays, Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans. In 1911, the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization was placing all "East Indians," a term which included the peoples of "India, Farther India, and Malaysia," in the "Mongolic" grand division.


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1985, Michael P. Malone of the FBI Laboratory said that the FBI Laboratory is in a good position for the examination of Mongoloid hairs, because it does most of the examinations for Alaska, which has a large Mongoloid population, and it conducts examinations for the majority of Indian reservations in the United States.


title: Mongoloid

text: In 1987, a report to the National Institute of Justice indicated that the following skeletal collections were of the "Mongoloid" "Ethnic Group": Arctic Eskimo, Prehistoric North American Indian, Japanese, and Chinese.


title: Mongoloid

text: In 2005, an article in a journal by the FBI Laboratory defined the term "Mongoloid," as the term is used in forensic hair examinations. It defined the term as, "an anthropological term designating one of the major groups of human beings originating from Asia, excluding the Indian subcontinent and including Native American Indians."


title: Mongoloid

text: "Mongoloid" has had a second usage, now generally avoided as highly offensive: until the late 20th century, people with Down syndrome were often referred to as "Mongoloids", or in terms of "Mongolian idiocy" or "Mongolian imbecility".


title: Mongoloid

text: The term was motivated by the observation that people with Down syndrome often have epicanthic folds.


title: Mongoloid

text: Coined in 1908, the term remained in medical usage until the 1950s. In 1961, its use was deprecated by a group of genetic experts in an article in "The Lancet" due to its "misleading connotations".


title: Mongoloid

text: The term continued to be used as a pejorative in the second half of the 20th century, with shortened versions such as "mong" in slang usage.


title: Mongoloid

text: In the 21st century this usage of the term is deemed "unacceptable" in the English-speaking world and has fallen out of common use because of its offensive and misleading implications. The terminology change was brought about both by scientific and medical experts as well as people of Asian ancestry, including those from Mongolia.


title: Paul Atreides

text: Paul Atreides (; later known as Paul Muad'Dib, and later still as The Preacher) is a fictional character in the "Dune" universe created by Frank Herbert. Paul is the primary protagonist in the first two novels in the series, "Dune" (1965) and "Dune Messiah" (1969), and returns in "Children of Dune" (1976). The character is brought back as two different gholas in the Brian Herbert/Kevin J. Anderson novels which conclude the original series, "Hunters of Dune" (2006) and "Sandworms of Dune" (2007), and appears in the prequels "Paul of Dune" (2008) and "The Winds of Dune" (2009). According to Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, House Atreides was based on the heroic but ill-fated Greek mythological House Atreus.


title: Paul Atreides

text: A primary theme of "Dune" and its sequels is Frank Herbert's warning about society's tendencies to "give over every decision-making capacity" to a charismatic leader. He said in 1979, "The bottom line of the "Dune" trilogy is: beware of heroes. Much better rely on your own judgment, and your own mistakes." Paul rises to leadership through military strategy and political maneuvering, but his superhuman powers and ability to fit himself into pre-existing religious infrastructure allow him to force himself upon mankind as their messiah. As "Muad'Dib", Paul becomes the central figure of a new religion, and reluctantly unleashes a bloody jihad in his name across the universe; Paul struggles with the potential idea of seizing divine control over his newly minted empire, only to finally escape from the burden of his destiny after being rendered blind by faking his death and placing his burden on his sister Alia, and his children Leto II and Ghanima, later seeking to end the religion founded around him as a preacher, before being assassinated.


title: Paul Atreides

text: Paul is portrayed by Kyle MacLachlan in David Lynch's 1984 film adaptation, by Alec Newman in the 2000 "Dune" miniseries and its 2003 sequel, and by Timothée Chalamet in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film "Dune" and its upcoming .


title: Paul Atreides

text: The son of Duke Leto Atreides and the Lady Jessica, Paul is the heir of House Atreides, an aristocratic family that rules the planet Caladan. Jessica is a Bene Gesserit and an important key in the Bene Gesserit breeding program. According to the breeding program, she was to produce a daughter, who would be bred with Feyd-Rautha, a nephew of Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. However, Jessica falls in love with Leto and grants him the son he desires. Although Paul is a boy, Jessica gives him some training in the Bene Gesserit ways, including enhanced observation and the Sisterhood's specialized martial art. Initially described as "small for his age", Paul has secretly undergone the early Mentat training, and is also schooled in weapon use by Gurney Halleck and Duncan Idaho.